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{{short description|Ethnoreligious group indigenous to North Africa}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Copts
| native_name = '''{{Coptic|ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ}}''' {{BR}} <small>niremənkhēmi</small>
| native_name_lang = cop
| image = Coptic flag.svg
| caption = The [[Coptic flag]] created by the New Zealand Coptic Association
| population = 5–20 million<ref name="Montreal Gazette">{{cite news|title=Coptic Orthodox Christmas to be low-key – Tight security: On alert after bombing in Egypt|url=https://montrealgazette.com/life/Montreal+Coptic+Orthodox+Christmas/4054183/story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223234517/http://www.montrealgazette.com/life/Montreal%2BCoptic%2BOrthodox%2BChristmas/4054183/story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 February 2011|access-date=5 January 2011|newspaper=Montreal Gazette|date=4 January 2011}}</ref> (estimates vary)
| region1 = '''Traditional areas of Coptic settlement:'''
| pop1 = 5–20 million
| region2 = {{Flagcountry|Egypt}}
| pop2 = 5–20 million (estimates vary)
| ref2 = {{refn|Official population counts put the number of Copts at around 10-15% percent of the population, while some Coptic voices claim figures as high as 23 percent. Some scholars defend the soundness of the official population census (cf. E.J. Chitham, The Coptic Community in Egypt. Spatial and Social Change, Durham 1986), while other scholars and international observers assume that the Christian share of Egypt's population is higher than stated by the Egyptian government. Most independent estimates fall within range between 10 percent and 20 percent,<ref>{{cite news |title=Egyptian Coptic protesters freed |newspaper=BBC |date=22 December 2004 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4117831.stm }}</ref> for example the CIA World Factbook estimated 10% are Christian {{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/ |title=Egypt |work=The World Factbook |publisher=[[CIA]] |access-date=27 August 2010}}, {{cite web |url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC05.php?CID=2386 |title=The Copts and Their Political Implications in Egypt |author1=Khairi Abaza |author2=Mark Nakhla |date=25 October 2005 |publisher=The Washington Institute |access-date=27 August 2010}}, Encyclopædia Britannica (1985), or Macropædia (15th ed., Chicago). For a projected 83,000,000+ Egyptians in 2009, this assumption yields the above figures.<br />In 2008, [[Pope Shenouda III]] and Bishop Morkos, bishop of [[Shubra]], declared that the number of Copts in Egypt is more than 12 million. In the same year, father Morkos Aziz the prominent priest in Cairo declared that the number of Copts (inside Egypt) exceeds 16 million. {{cite web |url=http://www.unitedcopts.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3073&Itemid=71 |title=? |date=29 October 2008 |publisher=United Copts of Great Britain |access-date=27 August 2010}} and {{cite web |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2008/08/28/55639.html |title=? |publisher=العربية.نت |access-date=27 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603215320/http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2008/08/28/55639.html |archive-date=3 June 2010 |url-status=dead }} Furthermore, the Washington Institute for Near East Policy {{cite web |url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC05.php?CID=2386 |title=The Copts and Their Political Implications in Egypt |author1=Khairi Abaza |author2=Mark Nakhla |date=25 October 2005 |access-date=27 August 2010}} Encyclopædia Britannica (1985), and Macropædia (15th ed., Chicago) estimate the percentage of Copts in Egypt to be up to 20 percent of the Egyptian population.}}
| region3 = {{Flagcountry|Sudan}}
| pop3 = c. 500,000
| ref3 = <ref name="unhcr1">Minority Rights Group International, World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Sudan : Copts, 2008, available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/49749ca6c.html [accessed 21 December 2010]</ref>
| region4 = {{flagcountry|Libya}}
| pop4 = 60,000
| ref4 = <ref name="LookLex Encyclopedia">{{cite web|url=http://i-cias.com/e.o/coptic_c.htm|title=Coptic Church|last=Kjeilen|first=Tore|website=LookLex Encyclopedia|access-date=30 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083550/http://i-cias.com/e.o/coptic_c.htm|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
| region5 = '''Diaspora:'''
| pop5 = 1–2 million (estimates vary)
| region6 = {{Flagcountry|USA}}
| pop6 = c. 200,000 – 1 million
| ref6 = <ref name="2009 American Community Survey">[https://www.census.gov 2009 American Community Survey], U.S. Census Bureau "All Egyptians including Copts 197,160"</ref><ref>According to published accounts and several Coptic/US sources (including the ''US-Coptic Association''), the Coptic Orthodox Church has between 700,000 and one million members in the United States (c. 2005–2007). {{cite web|url=http://www.copticcu.com/WhyCCU.html|title=''Why CCU?''|access-date=June 21, 2009|publisher=Coptic Credit Union}}</ref><ref name="Pittsburgh Tribune 2007">{{cite web|url=http://sce.uhcl.edu/akladios/Magdy%20Akladios%20Website/Links%20For%20Church/Copticsflocktowelcome.doc|title=''Coptics flock to welcome 'Baba' at Pittsburgh airport''|access-date=June 21, 2009|publisher=Pittsburgh Tribune (2007)|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319010757/http://sce.uhcl.edu/akladios/Magdy%20Akladios%20Website/Links%20For%20Church/Copticsflocktowelcome.doc|archive-date=March 19, 2009}}</ref><ref name="JS Online">{{cite web|url=http://www3.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=373326 |title=''State's first Coptic Orthodox church is a vessel of faith'' |access-date=June 21, 2009 |publisher=JS Online (2005) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110821115518/http://www3.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=373326 |archive-date=August 21, 2011 }}</ref><ref name="US-Copts">{{cite web|url=http://www.copts.com/english/CoptsDiaspora.aspx |title=''Coptic Diaspora''|access-date=June 21, 2009|publisher=US-Copts Association (2007) |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070220180014/http://www.copts.com/english/CoptsDiaspora.aspx |archive-date = 2007-02-20}}</ref>
| region7 = {{Flagcountry|Canada}}
| pop7 = c. 200,000
| ref7 = <ref name="Montreal Gazette" /><ref name="elaph.com">{{Cite web|url=https://elaph.com/Web/news/2011/1/622635.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107131052/http://www.elaph.com/Web/news/2011/1/622635.html|url-status=dead|title=إجراءات أمنية إستثنائية تسبق إحتفالات "اقباط العالم" بعيد الميلاد|first=Elaph Publishing|last=Limited|archive-date=January 7, 2011|website=@Elaph}}</ref>
| region8 = {{Flagcountry|Australia}}
| pop8 = c. 75,000 (2003)
| ref8 = <ref name="parliament.nsw.gov.au">In the year 2003, there was an estimated 70,000 Copts in New South Wales alone: {{cite web|title=Coptic Orthodox Church (NSW) Property Trust Act 1990|url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/cocpta1990518/|website=New South Wales Consolidated Acts}}</ref>
| region9 = {{Flagcountry|France}}
| pop9 = c. 45,000 (2017)
| ref9 = <ref name="la-croix.com">In the year 2017, there was an estimated 45,000 Copts in France: {{cite news|title=Qui sont les coptes en France ?|url=https://www.la-croix.com/Religion/Orthodoxie/Qui-sont-coptes-France-2017-03-16-1200832369|website=La Croix|date=16 March 2017}}</ref>
| region10 = {{Flagcountry|Italy}}
| pop10 = c. 30,000
| ref10 = <ref name="CESNUR – Centro studi sulle nuove religioni (Center for Studies on New Religions)">{{Cite web|url=https://cesnur.com/la-chiesa-copta/|title=La Chiesa copta|date=March 10, 2014}}</ref>
| region11 = {{flagcountry|UK}}
| pop11 = 25,000 – 30,000 (2006)
| ref11 = {{lower|<ref>Copts number at least 20,000 in Britain {{cite web |url=http://www.middlekilleavy.com/index.php?artid%3D2631%26option%3Dcom_cifeed%26task%3Dnewsarticle |title=Archived copy |access-date=2008-08-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090121192147/http://www.middlekilleavy.com/index.php?artid=2631&option=com_cifeed&task=newsarticle |archive-date=2009-01-21 }} plus another 5,000 – 10,000 Copts who are directly under the [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090521225825/http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_86.html British Orthodox Church (1999 figures)]</ref>}}
| region12 = {{Flagcountry|United Arab Emirates}}
| pop12 = c. 10,000
| ref12 = <ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-33480115|title=Free to pray – but don't try to convert anyone|work=BBC|first=Matthew|last=Teller|date=12 July 2015|access-date=12 July 2015|quote=Ten-thousand or more live in the UAE, and young, bearded priest Father Markos, 12 years in Dubai, told me his flock are "more than happy – they enjoy their life, they are free."}}</ref>
| region13 = {{flagcountry|Jordan}}
| pop13 = 8,000+ (2005)
| ref13 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jordanembassyus.org/06032005001.htm |title=King commends Coptic Church's role in promoting coexistence |publisher=Jordanembassyus.org |date=June 3, 2005 |access-date=November 18, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926234617/http://www.jordanembassyus.org/06032005001.htm |archive-date=September 26, 2011 }}</ref>}}
| region14 = {{flagcountry|Kenya}}
| pop14 = 8,000+
| ref14 = {{lower|<ref name="Come Across And Help Us Book 2" /><ref name="CopticMission" />}}
| region15 = {{flagcountry|Lebanon}}
| pop15 = 3,000–4,000 (2012)
| ref15 = {{lower|<ref name="state2">{{cite news|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2012/nea/208400.htm |title=Lebanon: Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor – 2012 Report on International Religious Freedom |agency=U.S. Department of State |date=20 May 2013 |access-date=6 December 2015}}</ref>}}
| region16 = {{Flagcountry|Germany}}
| pop16 = 3,000
| ref16 = {{fact|date=September 2021}}
| region17 = {{flagcountry|Austria}}
| pop17 = 2,000 (2001)
| ref17 = {{lower|<ref name="Austria 2004">[http://www.hrwf.net/religiousfreedom/news/2004PDF/Austria_2004.pdf Austria 2004] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614212516/http://www.hrwf.net/religiousfreedom/news/2004PDF/Austria_2004.pdf |date=2007-06-14 }} Religious Freedom news</ref>}}
| region18 = {{Flagcountry|Switzerland}}
| pop18 = 1,000 (2004)
| ref18 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/swissinfo.html?siteSect=105&sid=5090250 |title=Orthodox Copts open church in Switzerland |publisher=Swissinfo.org |date=July 17, 2004 |access-date=November 18, 2011}}</ref>}}
| region19 = {{Flagcountry|Israel}}
| pop19 = 1,000 (2014)
| ref19 = <ref>{{cite web |title=The ethnic origin of Christians in Israel |url=http://parshan.co.il/index2.php?id=11204&lang=HEB |website=parshan.co.il |language=he}}</ref>
| langs = [[Coptic language|Coptic]] (liturgical and ancestral)<br>{{hlist|[[Egyptian Arabic]]|[[Sa'idi Arabic]]|[[Modern Standard Arabic|Literary Arabic]]|[[Nubian languages]]}}
| rels = [[Christianity]]<br />(Predominantly: [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Orthodoxy]],<br />also [[Coptic Catholic Church|Coptic Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism in Egypt|Protestantism]])
| related_groups =
}}
{{Contains special characters|Coptic}}
{{Copts}}
The '''Copts''' ({{lang-cop|ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ}} {{transl|cop|niremənkhēmi}} <small>Late Coptic:</small> {{IPA-all|nɪ.ɾæm.ənˈkɪ.mi|}}; {{lang-ar|الْقِبْط}} {{transl|ar|al-Qibṭ}}) are an [[ethnoreligious group]] indigenous to North Africa<ref>[[#Minahan|Minahan 2002]], p. 467</ref> who have primarily inhabited the area of modern [[Egypt]] and [[Sudan]] since antiquity. Most ethnic Copts are Coptic Orthodox Christians.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Held|first=Colbert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WyZhDwAAQBAJ&q=%E2%80%9CMost+ethnic+Copts+are+Orthodox+in+religious+affiliation%E2%80%9C&pg=PT163|title=Middle East Patterns, Student Economy Edition: Places, People, and Politics|date=2018-10-03|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97307-9|language=en}}</ref> Coptic Orthodox Christians are the largest [[Christianity in Egypt|Christian denomination]] in Egypt and in the [[Middle East]].<ref name="CNN1">{{cite web |title=Who are Egypt's Coptic Christians? |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/04/09/middleeast/egypt-coptic-christians/index.html |publisher=CNN |quote=The largest Christian community in the Middle East, Coptic Christians make up the majority of Egypt's roughly 9 million Christians. About 1 million more Coptic Christians are spread across Africa, Europe, the United Kingdom and the United States, according to the World Council of Churches.}}</ref> Coptic Orthodox Christians are also the largest Christian denomination in [[Christianity in Sudan|Sudan]] and [[Christianity in Libya|Libya]]. Historically, ethnic Copts spoke the [[Coptic language]], a direct descendant of the [[Demotic (Egyptian)|Demotic Egyptian]] that was spoken in [[late antiquity]].
