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'{{Short description|Country in the Horn of Africa}} {{Redirect|Erythrea|other uses|Erythrean (disambiguation)|and|Eritrea (disambiguation)|and|Eritrean (disambiguation)}} {{for|the Greek town|Eretria}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2017}} {{Coord|15|N|39|E|display=title}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = State of Eritrea | common_name = Eritrea | native_name = | image_flag = Flag of Eritrea.svg | image_coat = Emblem of Eritrea (or argent azur).svg | symbol_type = Emblem | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Eritrea (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Eritrea AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}} | map_caption = | image_map2 = | national_anthem = "[[Ertra, Ertra, Ertra]]"<br />({{Lang-en|"Eritrea, Eritrea, Eritrea"}})<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:National Anthem of Eritrea by US Navy Band.ogg|center]]}}</div> | official_languages = None<ref name="auto3">{{Cite web |url=http://www.shaebia.org/constitution.html#CHAP1_ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503234856/http://www.shaebia.org/constitution.html#CHAP1_ |archive-date=3 May 2011 |title=Constitution of the State of Eritrea |publisher=Shaebia.org |access-date=2 May 2010}}</ref> (''see working languages'') | national_languages = {{unbulleted list |[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] |[[Beja language|Beja]] |[[Tigre language|Tigre]] |[[Kunama language|Kunama]] |[[Saho language|Saho]] |[[Bilen language|Bilen]] |[[Nara language|Nara]] |[[Afar language|Afar]] }} | languages_type = [[Working language]]s | languages = {{unbulleted list|[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]|[[Arabic]]|[[English language|English]]|<ref name="MOI Eritrea">{{Cite web |url=https://shabait.com/2009/10/01/eritrea-at-a-glance/ |title=Eritrea at a Glance |date=1 October 2009 |publisher=Eritrea Ministry of Information |access-date=9 September 2020}}</ref>}} | demonym = {{Plainlist| * [[Eritreans|Eritrean]]}} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 55% [[Tigrinya people|Tigrinya]] | 30% [[Tigre people|Tigre]] | 4% [[Saho people|Saho]] | 2% [[Kunama people|Kunama]] | 2% [[Rashaida people|Rashaida]] | 2% [[Bilen people|Bilen]] | 5% Others [[Afar people|Afar]], [[Beni-Amer people|Beni-Amer]], [[Nara people|Nara]] }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2010 est.<ref name="Ciaethn">{{cite web | title = Eritrea | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/attachments/summaries/ER-summary.pdf | work = [[The World Factbook]] | publisher = [[Central Intelligence Agency]] | access-date = 10 June 2020 | archive-date = 27 February 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200227144113/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/attachments/summaries/ER-summary.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> | capital = [[Asmara]] | coordinates = {{Coord|15|20|N|38|55|E|type:city}} | largest_city = [[Asmara]] | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[One-party state|one-party]] [[Presidential system|presidential republic]]<ref name="UNHRC">{{cite web|url= http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/CoIEritrea/Pages/ReportCoIEritrea.aspx| title = Report of the commission of inquiry on human rights in Eritrea | website= UNHRC website | date=8 June 2015 |access-date=9 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2017/country-chapters/eritrea |title=World Report 2017: Rights Trends in Eritrea |date=12 January 2017 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref><ref name="Eritrea’s Silent Totalitarianism - McGill Journal of Political Studies">{{cite web |url=https://mjps.ssmu.ca/2018/02/21/eritreas-silent-totalitarianism/|title=Eritrea's Silent Totalitarianism |first=Asma |last=Saad |date=21 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44771292 |title=Making peace with 'Africa's North Korea'|first=Fergal|last=Keane|work=BBC News|date=10 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Taylor |first1=Adam |title=The brutal dictatorship the world keeps ignoring |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/06/12/the-brutal-dictatorship-the-world-keeps-ignoring/ |access-date=20 May 2019 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=12 June 2015 |language=en}}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[List of heads of state of Eritrea|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Isaias Afwerki]] | legislature = [[National Assembly (Eritrea)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[Eritrean War of Independence|Independence]] | sovereignty_note = from [[Ethiopia]] | established_event1 = ''[[De facto]]'' | established_date1 = 24 May 1991 | established_event2 = ''[[De jure]]'' | established_date2 = 24 May 1993 | area_rank = 99th <!-- Should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_km2 = 117,600 | area_sq_mi = 45,405 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = 0.14% | population_estimate = ''3.6-6.7 million<ref name="UNDESA_WPP_2019_total_population">{{cite web | title= World Population Prospects 2019 | website= [[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|UN DESA]] |year = 2019 | url = https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Files/1_Indicators%20(Standard)/EXCEL_FILES/1_Population/WPP2019_POP_F01_1_TOTAL_POPULATION_BOTH_SEXES.xlsx | access-date = 2021-02-28 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210227235642/https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Files/1_Indicators%20(Standard)/EXCEL_FILES/1_Population/WPP2019_POP_F01_1_TOTAL_POPULATION_BOTH_SEXES.xlsx |archive-date= 2021-02-27 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="COMESA_ERpop_2019">{{cite web | title= Eritrea – Indicators – Population (million people), 2018 | website= [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]] |year = 2019 | url = https://comstat.comesa.int/lqpaqnf/comesa-in-figures-2019?tsId=1000510 | access-date = 2021-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228195303/https://comstat.comesa.int/lqpaqnf/comesa-in-figures-2019?tsId=1000510 |archive-date= 2021-02-28 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|name=Population | Eritrea has never conducted an official government census.<ref name="PHS2010_full">{{cite web | title= Eritrea – Population and Health Survey 2010 | website= [[National Statistics Office (Eritrea)|National Statistics Office]], [[Fafo Institute for Applied International Studies]] |year = 2010 | url =https://www.unicef.org/eritrea/ECO_resources_populationhealthsurvey2010.pdf | access-date = 2021-03-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190606121847/https://www.unicef.org/eritrea/ECO_resources_populationhealthsurvey2010.pdf |archive-date= 2019-06-06 |url-status=live }}</ref>''}} | GDP_PPP = $6.88 billion<ref name="IMFWEOER">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Countries/ERI#countrydata |title=The State of Eritrea |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2021 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,910<ref name="IMFWEOER"/> | GDP_nominal = $2.25 billion<ref name="IMFWEOER"/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2021 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $626<ref name="IMFWEOER"/> | Gini_year = | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini = <!--number only--> | Gini_ref = | Gini_rank = | HDI_year = 2019<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI = 0.459 <!--number only--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 180th | currency = [[Eritrean nakfa|Nakfa]] | currency_code = ERN | time_zone = [[East Africa Time|EAT]] | utc_offset = +3 | time_zone_DST = not observed | utc_offset_DST = +3 | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[+291]] | cctld = [[.er]] | religion = [[Christianity_in_Eritrea|Christianity]] (50%), [[Islam_in_Eritrea|Islam]] (48%), Other (<2%)<ref>{{cite web | title = Religions in Eritrea | url = http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/eritrea#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2016 | work =Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project | publisher = [[Pew Research Center]] | accessdate = 13 September 2020}}</ref> }} {{Contains special characters|Ethiopic|compact=yes}} '''Eritrea''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɛr|ɪ|ˈ|t|r|eɪ|ə|,_|ˌ|ɛr|ɪ|ˈ|t|r|iː|ə}}<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eritrea |title=Merriam-Webster Online |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date=25 April 2007 |access-date=2 May 2010}}</ref> {{IPA audio link|Ertra.ogg}}),<ref>[http://www.iso.org/iso/nl_vi-13_name_change_for_eritrea.pdf ISO 3166-1 Newsletter VI-13] International Organisation for Standardisation</ref> officially the '''State of Eritrea''', is a country in the [[Horn of Africa]] region of [[East Africa|Eastern Africa]], with its capital (and largest city) at [[Asmara]]. It is bordered by [[Ethiopia]] in the south, [[Sudan]] in the west, and [[Djibouti]] in the southeast. The northeastern and eastern parts of Eritrea have an extensive coastline along the [[Red Sea]]. The nation has a total area of approximately {{Convert|117600|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, and includes the [[Dahlak Archipelago]] and several of the [[Hanish Islands]]. Eritrea is a multi-ethnic country with nine recognised ethnic groups. Nine different languages are spoken by the nine recognised ethnic groups, the most widely spoken language is [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], the others are [[Tigre language|Tigre]], [[Saho language|Saho]], [[Kunama language|Kunama]], [[Nara language|Nara]], [[Afar language|Afar]], [[Beja language|Beja]], [[Bilen language|Bilen]] and [[Arabic]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.easo.europa.eu/sites/default/files/public/Eritrea-Report-Final.pdf |title=EASO Country of Origin Information Report: Eritrea Country Focus |publisher=European Asylum Support Office |date=May 2015 |access-date=19 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], [[Arabic]], and English serve as the three working languages.<ref name="MOI Eritrea" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://shabait.com/amp/2021/05/01/national-unity-eritreas-core-value-for-peace-and-stability/|title = National Unity: Eritrea's core value for peace and stability}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://shabait.com/amp/2009/10/01/eritrea-at-a-glance/|title = Eritrea at a Glance}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unesco.org/education/edurights/media/docs/fd48fdd5dc073aa0a88273489a13921296394304.pdf |title=Eritrea Constitution |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=19 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Most residents speak languages from the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] family, either of the [[Ethiopian Semitic languages]] or [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] branches. Among these communities, the [[Tigrigni|Tigrinyas]] make up about 55% of the population, with the [[Tigre people]] constituting around 30% of inhabitants. In addition, there are several [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]]-speaking [[Nilotic]] ethnic groups. Most people in the territory adhere to [[Christianity]] or [[Islam]], with a small minority adhering to [[Traditional African religions|traditional faiths]].<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/eritrea/ |title=Eritrea |work=[[The World Factbook]] |date=22 September 2021 |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> The [[Kingdom of Aksum]], covering much of modern-day Eritrea and [[Tigray Region|northern Ethiopia]], was established during the first or second century AD.<ref name="Munro-Hay57">{{cite book |last=Munro-Hay |first=Stuart |date=1991 |url=http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf |title=Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity |location=Edinburgh |publisher=University Press |pages=57 |isbn=0-7486-0106-6}}</ref><ref name="Paul B. Henze 2005">Henze, Paul B. (2005) ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'', {{ISBN|1-85065-522-7}}.</ref> It adopted [[Eritrean Orthodox Church|Christianity]] around the middle of the fourth century.<ref>[http://workmall.com/wfb2001/ethiopia/ethiopia_history_ethiopia_and_the_early_islamic_period.html Aksumite Ethiopia]. Workmall.com (24 March 2007). Retrieved 3 March 2012.</ref> In medieval times much of Eritrea fell under the [[Medri Bahri]] kingdom, with a smaller region being part of [[Hamasien]]. The creation of modern-day Eritrea is a result of the incorporation of independent, distinct kingdoms (for example, [[Medri Bahri]] and the [[Sultanate of Aussa]]) eventually resulting in the formation of [[Italian Eritrea]]. After the defeat of the Italian colonial army in 1942, Eritrea was administered by the [[British Military Administration (Eritrea)|British Military Administration]] until 1952. Following the UN General Assembly decision in 1952, Eritrea would govern itself with a local Eritrean parliament, but for foreign affairs and defense, it would enter into a federal status with Ethiopia for ten years. However, in 1962, the government of Ethiopia annulled the Eritrean parliament and formally annexed Eritrea. The Eritrean secessionist movement organised the [[Eritrean Liberation Front]] in 1961 and fought the [[Eritrean War of Independence]] until Eritrea gained ''de facto'' independence in 1991. Eritrea gained ''de jure'' independence in 1993 after [[1993 Eritrean independence referendum|an independence referendum]]. Eritrea is a unitary [[one-party]] presidential republic in which [[Elections in Eritrea|national legislative and presidential elections]] have never been held.<ref name="gi"/><ref name="Eritrea’s Silent Totalitarianism - McGill Journal of Political Studies" /> [[Isaias Afwerki]] has served as president since its official independence in 1993. According to [[Human Rights Watch]], the [[Human rights in Eritrea|Eritrean government's human rights record]] is among the worst in the world.<ref name="hrw"/> The Eritrean government has dismissed these allegations as politically motivated.<ref name="Tesf">{{cite web|title=Human Rights and Eritrea's Reality|url=http://www.tesfanews.net/wp-content/uploads/Human-Rights-and-Eritreas-Reality.pdf|website=E Smart|publisher=E Smart Campaign|access-date=12 June 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819084731/http://www.tesfanews.net/wp-content/uploads/Human-Rights-and-Eritreas-Reality.pdf|archive-date=19 August 2014}}</ref> [[Freedom of the press]] in Eritrea is extremely limited, the [[Press Freedom Index]] consistently ranks it as one of the least free countries. As of 2021 [[Reporters Without Borders]] considers the country to have the overall worst press freedom in the world as all media publications and access are heavily controlled by the government.<ref name="RSF">{{cite web|title=Eritrea: A dictatorship in which the media have no rights|url=https://rsf.org/en/eritrea|website=rsf.org|publisher=Reporters Without Borders|access-date=26 April 2021}}</ref> Eritrea is a member of the [[African Union]], the [[United Nations]], and the [[Intergovernmental Authority on Development]], and is an [[Member states of the Arab League#List of current observer states|observer state]] in the [[Arab League]] alongside Brazil and [[Venezuela]].<ref name="edition.cnn.com">{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/30/world/meast/arab-league-fast-facts/ |title=Arab League Fast Facts |work=CNN |date=18 March 2016 |access-date=5 June 2016}}</ref> ==Name== The name ''Eritrea'' is derived from the ancient Greek name for the [[Red Sea]] ({{lang|grc|[[Erythraean Sea|Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα]]}} {{lang|grc-Latn|Erythra Thalassa}}, based on the adjective {{lang|grc| ἐρυθρός }} {{lang|grc-Latn|erythros}} "red"). It was first formally adopted in 1890, with the formation of [[Italian Eritrea]] (''Colonia Eritrea'').<ref name="ConnellKillion2010">{{cite book|author1=Dan Connell|author2=Tom Killion|title=Historical Dictionary of Eritrea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYsgpIc3mrsC&pg=PA7|date=14 October 2010|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7505-0|pages=7–}}</ref> The name persisted over the course of subsequent [[British Military Administration (Eritrea)|British]] and [[Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea|Ethiopian]] occupation, and was reaffirmed by the [[Eritrean independence referendum, 1993|1993 independence referendum]] and [[Constitution of Eritrea|1997 constitution]].<ref>"Today, 23 May 1997, on this historic date, after active popular participation, approve and solemnly ratify, through the Constituent Assembly, this Constitution as the fundamental law of our Sovereign and Independent State of Eritrea." [http://www.eritrean-embassy.se/government-agencies/eritrea-constitution/ The Constitution of Eritrea (eritrean-embassy.se)]</ref> ==History== {{main|History of Eritrea}} ===Prehistory=== [[File:Dera rock art.jpg|thumb|Deka Rock Art in Deka Arbaa, [[Southern Region (Eritrea)|Debub]] region of Eritrea dated to 100,000 years ago]] Buya in Eritrea, one of the oldest [[hominid]]s representing a possible link between ''[[Homo erectus]]'' and an archaic ''[[Human|Homo sapiens]]'' was found by Italian scientists. Dated to 1 million years old, it is the oldest skeletal find of its kind and provides a link between hominids and the earliest [[anatomically modern humans]].<ref>{{Cite book|isbn=978-0-07-913665-7|title=McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology|edition=9th|publisher=The McGraw Hill Companies Inc.|year=2002|title-link=McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology}}</ref> It is believed that the section of the [[Danakil Depression]] in Eritrea was also a major player in terms of human evolution, and may contain other traces of evolution from ''Homo erectus'' hominids to anatomically modern humans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://exn.ca/hominids/pleistocenepark.cfm|title=Pleistocene Park|access-date=2 October 2006|date=8 September 1999}}</ref> During the last interglacial period, the [[Red Sea]] coast of Eritrea was occupied by early anatomically modern humans.