Originally referring to all Egyptians at first {{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}, the term 'Copt' became synonymous with being a Christian, as a result of Egypt's Arabization and [[Islamization of Egypt|Islamization]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last1=Raheb|first1=Mitri|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I1cBEAAAQBAJ&q=%22The+fortunes+of+Copts+rose+and+fell%22&pg=PA468|title=The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East|last2=Lamport|first2=Mark A.|date=2020-12-15|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-5381-2418-5|language=en}}</ref> [[Copts in Egypt]] constitute the largest [[Christianity in the Middle East|Christian population in the Middle East]] and North Africa, as well as the largest religious minority in the region, accounting for roughly 5–20% of the [[demographics of Egypt|Egyptian population]], although the exact percentage is unknown.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/281789/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-Sisi-meets-world-Evangelical-churches-deleg.aspx|title=Egypt's Sisi meets world Evangelical churches delegation in Cairo – Politics – Egypt|website=Ahram Online|language=en|access-date=2019-10-30}}</ref> [[Copts in Sudan]] constitute the largest [[Christianity in Sudan|Christian community in Sudan]],<ref name="unhcr1" /> and [[Copts in Libya]] constitute the largest [[Christianity in Libya|Christian community in Libya]], accounting for an estimated 1% of their respective populations.<ref name="multiple1">
{{cite web|url=http://i-cias.com/e.o/coptic_c.htm|title=Coptic Church|last=Kjeilen|first=Tore|website=LookLex Encyclopedia|access-date=30 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083550/http://i-cias.com/e.o/coptic_c.htm|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}
</ref>
After the [[Muslim conquest of Egypt]] in 639 and 646 [[Anno Domini|AD]], the treatment of the Coptic Christians ranged from relative tolerance to [[Persecution of Copts|open persecution]].<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|last=Refugees|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|title=Refworld {{!}} World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Egypt : Copts of Egypt|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d2b2d.html|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Refworld|language=en}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite book|title=Middle East, Region in Transition: Egypt| first=Laura S. |last= Etheredge|year= 2011| isbn= 9789774160936| page =161|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite book|title=The Cave Church of Paul the Hermit at the Monastery of St. Pau| first=William |last=Lyster|year= 2013| isbn= 9789774160936|publisher=Yale University Press|quote= Al Hakim Bi-Amr Allah (r. 996—1021), however, who became the greatest persecutor of Copts.... within the church that also appears to coincide with a period of forced rapid conversion to Islam}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641-1517)| first=Mark |last= N. Swanson|year= 2010| isbn= 9789774160936| page =54|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|quote=}}</ref> And historically, the Copts suffered from "waves of [[Persecution of Copts|persecution]] giving way to relative tolerance in cycles that varied according to the local ruler and other political and economic circumstances".<ref name=":3" /> Persecution is pivotal to Copts' [[Coptic identity|sense of identity]].<ref name="Deighton, H. S 1946 p. 519">Deighton, H. S. "The Arab Middle East and the Modern World", International Affairs, vol. xxii, no. 4 (October 1946)</ref> Most Copts adhere to the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]], an [[Oriental Orthodox Church]].<ref name="U.S.Dept of State/Egypt" /><ref name="FCO/Egypt/" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bailey|first1=Betty Jane|last2=Bailey|first2=J. Martin|title=Who Are the Christians in the Middle East?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xrGL7o69KBIC&pg=PA145|year=2003|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-1020-5|page=145}}</ref> The smaller [[Coptic Catholic Church]] is an [[Eastern Catholic Church]], in communion with the [[See of Rome]]; others belong to the [[Evangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile)|Evangelical Church of Egypt]]. The Copts played a central role in the [[Nahda|Arab Renaissance]] and the [[modernization]] of Egypt and the [[Arab world]] as a whole,<ref name=":3" /> and they contributed to the "social and political life and key debates such as [[Pan-Arabism|Arabisim]], good governance, [[Education reform|educational reform]], and [[democracy]]",<ref name=":3" /> and they flourished in business affairs.<ref>Todros, ch 3–4.</ref>
Copts of Coptic ancestry maintain a distinct [[Coptic identity|ethnic identity]], and generally reject an [[Arab identity]].<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1038/srep09996|title = The genetics of East African populations: A Nilo-Saharan component in the African genetic landscape|year = 2015|last1 = Dobon|first1 = Begoña|last2 = Hassan|first2 = Hisham Y.|last3 = Laayouni|first3 = Hafid|last4 = Luisi|first4 = Pierre|last5 = Ricaño-Ponce|first5 = Isis|last6 = Zhernakova|first6 = Alexandra|last7 = Wijmenga|first7 = Cisca|last8 = Tahir|first8 = Hanan|last9 = Comas|first9 = David|last10 = Netea|first10 = Mihai G.|last11 = Bertranpetit|first11 = Jaume|journal = Scientific Reports|volume = 5|page = 9996|pmid = 26017457|pmc = 4446898|bibcode = 2015NatSR...5E9996D}}</ref>
In Egypt, Copts have relatively higher [[educational attainment]], relatively higher [[wealth]] index, and a stronger representation in [[White-collar worker|white collar job]] types, but limited representation in security agencies. The majority of demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators are similar among Copts and Muslims.<ref>Mohamoud YA, Cuadros DF, Abu-Raddad LJ. Characterizing the Copts in Egypt: Demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators, QScience Connect 2013:22 <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.5339/connect.2013.22</nowiki></ref>
== Etymology ==
{{further|Name of Egypt}}
The English language adopted the word ''Copt'' in the 17th century from [[New Latin]] ''Coptus, Cophtus'', which derives from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] collective {{transl|ar|qubṭ / qibṭ}} {{lang|ar|قبط|rtl=yes}} "the Copts" with [[Arabic grammar#nisba|nisba]] adjective {{transl|ar|qubṭī, qibṭī}} {{lang|ar|قبطى|rtl=yes}}, plural {{transl|ar|aqbāṭ}} {{lang|ar|أقباط|rtl=yes}}; Also ''quftī, qiftī'' (where the Arabic {{IPAslink|f}} reflects the historical Coptic {{IPAslink|p}}) an Arabisation of the [[Coptic language|Coptic]] word ⲁⲓⲅⲩⲡⲧⲓⲟⲛ ''aiguption'' ([[Coptic language#Bohairic|Bohairic]]) or ⲕⲩⲡⲧⲁⲓⲟⲛ ''kuptaion'' ([[Coptic language#Sahidic|Sahidic]]). The Coptic word in turn represents an adaptation of the Greek term for the indigenous people of Egypt, {{transl|grc|Aigýptios}} ({{lang|grc|Αἰγύπτιος}}).<ref>{{cite book|last1= Ackroyd|first1= P. R.|last2= Evans|first2= C. F.|title= The Cambridge History of the Bible: Volume 1, From the Beginnings to Jerome |date= 1963 |publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-0-521-09973-8|page= 27|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QnG2067meU0C&pg=PA27|access-date= 16 October 2016}}</ref>
The Greek term for Egypt, ''Aígyptos'' ({{lang-grc|Αἴγυπτος}}), itself derives from the [[Egyptian language]], but dates to a much earlier period, being attested already in [[Mycenaean Greek]] as ''a<sub>3</sub>-ku-pi-ti-jo'' (lit. "Egyptian"; used here as a man's name). This Mycenaean form is likely from [[Middle Egyptian]] {{lang|egy-Latn|[[wikt:ḥwt kꜣ ptḥ#Egyptian|ḥwt kꜣ ptḥ]]}} (reconstructed pronunciation /ħawitˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħajiʔˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħəjˌkuʔpəˈtaħ/, [[Egyptological pronunciation]] ''Hut-ka-Ptah''), literally "estate/palace of the [[Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul#kꜣ "double"|kꜣ]] ("double" spirit) of [[Ptah]]" (compare [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] {{lang|akk-Latn|<sup>ālu</sup>ḫi-ku-up-ta-aḫ}}), the name of the temple complex of the god [[Ptah]] at [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] (and a [[synecdoche]] for the city of Memphis and the region around it).
The term ''Aigýptios'' in Greek came to designate the native Egyptian population in [[Roman Egypt]] (as distinct from Greeks, Romans, Jews, etc.). After the [[Muslim conquest of Egypt]] (639-646) it became restricted to those Egyptians adhering to the Christian religion.<ref>"The people of Egypt before the Arab conquest in the 7th century identified themselves and their language in Greek as Aigyptios (Arabic qibt, Westernized as Copt); when Egyptian Muslims later ceased to call themselves Aigyptioi, the term became the distinctive name of the Christian minority." [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9026216 Coptic Orthodox Church]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''. 2007</ref>
The Coptic name for [[Egyptians]], ''remənkhēmi'' ({{lang-cop|ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ}}), is realized in the [[Coptic language#Fayyumic|Fayyumic Coptic]] as ⲗⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲕⲏⲙⲉ ''lemenkēmi'' and as ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲕⲏⲙⲉ ''remənkēme'' in the Sahidic dialect; cf. Egyptian {{lang|egy-Latn|rmṯ n [[Km (hieroglyph)|kmt]]}}, Demotic {{lang|egy-Latn|rmṯ n kmỉ}}.
The Arabic word {{transl|ar|qibṭ}} "Copt" has also been connected{{by whom|date=March 2019}} to the Greek name of the town of Kóptos ({{lang-grc-koi|Κόπτος}}, now [[Qift|Qifṭ]]; Coptic ''Kebt'' and ''Keft'') in [[Upper Egypt]]. This association may have contributed to making "Copt" the settled form of the name.<ref>[[OED]] s.v. "Copt".</ref>
In the 20th century some Egyptian nationalists and intellectuals in the context of [[Pharaonism]] began using the term {{transl|ar|qubṭ}} in the historical sense.<ref>qtd. in M. Hussein. {{transl|ar|el Ittigahat el Wataneyya fil Adab el Muʻaṣir}} ''[National Trends in Modern Literature]''. Vol. 2. Cairo, 1954.</ref>
== History ==
{{Main|Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|History of Christianity in Egypt}}
[[File:StMarkcoptic.jpg|280px|thumb|left|Coptic icon of [[Mark the Evangelist|St. Mark]]]]
The Copts are one of the oldest Christian communities in the Middle East. Although integrated in the larger Egyptian nation state, the Copts have survived as a distinct [[Religion in Egypt|religious community]] forming around 5 to 20 percent of the population,<ref name="Pew Coptic population">{{cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/2011/02/16/how-many-christians-are-there-in-egypt/|title=How many Christians are there in Egypt?|last1=Hackett|first1=Conrad|date=16 February 2011|website=Pew Research Center}}</ref><ref name="FCO/Egypt/" /><ref name="The world factbook/Egypt/" /><ref name="nlgsolutions1">[http://www.nlgsolutions.com/packages/show_country.asp?countryid=EG NLG Solutions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324214315/http://www.nlgsolutions.com/packages/show_country.asp?countryid=EG |date=2016-03-24 }} <Online>. ''Egypt''. Retrieved 28 September 2008.</ref> though estimates vary. They pride themselves on the apostolicity of the Egyptian Church whose founder was the first in an unbroken chain of patriarchs. The main body for 16 centuries has been out of communion with both the Roman Catholic Church (in Rome) and the various Eastern orthodox churches.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}
=== Foundation of the Christian Church in Egypt ===
According to ancient tradition, [[Christianity]] was introduced within present day [[Egypt]] by [[Mark the Evangelist|Saint Mark]] in [[Alexandria]], shortly after the ascension of [[Christ]] and during the reign of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[emperor]] [[Claudius]] around 42 AD.<ref>[[Eusebius of Caesarea]], the author of Ecclesiastical History in the fourth century, states that st. Mark came to Egypt in the first or third year of the reign of Emperor Claudius, i.e., 41 or 43 AD. "Two Thousand years of Coptic Christianity" Otto F.A. Meinardus p. 28.</ref> The legacy that [[Mark the Evangelist|Saint Mark]] left in [[Egypt]] was a considerable Christian community in [[Alexandria]]. From Alexandria, [[Christianity]] spread throughout [[Egypt]] within half a century of [[Mark the Evangelist|Saint Mark]]'s arrival in [[Alexandria]], as is clear from a fragment of the [[Gospel of John]], written in [[Coptic language|Coptic]], which was found in [[Upper Egypt]] and can be dated to the first half of the 2nd century, and the [[New Testament]] writings found in [[Oxyrhynchus]], in [[Middle Egypt]], which date around the year 200 AD. In the 2nd century, [[Christianity]] began to spread to the rural areas, and scriptures were translated into the local language, today known as the [[Coptic language]], but known as the ''Egyptian language'' at the time. By the beginning of the 3rd century AD, [[Christians]] constituted the majority of Egypt's population, and the [[Church of Alexandria]] was recognized as one of [[Christendom]]'s four Apostolic Sees, second in honor only to the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church of Rome]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2016}} The [[Church of Alexandria]] is therefore the oldest Christian church in Africa.
=== Contributions to Christianity ===
The Copts in Egypt contributed immensely to [[Christianity|Christian]] tradition. The [[Catechetical]] School of Alexandria was the oldest catechetical school in the world. Founded around 190 AD by the scholar [[Pantanaeus]], the school of Alexandria became an important institution of religious learning, where students were taught by scholars such as [[Athenagoras of Athens|Athenagoras]], [[Clement of Alexandria|Clement]], [[Didymus the Blind|Didymus]], and [[Origen]], the father of theology who was also active in the field of commentary and comparative Biblical studies. However, the scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects; science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there. The question-and-answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before [[Braille]], wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read and write.
Another major contribution made by the Copts in Egypt to [[Christianity]] was the creation and organization of [[monasticism]]. Worldwide Christian monasticism stems, either directly or indirectly, from the Egyptian example. The most prominent figures of the monastic movement were [[Anthony the Great]], [[Paul of Thebes]], [[Macarius the Great]], [[Shenouda the Archimandrite]] and [[Pachomius|Pachomius the Cenobite]]. By the end of the 5th century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian desert. Since then pilgrims have visited the Egyptian [[Desert Fathers]] to emulate their spiritual, disciplined lives. [[Saint Basil|Saint Basil the Great]] Archbishop of [[Caesarea Mazaca]], and the founder and organiser of the monastic movement in [[Asia Minor]], visited [[Egypt]] around 357 AD and his monastic rules are followed by the [[Eastern Orthodox Churches]]. [[Saint Jerome]], who translated the [[Bible]] into [[Latin]], came to [[Egypt]] while en route to [[Jerusalem]] around 400 AD and left details of his experiences in his letters. [[Benedict of Nursia|Saint Benedict]] founded the [[Benedictine Order]] in the 6th century on the model of [[Saint Pachomius]], although in a stricter form. [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Christians]] practice male [[circumcision]] as a rite of passage.<ref name=Columbia_encyc_2011_circ>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Circumcision |encyclopedia=Columbia Encyclopedia |publisher=Columbia University Press |url=http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/circumcision.html }}</ref>
=== Ecumenical councils ===
The major contributions that the [[See of Alexandria]] has contributed to the establishment of early Christian theology and dogma are attested to by fact that the first three [[ecumenical council]]s in the history of [[Christianity]] were headed by Egyptian patriarchs. The [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]] (325 AD) was presided over by [[Pope Alexander I of Alexandria|St. Alexander, Patriarch of Alexandria]], along with [[Hosius of Córdoba|Saint Hosius of Córdoba]]. In addition, the most prominent figure of the council was the future [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Athanasius]], who played the major role in the formulation of the [[Nicene Creed]], recited today in most Christian churches of different denominations. One of the council's decisions was to entrust the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] with calculating and annually announcing the exact date of [[Easter]] to the rest of the Christian churches. The [[First Council of Constantinople|Council of Constantinople]] (381 AD) was presided over by [[Timothy of Alexandria|Patriarch Timothy of Alexandria]], while the [[First Council of Ephesus|Council of Ephesus]] (431 AD) was presided over by [[Cyril of Alexandria]].
=== Council of Chalcedon ===
In 451 AD, following the [[Council of Chalcedon]], the [[Church of Alexandria]] was divided into two branches. Those who accepted the terms of the Council became known as [[Chalcedonian]]s or [[Melkites]]. Those who did not abide by the Council's terms were labeled [[non-Chalcedonian]]s or [[Monophysites]] and later Jacobite's after [[Jacob Baradaeus]]. The [[non-Chalcedonian]]s, however, rejected the term [[Monophysites]] as erroneous and referred to themselves as [[Miaphysitism|Miaphysites]]. The majority of the [[Egyptians]] belonged to the [[Miaphysitism|Miaphysite]] branch, which led to their persecution by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] in [[Egypt]].
=== Arab conquest of Egypt ===
{{Main|Islamization of Egypt}}
[[File:Kairo Hanging Church BW 1.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[The Hanging Church]] in [[Coptic Cairo]].]]
In 641 AD, [[Egypt]] was conquered by the [[Arabs]] who faced off with the [[Byzantine]] army. Local resistance by the Egyptians however began to materialize shortly thereafter and would last until at least the 9th century.<ref>Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar (2 vols., Bulaq, 1854), by [[Al-Maqrizi]]</ref><ref>Chronicles, by [[John of Nikiû]]</ref> Despite the political upheaval, Egypt remained mainly Christian, but Coptic Christians lost their majority status after the 14th century,<ref name="FA">{{cite journal|last1=Shea|first1=Nina|title=Do Copts have a future in Egypt|journal=Foreign Affairs|date=June 2017|url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/egypt/2017-06-20/do-copts-have-future-egypt|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620201311/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/egypt/2017-06-20/do-copts-have-future-egypt|archive-date=2017-06-20|url-access=subscription}}</ref> as a result of the intermittent persecution and the destruction of the Christian churches there.<ref name="auto"/> From the [[Muslim conquest of Egypt]] onwards, the Coptic Christians were persecuted by different Muslim regimes,<ref name="auto1"/> such as the [[Umayyad Caliphate]],<ref> H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 219.</ref> [[Abbasid Caliphate]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Goddard|first=Hugh|title=A History of Christian–Muslim Relations|date=2000|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=1566633400 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Bq2oLEvHzl8C&pg=PA71 |page=71|access-date=20 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Frank |last=Feder |chapter=The Bashmurite Revolts in the Delta and the ‘Bashmuric Dialect’ |title=Christianity and Monasticism in Northern Egypt: Beni Suef, Giza, Cairo, and the Nile Delta |editor-first1=Gawdat |editor-last1=Gabra |editor-first2=Hany N. |editor-last2=Takla |year=2017 |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |pages=33–35}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Ira M. Lapidus |first=Ira M. |last=Lapidus |title=The Conversion of Egypt to Islam |journal=Israel Oriental Studies |volume=2 |year=1972 |page=257}}</ref> [[Fatimid Caliphate]],<ref name="Robert Ousterhout 1989 pp. 66-78">Robert Ousterhout, "Rebuilding the Temple: Constantine Monomachus and the Holy Sepulchre" in ''The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'', Vol. 48, No. 1 (March, 1989), pp.66–78</ref><ref name="Saunders2002">{{cite book|author=John Joseph Saunders|title=A History of Medieval Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_d2KAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT109|date=11 March 2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-93005-0|pages=109–}}</ref><ref name="Rustow2014">{{cite book|author=[[Marina Rustow]]|title=Heresy and the Politics of Community: The Jews of the Fatimid Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGWsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT219|date=3 October 2014|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-5529-2|pages=219–}}</ref> [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Teule|first1=Herman G. B.|editor1-last=Thomas|editor1-first=David|editor2-last=Mallett|editor2-first=Alex|title=Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History, Volume 5 (1350-1500)|date=2013|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004252783|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgy7SN3ZixsC&pg=PA11|chapter=Introduction: Constantinople and Granada, Christian-Muslim Interaction 1350-1516 |page=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Coptic Identity and Ayyubid Politics in Egypt, 1218-1250| first= Kurt J.|last=Werthmuller |year= 2010| isbn= 9780805440737| page = 76|publisher= American Univ in Cairo Press}}</ref> and [[Ottoman Empire]]; the [[Persecution of Copts|persecution of Coptic]] Christians included closing and demolishing churches, [[forced conversion]] to [[Islam]],<ref name="auto2"/><ref>{{cite book|title=The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641-1517)| first=Mark |last= N. Swanson|year= 2010| isbn= 9789774160936| page =54|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|quote= By late 1012 the persecution had moved into high gear with demolitions of churches and the forced conversion of Christian ...}}</ref><ref>ha-Mizraḥit ha-Yiśreʼelit, Ḥevrah (1988). Asian and African Studies, Volume 22. Jerusalem Academic Press. Muslim historians note the destruction of dozens of churches and the forced conversion of dozens of people to Islam under al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in Egypt ...These events also reflect the Muslim attitude toward forced conversion and toward converts.</ref> and heavy [[tax|taxes]] for those who refused to convert.<ref>{{Citation|title=Conversion, Exemption, and Manipulation: Social Benefits and Conversion to Islam in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages: Forcing taxes on those who refuse to convert|url=https://www.medievalworlds.net/0xc1aa5576%200x00372f27.pdf|quote= ʿUmar is depicted as having ordered that "the poll-tax should be taken from all men who would not become Muslims"}}</ref>
=== Copts in modern Egypt ===
{{Main|Copts in Egypt}}
{{further|Christianity in Egypt}}
[[File:Copts-with-Nasser-1965.jpg|180px|thumb|left|President Nasser welcomes a delegation of Coptic bishops (1965)]]
Under Muslim rule, Christians paid special taxes and had lower access to political power, but were exempt from military service. Their position improved dramatically under the rule of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] in the early 19th century. He abolished the [[Jizya]] (a tax on non-Muslims) and allowed Egyptians (Copts) to enroll in the army. [[Pope Cyril IV of Alexandria|Pope Cyril IV]], 1854–61, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs. Khedive [[Isma'il Pasha]], in power 1863–79, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights and representation in government. They flourished in business affairs.<ref>Todros, ch 3–4. {{dead link|date=October 2018}}</ref>
Some Copts participated in the Egyptian national movement for independence and occupied many influential positions. Two significant cultural achievements include the founding of the [[Coptic Museum]] in 1910 and the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies in 1954. Some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period are [[Salama Moussa]], [[Louis Awad]] and Secretary General of the [[Wafd Party]] [[Makram Ebeid]].
In 1952, [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] led some army officers in a coup d'état against [[Farouk of Egypt|King Farouk]], which overthrew the Kingdom of Egypt and established a republic. [[Nasser]]'s mainstream policy was [[pan-Arab]] nationalism and socialism. The Copts were severely affected by Nasser's nationalization policies, though they represented about 10 to 20 percent of the population.<ref name="nisan">{{Cite book | last = Nisan | first = Mordechai | title = Minorities in the Middle East | publisher = McFarland | year = 2002 | page = 144 | isbn = 978-0-7864-1375-1}}</ref> In addition, Nasser's pan-Arab policies undermined the Copts' strong attachment to and sense of identity about their Egyptian pre-Arab, and certainly non-Arab identity which resulted in permits to construct churches to be delayed along with Christian religious courts to be closed.<ref name= nisan />
==== Pharaonism ====
{{Main|Pharaonism}}
{{See also|Coptic identity}}
Many Coptic intellectuals hold to [[Pharaonism]], which states that Coptic culture is largely derived from pre-Christian, [[Pharaoh|Pharaonic]] culture, and is not indebted to Greece. It gives the Copts a claim to a deep heritage in Egyptian history and culture. Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic and Muslim scholars in the early 20th century, and it helped bridge the divide between those groups. Some scholars see Pharaonism as shaped by [[Orientalism]].<ref>{{Citation | first = Jacques | last = van der Vliet | title = The Copts: 'Modern Sons of the Pharaohs'? | journal = Church History & Religious Culture |date=June 2009 | volume = 89 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 279–90 | doi=10.1163/187124109x407934}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book| first = Donald Malcolm | last = Reid| title= Whose Pharaohs?: Archaeology, Museums, and Egyptian National Identity from Napoleon to World War I | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FeviPDy08e8C&pg=PA258 |year= 2003|publisher= U. of California Press|pages= 258ff | chapter = 7| isbn = 9780520240698}}</ref>
=== Church affairs ===
[[File:Coptic monks.jpg|thumb|Egyptian Coptic monks at the [[American Colony, Jerusalem]], between 1898 and 1914.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Matson|first1=G. Olaf|title=The American Colony Guide-book to Jerusalem and Environs|date=1925|publisher=Vester|page=20|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=KMLTAAAAMAAJ|access-date=7 September 2017|quote=Copts. A very small community representing the large Coptic Church in Egypt.[...] Abyssinian. Also represented by a Bishop in Jerusalem. They, like the Copts, are Monophysites}}</ref>]]
Today, members of the [[non-Chalcedonian]] Coptic Orthodox Church constitute the majority of the Egyptian Christian population. Mainly through emigration and partly through European, American, and other missionary work and conversions, the Egyptian Christian community now also includes other Christian denominations such as [[Protestants]] (known in Arabic as [[Evangelicals]]), [[Roman Catholic]]s and [[Eastern Rite Catholic]]s, and other [[Orthodox Christianity|Orthodox]] congregations. The term ''Coptic'' remains exclusive however to the Egyptian natives, as opposed to the Christians of non-Egyptian origins. Some Protestant churches for instance are called "[[Coptic Evangelical Church]]", thus helping differentiate their native Egyptian congregations from churches attended by non-Egyptian immigrant communities such as Europeans or Americans.
In 2005, a group of Coptic activists created a [[Coptic flag|flag]] to represent Copts worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://freecopts.net/english/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14&Itemid=38|title=Freecopts.net|website=freecopts.net|access-date=2018-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017064123/http://freecopts.net/english/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14&Itemid=38|archive-date=2015-10-17|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The previous head of the Coptic Orthodox Church, [[Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria]], died 17 March 2012. On 4 November 2012, [[Pope Tawadros II of Alexandria|Bishop Tawadros]] was chosen as the new pope of Egypt's Coptic Christians. His name was selected from a glass bowl containing the three shortlisted candidates by a blindfolded boy at a ceremony in [[Cairo]]'s [[Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, Cairo|St Mark's Cathedral]].<ref name=CNANKH-BBC-4NOV2012>{{cite news|title=Bishop Tawadros new pope of Egypt's Coptic Christians|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20192922|access-date=4 November 2012|date=4 November 2012|work=BBC News}}</ref>
=== Copts in modern Sudan ===
{{Main|Copts in Sudan}}
{{further|Christianity in Sudan}}
[[File:Coptic cathedral (Khartoum) 001.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Holy Virgin Mary Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in [[Khartoum]].]]