<ref name="pmid10811218">{{Cite journal | last1 = Walter | first1 = R. C. | last2 = Buffler | first2 = R. T. | last3 = Bruggemann | first3 = J. H. | last4 = Guillaume | first4 = M. M. M. | last5 = Berhe | first5 = S. M. | last6 = Negassi | first6 = B. | last7 = Libsekal | first7 = Y. | last8 = Cheng | first8 = H. | last9 = Edwards | first9 = R. L. | last10 = Von Cosel | doi = 10.1038/35011048 | first10 = R. | last11 = Néraudeau | first11 = D. | last12 = Gagnon | first12 = M. | title = Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial | journal = Nature | volume = 405 | issue = 6782 | pages = 65–69 | year = 2000 | pmid =10811218| bibcode = 2000Natur.405...65W | s2cid = 4417823 }}</ref> It is believed that the area was on the route out of Africa that some scholars suggest was used by early humans to colonize the rest of the Old World.<ref name="pmid10811218"/> In 1999, the Eritrean Research Project Team composed of Eritrean, Canadian, American, Dutch and French scientists discovered a [[Paleolithic]] site with stone and obsidian tools dated to over 125,000 years old near the Bay of Zula south of [[Massawa]], along the Red Sea littoral. The tools are believed to have been used by early humans to harvest marine resources such as clams and oysters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://exn.ca/hominids/outofafrica.cfm|access-date=2 October 2006|title=Out of Africa|date=10 September 1999}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|author=Zarins, Juris |year=1990|title=Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia|journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|volume=280 |issue=280|pages=31–65|jstor=1357309|doi=10.2307/1357309|s2cid=163491760}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.1078208 | last1 = Diamond | first1 = J. | last2 = Bellwood | first2 = P. | title = Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions | journal = Science | volume = 300 | issue = 5619 | pages = 597–603 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12714734|bibcode = 2003Sci...300..597D | citeseerx = 10.1.1.1013.4523 | s2cid = 13350469 }}</ref><ref name="Blench143144">{{cite book|last1=Blench|first1=R.|title=Archaeology, Language, and the African Past|date=2006|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0759104662|pages=143–144|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C}}</ref> ===Antiquity=== {{main|Gash Group|Land of Punt|Dʿmt}} [[File:Qohaito, Eritrea (33628113490).jpg|thumb|Pre-Axumite monolithic columns in [[Qohaito]]]] Research shows tools found in the Barka Valley dating from 8000 BC appear to offer the first concrete evidence of human settlement in the area.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iJ9yAAAAMAAJ&q=Tools+found+in+the+Barka+Valley+from+8000BC|title=Eritrea: A Country Handbook|first=Dan|last=Connell|date=24 May 2002|publisher=Ministry of Information|via=Google Books}}</ref> Research also shows that many of the ethnic groups of Eritrea were the first to inhabit these areas.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7pReFaFC3fQC|title=Eritrea|first=Mussie Tesfagiorgis|last=G|date=24 May 2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781598842319|via=Google Books}}</ref> Excavations in and near [[Agordat]] in central Eritrea yielded the remains of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization known as the [[Gash Group]].<ref name="Leclant402">{{cite book|last1=Leclant|first1=Jean|title=Sesto Congresso internazionale di egittologia: atti, Volume 2|date=1993|publisher=International Association of Egyptologists|page=402|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=0B1yAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Ceramics were discovered that were dating back between 2500 and 1500 BC.<ref name="Cole">{{cite book|last1=Cole|first1=Sonia Mary|title=The Prehistory of East|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|date=1964|page=273}}</ref> Around 2000 BC, parts of Eritrea were most likely part of the [[Land of Punt]], first mentioned in the 25th century BC.<ref>Najovits, Simson (2004) ''Egypt, trunk of the tree, Volume 2'', Algora Publishing, p. 258, {{ISBN|087586256X}}.</ref><ref name="independent.co.uk">{{cite news|title= Baboon mummy analysis reveals Eritrea and Ethiopia as location of land of Punt |access-date= 26 April 2010 |work= The Independent|date= 26 April 2010 |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/history/baboon-mummy-analysis-reveals-eritrea-and-ethiopia-as-location-of-land-of-punt-1954547.html|author=Jarus, Owen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=NATHANIEL J. DOMINY1 |author2=SALIMA IKRAM |author3=GILLIAN L. MORITZ |author4=JOHN N. CHRISTENSEN |author5=PATRICK V. WHEATLEY |author6=JONATHAN W. CHIPMAN |title=Mummified baboons clarify ancient Red Sea trade routes |url=http://meeting.physanth.org/program/2015/session45/dominy-2015-mummified-baboons-clarify-ancient-red-sea-trade-routes.html |publisher=American Association of Physical Anthropologists |access-date=25 June 2016}}</ref> It was known for producing and exporting [[gold]], aromatic [[resin]]s, [[Dalbergia melanoxylon|blackwood]], [[ebony]], [[ivory trade|ivory]] and wild animals. The region is known from ancient Egyptian records of trade expeditions to it.<ref name="Shaw & Nicholson, p.231">Shaw & Nicholson, p.231.</ref><ref name=":210">{{Cite news|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/punt/|title=Punt|newspaper=World History Encyclopedia|access-date=2017-11-27}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Pharmacographia|first1=Friedrich August|last1=Flückiger|first2=Daniel|last2=Hanbury|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781108069304|date=2014-03-20|page=136|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iTTeAgAAQBAJ&q=opone+punt&pg=PA136}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=In Search of Myths & Heroes: Exploring Four Epic Legends of the World|first=Michael|last=Wood|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520247246|date=2005|page=[https://archive.org/details/insearchofmythsh00mich/page/155 155]|url=https://archive.org/details/insearchofmythsh00mich|url-access=registration|quote=opone punt.}}</ref> Excavations at [[Sembel]] found evidence of an ancient pre-[[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] civilization in greater Asmara. This Ona urban culture is believed to have been among the oldest pastoral and agricultural communities in [[East Africa]]. Artifacts at the site have been dated to between 800 BC and 400 BC, contemporaneous with other pre-Aksumite settlements in the Eritrean and Ethiopian highlands during the mid-first millennium BC.<ref name="Schmidt">{{cite journal|last1=Schmidt|first1=Peter R.|title=The 'Ona' culture of greater Asmara: archaeology's liberation of Eritrea's ancient history from colonial paradigms|journal=Journal of Eritrean Studies|year=2002|volume=1|issue=1|pages=29–58|url=http://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID=270036407&DB=p|access-date=8 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="Avanzini">{{cite book|last1=Avanzini|first1=Alessandra|title=Profumi d'Arabia: atti del convegno|date=1997|publisher=L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER|isbn=978-8870629750|page=280|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=3zOlYZmJiiAC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID=270036407&DB=p|title=The 'Ona' culture of greater Asmara: archaeology's liberation of Eritrea's ancient history from colonial paradigms|first=Peter R.|last=Schmidt|date=24 May 2002|journal=Journal of Eritrean Studies (Asmara)|volume=1|issue=1|pages=29–58|via=www.africabib.org}}</ref> ====Kingdom of D'mt==== {{main|Dʿmt}} [[File:Leaping Ibex, Ethiopia (2130266960).jpg|thumb|left|Bronze oil lamp excavated at [[Matara, Eritrea|Matara]], dating from the [[Dʿmt|Kingdom of Dʿmt]] (1st century BC or earlier)]] [[Dʿmt]] was a kingdom that existed from the 10th to 5th centuries BC in what is now Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. Given the presence of a massive temple complex at [[Yeha]], this area was most likely the kingdom's capital. [[Qohaito]], often identified as the town of Koloe in the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'',<ref>Huntingford, G.W.B. (1989) ''Historical Geography of Ethiopia from the first century AD to 1704''. London: British Academy. pp. 38 ff</ref> as well as [[Matara, Eritrea|Matara]] were important ancient Dʿmt kingdom cities in southern Eritrea. The realm developed [[irrigation]] schemes, used [[plow]]s, grew [[millet]], and made [[iron]] tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. This lasted until the rise of one of these polities during the first century, the [[Kingdom of Aksum]], which was able to reunite the area.<ref>Pankhurst, Richard K.P. (17 January 2003) {{cite web |url=http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm |title=Let's Look Across the Red Sea I |access-date=2006-01-09 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060109162335/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm |archive-date=9 January 2006}}, ''Addis Tribune''</ref> ====Kingdom of Aksum==== {{main|Kingdom of Aksum}} The [[Kingdom of Aksum]] (or Axum) was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite book|date= 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=48|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=xeJMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=The Oxford Companion to Archaeology|author=Phillipson, David |isbn=978-0-19-973578-5|editor=Neil Asher Silberman}}</ref> It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the proto-Aksumite [[Iron Age]] period around the 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD. According to the medieval ''Liber Axumae'' ([[Book of Aksum]]), Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush.<ref name="Agrvt">{{cite book|title=Africa Geoscience Review, Volume 10|date=2003|publisher=Rock View International|page=366|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=QWBPAQAAIAAJ}}</ref> The capital was later moved to [[Axum]] in northern Ethiopia. The kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th century.<ref name="Munro-Hay57"/><ref name="Paul B. Henze 2005"/> The Aksumites erected a number of large [[Stele|stelae]], which served a religious purpose in pre-[[Christianity|Christian]] times. One of these granite columns, the [[Obelisk of Aksum]], is the largest such structure in the world, standing at {{convert|90|ft|m|abbr=off}}.<ref name="Eospvo">{{cite book|last=Brockman|first=Norbert|title=Encyclopedia of Sacred Places, Volume 1|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1598846546 |page=30 |url=https://www.google.com/books?id=JkSk4euA-TEC}}</ref> Under [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana]] ([[floruit|fl.]] 320–360), Aksum later adopted Christianity.<ref name="Munro-Hay">{{cite book|last1=Munro-Hay|first1=Stuart C. |title=Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity|date=1991|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|isbn=978-0748601066|page=77|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=RlRzAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Christianity was the first [[world religion]] to be adopted in Eritrea and the oldest monastery in the country [[Debre Sina (monastery)]] was built during the 4th century. It is one of the oldest monasteries in Africa and the world.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qi-KQchGks8C&pg=PA187|title=Eritrea: The Bradt Travel Guide|first1=Edward|last1=Denison|first2=Edward|last2=Paice|date=24 May 2007|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781841621715|via=Google Books}}</ref> [[Debre Libanos (Eritrea)|Debre Libanos]], the second oldest monastery, was said to have been founded in the late fifth or early sixth century. Originally located in the village of Ham, it was moved to an inaccessible location on the edge of a cliff below the Ham plateau. Its church contains the Golden Gospel, a metal-covered bible dating to the 13th century during which Debre Libanos was an important seat of religious power.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYsgpIc3mrsC&q=debre+libanos+eritrea&pg=PA164|title=Historical Dictionary of Eritrea, 2nd Edition|first1=Dan|last1=Connell|first2=Tom|last2=Killion|date=2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press, Inc|isbn=9780810875050|via=Google Books}}</ref> In the 7th century, early [[Muslim]]s from [[Mecca]], at least [[Sahaba|companions]] of the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]], sought refuge from [[Quraysh]]i [[persecution of Muslims by the Meccans|persecution]] by travelling to the kingdom, a journey known in [[Islamic history]] as the [[Migration to Abyssinia|First Hijrah]]. They reportedly built the [[List of the oldest mosques#Africa|first]] African [[mosque]], that is the [[Mosque of the Companions, Massawa]].<ref name="Reid2012Massawa">{{cite book |last=Reid |first=Richard J. |title=A History of Modern Africa: 1800 to the Present |publisher=[[John Wiley and Sons]] |chapter=The Islamic Frontier in Eastern Africa |page=106 |isbn=978-0470658987 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=US6RQtYwasUC |date=12 January 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> The kingdom is mentioned in the ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' as an important market place for [[Ivory trade|ivory]], which was exported throughout the ancient world. Aksum was at the time ruled by [[Zoskales]], who also governed the port of [[Adulis]].<ref name="Periplusme">[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html ''Periplus of the Erythreaean Sea''], chs. 4, 5</ref> The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own [[Aksumite currency]].<ref name="Raffaele2007">{{cite journal |first=Paul |last=Raffaele |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/ark-covenant-200712.html?c=y&page=1 |title=Keepers of the Lost Ark?|journal=Smithsonian Magazine |date=December 2007 |access-date= 5 April 2011}}</ref> ===Middle Ages=== ====Medri Bahri==== {{main|Medri Bahri|Habesh Eyalet|Sultanate of Aussa}} [[File:Bahta Hagos.jpeg|thumb|right|upright|[[Bahta Hagos]] was an important leader of the Eritrean resistance to foreign domination specifically against northern Ethiopian and Italian colonialism.]] After the decline of Aksum, the Eritrean highlands were under the domain of the [[Christianity|Christian]] Kingdom of [[Medri Bahri]], ruled by a [[Bahr Negash|Bahri Negus]] (or Bahri Negash, meaning "sea king"). The area was at first known as ''Ma'ikele Bahri'' ("between the seas/rivers", i.e. the land between the [[Red Sea]] and the [[Mareb River|Mereb river]]).<ref>Tamrat, Taddesse (1972) ''Church and State in Ethiopia (1270–1527)''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 74.</ref> The entire coastal domain of Ma'ikele Bahri was under the [[Adal Sultanate]] during the reign of Sultan [[Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Owens |first1=Travis |title=BELEAGUERED MUSLIM FORTRESSES AND ETHIOPIAN IMPERIAL EXPANSION FROM THE 13TH TO THE 16TH CENTURY |publisher=NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL |page=23 |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a483490.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pouwels |first1=Randall |title=The History of Islam in Africa |date=31 March 2000 |publisher=Ohio University Press |page=229 |isbn=9780821444610 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J1Ipt5A9mLMC&q=Sawakin+adal&pg=PA229}}</ref> The state was later reconquered by the Ethiopian Emperor [[Zara Yaqob]] and renamed the Medri Bahri ("Sea land" in Tigrinya, although it included some areas like [[Shire, Ethiopia|Shire in Ethiopia]] on the other side of the Mereb, today in Ethiopia).<ref>Kendie, Daniel (2005) ''The Five Dimensions of the Eritrean Conflict 1941–2004: Deciphering the Geo-Political Puzzle''. Signature Book Printing, Inc. pp. 17–18.</ref> With its capital at [[Debarwa]],<ref>Denison, Edward; Ren, Guang Yu and Gebremedhin, Naigzy (2003) ''Asmara: Africa's secret modernist city''. {{ISBN|1858942098}}. p. 20</ref> the state's main provinces were [[Hamasien]], [[Serae]] and [[Akele Guzai]]. By 1517, the Ottomans had succeeded in conquering Medri Bahri. They occupied all of northeastern present-day Eritrea for the next two decades, an area which stretched from [[Massawa]] to [[Suakin|Swakin]] in Sudan.<ref name="MB01"/> The territory became an Ottoman governorate, known as the [[Habesh Eyalet]]. Massawa served as the new province's first capital. When the city became of secondary economical importance, the administrative capital was soon moved across the Red Sea to [[Jeddah]].<ref name=encaet>{{cite book|author=Siegbert Uhlig|title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=X38lxaUjm1MC&pg=PA951|year=2005|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-05238-2|page=951}}</ref> The first Westerner to visit Eritrea was the Portuguese explorer [[Francisco Álvares|Francisco Alvares]] in 1520. In his books we have the first description of the local powers of [[Tigray Region|Tigray]], the kingdom of Axum and [[Barnagais]] (the lord of the lands by the sea)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dacb.org/stories/ethiopia/alvares-f/|title=Francisco Álvares|access-date=2020-09-07|website=dacb.org}}</ref> The coast of present-day Eritrea was the one that guaranteed the connection to the region of Tigray where the Portuguese had a small colony, and therefore the connection to the interior [[Ethiopia]]n, allies of the Portuguese. Massawa was also the stage for the [[1541]] landing of troops by [[Cristóvão da Gama]] in the military campaign that would eventually defeat the Adal Sultanate in the final [[battle of Wayna Daga]] in 1543.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pereira|first=Hugo|title=Uma força Expedicionária Portuguesa na Campanha da Etiópia de 1541-1543|url=https://comum.rcaap.pt/bitstream/10400.26/6888/1/Uma%20for%C3%A7a%20Expedicion%C3%A1ria%20Portuguesa%20na%20Campanha%20da%20Eti%C3%B3pia...pdf}}</ref> The Turks tried to occupy the highland parts of Medri Bahri in 1559 and withdrew after they encountered resistance and were pushed back by the Bahri Negash and highland forces. In 1578 they tried to expand into the highlands with the help of Bahri Negash Yisehaq, who had switched alliances due to a power struggle. Ethiopian emperor [[Sarsa Dengel]] made a [[punitive expedition]] against the Turks in 1588 in response to their raids in the northern provinces, and by 1589 they were once again apparently compelled to withdraw their forces to the coast. The Ottomans were eventually driven out in the last quarter of the 16th century. However, they retained control over the seaboard until the establishment of Italian Eritrea in the late 1800s.<ref name="MB01"/><ref name="A10-4">Jonathan Miran [https://books.google.com/books?id=PMFVeWTWF0YC&pg=PA38&dq=%22resistance+and+pushed+back+by+the+bahr+negash+and+highland+forces%22+%22the+Turks+remained+relatively+briefly+in+the+highlands%22#v=onepage&q=%22resistance%20and%20pushed%20back%20by%20the%20bahr%20negash%20and%20highland%20forces%22%20%22the%20Turks%20remained%20relatively%20briefly%20in%20the%20highlands%22 Red Sea Citizens: Cosmopolitan Society and Cultural Change in Massawa]. [[Indiana University Press]], 2009, pp. 38–39 & 91 Google Books</ref><ref name="A10-5">Jonathan Miran [https://books.google.com/books?id=PMFVeWTWF0YC&pg=PA39&dq=allied+%22who+had+switched+alliances+due+to+power+struggles%22+%22partly+successful,+and+in+1589+they+were+apparently+compelled+to+withdraw+their+forces+to+the+coast.%22+abandoned+ambitions+plateau+coast#v=onepage&q=allied%20%22who%20had%20switched%20alliances%20due%20to%20power%20struggles%22%20%22partly%20successful%2C%20and%20in%201589%20they%20were%20apparently%20compelled%20to%20withdraw%20their%20forces%20to%20the%20coast.%22%20abandoned%20ambitions%20plateau%20coast Red Sea Citizens: Cosmopolitan Society and Cultural Change in Massawa]. Indiana University Press, 2009, pp. 38–39 & 91</ref> In 1734, the [[Afar people|Afar]] leader Kedafu, established the [[Mudaito Dynasty]] in Ethiopia, which later also came to include the southern [[Denkel]] lowlands of Eritrea, thus incorporating the southern Denkel lowlands to the [[Sultanate of Aussa]]. 16th century also marked the arrival of the Ottomans, who began making inroads in the Red Sea area.<ref name="MB01">{{cite book|author=Okbazghi Yohannes|title=A Pawn in World Politics: Eritrea|url=https://archive.org/details/eritreapawninwor00yoha/page/31|year=1991|publisher=University of Florida Press|isbn=978-0-8130-1044-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/eritreapawninwor00yoha/page/31 31–32]}}</ref><ref>Abir, Mordechai (1968) ''The era of the princes: the challenge of Islam and the re-unification of the Christian empire, 1769–1855''. London: Longmans. pp. 23–26.</ref><ref name="Pankhurstteb">{{cite book|last=Pankhurst|first=Richard|title=The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century|year=1997|publisher=Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0932415196|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=MQ1CH3-RMe0C&pg=PA391}}</ref><ref name="Aesna">{{cite book |title=In defence of the Eritrean revolution against Ethiopian social chauvinists |date=1978 |publisher=AESNA |page=38|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=idUtAQAAIAAJ|quote=Later in their history, the Denkel lowlands of Eritrea were part of the Sultanate of Aussa, which came into being towards the end of the sixteenth century.}}</ref><ref>Abir, Mordechai (1968) ''The era of the princes: the challenge of Islam and the re-unification of the Christian empire, 1769–1855''. London: Longmans, p. 23 n. 1.</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=September 2021}} ===Modern history=== ====Italian Eritrea==== {{main|Italian Eritrea}} [[File:Cartolina dei Carabinieri Reali spedita dalla Colonia Eritrea dell'Asmara (1907).jpg|thumb|Postcard of the [[Carabinieri]] sent from Italian Eritrea in 1907]] [[File:Asmara - Piazza Roma - Banca d'Italia.jpg|thumb|Piazza Roma in Italian Asmara]] The boundaries of the present-day Eritrea nation state were established during the [[Scramble for Africa]]. In 1869<ref name=Ully>[[Edward Ullendorff|Ullendorff, Edward]]. ''The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People'' 2nd&nbsp;ed., p.&nbsp;90. [[Oxford University Press]] (London), 1965. {{ISBN|0-19-285061-X}}.</ref> or 1870, the ruling local chief sold lands surrounding the Bay of [[Assab]] to the Rubattino Shipping Company.<ref name=EBAb>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Eritrea |volume=9 |page=747}}</ref> The area served as a [[coaling station]] along the [[shipping lane]]s introduced by the recently completed [[Suez Canal]]. In the vacuum that followed the [[Battle of Gallabat|1889 death]] of [[Emperor of Ethiopia|Emperor]] [[Yohannes IV|Yohannes&nbsp;IV]], Gen. [[Oreste Baratieri]] occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment of the new colony of [[Italian Eritrea]], a colony of the [[Kingdom of Italy]]. In the [[Treaty of Wuchale]] (It.&nbsp;''Uccialli'') signed the same year, [[Menelik II|King Menelik]] of [[Shewa]], a southern Ethiopian kingdom, recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals' lands of [[Bogos]], [[Hamasien]], [[Akkele Guzay]], and [[Serae]] in exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition. His subsequent victory over his rival kings and enthronement as [[emperor of Ethiopia|Emperor]] [[Menelik II of Ethiopia|Menelek&nbsp;II]] (r.&nbsp;1889–1913) made the treaty formally binding upon the entire territory.<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Abyssinia |volume=1 |page=94}}</ref> In 1888, the Italian administration launched its first development projects in the new colony. The [[Eritrean Railway]] was completed to Saati in 1888,<ref>Olivieri, Emilio (1888) [http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/la_ferrovia_massauasaati.htm La Ferrovia Massaua-Saati] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012032531/http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/la_ferrovia_massauasaati.htm |date=12 October 2013 }} (report on the construction of the Massawa–Saati Railway). ''Ferrovia Eritrea''. {{in lang|it}}</ref> and reached [[Asmara]] in the highlands in 1911.<ref name=f1>"[http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/contenuti.htm Eritrean Railway] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413211753/http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/contenuti.htm |date=13 April 2009 }}" at ''Ferrovia Eritrea''. {{in lang|it}}</ref> The [[Asmara-Massawa Cableway|Asmara–Massawa Cableway]] was the longest line in the world during its time, but was later dismantled by the British in World War II. Besides major infrastructural projects, the colonial authorities invested significantly in the agricultural sector. It also oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa, and employed many Eritreans in public service, particularly in the police and public works departments.<ref name=f1/> Thousands of Eritreans were concurrently enlisted in the army, serving during the [[Italo-Turkish War]] in Libya as well as the [[First Italo-Ethiopian War|First]] and [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War|Second]] Italo-Abyssinian Wars. Additionally, the Italian Eritrea administration opened a number of new factories, which produced buttons, cooking oil, pasta, construction materials, packing meat, tobacco, hide, and other household commodities. In 1939, there were around 2,198 factories and most of the employees were Eritrean citizens. The establishment of industries also made an increase in the number of both Italians and Eritreans residing in the cities. The number of Italians residing in the territory increased from 4,600 to 75,000 in five years; and with the involvement of Eritreans in the industries, trade and fruit plantation was expanded across the nation, while some of the plantations were owned by Eritreans.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://shabait.com/2009/11/13/italian-administration-in-eritrea/ |title=Italian administration in Eritrea |date=13 November 2009 |publisher=Eritrea Ministry of Information |access-date=9 September 2020}}</ref> In 1922, [[Benito Mussolini]]'s rise to power in Italy brought profound changes to the colonial government in Italian Eritrea. After ''[[il Duce]]'' declared the birth of the [[Italian Empire]] in May 1936, Italian Eritrea (enlarged with northern Ethiopia's regions) and [[Italian Somaliland]] were merged with the just conquered Ethiopia in the new [[Italian East Africa]] (''Africa Orientale Italiana'') administrative territory. This [[Fascists|Fascist]] period was characterized by imperial expansion in the name of a "new Roman Empire". Eritrea was chosen by the Italian government to be the industrial center of Italian East Africa.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090429102012/http://www.dankalia.com/history/04503.htm ITALIAN INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISES]. dankalia.com</ref> Asmara's architecture after 1935 was greatly improved to become a "modernist Art Deco city" (in 2017 has been declared a "UNESCO World City Heritage"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1550|title=Asmara: A Modernist African City|author=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|website=whc.unesco.org}}</ref>), featuring ''eclectic and rationalist built forms, well-defined open spaces, and public and private buildings, including cinemas, shops, banks, religious structures, public and private offices, industrial facilities, and residences'' (according to UNESCO's publications). The Italians designed more than 400 buildings in a construction boom that was only halted by Italy's involvement in [[WW2]]. These included art deco masterpieces like the worldwide famous [[Fiat Tagliero Building]] and the [[Cinema Impero]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dadfeatured.blogspot.com/2018/08/italian-asmara.html |title=ITALIAN ASMARA |date=6 August 2018 |website=Dadfeatured}}</ref> ====British administration==== Through the 1941 [[Battle of Keren]], the British expelled the Italians,<ref>{{cite web |last=Law |first=Gwillim |title=Regions of Eritrea |url=http://www.statoids.com/uer.html |website=Administrative Divisions of Countries ('Statoids') |access-date=15 August 2011}}</ref> and took over the administration of the country. The British placed Eritrea under British military administration until [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]] could determine its fate. In the absence of agreement amongst the Allies concerning the status of Eritrea, British administration continued for the remainder of World War II and until 1950. During the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious lines and annexed partly to the British colony of Sudan and partly to Ethiopia.{{Citation needed|date=March 2015}} The [[Soviet Union]], anticipating a [[communist]] victory in the Italian polls, initially supported returning Eritrea to Italy under trusteeship or as a colony.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} ====Ethiopian Rule==== {{main|Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea}} [[File:Eritrean Independence War Map.png|thumb|[[Eritrean War of Independence]] against Ethiopia 1961–1991]] In the 1950s, the Ethiopian feudal administration under Emperor [[Haile Selassie of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie]] sought to annex Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. He laid claim to both territories in a letter to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] at the Paris Peace Conference and at the First Session of the United Nations.<ref name="un">{{cite book|last=Habte Selassie |first=Bereket |title=Eritrea and the United Nations |isbn= 978-0-932415-12-7 |publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1989}}</ref> In the United Nations, the debate over the fate of the former Italian colonies continued. The British and Americans preferred to cede all of Eritrea except the Western province to the Ethiopians as a reward for their support during [[World War II]].<ref>Top Secret Memorandum of 1949-03-05, written with the UN Third Session in view, from Mr. Rusk to the Secretary of State.</ref> The Independence Bloc of Eritrean parties consistently requested from the UN General Assembly that a referendum be held immediately to settle the Eritrean question of sovereignty. Following the adoption of [[s:United Nations General Assembly Resolution 390|UN Resolution 390A(V)]] in December 1950, Eritrea was [[Federation|federated]] with Ethiopia under the prompting of the United States.<ref name=UNGA390>{{cite web |author=United Nations General Assembly |title=Eritrea: Report of the United Nations Commission for Eritrea; Report of the Interim Committee of the General Assembly on the Report of the United Nations Commission for Eritrea |url=http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/059/88/IMG/NR005988.pdf?OpenElement |access-date=15 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115022039/http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/059/88/IMG/NR005988.pdf?OpenElement |archive-date=15 November 2012}}</ref> The resolution called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the Emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation.<ref name="un"/> The federal government, which for all practical purposes was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation. The resolution ignored the wishes of Eritreans for independence, but guaranteed the population democratic rights and a measure of autonomy. ====Independence==== {{main|Eritrean War of Independence|Flag of Eritrea}} [[File:Asmara panorama, Eritrea.jpg|thumb|right|A view over [[Asmara]] ]] In 1958, a group of Eritreans founded the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM). The organization mainly consisted of Eritrean students, professionals and intellectuals. It engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial Ethiopian state.<ref>Ofcansky, TP Berry, L (2004) Ethiopia, a country study, Kessinger Publishing, p. 69</ref> On 1 September 1961, the [[Eritrean Liberation Front]] (ELF), under the leadership of [[Hamid Idris Awate]], waged an armed struggle for independence. In 1962, Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and [[Annexation|annexed]] the territory. The ensuing [[Eritrean War of Independence]] went on for 30 years against successive Ethiopian governments until 1991, when the [[Eritrean People's Liberation Front]] (EPLF), a successor of the [[Eritrean Liberation Front|ELF]], defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea and helped a coalition of [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front|Ethiopian rebel forces]] take control of the Ethiopian capital [[Addis Ababa]]. Following a UN-supervised [[Eritrean independence referendum, 1993|referendum in Eritrea]] (dubbed [[UNOVER]]) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37675/Eritrea |title=Eritrea – The spreading revolution |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica }}</ref> The EPLF seized power, established a one-party state along nationalist lines and banned further political activity. There have been no elections since.<ref>{{cite news |title='Slaughtered like chickens': Eritrea heavily involved in Tigray conflict, say eyewitnesses |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/dec/21/slaughtered-like-chickens-eritrea-heavily-involved-in-tigray-conflict-say-eyewitnesses |work=The Guardian |date=21 December 2020}}</ref><ref name="Voice of America">{{cite news |title=US Says Eritrean Forces Should Leave Tigray Immediately |url=https://www.voanews.com/africa/us-says-eritrean-forces-should-leave-tigray-immediately |work=Voice of America |date=27 January 2021}}</ref><ref name="Bloomberg">{{cite news |title=EU Accuses Eritrean Forces of Fueling Conflict in Ethiopia |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-09/eu-accuses-eritrea-forces-of-fueling-conflict-in-ethiopia-region |work=Bloomberg |date=9 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="The Washington Post">{{cite news |title=Massacre by Eritrean troops in Ethiopia's Tigray region may constitute crime against humanity, Amnesty says |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/02/25/tigray-eritrea-ethiopia-crime-against-humanity/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=26 February 2021}}</ref> In 2020, Eritrean troops intervened in Ethiopia's [[Tigray War]] on the side of Ethiopian central government.<ref>{{cite news |title=Eritrea heavily involved in Tigray conflict, say eyewitnesses |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/dec/21/slaughtered-like-chickens-eritrea-heavily-involved-in-tigray-conflict-say-eyewitnesses |work=The Guardian |date=21 December 2020}}</ref><ref name="Voice of America"/><ref name="Bloomberg"/><ref name="The Washington Post"/> In April 2021, Eritrea confirmed its troops are fighting in Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Eritrea confirms its troops are fighting in Ethiopia's Tigray |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/17/eritrea-confirms-its-troops-are-fighting-ethiopias-tigray |work=Al-Jazeera |date=17 April 2021}}</ref> ==Geography== [[File:Un-eritrea.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Eritrea]] {{main|Geography of Eritrea}} '''ur pretty :) and that's a fact idiot that's why it's on here''' ===Location and habitat=== Eritrea is located in [[East Africa]]. It is bordered to the northeast and east by the [[Red Sea]], [[Sudan]] to the west, [[Ethiopia]] to the south, and [[Djibouti]] to the southeast. Eritrea lies between latitudes [[12th parallel north|12°]] and [[18th parallel north|18°N]], and longitudes [[36th meridian east|36°]] and [[44th meridian east|44°E]]. The country is virtually bisected by a branch of the [[East African Rift]]. Eritrea, at the southern end of the Red Sea, is the home of the fork in the rift. The [[Dahlak Archipelago]] and its fishing grounds are situated off the sandy and arid coastline. [[File:Dahlak reliefmap.png|thumb|The [[Dahlak Archipelago]]]] Eritrea can be split into three [[ecoregion]]s. To the east of the highlands are the hot, arid coastal plains stretching down to the southeast of the country. The cooler, more fertile highlands, reaching up to 3,000 m, have a different habitat. Habitats here vary from the [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|sub-tropical rainforest]] at Filfil Solomona to the precipitous cliffs and [[canyon]]s of the southern highlands.