[[Sudan]] has a native Coptic minority, although many Copts in Sudan are descended from more recent Egyptian immigrants.<ref name="unhcr1" />
Copts in Sudan live mostly in northern cities, including [[Al Obeid]], [[Atbara]], [[Dongola]], [[Khartoum]], [[Omdurman]], [[Port Sudan]], and [[Wad Medani]].<ref name="unhcr1" /> They number up to 500,000, or slightly over 1 percent of the Sudanese population.<ref name="unhcr1" /> Due to their advanced education, their role in the life of the country has been more significant than their numbers suggest.<ref name="unhcr1" /> They have occasionally faced forced conversion to [[Islam]], resulting in their emigration and decrease in number.<ref name="unhcr1" />
Modern immigration of Copts to Sudan peaked in the early 19th century, and they generally received a tolerant welcome there. However, this was interrupted by a decade of persecution under [[History of Mahdist Sudan|Mahdist rule]] at the end of the 19th century.<ref name="unhcr1" /> As a result of this persecution, many were forced to relinquish their faith, adopt [[Islam]], and intermarry with the native Sudanese. The [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian invasion]] in 1898 allowed Copts greater religious and economic freedom, and they extended their original roles as artisans and merchants into trading, banking, engineering, medicine, and the civil service. Proficiency in business and administration made them a privileged minority. However, the return of [[Islamism|militant Islam]] in the mid-1960s and subsequent demands by radicals for an [[Sharia|Islamic constitution]] prompted Copts to join in public opposition to religious rule.<ref name="unhcr1" />
[[Gaafar Nimeiry]]'s introduction of Islamic [[Sharia]] law in 1983 began a new phase of oppressive treatment of Copts, among other non-Muslims.<ref name="unhcr1" /> After the overthrow of Nimeiry, Coptic leaders supported a secular candidate in the 1986 elections. However, when the [[National Islamic Front]] overthrew the elected government of [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]] with the help of the military, discrimination against Copts returned in earnest. Hundreds of Copts were dismissed from the civil service and judiciary.<ref name="unhcr1" />
In February 1991, a Coptic pilot working for [[Sudan Airways]] was executed for illegal possession of foreign currency.<ref name="sudanupdate1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sudanupdate.org/REPORTS/PEOPLES/COPTS.HTM|title=Copts|website=www.sudanupdate.org}}</ref> Before his execution, he had been offered amnesty and money if he converted to [[Islam]], but he refused. Thousands attended his funeral, and the execution was taken as a warning by many Copts, who began to flee the country.<ref name="sudanupdate1" />
Restrictions on the Copts' rights to Sudanese nationality followed, and it became difficult for them to obtain Sudanese nationality by birth or by naturalization, resulting in problems when attempting to travel abroad. The confiscation of Christian schools and the imposition of an Arab-Islamic emphasis in language and history teaching were accompanied by harassment of Christian children and the introduction of [[hijab]] dress laws. A Coptic child was flogged for failing to recite a [[Koranic]] verse.<ref name="sudanupdate1" /> In contrast with the extensive media broadcasting of the Muslim [[Friday prayers]], the radio ceased coverage of the Christian Sunday service. As the civil war raged throughout the 1990s, the government focused its religious fervor on the south. Although experiencing discrimination, the Copts and other long-established Christian groups in the north had fewer restrictions than other types of Christians in the [[South Sudan|south]].
Today, the [[Coptic Church]] in Sudan is officially registered with the government, and is exempt from property tax.<ref name="unhcr1" /> In 2005, the Sudanese government of National Unity (GNU) named a [[Coptic Orthodox]] priest to a government position, though the ruling Islamist party's continued dominance under the GNU provides ample reason to doubt its commitment to broader religious or ethnic representation.<ref name="unhcr1" />
=== Copts in modern Libya ===
{{Main|Copts in Libya}}
{{further|Christianity in Libya}}
The largest Christian group in Libya is the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Orthodox Church]], with a population of 60,000.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}} The Coptic Church is known to have historical roots in Libya long before the Arabs advanced westward from Egypt into Libya.
== Demographics ==
{{further|Christianity in Egypt|Christianity in Sudan|Christianity in Libya}}
Living in countries with Muslim majorities (Egypt, Sudan, Libya), the size of the population of Copts is a continuously disputed matter, frequently for reasons of religious jealousy and animosity.
The Coptic population [[Copts in Egypt|in Egypt]] is difficult to estimate because researchers are forbidden by Egyptian authorities to ask a survey participant's religion,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/markaz/2016/06/20/what-egypt-under-sissi-is-really-like-for-coptic-christians/|title=What Egypt under Sissi is really like for Coptic Christians|last=Yerkes|first=Sarah|date=20 June 2016|quote=Egyptian authorities prevent surveyors from asking a participant's religion when doing research.}}</ref> although official estimates state that Coptic Christians represent 10 to 15 percent<ref name="U.S.Dept of State/Egypt">{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm|title= Egypt from "U.S. Department of State/Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs"|date=September 30, 2008 |publisher= [[United States Department of State]]}}</ref><ref name="FCO/Egypt/">{{cite web|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/egypt|title=Egypt from "Foreign and Commonwealth Office"|date=August 15, 2008|publisher=[[Foreign and Commonwealth Office|Foreign and Commonwealth Office -UK Ministry of Foreign Affairs]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121212135632/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/egypt|archive-date=December 12, 2012}}</ref><ref name="The world factbook/Egypt/">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/|title=Egypt from "The World Factbook"|date=September 4, 2008|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency|American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)]]}}</ref><ref name="IPS News">[http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=32988 IPS News] . Retrieved 09-27-2008.</ref><ref name="christianpost.com">Chan, Kenneth. [http://www.christianpost.com/article/20041207/thousands-protest-egypt-s-neglect-of-coptic-persecution.htm Thousands Protest Egypt's Neglect of Coptic Persecution]". ''[[The Christian Post]]''. December 7, 2004. Retrieved 28 September 2008.</ref><ref name="Washington Institute">{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC05.php?CID=2386|title=The Copts and Their Political Implications in Egypt|date=October 25, 2005|publisher=[[Washington Institute for Near East Policy]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4117831.stm |title=Egyptian Coptic protesters freed |date=22 December 2004 |publisher=BBC |access-date=27 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asharqalawsat.com/leader.asp?section=3&article=157751&issueno=8872 |title=Research in population and demography of France estimates the coptic population to be |publisher=Institut National Etudes Démographiques |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206155030/http://www.asharqalawsat.com/leader.asp?section=3 |archive-date=2007-12-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/1097/9710087.html |title=Estimates of the size of Egypt's Christian population vary from the low government figures of 6 to 7 million to the 12 million reported by some Christian leaders. The actual numbers may be in the 9 to 9.5 million range, out of an Egyptian population of more than 60 million |work=The Washington Post |access-date=10 October 2008}}</ref><ref name="msn encarta/Egypt">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557408_3/Egypt.html|title=Egypt from "msn encarta"|date=September 30, 2008|publisher=[[Microsoft Encarta|Encarta]]|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5kwQyp3zM?url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557408_3/Egypt.html|archive-date=2009-10-31|url-status=dead}}</ref> while other independent and Christian sources estimate much higher numbers, up to 25 percent of the population.<ref name="U.S.Dept of State/Egypt" /><ref name="FCO/Egypt/" /><ref name="The world factbook/Egypt/" /><ref name="IPS News" /><ref name="christianpost.com" /><ref name="washingtoninstitute.org">{{Cite web|url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/rise-uae-and-meaning-mbz|title=The Rise of the UAE and the Meaning of MbZ|website=The Washington Institute}}</ref>
The Coptic population [[Copts in Sudan|in Sudan]] is at about half a million or 1 percent of Sudanese population.<ref name="unhcr1" />
The Coptic population [[Copts in Libya|in Libya]] is about over 60,000 or 1 percent of Libyan population.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/libya-religious-freedom-report-2004 |title=Reports on Religious Freedom: Libya |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=2018-03-11}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2018}}
=== Diaspora ===
{{Main|Coptic diaspora}}
[[File:StMarkCopticOrthodoxChurchBellaireTX0.JPG|thumb|180px|St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church in [[Bellaire, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]). There are about 1–2 million Egyptian born Copts living outside of Egypt, and are known as the ''[[Coptic diaspora]]''.]]
Outside of the Coptic primary area of residence within parts of present-day Egypt ([[Copts in Egypt]]), Sudan ([[Copts in Sudan]]), and Libya ([[Copts in Libya]]), the largest Coptic diaspora population is located within the United States, Canada, and Australia. The numbers of the Censuses in the United States, Canada, and Australia are not fully correct since many Copts listed themselves in the 2011 Census mistakenly as either Egyptians, Sudanese, Libyans, Americans, Canadians or Australians and by this way reducing the Coptic population in the 2011 Census in the United States, Canada, and Australia respectively.
Nevertheless, the [[Coptic American|Coptic American (US)]] population is estimated to number about 200,000 (estimates of Coptic organizations ranging as high as a million).<ref name="2009 American Community Survey" /><ref name="Pittsburgh Tribune 2007" /><ref name="JS Online" /><ref name="US-Copts" /> According to published accounts and several Coptic/US sources (including the ''US-Coptic Association''), the Coptic Orthodox Church has between 700,000 and one million members in the United States (c. 2005–2007).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.copticcu.com/WhyCCU.html|title=''Why CCU?''|access-date=June 21, 2009|publisher=Coptic Credit Union}}</ref> The [[Copts in Canada|Coptic Canadian]] population is estimated to number about 50,000<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://canadafreepress.com/article/protest-egyptian-government-allowing-criminal-attacks-on-coptic-christians|title=Protest Egyptian government allowing criminal attacks on Coptic Christians|first=Guest|last=Column|website=Canada Free Press}}</ref> (estimates of Coptic organizations ranging as high as 200,000).<ref name="Montreal Gazette" /><ref name="elaph.com" /> The [[Copts in Australia|Coptic Australian]] population is estimated to number about 100,000<ref name="parliament.nsw.gov.au" /><ref name="coptic.org.au">{{cite web|title=Diocese of Australia|url=http://www.coptic.org.au/|website=Diocese of Australia}}</ref> (estimates of Coptic organizations ranging as high as 100,000).
Smaller communities are found in [[Kuwait]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51603.htm|title=Kuwait|work=U.S. Department of State|access-date=2018-03-17}}</ref> the United Kingdom,<ref>Copts number at least 20,000 in Britain [http://www.middlekilleavy.com/index.php?artid=2631&option=com_cifeed&task=newsarticle middle school ireland marriages family at middlekilleavy.com] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090121192147/http://www.middlekilleavy.com/index.php?artid=2631&option=com_cifeed&task=newsarticle |date=January 21, 2009 }} plus another 5,000 – 10,000 Copts who are directly under the [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090521225825/http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_86.html British Orthodox Church (1999 figures)]</ref>
France (45,000),<ref name="la-croix.com" /> South Africa.<ref name="Come Across And Help Us Book 2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.copticafrica.org/bookcomehelp3.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008090221/http://www.copticafrica.org/bookcomehelp3.htm|url-status=dead|title=Come Across And Help Us Book 2|archive-date=October 8, 2008}}</ref><ref name="CopticMission">{{Cite web|url=http://www.copticmission.org/copticmission|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131014720/http://www.copticmission.org/copticmission|url-status=dead|title=CopticMission|archive-date=January 31, 2011}}</ref>
Minor communities below 10,000 people are reported from [[Jordan]] (8,000 Copts),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jordanembassyus.org/06032005001.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926234617/http://www.jordanembassyus.org/06032005001.htm|url-status=dead|title=King commends Coptic Church's role in promoting coexistence|archive-date=September 26, 2011}}</ref> [[Lebanon]] (3,000 – 4,000 Copts),<ref name="state2"/> [[Germany]] (3,000 Copts),{{fact|date=September 2021}} [[Austria]] (2,000 Copts),<ref name="Austria 2004"/> Switzerland (1,000 Copts),<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/swissinfo.html?siteSect=105&sid=5090250|title=Orthodox Copts open church in Switzerland|last=Burnand|first=Frédéric|work=SWI swissinfo.ch|access-date=2018-03-17|language=en}}</ref> and elsewhere.
It is noted that Copts also live in Denmark, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, and Sweden.