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eritrea|publisher=fatbirder.com|url=http://www.fatbirder.com/links_geo/africa/eritrea.html}}</ref> The [[Afar Triangle]] or Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of a [[triple junction]] where three tectonic plates are pulling away from one another. The highest point of the country, [[Emba Soira]], is located in the center of Eritrea, at {{convert|3018|m|ft|0|sp=us}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]]. The main cities of the country are the capital city of [[Asmara]] and the port town of [[Asseb]] in the southeast, as well as the towns of [[Massawa]] to the east, the northern town of [[Keren, Eritrea|Keren]], and the central town [[Mendefera]]. Eritrea is part of a 14-nation constituency within the [[Global Environment Facility]], which partners with international institutions, civil society organizations, and the private sector to address global environmental issues while supporting national sustainable development initiatives.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eritrea|url=http://beta.thegef.org/country/eritrea|publisher=Global Environment Facility|access-date=18 July 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816065505/http://beta.thegef.org/country/eritrea|archive-date=16 August 2016}}</ref> Local variability in rainfall patterns and/or reduced precipitation is known to occur, which may precipitate soil erosion, floods, droughts, [[land degradation]] and desertification.<ref>[http://www.er.undp.org/content/eritrea/en/home/ourwork/environmentandenergy/overview.html Environment and Energy | UNDP in Eritrea]. Er.undp.org. Retrieved on 5 June 2016.</ref> In 2006, Eritrea also announced that it would become the first country in the world to turn its entire coast into an environmentally protected zone. The {{convert|1,347|km|mi|abbr=on}} coastline, along with another {{convert|1,946|km|mi|abbr=on}} of coast around its more than 350 islands, will come under governmental protection. {{wide image|2006-11-01_Asmara-Massawa_01.jpg|800px|align-cap=center|Highlands between [[Asmara]] and [[Massawa]]}} {{clear}} ===Wildlife=== {{main|Wildlife of Eritrea}} {{see also|List of mammals in Eritrea|List of birds of Eritrea}} [[File:Eritrean birds - pelicans in Asmara pound.jpg|thumb|[[Pelicans]] in a pond near [[Asmara]] ]] Eritrea has several species of mammals and a rich avifauna of 560 species of birds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibis.atwebpages.com/birdwatching_in_eritrea/|title=Birdwatching in Eritrea – Birding in Eritrea Homepage|publisher=ibis.atwebpages.com|author1=Anderson, Jason |author2=Abraha, Solomon |author3=Berhane, Dawit }}</ref> Eritrea is home to an abundant amount of big game species. Enforced regulations have helped in steadily increasing their numbers throughout Eritrea.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.madote.com/2010/04/photos-of-eritreas-wildlife-animals.html|title=Photos of Eritrea's wildlife animals |website=Madote}}</ref> Mammals commonly seen today include the [[Abyssinian hare]], [[African wild cat]], [[Black-backed jackal]], [[African golden wolf]], [[Genet (animal)|Genet]], [[Ground squirrel]], [[pale fox]], [[Soemmerring's gazelle]], [[warthog]]. [[Dorcas gazelle]] are common on the coastal plains and in [[Gash-Barka Region|Gash-Barka]]. [[File:Eri landscape.jpg|thumb|Eritrean landscape near road to Massawa]] [[Lions]] are said to inhabit the mountains of the Gash-Barka Region. There is also a small population of [[African bush elephant]]s that roam in some parts of the country. [[Dik-diks]] can also be found in many areas. The endangered [[African wild ass]] can be seen in Denakalia Region. Other local wildlife include [[bushbuck]], [[duikers]], [[greater kudu]], [[Klipspringer]], [[African leopards]], [[oryx]] and [[crocodiles]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.explore-eritrea.com/Wildlife.htm |title=Wild life in Eritrea page |publisher=explore-eritrea.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112050502/http://explore-eritrea.com/Wildlife.htm |archive-date=12 November 2014}}</ref><ref name="ibis.atwebpages.com">{{cite web |url=http://ibis.atwebpages.com/birdwatching_in_eritrea/wildlife.htm |title=Wildlife of Eritrea |publisher=ibis.atwebpages.com |author=Berhane, Dawit}}</ref> The [[spotted hyena]] is widespread and fairly common. Between 1955 and 2001 there were no reported sightings of elephant herds, and they are thought to have fallen victim to the war of independence. In December 2001 a herd of about 30, including 10 juveniles, was observed in the vicinity of the [[Gash River]]. The elephants seemed to have formed a [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationship with [[olive baboon]]s, with the baboons using the water holes dug by the elephants, while the elephants use the tree-top baboons as an early warning system. It is estimated that there are around 100 [[elephants|African bush elephant]] left in Eritrea, the most northerly of East Africa's elephants.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=BBC Wildlife Magazine |date=July 2003 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/300feature1.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060314104912/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/300feature1.shtml |archive-date=14 March 2006 |title=The rediscovery of Eritrea's elephants |access-date=28 July 2007}}</ref> The [[endangered]] [[African wild dog]] (''[[Lycaon pictus]]'') was previously found in Eritrea, but is now deemed extirpated from the entire country.<ref>Hogan, C. Michael (31 January 2009) [http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 |date=9 December 2010 }}, GlobalTwitcher.com.</ref> In Gash-Barka, snakes like [[Echis pyramidum|saw-scaled viper]] are common. [[Bitis arietans|Puff adder]] and [[red spitting cobra]] are widespread and can be found even in the highlands. In the coastal areas marine species that are common include [[dolphin]], [[dugong]], [[whale shark]], [[turtles]], [[marlin]], [[swordfish]], and [[manta ray]].<ref name="ibis.atwebpages.com"/> ===Climate=== Based on variations in temperature, Eritrea can be broadly divided into three major climate zones: the [[temperate zone]], [[Humid subtropical climate|subtropical climate zone]], and [[tropical climate zone]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Tesfagiorgis, Mussie |title=Eritrea |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f0R7iHoaykoC&pg=PA10 |date=29 October 2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-232-6 |pages=10–}}</ref> The climate of Eritrea is shaped by its diverse topographical features and its location within the tropics. The diversity in landscape and topography in the highlands and lowlands of Eritrea result in the diversity of climate across the country. The highlands have temperate climate throughout the year. The climate of most lowland zones is arid and semiarid. The distribution of rainfall and vegetation types varies markedly throughout the country. Eritrean climate varies on the basis of seasonal and altitudinal differences. {{Weather box |location = Eritrea in general, based on 14 cities |metric first = yes |single line = yes |temperature colour = pastel |Jan high C = 27.3 |Feb high C = 28.3 |Mar high C = 29.8 |Apr high C = 32.3 |May high C = 33.3 |Jun high C = 33 |Jul high C = 32 |Aug high C = 31.5 |Sep high C = 32.3 |Oct high C = 31.8 |Nov high C = 30 |Dec high C = 28.3 |year high C = 31 |Jan mean C = 20 |Feb mean C = 20.8 |Mar mean C = 22.5 |Apr mean C = 24.3 |May mean C = 25.6 |Jun mean C = 26 |Jul mean C = 25.1 |Aug mean C = 24.7 |Sep mean C = 24.4 |Oct mean C = 23.8 |Nov mean C = 22.1 |Dec mean C = 20.5 |year mean C = 23.3 |Jan low C = 17.8 |Feb low C = 17.3 |Mar low C = 18.3 |Apr low C = 21 |May low C = 23.3 |Jun low C = 24.4 |Jul low C = 24.4 |Aug low C = 24.5 |Sep low C = 23.3 |Oct low C = 22.3 |Nov low C = 20 |Dec low C = 18.3 |year low C = 20.8 |Jan precipitation mm = 6.7 |Feb precipitation mm = 6.9 |Mar precipitation mm = 9 |Apr precipitation mm = 14.8 |May precipitation mm = 20.3 |Jun precipitation mm = 26.5 |Jul precipitation mm = 100 |Aug precipitation mm = 99.7 |Sep precipitation mm = 25.4 |Oct precipitation mm = 8.6 |Nov precipitation mm = 11.9 |Dec precipitation mm = 9.4 |year precipitation mm = 347 |source 1 = weatherbase<ref name= weatherbase>{{cite web | url = http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/city.php3?c=ER&name=Eritrea | title = Eritrea average climate | publisher = weatherbase | access-date = 6 March 2016}}</ref> |date=March 2016 }} ==Government and politics== {{main|Politics of Eritrea}} The [[People's Front for Democracy and Justice]] (PFDJ) is the [[One-party state|only legal party]] in Eritrea.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|title=Country profile: Eritrea|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1070813.stm|work=BBC News|date=17 June 2008|access-date=1 July 2008}}</ref> Other political groups are not allowed to organize, although the unimplemented [[Constitution of Eritrea|Constitution of 1997]] provides for the existence of [[Multi-party system|multi-party politics]]. The National Assembly has 150 seats. National elections have been periodically scheduled and cancelled; none have ever been held in the country.<ref name=CIA/> President [[Isaias Afwerki]] has been in office since independence in 1993. In 1993, 75 representatives were elected to the National Assembly; the rest are appointed. As the report by the UN Human Rights Council explained: "No national elections have taken place since that time, and no presidential elections have ever taken place. Local or regional elections have not been held since 2003–2004.The National Assembly elected independent Eritrea’s first president, Isaias Afwerki, in 1993. Following his election, Afwerki consolidated his control of the Eritrean government." President Isaias Afwerki has regularly expressed his disdain for what he refers to as "western-style" democracy. In a 2008 interview with Al Jazeera, for example, the President stated that "Eritrea will wait three or four decades, maybe more, before it holds elections. Who knows?"<ref>{{Cite conference |url=https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoIEritrea/A_HRC_32_CRP.1_read-only.pdf |title=Detailed findings of the commission of inquiry on human rights in Eritrea |publisher=Human Rights Council|conference=Thirty-second session, Human rights situations that require the Council’s attention|date=8 June 2016|id=A/HRC/32/CRP.1}}</ref> ===National elections=== {{main|Elections in Eritrea}} Given that the full implementation of the Joint Declaration of Peace and Friendship between Eritrea and Ethiopia is still incomplete, the Eritrean authorities still do not consider that peace agreement is formally implemented. However, local elections have continued in Eritrea. The most recent round of local government elections were held in 2010 and 2011.<!-- On further elections, the President's Chief of Staff, Yemane Gebremeskel said,<ref>Interview of Mr. Brandon Edmonds, Director of the Office of the President of Eritrea, PFDJ (1 April 2004)</ref> {{cquote|The electoral commission is handling these elections this time round so that may be the new element in this process. The national assembly has also mandated the electoral commission to set the date for national elections, so whenever the electoral commission sets the date there will be national elections. It's not dependent on regional elections.}} As yet, no national elections have been held since independence.<ref name=CIA />--> ===Military=== The [[Eritrean Defence Forces]] are now the official [[armed forces]] of the State of Eritrea. Eritrea's military is one of the largest in Africa. Compulsory military service was instituted in 1995. Officially, conscripts, male and female, must serve for 18 months minimum, which includes six months of military training and 12 months doing the regular school year to complete their last year of high school. Thus around 5% of Eritreans live in barracks in the desert doing projects such as road building as part of their service. [[File:Defense.gov News Photo 021210-D-2987S-057.jpg|thumb|President [[Isaias Afewerki]] with U.S. Secretary of Defense [[Donald Rumsfeld]], December 2002]] The National Service Proclamation of 1995 does not recognize the right to conscientious objection to military service. According to the 1957 Ethiopian penal code adopted by Eritrea during independence, failure to enlist in the military or refusal to perform military service are punishable with imprisonment terms of six months to five years and up to ten years, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eritrea|url=https://www.wri-irg.org/en/programmes/world_survey/country_report/de/Eritrea|publisher=War Resisters' International|access-date=19 December 2017}}</ref> National service enlistment times may be extended during times of "national crisis"; since 1998, everyone under the age of 50 is enlisted in national service for an indefinite period until released, which may depend on the arbitrary decision of a commander. In a study of 200 escaped conscripts, the average service was 6.5 years, and some had served more than 12 years.<ref name="National service in Eritrea"/> ===Legal profession=== According to the NYU School of Law, the Legal Committee of the Ministry of Justice oversees the admission and requirements to practice law in Eritrea. Although the establishment of an independent bar association is not proscribed under Proclamation 88/96, among other domestic laws, there is no bar association. The community electorate in the local jurisdiction of the Community Court chooses the Court's judges. The Community Court's standing on women in the legal profession is unclear, but elected women judges have reserved seat.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Eritrea1.html#LawyersandLegalProfession|title=UPDATE: Introduction to Eritrean Legal System and Research|website=[[GlobaLex]]|publisher=New York University School of Law|access-date=27 December 2017}}</ref> ==Foreign relations== {{main|Foreign relations of Eritrea}}<!--Please add new information to relevant articles of the series--> [[File:The 23d ICSOE Conference for East Africa in Asmara, Eritrea 2019.png|thumb|The 23d ISCOE [[East Africa]] Conference in [[Asmara]] in 2019]] Eritrea is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[African Union]], and is an [[Arab–Eritrean relations|observing member]] of the [[Arab League]] alongside Brazil, [[Venezuela]] and Turkey.<ref name="edition.cnn.com"/> The nation holds a seat on the United Nations' Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions (ACABQ). Eritrea also holds memberships in the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]], [[International Finance Corporation]], [[International Criminal Police Organization]] (INTERPOL), [[Non-Aligned Movement]], [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]], [[Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa]], and the [[World Customs Organization]]. The Eritrean government previously withdrew its representative to the African Union to protest the AU's alleged lack of leadership in facilitating the implementation of a binding border decision demarcating the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia. The Eritrean government has since January 2011 appointed an envoy, Tesfa-Alem Tekle, to the AU.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sudantribune.com/Eritrea-appoints-AU-envoy-in,37700 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224084832/http://www.sudantribune.com/Eritrea-appoints-AU-envoy-in,37700 |archive-date=24 February 2011 |author=Tekle, Tesfa-Alem |date= 20 January 2011|title=Eritrea appoints AU envoy in Ethiopia – ''Sudan Tribune'': Plural news and views on Sudan |work=Sudan Tribune |access-date=17 July 2011}}</ref> Eritrea maintains diplomatic ties with a number of other countries: it has over 31 [[embassy|embassies]] and [[consulate]]s abroad, and over 22 consulates and embassies represented in the country,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.embassy-worldwide.com/country/eritrea/|title=Eritrea - Embassies and Consulates Worldwide}}</ref> including [[People's Republic of China–Eritrea relations|China]], [[Denmark–Eritrea relations|Denmark]], [[Ethiopia-Eritrea relations|Ethiopia]], [[Djibouti–Eritrea relations|Djibouti]], [[Eritrea–Israel relations|Israel]], the [[Eritrea–United States relations|United States]] and [[Eritrea–Yemen relations|Yemen]]. Its relations with Djibouti and Yemen are tense due to territorial disputes over the [[Doumeira Islands]] and [[Hanish Islands]], respectively. On 28 May 2019, the United States removed Eritrea from the "Counterterror Non-Cooperation List" which also includes [[Iran]], [[North Korea]], [[Syria]] and [[Venezuela]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/us-removing-eritrea-from-counterterror-non-cooperation-list/4935716.html|title=US Removing Eritrea from Counterterror Non-Cooperation List|work=VOA News|date=28 May 2019}}</ref> Moreover, Eritrea was visited two months earlier by a US congressional delegation for the first time in 14 years.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/first-us-congressional-delegation-in-fourteen-years-visits-eritrea/4813583.html|title=1st US Congressional Delegation in 14 Years Visits Eritrea|work=VOA News|date=4 March 2019}}</ref> ===Relations with Ethiopia=== {{see also|Eritrea–Ethiopia relations|Eritrean–Ethiopian War}} {{further|Eritrean War of Independence|Eritrean independence referendum, 1993}} [[File:Independence Day of Eritrea.jpg|thumb|[[Independence Day (Eritrea)|Independence Day]] is one of the most important public holidays in the country.]] The undemarcated border with Ethiopia is the primary external issue currently facing Eritrea. Eritrea's relations with Ethiopia turned from that of cautious mutual tolerance, following the 30-year war for Eritrean independence, to a deadly rivalry that led to the outbreak of hostilities from May 1998 to June 2000 which claimed approximately 70,000 lives from both sides.<ref>"[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/16/ethiopian-raid-eritrea-conflict Ethiopian raid on Eritrean bases raises fears of renewed conflict]". ''The Guardian''. 16 March 2012.</ref> The border conflict cost hundreds of millions of dollars.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/750789.stm Will arms ban slow war?] BBC. 18 May 2000</ref> Disagreements following the war have resulted in stalemate punctuated by periods of elevated tension and renewed threats of war.<ref name="horntension1">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3457957.stm |title=Horn tensions trigger UN warning |publisher=BBC |date=4 February 2004 |access-date = 7 June 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4400580.stm |title=Army build-up near Horn frontier |publisher=BBC |date=2 November 2005 |access-date = 7 June 2006}}</ref><ref name="horntension3">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4555892.stm |title=Horn border tense before deadline |publisher=BBC |date=23 December 2005 |access-date = 7 June 2006}}</ref> The stalemate led the President of Eritrea to urge the UN to take action on Ethiopia with the [[s:Eleven Letters|Eleven Letters]] penned by the President to the United Nations Security Council. The situation has been further escalated by the continued efforts of the Eritrean and Ethiopian leaders in supporting opposition in one another's countries.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} In 2011, Ethiopia accused Eritrea of planting bombs at an [[African Union]] summit in [[Addis Ababa]], which was later supported by a UN report. Eritrea denied the claims.<ref name="aubomb">{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/28/eritrea-planned-ethopia-bomb-attack |title=Eritrea planned massive bomb attack on African Union summit, UN says |last=Rice |first=Xan |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=28 July 2011 |access-date=28 July 2011}}</ref> A peace treaty between both nations was signed on 8 July 2018.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/ethiopia-eritrea-restore-diplomatic-relations-1.4738578 |title=Leaders of Ethiopia and Eritrea hug and make up |work=CBC News |publisher=CBC |date=July 8, 2018 |access-date=July 9, 2018}}</ref> The next day, they signed a joint declaration formally ending the [[Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Ethiopia's Abiy and Eritrea's Afewerki declare end of war |work=BBC News |date=9 July 2018 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44764597 |access-date=9 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ethiopia, Eritrea officially end war |url=https://www.dw.com/en/ethiopia-eritrea-officially-end-war/a-44585296 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |access-date=9 July 2018}}</ref> ==Administrative divisions== {{main|Regions of Eritrea|Districts of Eritrea}} Eritrea is divided into six administrative [[Regions of Eritrea|regions]]. These areas are further divided into 58 [[Districts of Eritrea|districts]]. [[File:Eritrea, administrative divisions - Nmbrs - colored.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|A map of Eritrea regions. 1.Northern Red Sea, 2.Anseba, 3.Gash-Barka, 4.Central (to right), 5.Southern, 6.Southern Red Sea]] {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Regions of Eritrea |- ! Region ! Area (km²) ! Capital |- | [[Central Region (Eritrea)|Central]] | 1,300 | [[Asmara]] |- | [[Anseba Region|Anseba]] | 23,200 | [[Keren, Eritrea|Keren]] |- | [[Gash-Barka Region|Gash-Barka]] | 33,200 | [[Barentu, Eritrea|Barentu]] |- | [[Southern Region (Eritrea)|Southern]] | 8,000 | [[Mendefera]] |- | [[Northern Red Sea Region|Northern Red Sea]] | 27,800 | [[Massawa]] |- | [[Southern Red Sea Region|Southern Red Sea]] | 27,600 | [[Assab]] |} <br />The regions of Eritrea are the primary geographical divisions through which the country is administered. Six in total, they include the Maekel/Central, Anseba, Gash-Barka, Debub/Southern, Northern Red Sea and Southern Red Sea regions. At the time of independence in 1993, Eritrea was arranged into ten provinces. These provinces were similar to the nine provinces operating during the colonial period. In 1996, these were consolidated into six regions (zobas). The boundaries of these new regions are based on [[Drainage basin|catchment basins]]. {{clear}} ==Transportation== {{main|Transport in Eritrea}} [[File:Eritrean mountai road archietcture.jpg|thumb|Eritrean mountain road]] Transport in Eritrea includes highways, airports, railway, and seaports in addition to various forms of public and private vehicular, maritime and aerial transportation. The Eritrean highway system is named according to the road classification. The three levels of classification are: primary (P), secondary (S), and tertiary (T). The lowest level road is tertiary and serves local interests. Typically they are improved earth roads which are occasionally paved. During the wet seasons these roads typically become impassable. The next higher level road is a secondary road and typically is a single-layered asphalt road that connects district capitals together and those to the regional capitals. Roads that are considered primary roads are those that are fully asphalted (throughout their entire length) and in general they carry traffic between all the major cities and towns in Eritrea. [[File:Train Asmara Eritrea.jpg|thumb|Steam train outside [[Asmara]] on the [[Eritrean Railway]].]] As of 1999, there is a total of 317 kilometres of {{Track gauge|950 mm}} (narrow gauge) rail line in Eritrea. The [[Eritrean Railway]] was built between 1887 and 1932.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1KBP7QbalX0C&q=eritrean+railroad+km&pg=PA379|title=Africa South of the Sahara 2003|first=Europa Europa|last=Publications|date=31 October 2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9781857431315|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.internationalsteam.co.uk/trains/eritrea07.htm|title=Eritrean Railway Revival|website=www.internationalsteam.co.uk}}</ref> Badly damaged during [[WWII]] and in later fighting, it was closed section by section, with the final closure coming in 1978.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.trainweb.org/italeritrea/|title=Italian-Eritrean Railway and Tramway|website=www.trainweb.org}}</ref> After independence, a rebuilding effort commenced, and the first rebuilt section was reopened in 2003. As of 2009, the section from [[Massawa]] to [[Asmara]] was fully rebuilt and available for service. Rehabilitation of the remainder and of the rolling stock has occurred in recent years. Current service is very limited due to the extreme age of most of the railway equipment and its limited availability. Further rebuilding is planned. The railway linking Agordat and Asmara with the port of Massawa; had been inoperative since 1978 except for about a 5 kilometre stretch that was reopened in Massawa in 1994. A railway formerly ran from Massawa to Bishia via Asmara, and is under re-construction. Even during the war, Eritrea developed its [[Transport in Eritrea|transportation infrastructure]] by asphalting new roads, improving its ports, and repairing war-damaged roads and bridges as a part of the [[Wefri Warsay Yika'alo]] program. The most significant of these projects was the construction of a coastal highway of more than 500&nbsp;km connecting [[Massawa]] with [[Asseb]], as well as the rehabilitation of the [[Eritrean Railway]]. The rail line has been restored between the port of Massawa and the capital Asmara, although services are sporadic. Steam locomotives are sometimes used for groups of enthusiasts. ==Economy== {{main|Economy of Eritrea}} [[File:En visualize explore tree map hs92 export eri all show 2013 (4).png|thumb|upright=1.50|Eritrea's main exports, 2013]] The IMF estimates Eritrea's GDP at $2.1 billion in 2020, or $6.4 billion on a PPP basis.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The State of Eritrea and the IMF|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Countries/ERI|access-date=2021-05-26|website=IMF|language=en}}</ref> The economy grew at a 3.9% annual rate from 2010 to 2020, an improvement from the 1.3% annual rate from 2000 to 2010. The pickup in growth has been attributed to the commencement of full operations in the gold and silver Bisha mine, the production of cement from the cement factory in Massawa,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afdb.org/en/countries/east-africa/eritrea/eritrea-economic-outlook/ |title=Eritrea Economic Outlook – African Development Bank |publisher=Afdb.org |access-date=30 December 2013}}</ref> and investment in Eritrea's [[copper]], [[zinc]], and Colluli potash mining operations by Australian<ref name="Mining Technology 2019">{{cite web|last=Lempriere|first=Molly|author2=Molly|date=2019-05-22|title=Mining in Eritrea: could a new potash project spur sustainable growth?|url=https://www.mining-technology.com/features/mining-in-eritrea-potash-project/|access-date=2020-05-30|website=Mining Technology &#124; Mining News and Views Updated Daily}}</ref> and Chinese<ref name="Bloomberg 2018">{{cite news|date=2018-08-23|title=Chinese Miner to Start Copper Output in Eritrea by Next Year|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-23/sichuan-road-bridge-to-start-copper-output-in-eritrea-by-2019|access-date=2020-05-30|newspaper=Bloomberg.com}}</ref> mining companies. Worker [[remittance]]s from abroad are estimated to account for 32% of gross domestic product.<ref name=":0" /> 70% of the Eritrean workforce [[Agriculture in Eritrea|is employed in agriculture]],<ref name="huffingtonpost.com">Jordan, Ray (18 March 2016) [https://www.huffingtonpost.com/ray-jordan/eritrea-farming-in-a-frag_b_9438504.html "Eritrea – Farming in a fragile land"], ''Huffington Post''.</ref> accounting for roughly one-third of the economy.<ref name="Eritrea World Bank 2019">{{cite web|date=2019-09-18|title=Eritrea Overview|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/eritrea/overview|access-date=2020-05-30|website=World Bank}}</ref> Eritrea's main agricultural products include [[sorghum]], [[millet]], [[barley]], [[wheat]], [[legume]]s, [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[sesame]], [[linseed]], [[cattle]], [[sheep]], [[goats]] and [[camels]].<ref>[http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/counprof/eritrea/Eritrea.htm "FAO country profile: Eritrea"], The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2006.</ref> [[Tourism in Eritrea]] makes up less than 1% of the GDP. ==Demographics== {{main|Demographics of Eritrea}} Sources disagree as to the current population of Eritrea, with some proposing numbers as low as 3.6 million<ref name="UNDESA_WPP_2019_total_population" /> and others as high as 6.7 million.<ref name="COMESA_ERpop_2019" /> Eritrea has never conducted an official government census.<ref name="PHS2010_full" /> {{Largest cities | country = Eritrea | stat_ref = [http://www.geonames.org/ER/largest-cities-in-eritrea.html Geonames] | list_by_pop = | div_name = Region | div_link = | city_1 = Asmara | div_1 = Maekel Region{{!}}Maekel | pop_1 = 963,000 | img_1 = Asmara_panorama,_Eritrea.jpg | city_2 = Keren, Eritrea{{!}}Keren | div_2 = Anseba Region{{!}}Anseba | pop_2 = 120,000 | img_2 = Keren eritrea.jpg | city_3 = Dekemhare | div_3 = Debub Region{{!}}Debub | pop_3 = 120,000 | img_3 = Dekemhare-eritrea.jpg | city_4 = Massawa | div_4 = Northern Red Sea Region{{!}}Northern Red Sea | pop_4 = 54,090 | img_4 = Historic Center Massawa Panorama.JPG | city_5 = Mendefera | div_5 = Debub Region{{!}}Debub | pop_5 = 53,000 | city_6 = Assab | div_6 = Southern Red Sea Region{{!}}Southern Red Sea | pop_6 = 28,000 | city_7 = Barentu, Eritrea{{!}}Barentu | div_7 = Gash-Barka Region{{!}}Gash-Barka | pop_7 = 15,891 | city_8 = Adi Keyh | div_8 = Debub Region{{!}}Debub | pop_8 = 13,061 | city_9 = Edd, Eritrea{{!}}Edd | div_9 = Southern Red Sea Region{{!}}Southern Red Sea | pop_9 = 11,259 | city_10 = Ak'ordat | div_10 = Gash-Barka Region{{!}}Gash-Barka | pop_10 = 8,857 }} ===Ethnic composition=== [[File:Barentu2.jpg|thumb|right|A man and a woman in [[Barentu, Eritrea|Barentu]] in traditional clothes]] There are nine recognized ethnic groups according to the government of Eritrea.<ref name="CIA"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eritrean-embassy.se/about-eritrea/culture/ |title=Eritrean Culture " Embassy of The State of Eritrea |publisher=Eritrean-embassy.se |access-date=30 December 2013}}</ref> An independent census has yet to be conducted, but the [[Tigrinya people]] make up about 55% and [[Tigre people]] make up about 30% of the population. A majority of the remaining ethnic groups belong to [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]]-speaking communities of the [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] branch, such as the [[Saho people|Saho]], [[Hedareb people|Hedareb]], [[Afar people|Afar]] and [[Bilen people|Bilen]]. There are also a number of [[Nilotic peoples|Nilotic]] ethnic groups, who are represented in Eritrea by the [[Kunama people|Kunama]] and [[Nara people|Nara]]. Each ethnicity speaks a different native tongue but, typically, many of the minorities speak more than one language. The [[Rashaida people|Rashaida]] represent about 2% of Eritrea's population.<ref name="Ciaethn"/> They reside in the northern coastal lowlands of Eritrea as well as the eastern coasts of Sudan. The Rashaida first came to Eritrea in the 19th century from the [[Hejaz]] region.<ref>{{cite web|last=Alders|first=Anne|url=http://www.eritreanbeauty.com/r.html|title=the Rashaida|access-date=7 June 2006}}</ref> In addition, there exist [[Italian Eritreans|Italian Eritrean]] (concentrated in Asmara) and Ethiopian Tigrayan communities. Neither is generally given citizenship unless through marriage or, more rarely, by having it conferred upon them by the State. Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians, in 1941.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tesfagiorgis |first=Gebre Hiwet |title=Emergent Eritrea: challenges of economic development |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuCBNoOpQyEC&pg=PA111 |publisher=The Red Sea Press |year=1993 |page=111 |isbn = 978-0-932415-91-2}}</ref> Most Italians left after Eritrea became independent from Italy. It is estimated up to 100,000 Eritreans are of Italian descent.<ref>The Italian Ambassador stated at the 2008 Film Festival in Asmara [http://www.ambberlino.esteri.it/Ambasciata_Asmara/Menu/Ambasciata/News/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218200229/http://www.ambberlino.esteri.it/Ambasciata_Asmara/Menu/Ambasciata/News/ |date=18 February 2012 }} that nearly 100,000 Eritreans in 2008 have Italian blood, because they have at least one grandfather or great-grandfather from Italy</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Stampato C. 5634 |url=http://www.camera.it/_dati/leg13/lavori/stampati/sk6000/relazion/5634.htm |website=www.camera.it |access-date=20 May 2019 |language=it}}</ref> ===Languages=== {{main|Languages of Eritrea}} [[File:Population pyramid of Eritrea 2016.png|thumb|Population pyramid of Eritrea 2016]] Eritrea is a multilingual country. The nation has no official language, as the Constitution establishes the "equality of all Eritrean languages".<ref name="auto3"/> Eritrea has nine national languages which are [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], [[Tigre language|Tigre]], [[Afar language|Afar]], [[Beja language|Beja]], [[Bilen language|Bilen]], [[Kunama language|Kunama]], [[Nara language|Nara]], and [[Saho language|Saho]]. Tigrinya, [[Arabic]], and [[English language|English]] serve as de facto working languages, with English used in university education and many technical fields. While [[Italian language|Italian]], the former colonial language, holds no government recognized status in Eritrea, it is spoken by a few monolinguals and Asmara had the [[Istituto Italiano Statale Omnicomprensivo di Asmara|Scuola Italiana di Asmara]], an Italian government-operated school that was shut down in 2020.<ref name=Ethner>{{cite web|title=Eritrea – Languages|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/country/ER/languages|publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=13 October 2016}}</ref> Also, native Eritreans assimilated the language of the Italian Eritreans and spoke a version of Italian mixed with many Tigrinya words: [[Eritrean Italian]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.viv-it.org/schede/italiano-e-dialetti-fuori-d-italia |title=Italiano e dialetti fuori d'Italia |language=it |trans-title=Italian and dialects out of Italy |website=www.viv-it.org |access-date=2019-05-17}}</ref> Most of the languages spoken in Eritrea belong to the [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopian Semitic]] branch of the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] family.<ref name="Minahan">{{cite book|last=Minahan|first=James|title=Miniature empires: a historical dictionary of the newly independent states|year=1998|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-30610-5|page=76|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSxt-JB-PDkC&pg=PA76|quote=The majority of the Eritreans speak [[Ethiopian Semitic languages]], mainly [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] and [[Tigre language|Tigre]], other languages belongs to Cushitic languages of the Afroasiatic language group. The Kunama, and other groups in the west and northwest speak Nilotic languages.}}</ref> Other Afroasiatic languages belonging to the [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] branch are also widely spoken in the country.<ref name="Minahan"/> The latter include [[Afar language|Afar]], [[Beja language|Beja]], [[Blin language|Blin]], and [[Saho language|Saho]]. In addition, [[Nilo-Saharan languages]] ([[Kunama language|Kunama]] and [[Nara language|Nara]]) are spoken as a [[native language]] by the Nilotic Kunama and Nara ethnic groups that live in the western and northwestern part of the country.<ref name="Minahan"/> Smaller groups also speak other Afroasiatic languages, such as the newly recognized [[Dahlik language|Dahlik]] and Arabic (the [[Hejazi Arabic|Hejazi]] and [[Hadhrami Arabic|Hadhrami]] [[Varieties of Arabic|dialects]] spoken by the Rashaida and Hadhrami, respectively). === Religion === {{main|Religion in Eritrea}} {| class="wikitable floatright" |+ Eritrea religious groups |- ! U.S Department of State 2011<ref name="webcitation.org">{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2854.htm |title=Eritrea |publisher=U.S. State Department }}</ref>!! Pew Research Center 2010<ref name="Pew">{{cite web|title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050|date=2 April 2015|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2050/percent/all/|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref> |- | {{bar box |left1='''Religion''' |right1='''Percent''' |bars= {{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|purple|50}} {{bar percent|[[Islam]]|yellow|48}} {{bar percent|Others|brown|2}} }} || {{bar box |left1='''Religion''' |right1='''Percent''' |bars= {{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|purple|63}} {{bar percent|[[Islam]]|yellow|36}} {{bar percent|Others|brown|1}} }} |} According to the [[Pew Research Center]], {{as of|2010|lc=y}}, 62.9% of the population of Eritrea adhered to [[Christianity]], 36.6% followed [[Islam]], and 0.4% practiced [[Traditional African religions|folk religion]]. The remainder observed [[Judaism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], other faiths (<0.1% each), or were religiously unaffiliated (0.1%).