== Persecution and discrimination in Egypt ==
{{Main|Persecution of Copts|Religion in Egypt}}
{{Modern persecution of Coptic Christians}}
[[Freedom of religion|Religious freedom]] in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by discriminatory and restrictive government policies. Coptic Christians, being the largest religious minority in Egypt, are also negatively affected. Copts have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 [[coup d'état]] led by [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]]. Until recently, [[Christians]] were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles and restrictions in building new churches. These restrictions do not apply for building mosques.<ref>WorldWide Religious News. [http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=19813&sec=36&cont=3 Church Building Regulations Eased] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318161245/http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=19813&sec=36&cont=3 |date=March 18, 2009 }}. December 13, 2005.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=13 December 2005|title=Egypt: Church Building Regulations Eased|work=Compass Direct News|url=http://www.compassdirect.org/en/display.php?page=news&lang=en&length=long&idelement=4132|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20071017013530/http://www.compassdirect.org/en/display.php?page=news&lang=en&length=long&idelement=4132|archive-date=17 October 2007}}</ref>
The Coptic community has been targeted by hate crimes by Islamic extremists. The most significant was the 2000–01 El Kosheh attacks, in which Muslims and Christians were involved in bloody inter-religious clashes following a dispute between a Muslim and a Christian. "Twenty Christians and one Muslim were killed after violence broke out in the town of el-Kosheh, {{convert|440|km|mi}} south of Cairo".<ref name="Egyptian court orders clashes retrial">{{cite news|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1465023.stm|title= Egyptian court orders clashes retrial|date=July 30, 2001|work=BBC News}}</ref> In February 2001 a new Coptic church and 35 houses belonging to Christians were burned.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=9C0zAAAAIBAJ&pg=6308,5873985&dq=international-christian-concern&hl=en |title=Copts Under Fire |publisher=The Free Lance–Star |date=November 23, 2002 |access-date=August 2, 2015}}</ref>
In 2006, one person attacked three churches in [[Alexandria]], killing one person and injuring 5–16.<ref name="Coptic Christians attacked in churches">{{cite news | last = Miles | first = Hugh| title= Coptic Christians attacked in churches| publisher= [[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] | date=April 15, 2006 | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/1515829/Coptic-Christians-attacked-in-churches.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/1515829/Coptic-Christians-attacked-in-churches.html |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2008-10-07 | location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The attacker was not linked to any organisation and described as "psychologically disturbed" by the [[Ministry of Interior (Egypt)|Ministry of Interior]].<ref>BBC. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4911346.stm Egypt church attacks spark anger], April 15, 2006.</ref> In May 2010, [[The Wall Street Journal]] reported increasing waves of mob attacks by Muslims against Copts.<ref name="Egypt's Persecuted Christians">{{cite news | last = Zaki | first = Moheb| title= Egypt's Persecuted Christians| work= The Wall Street Journal | date=May 18, 2010 | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703745904575248301172607696|access-date=June 4, 2010 }}</ref> Despite frantic calls for help, the police typically arrived after the violence was over.<ref name="Egypt's Persecuted Christians" /> The police also coerced the Copts to accept "reconciliation" with their attackers to avoid prosecuting them, with no Muslims convicted for any of the attacks.<ref name="2010 USCIRF">{{cite web|title=United States Commission on Int'l Religious Freedom|url=http://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/resources/ar2010/egypt2010.pdf|website=USCIRF}}</ref> In [[Marsa Matrouh]], a Bedouin mob of Muslims tried to attack Copts, with 400 Copts having to barricade themselves in their church while the mob destroyed 18 homes, 23 shops and 16 cars.<ref name="Egypt's Persecuted Christians" />
Members of U.S. Congress have expressed concern about "human trafficking" of Coptic women and girls who are victims of abductions, forced conversion to Islam, sexual exploitation and forced marriage to Muslim men.<ref name="trafficking">{{cite news | url = http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2010/04/21/house-members-press-white-house-confront-egypt-forced-marriages/ | title = House Members Press White House to Confront Egypt on Forced Marriages | last = Abrams | first = Joseph |date = April 21, 2010 | work = foxnews.com | access-date = November 8, 2010}}</ref>
[[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]] was a Copt who served as [[Egypt]]'s foreign minister under President [[Anwar Sadat]]. Previously, only two Copts were in [[Egypt]]'s governmental cabinet: Finance Minister [[Youssef Boutros Ghali]] and Environment Minister Magued George during former president Mubarak's rule. There also used to be one Coptic governor out of 25, that of the [[upper Egypt]]ian governorate of [[Qena]], and is the first Coptic governor in decades due to the higher concentration of Copts in [[Upper Egypt]]. In addition, [[Naguib Sawiris]], [[Nassef Sawiris]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/katevinton/2017/01/09/african-billionaire-fortunes-decline-on-new-forbes-list-of-the-continents-richest/#6dc10049363d|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110080525/http://www.forbes.com/sites/katevinton/2017/01/09/african-billionaire-fortunes-decline-on-new-forbes-list-of-the-continents-richest/#6dc10049363d|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 10, 2017|title=African Billionaire Fortunes Decline On New FORBES List Of The Continent's Richest|last=Vinton|first=Kate|newspaper=Forbes|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> and [[Samih Sawiris]],<ref>[https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/10/billionaires08_Samih-Sawiris_L391.html The World's Billionaires: #396 Samih Sawiris]. ''Forbes''. March 5, 2008.</ref> who are extremely successful businessmen and one of the world's 100 wealthiest people, are Copts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/africa-billionaires/list/|title=Africa's Billionaires|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2019-09-28}}</ref> In 2002, under the [[Mubarak]] government, [[Coptic calendar|Coptic Christmas]] (January 7) was recognized as an official holiday.<ref>ArabicNews.com. [http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/021220/2002122025.html Copts welcome Presidential announcement on Eastern Christmas Holiday] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930211738/http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/021220/2002122025.html |date=September 30, 2007 }}. December 20, 2002.</ref> However, many Copts continue to complain of being minimally represented in higher positions in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion.<ref>Freedom House. [http://www.freedomhouse.org/religion/publications/endangered Egypt's Endangered Christians.] {{webarchive |url=https://archive.today/20030107001824/http://www.freedomhouse.org/religion/publications/endangered |date=January 7, 2003 }}</ref><ref>Human Rights Watch. [https://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081114115428/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm |date=2008-11-14 }}. 2005</ref> Most Copts do not support independence or separation movement from other Egyptians.<ref>[http://www.cpr-government.org/index_English.htm Coptic Pharaonic Republic] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218014241/http://www.cpr-government.org/index_English.htm |date=February 18, 2009 }}</ref>
While freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Egyptian constitution, according to [[Human Rights Watch]], "Egyptians are able to [[Religious conversion|convert]] to Islam generally without difficulty, but Muslims who convert to Christianity face difficulties in getting new identity papers and some have been arrested for allegedly forging such documents."<ref>[https://hrw.org/englishwr2k7/docs/2007/01/11/egypt14701.htm Human Rights Watch. World report 2007: Egypt] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928034724/http://hrw.org/englishwr2k7/docs/2007/01/11/egypt14701.htm |date=September 28, 2008 }}.</ref> The Coptic community, however, takes pains to prevent conversions from Christianity to Islam due to the ease with which Christians can often become Muslim.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ahram.org.eg/acpss/eng/ahram/2004/7/5/ARAB43.HTM |title=Egypt: National Unity and the Coptic issue. (Arab Strategic Report 2004–2005) |access-date=2007-09-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912060035/http://www.ahram.org.eg/acpss/eng/ahram/2004/7/5/ARAB43.HTM |archive-date=2007-09-12 }}</ref> Public officials, being conservative themselves, intensify the complexity of the legal procedures required to recognize the religion change as required by law. Security agencies will sometimes claim that such conversions from [[Islam]] to [[Christianity]] (or occasionally vice versa) may stir social unrest, and thereby justify themselves in wrongfully detaining the subjects, insisting that they are simply taking steps to prevent likely social troubles from happening.<ref>[http://www.comeandsee.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=502 Egypt: Egypt Arrests 22 Muslim converts to Christianity]. November 03, 2003</ref> In 2007, a Cairo administrative court denied 45 citizens the right to obtain identity papers documenting their reversion to Christianity after converting to Islam.<ref>Shahine, Gihan. [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2007/843/eg8.htm "Fraud, not Freedom".] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015153850/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2007/843/eg8.htm |date=October 15, 2008 }} Ahram Weekly, 3 – May 9, 2007</ref> However, in February 2008 the Supreme Administrative Court overturned the decision, allowing 12 citizens who had reverted to Christianity to re-list their religion on identity cards,<ref name="Egyptian Court Allows Return to Christianity">{{cite news | last = Audi | first = Nadim | title= Egyptian Court Allows Return to Christianity | work= [[The New York Times]] | date= February 11, 2008 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/11/world/africa/11egypt.html?ex=1360386000&en=03faf391c4592600&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss | access-date=2008-10-07}}</ref><ref>[[Associated Press]]. [http://www.pr-inside.com/egypt-court-upholds-right-of-converted-r430320.htm Egypt court upholds right of converted Muslims to return to Christianity] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121180512/http://www.pr-inside.com/egypt-court-upholds-right-of-converted-r430320.htm |date=November 21, 2011 }}. 2008-02-09.</ref> but they will specify that they had adopted Islam for a brief period of time.<ref>AFP. [http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5g8Ro5sk6sChDNUGMQTIMBj6HsHQQ Egypt allows converts to revert to Christianity on ID] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416155254/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5g8Ro5sk6sChDNUGMQTIMBj6HsHQQ |date=April 16, 2009 }}. February, 2008.</ref>
In August 2013, following the [[2013 Egyptian coup d'état|3 July 2013 Coup]] and clashes between the military and Morsi supporters, there were [[2013 Egyptian coup d'état#Violence against Coptic Christians|widespread attacks]] on Coptic churches and institutions in Egypt by [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]].<ref>{{cite news | last = Chulov | first = Martin | title= Egypt's Coptic Christians report fresh attacks on churches: Christian leaders blame Muslim Brotherhood supporters for arson and other attacks, including shooting death of teenage girl | work= The Guardian | date= Aug 15, 2013 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/15/egypt-coptic-christians-attacks-churches | access-date=2013-08-16}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite news | last = Khairat | first = Mohamed | title= Coptic churches burn amid violence in Egypt: Coptic Christians call for greater protection as wave of violence sweeps across Egypt | work= Egyptian Streets | date= Aug 16, 2013 | url = http://egyptianstreets.com/2013/08/16/coptic-churches-burn-amid-violence-in-egypt/ | access-date=2013-08-16}}</ref> According to at least one Egyptian scholar (Samuel Tadros), the attacks are the worst violence against the Coptic Church since the 14th century.<ref name=MB-war>{{cite web | url = https://www.hudson.org/research/11318-egypt-s-coptic-christians-braced-for-persecution | title = Egypt's Coptic Christians – Braced for Persecution | last = Gilbert |first = Lela |date = 25 May 2015 | website = Hudson Institute | access-date = 17 February 2018}}</ref>
''[[USA Today]]'' reported that "forty churches have been looted and torched, while 23 others have been attacked and heavily damaged". More than 45 churches across Egypt were attacked.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://egyptianstreets.com/2013/08/16/coptic-churches-burn-amid-violence-in-egypt/|title=Coptic churches burn amid violence in Egypt|author=Egyptian Streets|work=Egyptian Streets|date=16 August 2013}}</ref> The [[Facebook]] page of the Muslim Brotherhood's Freedom and Justice Party was "rife with false accusations meant to foment hatred against Copts". The Party's page claimed that the Coptic Church had declared "war against Islam and Muslims" and that "The Pope of the Church is involved in the removal of the first elected Islamist president. The Pope of the Church alleges Islamic Sharia is backwards, stubborn, and reactionary."{{Relevance inline|date=October 2018}} On August 15, nine Egyptian human rights groups under the umbrella group "Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights", released a statement saying, <blockquote>"In December … Brotherhood leaders began fomenting anti-Christian sectarian incitement. The anti-Coptic incitement and threats continued unabated up to the demonstrations of June 30 and, with the removal of President Morsi … morphed into sectarian violence, which was sanctioned by … the continued anti-Coptic rhetoric heard from the group's leaders on the stage … throughout the sit-in."<ref name=personal>{{cite web|title=Joint Press Release: Non-peaceful assembly does not justify collective punishment – Rights groups condemn lethal violence against those in sit-in and terrorist acts of the Muslim Brotherhood|url=http://eipr.org/en/pressrelease/2013/08/15/1782|work=15 August 2013|publisher=Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights|access-date=22 August 2013}}</ref></blockquote>
Coptic women and girls are abducted, [[forced religious conversions in Egypt|forced to convert to Islam]] and marry Muslim men.<ref name=trafficking/><ref name=bbcforcedmarriage>{{cite news | url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12014779 | title = Christian minority under pressure in Egypt | date = December 17, 2010 | work = BBC News | access-date = January 1, 2011 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170322014332/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12014779 | archive-date = March 22, 2017 }}</ref> In 2009 the Washington, D.C. based group [[Christian Solidarity International]] published a study of the abductions and [[forced marriage]]s and the anguish felt by the young women because returning to Christianity is against the law. Further allegations of organised abduction of Copts, trafficking and police collusion continue in 2017.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.worldwatchmonitor.org/2017/09/egypt-ex-kidnapper-admits-get-paid-every-copt-christian-girl-bring/ |title=Egypt: ex-kidnapper admits 'they get paid for every Coptic Christian girl they bring in' |date= 2017-09-14 |publisher= World Watch Monitor |access-date=2017-12-25 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180913115753/https://www.worldwatchmonitor.org/2017/09/egypt-ex-kidnapper-admits-get-paid-every-copt-christian-girl-bring/ |url-status= live |archive-date= 2018-09-13}}</ref>
In April 2010, a bipartisan group of 17 members of the U.S. Congress expressed concern to the State Department's Trafficking in Persons Office about Coptic women who faced "physical and sexual violence, captivity ... exploitation in forced domestic servitude or commercial sexual exploitation, and financial benefit to the individuals who secure the forced conversion of the victim."<ref name=trafficking/>
According to the ''Egyptian NGO Association of Victims of Abduction and Forced Disappearance'', between 2011 and March 2014, around 550 Coptic girls have been kidnapped, and forced to converted to Islam. According the same survey around 40% of the girls were raped prior to their conversion to Islam and married their captors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/557e7e814.html|title=Refworld | Egypt: Situation of Coptic Christians, including treatment; state protection available (2014-May 2015)|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|last=Refugees|website=Refworld}}</ref>
== Language ==
{{Main|Coptic language|Egyptian language}}
[[File:Coptic and Arabic inscriptions in an Old Cairo church.jpg|thumb|223px|right|Coptic and Arabic inscriptions in an Old Cairo church.]]
The [[Coptic language]] is the most recent stage of the [[Egyptian language]]. Coptic should more correctly be used to refer to the script rather than the language itself. Even though this script was introduced as far back as the 1st century BC, it has been applied to the writing of the Egyptian language from the 1st century AD to the present day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stshenouda.com/coptlang/copthist.htm#Definition|title=The Coptic Studies' Corner|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419152624/http://www.stshenouda.com/coptlang/copthist.htm#Definition|archive-date=2012-04-19}}</ref> Coptic remained the spoken language of most Egyptians until it was slowly replaced by colloquial [[Egyptian Arabic]] in [[Lower Egypt]] and [[Sa'idi Arabic]] in [[Upper Egypt]] by the end of the 17th century, although it may have survived in isolated pockets for a little longer.<ref name="Allen2010">{{Cite book |last=Allen |first=James P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lF78Max-h8MC&pg=PA2 |title=Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-139-48635-4 |edition=2nd |pages=1–2 |author-link=James Peter Allen |access-date=19 May 2014}}</ref>
Today, Coptic is the native language of only about 300 Copts around the world. It is also the [[liturgical language]] of the native Egyptian Churches (the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and the [[Coptic Catholic Church]]). It is taught worldwide in many prestigious institutions, but its teaching within Egypt remains limited.