<ref name="Pew" /> The U.S. Department of State estimated that, {{as of|2011|lc=y}}, 50% of the population of Eritrea adhered to Christianity, 48% followed Islam, and 2% observed other religions, including traditional faiths and animism.<ref name="webcitation.org"/> [[Christianity]] is the oldest world religion practiced in the country, and the first Christian monastery [[Debre Sina (monastery)]] was built during the 4th century. <ref>{{cite book |title=Eritrea: The Bradt Travel Guide |year=2007 |authors= Edward Denison, Edward Paice |isbn=978-1841621715 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qi-KQchGks8C&pg=PA187 |page=187}}</ref> Since May 2002, the government of Eritrea has officially recognized the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] ([[Oriental Orthodox]]), [[Sunni Islam]], the [[Eritrean Catholic Church]] (a [[Metropolis (religious jurisdiction)|Metropolitanate]] sui juris), and the [[Evangelical]] [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] church. All other faiths and denominations are required to undergo a registration process.<ref name="Religious persecution in Eritrea">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3663654.stm | title=Religious persecution in Eritrea|work= BBC News | access-date=11 December 2009 | date=17 September 2004 | first=Jonah | last=Fisher}}</ref> Among other things, the government's registration system requires religious groups to submit personal information on their membership to be allowed to [[worship]].<ref name="Religious persecution in Eritrea"/> {{Gallery |title= |width=200 | height=170 |align=right |File:Sheikh Hanafi Mosque (8529064326).jpg |The 15th century Sheikh Hanafi Mosque in [[Massawa]] |File:Asmara, cattedrale cattolica, 01.JPG |[[Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, Asmara|Church of Our Lady of the Rosary]] in the capital [[Asmara]] }} The Eritrean government is against what it deems as "reformed" or "radical" versions of its established religions. Therefore, alleged radical forms of Islam and Christianity, [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], and numerous other non-[[Protestant]] Evangelical denominations are not registered and cannot worship freely. Three named Jehovah's Witnesses are known to have been imprisoned since 1994 along with 51 others.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tdgnews.it/en/2008/10/jehovahs-witnesses%E2%80%94eritrea-country-profile/ |title=Jehovah's Witnesses — Eritrea Country Profile – October 2008 |access-date=25 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930040630/http://www.tdgnews.it/en/2008/10/jehovahs-witnesses%E2%80%94eritrea-country-profile/ |archive-date=30 September 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jw.org/en/news/legal/by-region/eritrea/jehovahs-witnesses-unjust-imprisonment-20-years/ |title=Twenty Years of Imprisonment in Eritrea—Will It Ever End? |publisher=jw.org |access-date=25 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = UN Report on Eritrea's Human Rights Violations|url = http://www.jw.org/en/news/legal/by-region/eritrea/human-rights-violations-un-report/|website = jw.org|access-date = 21 October 2015}}</ref> The government treats Jehovah's Witnesses especially harshly, denying them ration cards and work permits.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/10/03/eritrea-diplomacy-changes-political-prisoners-remain|title=Eritrea: Diplomacy Changes, but Political Prisoners Remain|website=Human Rights Watch|date=3 October 2018}}</ref> Jehovah's Witnesses were stripped of their citizenship and basic civil rights by presidential decree in October 1994.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hrc-eritrea.org/eritrea-20-years-and-counting-the-exceptional-persecution-of-jehovahs-witnesses/|title=Eritrea: 20 Years and Counting – The Exceptional Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses|website=Human Rights Concern - Eritrea (HRCE)}}</ref> In its 2017 religious freedom report, the U.S. State Department named Eritrea a Country of Particular Concern (CPC).<ref>{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report, 2017|url=http://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2017.USCIRFAnnualReport.pdf|publisher=U.S. Department of State|access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref> == UNESCO World Heritage Site == On 8 July 2017, the entire capital city of [[Asmara]] was listed as a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]], with the inscription taking place during the 41st World Heritage Committee Session. The city has thousands of [[Art Deco#Architecture|Art Deco]], [[futurist]], [[modernist]], and [[Rationalism (architecture)|rationalist]] buildings, constructed during the period of [[Italian Eritrea]].<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1550/|title=Asmara: A Modernist African City|first=UNESCO World Heritage|last=Centre|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://qz.com/africa/1026237/eritreas-asmara-is-now-a-unesco-world-heritage-site-and-should-boost-tourism/|title=Eritrea's picturesque capital is now a World Heritage site and could help bring it in from the cold|first=Tom Gardner|last=Commentary|website=Quartz Africa}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.africanews.com/2017/07/12/eritrea-capital-asmara-makes-unesco-world-heritage-list/|title=Eritrea capital, Asmara, makes UNESCO World Heritage list &#124; Africanews|date=11 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/eritreas-capital-added-to-unesco-world-heritage-site-list/a-39609655|title=Eritrea's capital added to UNESCO World Heritage site list &#124; DW &#124; 08.07.2017|website=DW.COM}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.apollo-magazine.com/eritrea-italy-modernist-architecture/|title=The modernist marvels of Eritrea|date=19 November 2019|website=Apollo Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/design/asmara-eritrea-art-deco-unesco-architecture-italy-little-rome-world-heritage-a8040871.html|title=Exploring Eritrea's UNESCO certified Art-Deco wonderland|date=9 November 2017|website=The Independent}}</ref> Asmara, a small town in the nineteenth century, started to grow quickly during 1889.<ref>Britannica,[https://www.britannica.com/place/Asmara Asmara], britannica.com, USA, accessed on 8 September 2019</ref> The city also became a place "to experiment with radical new designs", mainly futuristic and art deco inspired.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://washingtontimes.com/article/20070915/ENTERTAINMENT/109150018/1007 |title=Asmara useful for experimenting with radical designs for Europeans |newspaper=[[The Washington Times]] |date=15 September 2007 |access-date=8 December 2010}}</ref> Even though city planners, architects, and engineers were largely European, members of the indigenous population were largely used as construction workers, Asmarinos still identify with their city's legacy.<ref>Jan Körting & Neysan Zölzer (2012): ''Heritage and Daily Life in the Historic Urban Core of Asmara (Original: Erbe und Alltag im historischen Stadtkern Asmaras)'' (Dissertation). Technische Universität Berlin.</ref> {{ multiple image | direction = horizontal | total_width = 250 | footer = | image1 = Asmara, museo nazionale, ingresso.JPG | caption1 = [[National Museum of Eritrea|Eritrean national museum]] in Asmara | caption2 = [[Fiat Tagliero Building|The Fiat Tagliero Building]] | image2 = Fiat tagliero, 07,0.JPG | caption4 = }} The city shows off most early 20th-century architectural styles. Some buildings are [[neo-Romanesque architecture|neo-Romanesque]], such as the [[Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, Asmara|Church of Our Lady of the Rosary]]. Art Deco influences are found throughout the city. Essences of [[Cubism]] can be found on the Africa Pension Building, and on a small collection of buildings. The [[Fiat Tagliero Building]] shows almost the height of futurism, just as it was coming into big fashion in Italy. In recent times, some buildings have been functionally built which sometimes can spoil the atmosphere of some cities, but they fit into Asmara as it is such a modern city. Many buildings such as opera houses, hotels, and cinemas were built during this period. Some notable buildings include the [[Art Deco]] [[Cinema Impero]] (opened in 1937 and considered by the experts one of the world's finest examples of Art Déco style building<ref>Gianluca Rossi, ''Renzo Martinelli inviato de ''La Nazione'', 2009.</ref>), Cubist Africa Pension, eclectic Eritrean Orthodox [[Enda Mariam Cathedral, Asmara|Enda Mariam Cathedral]] and [[Asmara Theatre|Asmara Opera]], the [[futurist architecture|futurist]] [[Fiat Tagliero Building]], the [[neoclassical architecture|neoclassical]] [[Governor's Palace (Asmara)|Asmara city hall]]. A statement from UNESCO read: {{cquote|It is an exceptional example of early modernist urbanism at the beginning of the 20th century and its application in an African context.|200|50|[[UNESCO]]<ref name="auto1"/>}} ==Human rights== {{main|Human rights in Eritrea}} <!-- For brief summary --> [[File:Eritrea - Government building, Asmara.jpg|thumb|right|Building of regional administration in [[Asmara]]]] Eritrea is a [[one-party state]] in which national legislative elections have been repeatedly postponed.<ref name="gi">{{cite web |url=http://www.grassrootsonline.org/what-we-do/partnerships/where-we-work/eritrea |title=Eritrea |access-date=2008-07-24 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724164739/http://www.grassrootsonline.org/what-we-do/partnerships/where-we-work/eritrea |archive-date=24 July 2008 |work=Grassroots International}}</ref> According to [[Human Rights Watch]], the government's [[human rights]] record is considered among the worst in the world.<ref name="hrw">[https://web.archive.org/web/20060211174118/https://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/eritre12307.htm Eritrea Human Rights Overview]. Human Rights Watch (2006)</ref> Most countries have accused the Eritrean authorities of [[arbitrary arrest and detention]]s, and of detaining an unknown number of people without charge for their political activism. Both male and female [[LGBT rights in Eritrea|same-sex sexual activity]] is illegal in Eritrea.<ref>{{cite news |title=71 Countries Where Homosexuality is Illegal |url=https://www.newsweek.com/73-countries-where-its-illegal-be-gay-1385974 |work=Newsweek |date=4 April 2019}}</ref> A prominent group of fifteen Eritreans, called the G-15, including three cabinet members, were arrested in September 2001 after publishing an open letter to the government and President Isaias Afewerki calling for democratic dialogue. This group and thousands of others who were alleged to be affiliated with them are imprisoned without legal charges, hearing, trial and judgment.<ref name="guardian">{{Cite news|title='If we don't give them a voice, no one will': Eritrea's forgotten journalists, still jailed after 14 years The country is ranked worst in the world for press freedom, its writers locked in secret jails. Here, PEN Eritrea profiles the men who fought for a free press, and paid the price | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/19/eritrea-forgotten-journalists-jailed-pen-international-press-freedom |date=20 August 2015|author= Zere, Abraham Tesfalul |publisher= Guardian}}</ref><ref name="Eritrean G-15 advocacy site">{{Cite news|title= Who are the Eritrean G15? And where are they now?|url= http://www.freeourparents-eritrea.com/who-are-the-eritrean-g15-and-where-are-they-now/|date= 4 October 2014 |publisher= Eritrean G-15 advocacy site|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151023043119/http://www.freeourparents-eritrea.com/who-are-the-eritrean-g15-and-where-are-they-now/|archive-date= 23 October 2015}}</ref> Since Eritrea's conflict with Ethiopia in 1998–2001, the nation's human rights record has been criticized at the United Nations.<ref name=Guardian>{{cite news|agency=Associated Press|title=Eritrea's human rights record comes under fire at United Nations|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/oct/25/eritrea-human-rights-united-nations|access-date=30 October 2013|newspaper=The Guardian|date=25 October 2013}}</ref> Human rights violations are allegedly often committed by the government or on behalf of the government. [[Freedom of speech]], [[News media|press]], [[Freedom of assembly|assembly]], and [[Interpersonal relationship|association]] are limited. Those who practice "unregistered" religions, try to flee the nation, or escape military duty are arrested and put into [[prison]].<ref name=Guardian /> By 2009, the number of political prisoners was in the range 10,000–30,000, there was widespread and systematic [[torture]] and [[extrajudicial killing]]s, with "anyone" for "any or no reason", including children eight years old, people over 80 years old and ill people, being liable to be arrested, and Eritrea was "one of the world's most totalitarian and human rights-abusing regimes".<ref name="EHREA_Lasting_Struggle" /> During the Eritrean independence struggle and 1998 [[Eritrean-Ethiopian War]], many atrocities were also committed by the Ethiopian authorities against unarmed Eritrean civilians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/eritrea.htm |title=Eritrean and Ethiopian Civil War |author=Tracey L. Cousin |work=ICE Case Studies |access-date=2007-09-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070911212032/http://american.edu/ted/ice/eritrea.htm |archive-date=11 September 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sudantribune.com/imprimable.php3?id_article=9931|title=A critical look into the Ethiopian elections|access-date=19 February 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061129063002/http://www.sudantribune.com/imprimable.php3?id_article=9931 |archive-date = 29 November 2006}}</ref> [[File:Asmara, mai jah jah 02.JPG|thumb|[[Asmara]], Eritrea in 2015]] [[File:Gash Barkahouses.jpg|thumb|Traditional Eritrean agudo/tukul huts in a village near [[Barentu, Eritrea|Barentu]]]] In June 2016, a 500-page [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] report accused Eritrea's government of extrajudicial executions, torture, indefinitely prolonged national service (6.5 years on average) and forced labour, and indicated that sexual harassment, rape and sexual servitude by state officials are also widespread.<ref name="UNHRC"/><ref name= guard>{{cite news|last= Jones | first=Sam| title= Eritrea human rights abuses may be crimes against humanity, says UN |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/jun/08/human-rights-abuses-eritrea-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-un-report| access-date= 8 June 2015 |newspaper=The Guardian|quote=The report 'catalogues a litany of human rights violations by the "totalitarian" regime of President Isaias Afwerki "on a scope and scale seldom witnessed elsewhere"' said ''[[The Guardian]]''date=8 June 2015}}</ref> [[Barbara Lochbihler]] of the [[European Parliament Subcommittee on Human Rights]] said the report detailed 'very serious human rights violations', and asserted that EU funding for development would not continue as at present without change in Eritrea.<ref name=DWelle>{{cite web|url= http://www.dw.com/en/human-rights-eu-should-put-more-pressure-on-eritrea/a-18535963 | title = Human rights: EU 'should put more pressure on Eritrea' | website= Deutsche Welle | date=23 June 2015|access-date=4 July 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150704105608/http://www.dw.com/en/human-rights-eu-should-put-more-pressure-on-eritrea/a-18535963 | archive-date=4 July 2015}}</ref> The Eritrean Foreign Ministry responded by describing the commission's report as "wild allegations" which were "totally unfounded and devoid of all merit".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201506100911.html |title=Eritrea: Asmara Lashes Out at UN's 'Vile Slanders' |website=AllAfrica news website |date=10 June 2015 |access-date=24 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611062509/http://allafrica.com/stories/201506100911.html |archive-date=11 June 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Representatives of the United States and China disputed the report's language and accuracy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKCN0ZH5GW?pageNumber=2&virtualBrandChannel=0&sp=true|title=Eritrea escapes U.N. Security Council referral over human rights|last=Miles|first=Tom|work=AF|access-date=2017-09-17|archive-date=18 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918021343/https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKCN0ZH5GW?pageNumber=2&virtualBrandChannel=0&sp=true|url-status=dead}}</ref> All Eritreans aged between 18 and 40 years must complete a mandatory national service, which includes military service. This requirement was implemented after Eritrea gained [[independence]] from Ethiopia, as a means to protect Eritrea's [[sovereignty]], to instill national pride, and to create a disciplined populace.<ref name="National service in Eritrea">[https://www.economist.com/blogs/baobab/2014/03/national-service-eritrea National service in Eritrea]. ''Economist''. 10 March 201</ref> Eritrea's national service requires long, indefinite conscription (6.5 years on average), which some Eritreans leave the country in order to avoid.<ref name="National service in Eritrea"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://utdailybeacon.com/news/2014/nov/19/professor-lecture-african-refugees-eritrea/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20141121095314/http://utdailybeacon.com/news/2014/nov/19/professor-lecture-african-refugees-eritrea/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 November 2014 |title=Professor to lecture on African refugees of Eritrea |website=The Daily Beacon }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/06/world/africa/migrants-libya.html | title=Young African Migrants, Enticed by Smugglers, End Up Mired in Libya | work=The New York Times | date=5 May 2015 | access-date=6 May 2015 | author=Kirkpatrick, David D.}}</ref> In an attempt at reform, Eritrean government officials and NGO representatives in 2006 participated in many public meetings and dialogues. In these sessions they answered questions as fundamental as, "What are human rights?", "Who determines what are human rights?", and "What should take precedence, human or communal rights?"<ref>{{cite web|title=Public Dialogue Human Rights in Eritrea|url=http://www.shaebia.org/artman/publish/article_4551.html|date=1 June 2006|access-date=10 September 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060908190129/http://www.shaebia.org/artman/publish/article_4551.html |archive-date = 8 September 2006}}</ref> In 2007, the Eritrean government also banned [[female genital mutilation]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6527619.stm | work=BBC News | title=Eritrea bans female circumcision | date=4 April 2007}}</ref> In Regional Assemblies and religious circles, Eritreans themselves speak out continuously against the use of female circumcision. They cite health concerns and individual freedom as being of primary concern when they say this. Furthermore, they implore rural peoples to cast away this ancient cultural practice.<ref>{{cite web|title=Anseba Religious leaders condemn female circumcision |url=http://www.shabait.com/cgi-bin/staging/exec/view.cgi?archive=11&num=5411 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070620114348/http://www.shabait.com/cgi-bin/staging/exec/view.cgi?archive=11&num=5411 |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 June 2007 |date=31 August 2006 |website=Eritrea Ministry of Information }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Religious leaders of Northern Red Sea region condemn female circumcision |url=http://www.shabait.com/cgi-bin/staging/exec/view.cgi?archive=11&num=5446 |date=9 September 2006 |website=Eritrea Ministry of Information }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> In 2009, a movement called Citizens for Democratic Rights in Eritrea formed to create dialogue between the government and political opposition. The group consists of ordinary citizens and some people close to the government.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7822599.stm | work=BBC News | first=Martin | last=Plaut | title=Eritrea group seeks human rights | date=11 January 2009}}</ref> Since the movement's creation, no significant effort has been made by the Eritrean government to improve its record on human rights. In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Eritrea, have signed a joint letter to the [[UNHRC]] defending China's treatment of [[Uyghurs]] and other Muslim minority groups in the [[Xinjiang]] region.<ref>{{cite news |title=Which Countries Are For or Against China's Xinjiang Policies? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/which-countries-are-for-or-against-chinas-xinjiang-policies/ |work=[[The Diplomat]] |date=15 July 2019}}</ref> ===Media freedom=== {{See also|Mass media in Eritrea}} In its 2017 Press Freedom Index, [[Reporters Without Borders]] ranked the media environment in Eritrea at the bottom of a list of 180 countries.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rsf.org/en/ranking |title=Press Freedom Index 2017 – Reporters Without Borders |publisher=Reports Without Borders }}</ref> According to the [[BBC]], "Eritrea is the only African country to have no privately owned news media",<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1070813.stm#media| work=BBC News | title=Country profile: Eritrea | date=30 November 2010}}</ref> and Reporters Without Borders said of the public media, "[They] do nothing but relay the regime's belligerent and ultra-nationalist discourse. ... Not a single [foreign correspondent] now lives in Asmara."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.rsf.org/report-eritrea,15.html |title=World Report – Eritrea – Reporters Without Borders |publisher=Reports Without Borders |access-date=17 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811054501/http://en.rsf.org/report-eritrea%2C15.html |archive-date=11 August 2011}}</ref> The state-owned news agency censors news about external events.<ref name="censored"/> Independent media have been banned since 2001.<ref name="censored">{{Cite news|title=Sub-Saharan Africa censors Mideast protests |url=http://www.cpj.org/blog/2011/02/sub-saharan-africa-counters-censorship-on-mideast.php|date=18 February 2011|author= Keita, Mohamed |publisher=Committee to Protect Journalists}}</ref> The Eritrean authorities had reportedly imprisoned the fourth highest number of journalists after Turkey, China and [[Egypt]].<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/13/world/europe/journalists-jailed-committee-to-protect-journalists.html Number of Jailed Journalists Hits Record High, Advocacy Group Says]". ''The New York Times.'' 13 December 2017.</ref> == Health care == {{main|Health in Eritrea}} Eritrea has achieved significant improvements in health care and is one of the few countries to be on target to meet its [[Millennium Development Goal]]s (MDG) for health, in particular child health.<ref name=ODI1>{{cite web |last1=Rodríguez Pose |first1=Romina |last2=Samuels |first2=Fiona |date=December 2010 |website=Overseas Development Institute |url=http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5179&title=progress-health-eritrea-cost-effective-inter-sectoral-interventions-long-term-perspective |url-status=dead |title=Progress in health in Eritrea: Cost-effective inter-sectoral interventions and a long-term perspective |location=London |publisher=[[Overseas Development Institute]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228112540/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5179&title=progress-health-eritrea-cost-effective-inter-sectoral-interventions-long-term-perspective |archive-date=28 December 2010 }}</ref> [[Life expectancy]] at birth increased from 39.1 years in 1960 to 66.44 years in 2020;<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/ERI/eritrea/life-expectancy|title=Eritrea Life Expectancy 1950-2020|website=www.macrotrends.net}}</ref> maternal and [[child mortality]] rates dropped dramatically and the health infrastructure expanded.<ref name=ODI1/> The [[World Health Organization|World Health Organisation]] (WHO) in 2008 found average life expectancy to be slightly less than 63 years, a number that has increased to 66.44 in 2020.<ref name="auto2"/>[[Immunization|Immunisation]] and child nutrition have been tackled by working closely with schools in a multi-sectoral approach; the number of children vaccinated against measles almost doubled in seven years, from 40.7% to 78.5% and the prevalence of underweight children decreased by 12% from 1995 to 2002 (severe underweight prevalence by 28%).<ref name=ODI1/> The National Malaria Protection Unit of the Ministry of Health registered reductions in malarial mortality by as much as 85% and in the number of cases by 92% between 1998 and 2006.<ref name=ODI1/> The Eritrean government has banned [[female genital mutilation]] (FGM), saying the practice was painful and put women at risk of life-threatening health problems.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=71199 |title=IRIN Africa &#124; ERITREA: Government outlaws female genital mutilation &#124; Human Rights |agency=IRIN |date=5 April 2007 |access-date=17 July 2011}}</ref> However, Eritrea still faces many challenges. Although the number of physicians increased from only 0.2 in 1993 to 0.5 in 2004 per 1000 people, this is still very low.<ref name=ODI1/> [[Malaria]] and [[tuberculosis]] are common.<ref name="afro.who.int"/> HIV prevalence for ages 15 to 49 years exceeds 2%.<ref name="afro.who.int"/> The fertility rate is about 4.1 births per woman.<ref name="afro.who.int">Health profile at [http://www.afro.who.int/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1029&Itemid=2070 Eritrea WHO Country Office]. afro.who.int</ref> Maternal mortality dropped by more than half from 1995 to 2002, but is still high.<ref name=ODI1/> Similarly, the number of births attended by skilled health personnel doubled from 1995 to 2002, but still is only 28.3%.<ref name=ODI1/> A major cause of death in newborns is severe [[infection]].<ref name="afro.who.int"/> Per-capita expenditure on health is low.<ref name="afro.who.int"/> ==Education== {{main|Education in Eritrea}} [[File:EritreaInstituteOfTechnology.jpg|thumb|The [[Eritrea Institute of Technology]]]] [[File:Eritrea 13.jpg|thumb|Eritrean pupils in uniform]] There are five levels of education in Eritrea: [[Preschool education|pre-primary]], [[primary education|primary]], [[middle school|middle]], [[secondary education|secondary]], and [[Higher education|post-secondary]]. There are nearly 1,270,000 students in the primary, middle, and secondary levels of education.<ref name="uis.unesco.org">{{Cite web|url=http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/er#slideoutmenu|title=Eritrea|date=27 November 2016|website=uis.unesco.org}}</ref> There are approximately 824 schools,<ref>{{cite book|date=January 2005|title=Baseline Study on Livelihood Systems in Eritrea|publisher=National Food Information System of Eritrea|url=http://www1.chr.up.ac.za/chr_old/indigenous/documents/Eritrea/Report/Base%20line%20study%20on%20Livelihood%20Systems%20in%20Eritrea.pdf|access-date=20 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055210/http://www1.chr.up.ac.za/chr_old/indigenous/documents/Eritrea/Report/Base%20line%20study%20on%20Livelihood%20Systems%20in%20Eritrea.pdf|archive-date=21 September 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> two universities (the [[University of Asmara]] and the [[Eritrea Institute of Technology]]) and several smaller colleges and technical schools. Education in Eritrea is officially compulsory for children aged 6 to 13 years.<ref name="uis.unesco.org"/> {|class="wikitable" style="float: center; margin-center: 10px"} ! scope="col" style="background:#77B5FE;" |Education system in Eritrea<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite web|url=http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/er|title=Eritrea|date=27 November 2016|website=uis.unesco.org}}</ref> |- | Basic Education- 7 years |- | Middle - Junior High School (Years included in basic) |- | Secondary -Secondary School - 4 years |- | Post- secondary - Advanced Diploma - 3 years |- | Higher Education - Bachelor - 4/5 years |- | Higher Education - Master - 2 years |} Statistics vary at the elementary level, suggesting that 70% to 90% of school-aged children attend primary school; Approximately 61% attend secondary school. Student-teacher ratios are high: 45:1 at the elementary level and 54:1 at the secondary level. Class sizes average 63 and 97 students per classroom at the elementary and secondary school levels, respectively. Learning hours at school are often less than six hours per day. Barriers to education in Eritrea include traditional [[taboos]], school fees (for registration and materials), and the [[opportunity costs]] of [[low-income]] households.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kifle |first=Temesgen |year=2002 |title=Educational Gender Gap in Eritrea |series=Berichte aus dem Weltwirtschaftlichen Colloquium der Universität Bremen |url=http://www.econbiz.de/en/search/detailed-view/doc/all/educational-gender-gap-in-eritrea-kifle-temesgen/10001715911/?no_cache=1 }} [http://www.iwim.uni-bremen.de/publikationen/pdf/b079.pdf PDF copy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030759/http://www.iwim.uni-bremen.de/publikationen/pdf/b079.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> The [[Eritrea Institute of Technology]] "EIT" is a technological institute located near the town Himbrti, [[Mai Nefhi]] outside [[Asmara]]. The institute has three colleges: [[Science]], [[Engineering]] and [[Technology]], and [[Education]]. The institute began with about 5,500 students during the 2003-2004 [[academic year]]. {{Bar chart | title = Literacy rate Eritrea 2018, source: World bank, UNESCO<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://databank.worldbank.org/reports.aspx?source=2&country=ERI#|title=Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) and youth total (% of people ages 15-24)|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/> | float = right | label_type = Literacy rate | data_type = Percent (%) | bar_width = 20 | width_units = em | data_max = 100 | label1 = All Adults | data1 = 76.6 | label2 = Age: 15-24 | data2 = 93.3 | color1 = #77B5FE | color2 = #77B5FE }} The EIT was opened after the [[University of Asmara]] was reorganized. According to the Ministry of Education, the institution was established, as one of many efforts to achieve equal distribution of higher learning in areas outside the capital city, Asmara. Accordingly, several similar colleges are also established in different other parts of the country. The Eritrea Institute of Technology is the main local institute of higher studies in science, engineering and education. The [[University of Asmara]] is the oldest university in the country and was opened in 1958.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.uoa.edu.er/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=11 June 2021 |archive-date=9 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809063605/http://www.uoa.edu.er/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is currently not in operation. The overall adult literacy rate in Eritrea is 76.6% (84.4% for men and 68.9% for women). For youth 15–24, the overall literacy rate is 93.3% (93.8% for men and 92.7% for women).<ref>{{Cite web|title=World Development Indicators {{!}} DataBank|url=https://databank.worldbank.org/reports.aspx?source=2&country=ERI#|access-date=2021-05-26|website=databank.worldbank.org}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Culture== {{main|Culture of Eritrea}} One of the most recognizable parts of Eritrean culture is the [[coffee ceremony]].<ref>[http://www.networkafricaonline.com/eritrea-coffee-cere.htm It's coffee time] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004094605/http://www.networkafricaonline.com/eritrea-coffee-cere.htm |date=4 October 2011 }} Network Africa Online, April 2008 interview.</ref> Coffee ([[Ge'ez alphabet|Ge'ez]] ቡን ''būn'') is offered when visiting friends, during festivities, or as a daily staple of life. During the coffee ceremony, there are traditions that are upheld. The coffee is served in three rounds: the first brew or round is called ''awel'' in Tigrinya (meaning "first"), the second round is called ''kalaay'' (meaning "second"), and the third round is called ''bereka'' (meaning "to be blessed"). Traditional Eritrean attire is quite varied among the ethnic groups of Eritrea. In the larger cities, most people dress in Western casual dress such as jeans and shirts. In offices, both men and women often dress in suits. A common traditional clothing for [[Christians|Christian]] Tigrinya highlanders consists of bright white gowns called ''[[zuria]]s'' for the women, and a white shirt accompanied by white pants for the men. In Muslim communities in the Eritrean lowland, the women traditionally dress in brightly colored clothes. Besides convergent culinary tastes, Eritreans share an appreciation for similar music and lyrics, jewelry and fragrances, and tapestry and fabrics as many other populations in the region.<ref name="Tekle197">{{cite book|last=Tekle|first=Amare|title=Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation|year=1994|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0932415974 |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbQTEF0rd7wC}}</ref> ===Cuisine=== {{see also|Eritrean cuisine}} [[File:Eritrean Injera with stews.jpg|thumb|Eritrean [[injera]] with various stews]] A typical traditional Eritrean dish consists of [[injera]] accompanied by a spicy stew, which frequently includes beef, chicken, lamb or fish.<!--(Commented out because it's repeated a few sentence later): People in Eritrea also tend to drink coffee and a bitter fermented barley called ''sowa''.--><ref name="Kittler"/> Overall, Eritrean cuisine strongly resembles that of neighboring [[Ethiopian cuisine|Ethiopia]],<ref name="Kittler">{{cite book|author1=Goyan Kittler, Pamela |author2=Sucher, Kathryn P. |author3=Nahikian-Nelms, Marcia |title=Food and Culture, 6th ed|year=2011|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0538734974|page=202|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R06H7WabJuMC}}</ref><ref name="Tekle142">{{cite book|last=Tekle|first=Amare|title=Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation|year=1994|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0932415974 |page=142 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbQTEF0rd7wC}}</ref> though Eritrean cooking tends to feature more [[seafood]] than Ethiopian cuisine on account of their coastal location.<ref name="Kittler"/> Eritrean dishes are also frequently "lighter" in texture than Ethiopian meals. They likewise tend to employ less [[Niter kibbeh|seasoned butter]] and spices and more [[tomato]]es, as in the ''[[tsebhi]] dorho'' delicacy. Additionally, owing to its colonial history, cuisine in Eritrea features more [[Italy|Italian]] influences than are present in Ethiopian cooking, including more [[pasta]] and greater use of [[curry]] powders and [[cumin]]. The Italian Eritrean cuisine started to be practiced during the colonial times of the [[Kingdom of Italy]], when a large number of Italians moved to Eritrea. They brought the use of pasta to [[Italian Eritrea]], and it is one of the main foods eaten in present-day [[Asmara]]. An [[Italian Eritrean cuisine]] emerged, and common dishes are "pasta al sugo e berbere" (pasta with tomato sauce and berbere spice), [[lasagna]], and "cotoletta alla Milanese" (veal Milanese).<ref name="Mftdbeaeccdtmts">{{cite news|last=Carman|first=Tim|title=Mild Frontier: the differences between Eritrean and Ethiopian cuisines come down to more than spice|url=http://www.washingtoncitypaper.com/articles/36663/mild-frontier|access-date=12 March 2013|newspaper=Washington City Paper|date=9 January 2009}}</ref> In addition to coffee, local alcoholic beverages are enjoyed. These include ''sowa'', a bitter drink made from fermented barley, and ''mies'', a fermented honey wine.