Dialects of the Coptic language:
* [[Sahidic]]: Theban or [[Upper Egypt]]ian.
* [[Bohairic]]: The dialect of the [[Nile Delta]] and of the medieval and modern Coptic Church.
* [[Akhmimic]]
* [[Lycopolitan]] (also known as Subakhmimic)
* [[Fayyumic]]
* [[Oxyrhynchite]]
== Calendar ==
{{Main|Coptic calendar}}
The [[Coptic calendar]], also called the Alexandrian calendar, is used by the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and also by [[Ethiopian calendar|Ethiopia]] as its official calendar (with different names). This [[calendar]] is based on the ancient [[Egyptian calendar]]. To avoid the calendar creep of the latter, a reform of the ancient Egyptian calendar was introduced at the time of [[Ptolemy III]] (Decree of Canopus, in 238 BC) which consisted of the intercalation of a sixth [[epagomenal day]] every fourth year. However, this reform was opposed by the Egyptian priests, and the idea was not adopted until 25 BC, when the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] Emperor [[Augustus]] formally reformed the calendar of [[Egypt]], keeping it forever synchronized with the newly introduced [[Julian calendar]]. To distinguish it from the Ancient Egyptian calendar, which remained in use by some astronomers until medieval times, this reformed calendar is known as the Coptic calendar. Its years and months coincide with those of the [[Ethiopian calendar]] but have different numbers and names.<ref name="calendar">{{cite web|title=The Coptic Calendar of Martyrs|url=http://www.copticchurch.net/easter.html|website=Coptic Orthodox Church Network}}</ref>
=== Coptic year ===
{{See also|Computus}}
[[File:Coptic cross.svg|left|220px|Coptic Orthodox Cross with traditional Coptic script reading: 'Jesus Christ, the Son of God']]
The Coptic year is the extension of the ancient Egyptian civil year, retaining its subdivision into the three seasons, four months each. The three seasons are commemorated by special prayers in the Coptic Liturgy. This calendar is still in use all over Egypt by farmers to keep track of the various agricultural seasons. The Coptic calendar has 13 months, 12 of 30 days each and an intercalary month at the end of the year of 5 or 6 days, depending whether the year is a leap year or not. The year starts on 29 August in the [[Julian Calendar]] or on the 30th in the year before (Julian) Leap Years. The Coptic Leap Year follows the same rules as the Julian Calendar so that the extra month always has six days in the year before a Julian Leap Year.{{sfn|Declercq|2000|p=80}}
The Feast of [[Neyrouz]] marks the first day of the Coptic year. Ignorant of the Egyptian language for the most part, the Arabs confused the Egyptian new year's celebrations, which the Egyptians called the feast of ''Ni-Yarouou'' (the feast of the rivers), with the Persian feast of [[Nowruz]].<ref name="calendar" /> The misnomer remains today, and the celebrations of the Egyptian new year on the first day of the month of Thout are known as the Neyrouz. Its celebration falls on the 1st day of the month of [[Thout]], the first month of the Egyptian year, which for AD 1901 to 2098 usually coincides with 11 September, except before a Gregorian leap year when it's September 12. Coptic years are counted from 284 AD, the year [[Diocletian]] became Roman Emperor, whose reign was marked by tortures and mass executions of Christians, especially in Egypt. Hence, the Coptic year is identified by the abbreviation A.M. (for ''Anno Martyrum'' or "Year of the Martyrs").{{citation needed|date=April 2015}} The A.M. abbreviation is also used for the unrelated Jewish year (''Anno Mundi'').{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}
Every fourth Coptic year is a leap year ''without exception'', as in the Julian calendar, so the above-mentioned new year dates apply only between AD 1900 and 2099 inclusive in the Gregorian Calendar. In the Julian Calendar, the new year is ''always'' 29 August, except before a Julian leap year when it's August 30. [[Easter]] is reckoned by the Julian Calendar in the Old Calendarist way.
To obtain the Coptic year number, subtract from the Julian year number either 283 (before the Julian new year) or 284 (after it).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://copticchurch.net/easter.html|title=Coptic Orthodox Calendar / Easter Calculation|website=copticchurch.net|access-date=2018-03-17}}</ref>
== Genetics ==
According to Y-DNA analysis by Hassan et al. (2008), around 45% of Copts in Sudan carry the [[Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|haplogroup J]]. The remainder mainly belong to the [[Haplogroup E-M215 (Y-DNA)|E1b1b]] clade (21%). Both paternal lineages are common among other local [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]]-speaking populations (Beja, Ethiopians, Sudanese Arabs), as well as many Nubians.<ref name="Hassan2008">{{cite journal|author=Hassan, Hisham Y.|display-authors=et al|title=Y‐chromosome variation among Sudanese: Restricted gene flow, concordance with language, geography, and history|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|date=2008|volume=137|issue=3|pages=316–323|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/45024883/Y-chromosome_variation_among_Sudanese_re20160423-13798-werau.pdf|access-date=14 October 2016|doi=10.1002/ajpa.20876|pmid=18618658}}{{dead link|date=January 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> E1b1b/E3b reaches its highest frequencies among North Africans, Levantine Middle Easterners, and Ethiopid East Africans.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Trombetta, Beniamino|display-authors=et al|title=Phylogeographic refinement and large scale genotyping of human Y chromosome haplogroup E provide new insights into the dispersal of early pastoralists in the African continent|journal=Genome Biology and Evolution|date=2015|volume=7|issue=7|pages=1940–1950|doi=10.1093/gbe/evv118|pmid=26108492|pmc=4524485}}</ref> The next most common haplogroups borne by Copts are the European-linked [[Haplogroup R1b|R1b]] clade (15%), as well as the archaic African [[Haplogroup B-M60|B]] lineage (15%).<ref name="Hassan2008" />
Maternally, Hassan (2009) found that Copts in Sudan exclusively carry various descendants of the [[Haplogroup N (mtDNA)|macrohaplogroup N]]. This mtDNA clade is likewise closely associated with local Afroasiatic-speaking populations, including Berbers and Ethiopid peoples. Of the N derivatives borne by Copts, [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|U6]] is most frequent (28%), followed by the [[Haplogroup T (mtDNA)|haplogroup T]] (17%).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mohamed|first1=Hisham Yousif Hassan|title=Genetic Patterns of Y-chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Variation, with Implications to the Peopling of the Sudan|url=http://khartoumspace.uofk.edu/bitstream/handle/123456789/6376/Genetic%20Patterns%20of%20Y-chromosome%20and%20Mitochondrial.pdf?sequence=1|publisher=University of Khartoum|access-date=13 October 2016}}{{Dead link|date=March 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
A 2015 study by Dobon et al. identified an ancestral autosomal component of West Eurasian origin that is common to many modern Afroasiatic-speaking populations in [[Northeast Africa]]. Known as the ''Coptic'' component, it peaks among Egyptian Copts who settled in Sudan over the past two centuries. Copts also formed a separated group in [[principal component analysis|PCA]], a close outlier to other Egyptians, Afro-Asiatic-speaking Northeast Africans and Middle East populations. The scientists suggest that this points to a common origin for the general population of Egypt or middle eastern and North African populations. The study says “Copts share the same main ancestral component than North African and Middle East populations (dark blue), supporting a common origin with Egypt (or other North African/Middle Eastern populations). They are known to be the most ancient population of Egypt and at k = 4 (Fig.3), they show their own component (dark green) different from the current Egyptian population which is closer to the Arabic population of Qatar.” This supports that Copts have common origin with Egypt or other North African/Middle Eastern populations. This supports that Copts originate from same ancestors as North African and Middle Eastern or Egypt.<ref name=Dobon2015>{{cite journal|author=Begoña Dobon|display-authors=et al|title=The genetics of East African populations: a Nilo-Saharan component in the African genetic landscape|journal=Scientific Reports|date=28 May 2015|volume=5|doi=10.1038/srep09996|pages=9996|pmid=26017457|pmc=4446898|bibcode=2015NatSR...5E9996D}}</ref> They also associate the Coptic component with Ancient Egyptian ancestry, without the later Arabian influence that is present among other Egyptians.<ref name=Dobon2015-cae>{{cite journal|author=Begoña Dobon|display-authors=et al|title=The genetics of East African populations: a Nilo-Saharan component in the African genetic landscape|journal=Scientific Reports|date=28 May 2015|volume=5|doi=10.1038/srep09996|page=8|pmid=26017457|pmc=4446898|bibcode=2015NatSR...5E9996D|quote=The North African/Middle Eastern genetic component is identified especially in Copts. The Coptic population present in Sudan is an example of a recent migration from Egypt over the past two centuries. They are close to Egyptians in the PCA, but remain a differentiated cluster, showing their own component at k = 4 (Fig. 3). The Coptic component at k = 4 peaks highest among Copts and makes up most of their distribution while it is not predominant among Egyptians. K = 2 to K = 5 (Fig. 3) shows Egyptians distribution resemble Qatar more than Copts. Copts lack the influence found in Egyptians from Qatar, an Arabic population. It may suggest that Copts have a genetic composition that could resemble the ancestral Egyptian population, without the present strong Arab influence}}</ref>
Hollfelder et al. (2017) analysed various populations in Sudan and observed that [[Egyptians]] and Copts showed low levels of genetic differentiation and lower levels of genetic diversity compared to northeast African groups. Copts and Egyptians displayed similar levels of European or Middle Eastern ancestry (Copts were estimated to be of 69.54% ± 2.57 European ancestry and the Egyptians of 70.65% ± 2.47 European ancestry). The authors concluded that the Copts and the Egyptians have a common history linked to smaller population sizes, and that Sudanese Copts have remained relatively isolated since their arrival to Sudan with only low levels of admixture with local northeastern Sudanese groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hollfelder|first1=Nina|last2=Schlebusch|first2=Carina M.|last3=Günther|first3=Torsten|last4=Babiker|first4=Hiba|last5=Hassan|first5=Hisham Y.|last6=Jakobsson|first6=Mattias|date=2017-08-24|title=Northeast African genomic variation shaped by the continuity of indigenous groups and Eurasian migrations|journal=PLOS Genetics|language=en|volume=13|issue=8|pages=e1006976|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1006976|pmid=28837655|pmc=5587336|issn=1553-7404|doi-access=free}}{{CC-notice|by4|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1006976}}</ref>
An allele frequency comparative study across 9 nine between the two main Egyptian ethnic groups, Muslims and Christians, supported the conclusion that Egyptian Muslims and Egyptian Christians genetically originate from the same ancestors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Taha|first1=Tarek|last2=Elzalabany|first2=Sagy|last3=Fawzi|first3=Sahar|last4=Hisham|first4=Ahmed|last5=Amer|first5=Khaled|last6=Shaker|first6=Olfat|date=August 2020|title=Allele frequency comparative study between the two main Egyptian ethnic groups|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32521421/|journal=Forensic Science International|volume=313|pages=110348|doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110348|issn=1872-6283|pmid=32521421|s2cid=219586129}}</ref> This is consistent with the Dobon 2015 study which says “Copts share the same main ancestral component than North African and Middle East populations (dark blue), supporting a common origin with Egypt (or other North African/Middle Eastern populations). They are known to be the most ancient population of Egypt and at k = 4 (Fig.3), they show their own component (dark green) different from the current Egyptian population which is closer to the Arabic population of Qatar.” This supports that Copts have common origin with Egypt or other North African/Middle Eastern populations. This supports that Copts originate from same ancestors as North African and Middle Eastern or Egypt.<ref name=Dobon2015>{{cite journal|author=Begoña Dobon|display-authors=et al|title=The genetics of East African populations: a Nilo-Saharan component in the African genetic landscape|journal=Scientific Reports|date=28 May 2015|volume=5|doi=10.1038/srep09996|pages=9996|pmid=26017457|pmc=4446898|bibcode=2015NatSR...5E9996D}}</ref>
Copts originate from the same ancestors as Egyptians or North African/Middle Eastern populations and thus have an ancestral overlap with these populations. At the same time K = 4 to K = 5 ( Fig. 3) shows the Coptic component (Dark Green) makes up most of Copts distribution and peaks highest among Copts while the Middle Eastern/North African component(Dark blue) makes up most of Egypt and Qatar distribution at K = 4 to K = 5. K = 2 to K = 5 also shows that the Egypt distribution resembles Qatar more than it does Copts.
== Prominent Copts ==
[[File:Halim El-Dabh2.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Halim El-Dabh at a [[Cleveland]] festival in 2009.]]
[[File:Naelachohanboutrosghali-2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]]]]{{Main|List of Copts}}
Some famous Copts include:
* [[Hani Azer]], prominent civil engineer
* [[Halim El-Dabh]], Egyptian-American musician and academic
* [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]], the sixth [[United Nations Secretary-General|Secretary-General]] of the [[United Nations]].
* [[Rami Malek]], an [[Egyptian-American]] actor of Coptic origins.
* [[Mena Massoud]], an [[Egyptian-Canadian]] actor.
* [[Dina Powell]], American Politician.
* [[Fayez Sarofim]], heir to the Sarofim family fortune.
* [[Naguib Sawiris]], the CEO of [[Orascom]].
* [[Magdi Yacoub]], Egyptian-British cardiothoracic surgeon.
{{clear}}
== See also ==
{{Portal|Egypt|Libya|Christianity}}
{{cols|colwidth=21em}}
* [[Aigyptos]], in [[Greek mythology]]
* [[Coptic art]]
* [[Coptic Catholic Church]]
* [[Coptic diaspora]]
* [[Coptic flag]]
* [[Coptic identity]]
* [[Coptic language]]
* [[Coptic Museum]]
* [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Orthodox Church]]
* [[Coptic Saints]]
* [[Coptology]]
* [[Christianity in Egypt]]
* [[Christianity in Sudan]]
* [[Christianity in Libya]]
* [[List of Copts|List of prominent Copts worldwide]]
{{colend}}
== Footnotes ==
{{Reflist|2}}
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Betts|first=Robert B.|title=Christians in the Arab East: A Political Study|year=1978|edition=2nd rev.|location=Athens|publisher=Lycabettus Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHstAQAAIAAJ|isbn=9780804207966}}
* Capuani, Massimo et al. ''Christian Egypt: Coptic Art and Monuments Through Two Millennia'' (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/Christian-Egypt-Monuments-Through-Millennia/dp/0814624065/ excerpt and text search]
* {{Cite book |last=Charles|first=Robert H.|author-link=Robert Charles (scholar)|title=The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text|year=2007|orig-year=1916|location=Merchantville, New Jersey|publisher=Evolution Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KgZ-DOr77OQC|isbn=9781889758879}}
* Courbage, Youssef and Phillipe Fargues. Judy Mabro (Translator) ''Christians and Jews Under Islam'', 1997.
* Ibrahim, Vivian. ''The Copts of Egypt: The Challenges of Modernisation and Identity'' (I.B. Tauris, distributed by Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 258 pages; examines historical relations between Coptic Christians and the Egyptian state and describes factionalism and activism in the community.
* Kamil, Jill. ''Coptic Egypt: History and a Guide.'' Revised Ed. American University in Cairo Press, 1990.
* Meinardus, Otto Friedrich August. ''Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity'' (2010)
* {{cite book| editor-last=Thomas |editor-first=Martyn |title=Copts in Egypt: A Christian Minority Under Siege : Papers Presented at the First International Coptic Symposium, Zurich, September 23–25, 2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooAaaMdOwpAC|year=2006|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht|isbn=9783857100406}}
* {{Cite book |last=Meyendorff|first=John|author-link=John Meyendorff|year=1989|title=Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D.|series=The Church in history|volume=2|location=Crestwood, New York|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9780881410556}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ostrogorsky|first=George|author-link=George Ostrogorsky|year=1956|title=History of the Byzantine State|location=Oxford|publisher=Basil Blackwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bt0_AAAAYAAJ}}
* Van Doorn-Harder, Nelly. "Finding a Platform: Studying the Copts in the 19th and 20th Centuries" ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'' (Aug 2010) 42#3 pp 479–482. Historiography
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|Copt}}
* [http://directory.nihov.org/ Worldwide Coptic Directory]
* [http://www.coptsunited.com/ Copts United Newspaper]
* [http://www.coptic-cairo.com/ Coptic Cairo]
* [https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5636.htm U.S. Department of State International Religious Freedom Report: Egypt]
{{Copts footer}}
{{Eastern Christianity footer}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Copts| ]]
[[Category:Egyptian Christians]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of North Africa]]
[[Category:Coptic Orthodox Church]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy in Egypt]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy in Sudan]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy in Libya]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Egypt]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Sudan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Libya]]
[[Category:Christian terminology]]
[[Category:North African people]]
[[Category:Ethnoreligious groups]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{pp|small=yes}}
{{sprotected2}}
{{short description|Ethnoreligious group indigenous to North Africa}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Copts
| native_name = '''{{Coptic|ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ}}''' {{BR}} <small>niremənkhēmi</small>
| native_name_lang = cop
| image = Coptic flag.svg
| caption = The [[Coptic flag]] created by the New Zealand Coptic Association
| population = 5–20 million<ref name="Montreal Gazette">{{cite news|title=Coptic Orthodox Christmas to be low-key – Tight security: On alert after bombing in Egypt|url=https://montrealgazette.com/life/Montreal+Coptic+Orthodox+Christmas/4054183/story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223234517/http://www.montrealgazette.com/life/Montreal%2BCoptic%2BOrthodox%2BChristmas/4054183/story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 February 2011|access-date=5 January 2011|newspaper=Montreal Gazette|date=4 January 2011}}</ref> (estimates vary)
| region1 = '''Traditional areas of Coptic settlement:'''
| pop1 = 5–20 million
| region2 = {{Flagcountry|Egypt}}
| pop2 = 5–20 million (estimates vary)
| ref2 = {{refn|Official population counts put the number of Copts at around 10-15% percent of the population, while some Coptic voices claim figures as high as 23 percent. Some scholars defend the soundness of the official population census (cf. E.J. Chitham, The Coptic Community in Egypt. Spatial and Social Change, Durham 1986), while other scholars and international observers assume that the Christian share of Egypt's population is higher than stated by the Egyptian government. Most independent estimates fall within range between 10 percent and 20 percent,<ref>{{cite news |title=Egyptian Coptic protesters freed |newspaper=BBC |date=22 December 2004 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4117831.stm }}</ref> for example the CIA World Factbook estimated 10% are Christian {{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/ |title=Egypt |work=The World Factbook |publisher=[[CIA]] |access-date=27 August 2010}}, {{cite web |url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC05.php?CID=2386 |title=The Copts and Their Political Implications in Egypt |author1=Khairi Abaza |author2=Mark Nakhla |date=25 October 2005 |publisher=The Washington Institute |access-date=27 August 2010}}, Encyclopædia Britannica (1985), or Macropædia (15th ed., Chicago). For a projected 83,000,000+ Egyptians in 2009, this assumption yields the above figures.<br />In 2008, [[Pope Shenouda III]] and Bishop Morkos, bishop of [[Shubra]], declared that the number of Copts in Egypt is more than 12 million. In the same year, father Morkos Aziz the prominent priest in Cairo declared that the number of Copts (inside Egypt) exceeds 16 million. {{cite web |url=http://www.unitedcopts.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3073&Itemid=71 |title=? |date=29 October 2008 |publisher=United Copts of Great Britain |access-date=27 August 2010}} and {{cite web |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2008/08/28/55639.html |title=? |publisher=العربية.نت |access-date=27 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603215320/http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2008/08/28/55639.html |archive-date=3 June 2010 |url-status=dead }} Furthermore, the Washington Institute for Near East Policy {{cite web |url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC05.php?CID=2386 |title=The Copts and Their Political Implications in Egypt |author1=Khairi Abaza |author2=Mark Nakhla |date=25 October 2005 |access-date=27 August 2010}} Encyclopædia Britannica (1985), and Macropædia (15th ed., Chicago) estimate the percentage of Copts in Egypt to be up to 20 percent of the Egyptian population.}}
| region3 = {{Flagcountry|Sudan}}
| pop3 = c. 500,000
| ref3 = <ref name="unhcr1">Minority Rights Group International, World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Sudan : Copts, 2008, available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/49749ca6c.html [accessed 21 December 2010]</ref>
| region4 = {{flagcountry|Libya}}
| pop4 = 60,000
| ref4 = <ref name="LookLex Encyclopedia">{{cite web|url=http://i-cias.com/e.o/coptic_c.htm|title=Coptic Church|last=Kjeilen|first=Tore|website=LookLex Encyclopedia|access-date=30 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083550/http://i-cias.com/e.o/coptic_c.htm|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
| region5 = '''Diaspora:'''
| pop5 = 1–2 million (estimates vary)
| region6 = {{Flagcountry|USA}}
| pop6 = c. 200,000 – 1 million
| ref6 = <ref name="2009 American Community Survey">[https://www.census.gov 2009 American Community Survey], U.S. Census Bureau "All Egyptians including Copts 197,160"</ref><ref>According to published accounts and several Coptic/US sources (including the ''US-Coptic Association''), the Coptic Orthodox Church has between 700,000 and one million members in the United States (c. 2005–2007). {{cite web|url=http://www.copticcu.com/WhyCCU.html|title=''Why CCU?''|access-date=June 21, 2009|publisher=Coptic Credit Union}}</ref><ref name="Pittsburgh Tribune 2007">{{cite web|url=http://sce.uhcl.edu/akladios/Magdy%20Akladios%20Website/Links%20For%20Church/Copticsflocktowelcome.doc|title=''Coptics flock to welcome 'Baba' at Pittsburgh airport''|access-date=June 21, 2009|publisher=Pittsburgh Tribune (2007)|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319010757/http://sce.uhcl.edu/akladios/Magdy%20Akladios%20Website/Links%20For%20Church/Copticsflocktowelcome.doc|archive-date=March 19, 2009}}</ref><ref name="JS Online">{{cite web|url=http://www3.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=373326 |title=''State's first Coptic Orthodox church is a vessel of faith'' |access-date=June 21, 2009 |publisher=JS Online (2005) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110821115518/http://www3.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=373326 |archive-date=August 21, 2011 }}</ref><ref name="US-Copts">{{cite web|url=http://www.copts.com/english/CoptsDiaspora.aspx |title=''Coptic Diaspora''|access-date=June 21, 2009|publisher=US-Copts Association (2007) |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070220180014/http://www.copts.com/english/CoptsDiaspora.aspx |archive-date = 2007-02-20}}</ref>
| region7 = {{Flagcountry|Canada}}
| pop7 = c. 200,000
| ref7 = <ref name="Montreal Gazette" /><ref name="elaph.com">{{Cite web|url=https://elaph.com/Web/news/2011/1/622635.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107131052/http://www.elaph.com/Web/news/2011/1/622635.html|url-status=dead|title=إجراءات أمنية إستثنائية تسبق إحتفالات "اقباط العالم" بعيد الميلاد|first=Elaph Publishing|last=Limited|archive-date=January 7, 2011|website=@Elaph}}</ref>
| region8 = {{Flagcountry|Australia}}
| pop8 = c. 75,000 (2003)
| ref8 = <ref name="parliament.nsw.gov.au">In the year 2003, there was an estimated 70,000 Copts in New South Wales alone: {{cite web|title=Coptic Orthodox Church (NSW) Property Trust Act 1990|url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/cocpta1990518/|website=New South Wales Consolidated Acts}}</ref>
| region9 = {{Flagcountry|France}}
| pop9 = c. 45,000 (2017)
| ref9 = <ref name="la-croix.com">In the year 2017, there was an estimated 45,000 Copts in France: {{cite news|title=Qui sont les coptes en France ?|url=https://www.la-croix.com/Religion/Orthodoxie/Qui-sont-coptes-France-2017-03-16-1200832369|website=La Croix|date=16 March 2017}}</ref>
| region10 = {{Flagcountry|Italy}}
| pop10 = c. 30,000
| ref10 = <ref name="CESNUR – Centro studi sulle nuove religioni (Center for Studies on New Religions)">{{Cite web|url=https://cesnur.com/la-chiesa-copta/|title=La Chiesa copta|date=March 10, 2014}}</ref>
| region11 = {{flagcountry|UK}}
| pop11 = 25,000 – 30,000 (2006)
| ref11 = {{lower|<ref>Copts number at least 20,000 in Britain {{cite web |url=http://www.middlekilleavy.com/index.php?artid%3D2631%26option%3Dcom_cifeed%26task%3Dnewsarticle |title=Archived copy |access-date=2008-08-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090121192147/http://www.middlekilleavy.com/index.php?artid=2631&option=com_cifeed&task=newsarticle |archive-date=2009-01-21 }} plus another 5,000 – 10,000 Copts who are directly under the [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090521225825/http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_86.html British Orthodox Church (1999 figures)]</ref>}}
| region12 = {{Flagcountry|United Arab Emirates}}
| pop12 = c. 10,000
| ref12 = <ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-33480115|title=Free to pray – but don't try to convert anyone|work=BBC|first=Matthew|last=Teller|date=12 July 2015|access-date=12 July 2015|quote=Ten-thousand or more live in the UAE, and young, bearded priest Father Markos, 12 years in Dubai, told me his flock are "more than happy – they enjoy their life, they are free."}}</ref>
| region13 = {{flagcountry|Jordan}}
| pop13 = 8,000+ (2005)
| ref13 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jordanembassyus.org/06032005001.htm |title=King commends Coptic Church's role in promoting coexistence |publisher=Jordanembassyus.org |date=June 3, 2005 |access-date=November 18, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926234617/http://www.jordanembassyus.org/06032005001.htm |archive-date=September 26, 2011 }}</ref>}}
| region14 = {{flagcountry|Kenya}}
| pop14 = 8,000+
| ref14 = {{lower|<ref name="Come Across And Help Us Book 2" /><ref name="CopticMission" />}}
| region15 = {{flagcountry|Lebanon}}
| pop15 = 3,000–4,000 (2012)
| ref15 = {{lower|<ref name="state2">{{cite news|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2012/nea/208400.htm |title=Lebanon: Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor – 2012 Report on International Religious Freedom |agency=U.S. Department of State |date=20 May 2013 |access-date=6 December 2015}}</ref>}}
| region16 = {{Flagcountry|Germany}}
| pop16 = 3,000
| ref16 = {{fact|date=September 2021}}
| region17 = {{flagcountry|Austria}}
| pop17 = 2,000 (2001)
| ref17 = {{lower|<ref name="Austria 2004">[http://www.hrwf.net/religiousfreedom/news/2004PDF/Austria_2004.pdf Austria 2004] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614212516/http://www.hrwf.net/religiousfreedom/news/2004PDF/Austria_2004.pdf |date=2007-06-14 }} Religious Freedom news</ref>}}
| region18 = {{Flagcountry|Switzerland}}
| pop18 = 1,000 (2004)
| ref18 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/swissinfo.html?siteSect=105&sid=5090250 |title=Orthodox Copts open church in Switzerland |publisher=Swissinfo.org |date=July 17, 2004 |access-date=November 18, 2011}}</ref>}}
| region19 = {{Flagcountry|Israel}}
| pop19 = 1,000 (2014)
| ref19 = <ref>{{cite web |title=The ethnic origin of Christians in Israel |url=http://parshan.co.il/index2.php?id=11204&lang=HEB |website=parshan.co.il |language=he}}</ref>
| langs = [[Coptic language|Coptic]] (liturgical and ancestral)<br>{{hlist|[[Egyptian Arabic]]|[[Sa'idi Arabic]]|[[Modern Standard Arabic|Literary Arabic]]|[[Nubian languages]]}}
| rels = [[Christianity]]<br />(Predominantly: [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Orthodoxy]],<br />also [[Coptic Catholic Church|Coptic Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism in Egypt|Protestantism]])
| related_groups =
}}
{{Contains special characters|Coptic}}
{{Copts}}
The '''Copts''' ({{lang-cop|ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ}} {{transl|cop|niremənkhēmi}} <small>Late Coptic:</small> {{IPA-all|nɪ.ɾæm.ənˈkɪ.mi|}}; {{lang-ar|الْقِبْط}} {{transl|ar|al-Qibṭ}}) are an [[ethnoreligious group]] indigenous to North Africa<ref>[[#Minahan|Minahan 2002]], p. 467</ref> who have primarily inhabited the area of modern [[Egypt]] and [[Sudan]] since antiquity. Most ethnic Copts are Coptic Orthodox Christians.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Held|first=Colbert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WyZhDwAAQBAJ&q=%E2%80%9CMost+ethnic+Copts+are+Orthodox+in+religious+affiliation%E2%80%9C&pg=PT163|title=Middle East Patterns, Student Economy Edition: Places, People, and Politics|date=2018-10-03|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-97307-9|language=en}}</ref> Coptic Orthodox Christians are the largest [[Christianity in Egypt|Christian denomination]] in Egypt and in the [[Middle East]].<ref name="CNN1">{{cite web |title=Who are Egypt's Coptic Christians? |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/04/09/middleeast/egypt-coptic-christians/index.html |publisher=CNN |quote=The largest Christian community in the Middle East, Coptic Christians make up the majority of Egypt's roughly 9 million Christians. About 1 million more Coptic Christians are spread across Africa, Europe, the United Kingdom and the United States, according to the World Council of Churches.}}</ref> Coptic Orthodox Christians are also the largest Christian denomination in [[Christianity in Sudan|Sudan]] and [[Christianity in Libya|Libya]]. Historically, ethnic Copts spoke the [[Coptic language]], a direct descendant of the [[Demotic (Egyptian)|Demotic Egyptian]] that was spoken in [[late antiquity]].