<ref name="Mettm">{{cite book|title=Eritrea: Travel Trade Manual|year=2000|publisher=Ministry of Tourism of Eritrea|page=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j11zAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> ===Music=== {{main|Music of Eritrea}} [[File:Helen Meles.jpg|thumb|upright|Eritrean artist [[Helen Meles]]]] Eritrea's ethnic groups each have their own styles of music and accompanying dances. Amongst the Tigrinya, the best known traditional musical genre is the guaila. Traditional instruments of Eritrean folk music include the stringed [[krar]], [[kebero]], [[begena]], [[masenqo]] and the wata (a distant/rudimentary cousin of the violin). A popular Eritrean artist is the Tigrinya singer [[Helen Meles]], who is noted for her powerful voice and wide singing range.<ref name="Blum">{{cite book|last1=Blum|first1=Bruno|title=De l'art de savoir chanter, danser et jouer la bamboula comme un éminent musicien africain: le guide des musiques africaines|date=2007|publisher=Scali|isbn=978-2350121970|page=198|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=MNsTAQAAIAAJ}}</ref> Other prominent local musicians include the Kunama singer [[Dehab Faytinga]], [[Ruth Abraha]], [[Bereket Mengisteab]], the late [[Yemane Ghebremichael]], and the late [[Abraham Afewerki]]. ===Sports=== {{see also|Sport in Eritrea}} [[File:Tour of Asmara Cycling race, Asmara Eritrea.jpg|upright=1.1|left|thumb|[[Tour of Eritrea]] cycling competition in [[Asmara]], Eritrea.]] <!-- no file jamming per image policy - single file sufficient --> [[Association football|Football]] and [[Tour of Eritrea|cycling]] are the most popular sports in Eritrea. Cycling has a long tradition in Eritrea and was first introduced during the colonial period.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/cyclingcentral/article/2017/07/28/cycling-isolated-eritreas-window-world|title=Cycling is isolated Eritrea's window to the world|website=Cycling|date=28 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thebestofafrica.org/content/eritrea-and-cycling-an-unlikely-relationship|title=Eritrea and cycling: An unlikely relationship|website=The Best of Africa}}</ref> The [[Tour of Eritrea]], a multi-stage cycling event, has been held annually since 1946 throughout the country. The national cycling teams of both men and women are ranked first on the African continent, and Eritrea is ranked among the best cycling nations in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cqranking.com/men/asp/gen/cqRankingCountry.asp|title=CQ Ranking|website=cqranking.com}}</ref> The Eritrea national cycling team has experienced a lot of success, winning the African continental cycling championship several years in a row. In 2013, the women's team won the gold medal in the [[African Continental Cycling Championships]] for the first time, and for the second time in 2015 and third time in 2019. The men's team have won gold 7 times in the last 9 years in the African continental cycling championships, between 2010 and 2019.<ref>[http://www.raimoq.com/eritrean-cycling-team-wins-the-2015-african-continental-cycling-championships-ttt/ Eritrean Cycling Team Wins the 2015 African Continental Cycling Championships TTT –] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609211448/http://www.raimoq.com/eritrean-cycling-team-wins-the-2015-african-continental-cycling-championships-ttt/ |date=9 June 2016 }}. Raimoq.com (10 February 2015). Retrieved on 5 June 2016.</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/aug/17/eritrea-cycling-team-rwanda-tour-de-france 'Next wave of riders is even better' – Eritrean cycling preparing to peak]. The Guardian (17 August 2015). Retrieved on 5 June 2016.</ref><ref>[http://www.raimoq.com/eritrean-national-teams-rank-first-at-the-african-cycling-championship-time-race/ Eritrean national teams rank first at the African Cycling Championship time race –] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609210517/http://www.raimoq.com/eritrean-national-teams-rank-first-at-the-african-cycling-championship-time-race/ |date=9 June 2016 }}. Raimoq.com (1 December 2013). Retrieved on 5 June 2016.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.procyclingstats.com/race/african-cycling-championships-ttt/2019|title=African Continental Championships - TTT 2019 &#124; Results|website=www.procyclingstats.com}}</ref> More than six Eritrean riders have signed professional contracts to international cycling teams, including [[Natnael Berhane]] and [[Daniel Teklehaimanot]]. Berhane was named African Sportsman of the Year in 2013, while Teklehaimanot became the first Eritrean to ride the [[Vuelta a España]] in 2012.<ref name="Cnbcfertf">{{cite news|title=Berhane could become the first Eritrean to ride the Tour de France|url=http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/berhane-could-become-the-first-eritrean-to-ride-the-tour-de-france|access-date=16 October 2014|agency=Cycling News|date=2 March 2014}}</ref> In 2015, Teklehaimanot won the King of the Mountains classification in the [[2015 Critérium du Dauphiné|Critérium du Dauphiné]]. Teklehaimanot and fellow Eritrean [[Merhawi Kudus]] became the first black cyclists from Africa to compete in the [[Tour de France]], when they were selected by the {{ct|MTN|2015}} team for the [[2015 Tour de France|2015 edition]] of the race.<ref>{{cite news|title=Heroes welcome for Daniel Teklehaimanot and Merhawi Kudus in Eritrea|url=http://www.caperi.com/heroes-welcome-for-daniel-teklehaimanot-and-merhawi-kudus-in-eritrea/|access-date=25 June 2016|agency=Caperi|date=1 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508002440/http://www.caperi.com/heroes-welcome-for-daniel-teklehaimanot-and-merhawi-kudus-in-eritrea/|archive-date=8 May 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> In July of the year, Teklehaimanot also became the first rider from an African team to wear the [[Mountains classification in the Tour de France|polka dot jersey]] at the Tour de France.<ref>{{cite news|title=Eritrea's Daniel Teklehaimanot 1st African to wear the King of the Mountains jersey at the Tour de France|url=http://www.caperi.com/eritreas-daniel-teklehaimanot-1st-african-to-wear-the-king-of-the-mountains-jersey-at-the-tour-de-france/ |access-date=25 June 2016|agency=Caperi|date=9 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012151427/http://www.caperi.com/eritreas-daniel-teklehaimanot-1st-african-to-wear-the-king-of-the-mountains-jersey-at-the-tour-de-france/ |archive-date=12 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Eritrean athletes have also seen increasing success in the international arena in other sports. [[Zersenay Tadese]], an Eritrean athlete, formerly held the world record in the half marathon.<ref>[http://www.iaaf.org/news/news/world-records-ratified-21 World records ratified]. Iaaf.org (8 May 2010). Retrieved 20 September 2013.</ref> [[Ghirmay Ghebreslassie]] became the first Eritrean to win a gold medal at a [[World Championships in Athletics]] for his country when he took the [[2015 World Championships in Athletics – Men's marathon|marathon]] at the [[2015 World Championships in Athletics|2015 World Championships]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/athletics/world-athletics-championships-2015-eritrean-teen-ghirmay-ghebreslassie-wins-mens-marathon-title-20150822-gj5a4b.html |title=World Athletics Championships 2015: Eritrean teen Ghirmay Ghebreslassie wins men's marathon title |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=22 August 2015 |website=[[smh.com.au]] |access-date=22 August 2015}}</ref> Eritrea made its Winter Olympic debut 25 February 2018, when they competed at the [[2018 Winter Olympics]] in [[Pyeongchang]], [[South Korea]] 2018. Eritrea's team was represented by their flagbearer [[Shannon-Ogbnai Abeda]] who competed as [[alpine skier]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Rieger|first=Sarah|date=28 December 2017|title=Calgary skier headed to Winter Olympics... but not with Team Canada |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/eritrea-skier-calgary-1.4466978|work=[[CBC News]]|location=Calgary, Alberta, Canada|access-date=31 December 2017}}</ref> {{clear}} ==See also== {{portal|Eritrea|Africa}} * [[Index of Eritrea-related articles]] * [[Outline of Eritrea]] * [[Telephone numbers in Eritrea]] <!-- *[[Bibliography of Eritrea]] --> <!-- *{{wikipedia books link|Eritrea}} -->{{Clear}} ==References== {{notelist}} {{reflist|refs= <ref name="EHREA_Lasting_Struggle">{{cite web | last1 = Tronvoll | first1 =Kjetil |author1-link = Kjetil Tronvoll | title= The Lasting Struggle for Freedom in Eritrea – Human Rights and Political Development, 1991–2009 | website= [[Eritrean Human Rights Electronic Archive]] |date = 2009-07-22 | url = http://www.ehrea.org/eritrearapport_2_endelig_versjon.pdf | access-date = 2021-02-13 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210213014319/http://www.ehrea.org/eritrearapport_2_endelig_versjon.pdf |archive-date= 2021-02-13 |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="UNDESA_WPP_2019_total_population">{{cite web | title= World Population Prospects 2019 | website= [[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|UN DESA]] |year = 2019 | url = https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Files/1_Indicators%20(Standard)/EXCEL_FILES/1_Population/WPP2019_POP_F01_1_TOTAL_POPULATION_BOTH_SEXES.xlsx | access-date = 2021-02-28 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210227235642/https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Files/1_Indicators%20(Standard)/EXCEL_FILES/1_Population/WPP2019_POP_F01_1_TOTAL_POPULATION_BOTH_SEXES.xlsx |archive-date= 2021-02-27 |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="COMESA_ERpop_2019">{{cite web | title= Eritrea – Indicators – Population (million people), 2018 | website= [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]] |year = 2019 | url = https://comstat.comesa.int/lqpaqnf/comesa-in-figures-2019?tsId=1000510 | access-date = 2021-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228195303/https://comstat.comesa.int/lqpaqnf/comesa-in-figures-2019?tsId=1000510 |archive-date= 2021-02-28 |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="PHS2010_full">{{cite web | title= Eritrea – Population and Health Survey 2010 | website= [[National Statistics Office (Eritrea)|National Statistics Office]], [[Fafo Institute for Applied International Studies]] |year = 2010 | url =https://www.unicef.org/eritrea/ECO_resources_populationhealthsurvey2010.pdf | access-date = 2021-03-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190606121847/https://www.unicef.org/eritrea/ECO_resources_populationhealthsurvey2010.pdf |archive-date= 2019-06-06 |url-status=live }}</ref> }} *Christine, Owen. "Navigating difference between [[Tigrigna]] and [[Tigrinya]]". [https://ethnomed.org/resource/navigating-differences-tigrigna-vs-tigrinya/ Navigating Differences: Tigrigna vs Tigrinya] December 16, 2010 ==Further reading== {{refbegin|30em}} * Beretekeab, R. (2000); ''Eritrea: The Making of a Nation 1890–1991''. Thesis. Uppsala University, Uppsala. {{ISBN|9789150613872}}. {{OCLC|632423867}}. * Cliffe, Lionel; Connell, Dan; Davidson, Basil (2005), ''Taking on the Superpowers: Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution (1976–1982)''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-188-0}} * Cliffe, Lionel & Davidson, Basil (1988), ''The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace''. Spokesman Press, {{ISBN|0-85124-463-7}} * Connell, Dan (1997), ''Against All Odds: A Chronicle of the Eritrean Revolution With a New Afterword on the Postwar Transition''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-046-9}} * Connell, Dan (2001), ''Rethinking Revolution: New Strategies for Democracy & Social Justice: The Experiences of Eritrea, South Africa, Palestine & Nicaragua''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-145-7}} * Connell, Dan (2004), ''Conversations with Eritrean Political Prisoners''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-235-6}} * Connell, Dan (2005), ''Building a New Nation: Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution (1983–2002)''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-198-8}} * Firebrace, James & Holand, Stuart (1985), ''Never Kneel Down: Drought, Development and Liberation in Eritrea''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|0-932415-00-8}} * Drudi, Emilio (2021). ''Una storia eritrea. Beyan, Adam, Amr''. Calamaro Edizioni. {{ISBN|9788894463927}} * Gebre-Medhin, Jordan (1989), ''Peasants and Nationalism in Eritrea''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|0-932415-38-5}} * Hatem Elliesie: ''Decentralisation of Higher Education in Eritrea'', Afrika Spectrum, Vol. 43 (2008) No. 1, p.&nbsp;115–120. * [[Justin Hill (writer)|Hill, Justin]] (2002), ''Ciao Asmara, A classic account of contemporary Africa''. Little, Brown, {{ISBN|978-0-349-11526-9}} * Iyob, Ruth (1997), ''The Eritrean Struggle for Independence: Domination, Resistance, Nationalism, 1941–1993''. [[Cambridge University Press]], {{ISBN|0-521-59591-6}} * Jacquin-Berdal, Dominique; Plaut, Martin (2004), ''Unfinished Business: Ethiopia and Eritrea at War''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-217-8}} * Johns, Michael (1992), [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?r102:E06MY2-393: "Does Democracy Have a Chance", ''Congressional Record'', 6 May 1992] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823083654/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?r102:E06MY2-393: |date=23 August 2013 }} * [[Thomas Keneally|Keneally, Thomas]] (1990), ''To Asmara'' {{ISBN|0-446-39171-9}} * Kendie, Daniel (2005), ''The Five Dimensions of the Eritrean Conflict 1941–2004: Deciphering the Geo-Political Puzzle''. Signature Book Printing, {{ISBN|1-932433-47-3}} * Killion, Tom (1998), ''Historical Dictionary of Eritrea''. Scarecrow Press, {{ISBN|0-8108-3437-5}} * Mauri, Arnaldo (2004), "Eritrea's Early Stages in Monetary and Banking Development", ''International Review of Economics'', Vol. LI, n. 4. * Mauri, Arnaldo (1998), [https://ideas.repec.org/p/mil/wpdepa/2003-28.html "The First Monetary and Banking Experiences in Eritrea"], ''African Review of Money, Finance and Banking'', n. 1–2. * Miran, Jonathan (2009), ''Red Sea Citizens: Cosmopolitan Society and Cultural Change in Massawa''. Indiana University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-253-22079-0}} * Müller, Tanja R.: ''Bare life and the developmental State: the Militarization of Higher Education in Eritrea'', Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 46 (2008), No. 1, p.&nbsp;1–21. * Negash T. (1987); ''Italian Colonisation in Eritrea: Policies, Praxis and Impact'', Uppsala Univwersity, Uppsala. * {{cite web |last=Ogbaselassie |first=G |date=10 January 2006 |url=http://eri24.com/Article_10043.htm |title=Response to remarks by Mr. David Triesman, Britain's parliamentary under-secretary of state with responsibility for Africa |access-date=7 June 2006 |archive-date=16 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116081151/http://eri24.com/Article_10043.htm |url-status=dead }} * Pateman, Roy (1998), ''Eritrea: Even the Stones Are Burning''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-057-4}} * Phillipson, David W. (1998), ''Ancient Ethiopia''. * Reid, Richard. (2011). ''Frontiers of Violence in North-East Africa: Genealogies of Conflict Since c. 1800''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0199211883}} * Wrong, Michela (2005), ''I Didn't Do It For You: How the World Betrayed a Small African Nation''. Harper Collins. {{ISBN|0-06-078092-4}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|Eritrea|voy=Eritrea}} {{Scholia|topic}} ===Government=== * [http://www.shabait.com/index.php Ministry of Information of Eritrea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622190405/http://www.shabait.com/index.php |date=22 June 2018 }} (official government website). * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180818080840/http://eritrea-tv.net/ EriTV News, Music, Movie and Comedy from Eritrea Television] * [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/eritrea/ Eritrea]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * {{GovPubs|eritrea}} * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Eritrea}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13349078 Eritrea profile] from [[BBC News]]. * {{Wikiatlas|Eritrea}} ===Others=== * [http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/CoIEritrea/Pages/ReportCoIEritrea.aspx Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea], [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] Report, 8 June 2015 * [http://hrc-eritrea.org/ HRCE – Human Rights Concern – Eritrea] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101202062456/http://tv.oneworld.net/2008/10/09/ifad-three-sisters-part-1/ Documentary on Women's liberation in Eritrea] * [http://www.tigrinja.com/ Tigrinya online learning with numbers, alphabet and history] (Eritrea and north Ethiopia (Tigray-Province)). * [http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/ Ferrovia Eritrea Eritrean Railway] {{in lang|it}} * [http://gis.calvin.edu/atlas/eritrea.html Atlas of Eritrea] * [http://www.eritreaeritrea.com/ About Eritrea] {{in lang|it}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ER Key Development Forecasts for Eritrea] from [[International Futures]]. ===Magazines=== * [http://speciali.espresso.repubblica.it/interattivi/speciale-eritrea/ Special section about Eritrea from ''Espresso'' online magazine] {{in lang|it}} * [http://www.geschichteinchronologie.ch/afrika/kol/Eritrea-Munzinger-fight-against-colonialism-ENGL.html History of Eritrea: First recordings – Munzinger – exploitation by colonialism and fight against colonialism (Italy, England, Ethiopia, Soviet Union, USA, Israel) – independence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012135549/http://geschichteinchronologie.ch/afrika/kol/Eritrea-Munzinger-fight-against-colonialism-ENGL.html |date=12 October 2007 }} {{Eritrea topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Related articles |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{Countries bordering the Red Sea}} {{African Union}} {{Community of Sahel–Saharan States}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Eritrea| ]]<!--Keep with [space] index at start of list (eponymous category) --> [[Category:1993 establishments in Eritrea|*]] [[Category:1993 establishments in Africa]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Former Italian colonies]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:One-party states]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1993]] [[Category:Totalitarian states]]'