Originally referring to all Egyptians at first {{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}, the term 'Copt' became synonymous with being a Christian, as a result of Egypt's Arabization and [[Islamization of Egypt|Islamization]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last1=Raheb|first1=Mitri|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I1cBEAAAQBAJ&q=%22The+fortunes+of+Copts+rose+and+fell%22&pg=PA468|title=The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East|last2=Lamport|first2=Mark A.|date=2020-12-15|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-5381-2418-5|language=en}}</ref> [[Copts in Egypt]] constitute the largest [[Christianity in the Middle East|Christian population in the Middle East]] and North Africa, as well as the largest religious minority in the region, accounting for roughly 5–20% of the [[demographics of Egypt|Egyptian population]], although the exact percentage is unknown.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/281789/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-Sisi-meets-world-Evangelical-churches-deleg.aspx|title=Egypt's Sisi meets world Evangelical churches delegation in Cairo – Politics – Egypt|website=Ahram Online|language=en|access-date=2019-10-30}}</ref> [[Copts in Sudan]] constitute the largest [[Christianity in Sudan|Christian community in Sudan]],<ref name="unhcr1" /> and [[Copts in Libya]] constitute the largest [[Christianity in Libya|Christian community in Libya]], accounting for an estimated 1% of their respective populations.<ref name="multiple1">
{{cite web|url=http://i-cias.com/e.o/coptic_c.htm|title=Coptic Church|last=Kjeilen|first=Tore|website=LookLex Encyclopedia|access-date=30 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083550/http://i-cias.com/e.o/coptic_c.htm|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}
</ref>
After the [[Muslim conquest of Egypt]] in 639 and 646 [[Anno Domini|AD]], the treatment of the Coptic Christians ranged from relative tolerance to [[Persecution of Copts|open persecution]].<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|last=Refugees|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|title=Refworld {{!}} World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Egypt : Copts of Egypt|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d2b2d.html|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Refworld|language=en}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite book|title=Middle East, Region in Transition: Egypt| first=Laura S. |last= Etheredge|year= 2011| isbn= 9789774160936| page =161|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite book|title=The Cave Church of Paul the Hermit at the Monastery of St. Pau| first=William |last=Lyster|year= 2013| isbn= 9789774160936|publisher=Yale University Press|quote= Al Hakim Bi-Amr Allah (r. 996—1021), however, who became the greatest persecutor of Copts.... within the church that also appears to coincide with a period of forced rapid conversion to Islam}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641-1517)| first=Mark |last= N. Swanson|year= 2010| isbn= 9789774160936| page =54|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|quote=}}</ref> And historically, the Copts suffered from "waves of [[Persecution of Copts|persecution]] giving way to relative tolerance in cycles that varied according to the local ruler and other political and economic circumstances".<ref name=":3" /> Persecution is pivotal to Copts' [[Coptic identity|sense of identity]].<ref name="Deighton, H. S 1946 p. 519">Deighton, H. S. "The Arab Middle East and the Modern World", International Affairs, vol. xxii, no. 4 (October 1946)</ref> Most Copts adhere to the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]], an [[Oriental Orthodox Church]].<ref name="U.S.Dept of State/Egypt" /><ref name="FCO/Egypt/" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bailey|first1=Betty Jane|last2=Bailey|first2=J. Martin|title=Who Are the Christians in the Middle East?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xrGL7o69KBIC&pg=PA145|year=2003|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-1020-5|page=145}}</ref> The smaller [[Coptic Catholic Church]] is an [[Eastern Catholic Church]], in communion with the [[See of Rome]]; others belong to the [[Evangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile)|Evangelical Church of Egypt]]. The Copts played a central role in the [[Nahda|Arab Renaissance]] and the [[modernization]] of Egypt and the [[Arab world]] as a whole,<ref name=":3" /> and they contributed to the "social and political life and key debates such as [[Pan-Arabism|Arabisim]], good governance, [[Education reform|educational reform]], and [[democracy]]",<ref name=":3" /> and they flourished in business affairs.<ref>Todros, ch 3–4.</ref>
Copts of Coptic ancestry maintain a distinct [[Coptic identity|ethnic identity]], and generally reject an [[Arab identity]].<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1038/srep09996|title = The genetics of East African populations: A Nilo-Saharan component in the African genetic landscape|year = 2015|last1 = Dobon|first1 = Begoña|last2 = Hassan|first2 = Hisham Y.|last3 = Laayouni|first3 = Hafid|last4 = Luisi|first4 = Pierre|last5 = Ricaño-Ponce|first5 = Isis|last6 = Zhernakova|first6 = Alexandra|last7 = Wijmenga|first7 = Cisca|last8 = Tahir|first8 = Hanan|last9 = Comas|first9 = David|last10 = Netea|first10 = Mihai G.|last11 = Bertranpetit|first11 = Jaume|journal = Scientific Reports|volume = 5|page = 9996|pmid = 26017457|pmc = 4446898|bibcode = 2015NatSR...5E9996D}}</ref>
In Egypt, Copts have relatively higher [[educational attainment]], relatively higher [[wealth]] index, and a stronger representation in [[White-collar worker|white collar job]] types, but limited representation in security agencies. The majority of demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators are similar among Copts and Muslims.<ref>Mohamoud YA, Cuadros DF, Abu-Raddad LJ. Characterizing the Copts in Egypt: Demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators, QScience Connect 2013:22 <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.5339/connect.2013.22</nowiki></ref>
== Etymology ==
{{further|Name of Egypt}}
The English language adopted the word ''Copt'' in the 17th century from [[New Latin]] ''Coptus, Cophtus'', which derives from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] collective {{transl|ar|qubṭ / qibṭ}} {{lang|ar|قبط|rtl=yes}} "the Copts" with [[Arabic grammar#nisba|nisba]] adjective {{transl|ar|qubṭī, qibṭī}} {{lang|ar|قبطى|rtl=yes}}, plural {{transl|ar|aqbāṭ}} {{lang|ar|أقباط|rtl=yes}}; Also ''quftī, qiftī'' (where the Arabic {{IPAslink|f}} reflects the historical Coptic {{IPAslink|p}}) an Arabisation of the [[Coptic language|Coptic]] word ⲁⲓⲅⲩⲡⲧⲓⲟⲛ ''aiguption'' ([[Coptic language#Bohairic|Bohairic]]) or ⲕⲩⲡⲧⲁⲓⲟⲛ ''kuptaion'' ([[Coptic language#Sahidic|Sahidic]]). The Coptic word in turn represents an adaptation of the Greek term for the indigenous people of Egypt, {{transl|grc|Aigýptios}} ({{lang|grc|Αἰγύπτιος}}).<ref>{{cite book|last1= Ackroyd|first1= P. R.|last2= Evans|first2= C. F.|title= The Cambridge History of the Bible: Volume 1, From the Beginnings to Jerome |date= 1963 |publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-0-521-09973-8|page= 27|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QnG2067meU0C&pg=PA27|access-date= 16 October 2016}}</ref>
The Greek term for Egypt, ''Aígyptos'' ({{lang-grc|Αἴγυπτος}}), itself derives from the [[Egyptian language]], but dates to a much earlier period, being attested already in [[Mycenaean Greek]] as ''a<sub>3</sub>-ku-pi-ti-jo'' (lit. "Egyptian"; used here as a man's name). This Mycenaean form is likely from [[Middle Egyptian]] {{lang|egy-Latn|[[wikt:ḥwt kꜣ ptḥ#Egyptian|ḥwt kꜣ ptḥ]]}} (reconstructed pronunciation /ħawitˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħajiʔˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħəjˌkuʔpəˈtaħ/, [[Egyptological pronunciation]] ''Hut-ka-Ptah''), literally "estate/palace of the [[Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul#kꜣ "double"|kꜣ]] ("double" spirit) of [[Ptah]]" (compare [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] {{lang|akk-Latn|<sup>ālu</sup>ḫi-ku-up-ta-aḫ}}), the name of the temple complex of the god [[Ptah]] at [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] (and a [[synecdoche]] for the city of Memphis and the region around it).
The term ''Aigýptios'' in Greek came to designate the native Egyptian population in [[Roman Egypt]] (as distinct from Greeks, Romans, Jews, etc.). After the [[Muslim conquest of Egypt]] (639-646) it became restricted to those Egyptians adhering to the Christian religion.<ref>"The people of Egypt before the Arab conquest in the 7th century identified themselves and their language in Greek as Aigyptios (Arabic qibt, Westernized as Copt); when Egyptian Muslims later ceased to call themselves Aigyptioi, the term became the distinctive name of the Christian minority." [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9026216 Coptic Orthodox Church]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''. 2007</ref>
The Coptic name for [[Egyptians]], ''remənkhēmi'' ({{lang-cop|ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ}}), is realized in the [[Coptic language#Fayyumic|Fayyumic Coptic]] as ⲗⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲕⲏⲙⲉ ''lemenkēmi'' and as ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲕⲏⲙⲉ ''remənkēme'' in the Sahidic dialect; cf. Egyptian {{lang|egy-Latn|rmṯ n [[Km (hieroglyph)|kmt]]}}, Demotic {{lang|egy-Latn|rmṯ n kmỉ}}.
The Arabic word {{transl|ar|qibṭ}} "Copt" has also been connected{{by whom|date=March 2019}} to the Greek name of the town of Kóptos ({{lang-grc-koi|Κόπτος}}, now [[Qift|Qifṭ]]; Coptic ''Kebt'' and ''Keft'') in [[Upper Egypt]]. This association may have contributed to making "Copt" the settled form of the name.<ref>[[OED]] s.v. "Copt".</ref>
In the 20th century some Egyptian nationalists and intellectuals in the context of [[Pharaonism]] began using the term {{transl|ar|qubṭ}} in the historical sense.<ref>qtd. in M. Hussein. {{transl|ar|el Ittigahat el Wataneyya fil Adab el Muʻaṣir}} ''[National Trends in Modern Literature]''. Vol. 2. Cairo, 1954.</ref>
== History ==
{{Main|Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|History of Christianity in Egypt}}
[[File:StMarkcoptic.jpg|280px|thumb|left|Coptic icon of [[Mark the Evangelist|St. Mark]]]]
The Copts are one of the oldest Christian communities in the Middle East. Although integrated in the larger Egyptian nation state, the Copts have survived as a distinct [[Religion in Egypt|religious community]] forming around 5 to 20 percent of the population,<ref name="Pew Coptic population">{{cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/2011/02/16/how-many-christians-are-there-in-egypt/|title=How many Christians are there in Egypt?|last1=Hackett|first1=Conrad|date=16 February 2011|website=Pew Research Center}}</ref><ref name="FCO/Egypt/" /><ref name="The world factbook/Egypt/" /><ref name="nlgsolutions1">[http://www.nlgsolutions.com/packages/show_country.asp?countryid=EG NLG Solutions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324214315/http://www.nlgsolutions.com/packages/show_country.asp?countryid=EG |date=2016-03-24 }} <Online>. ''Egypt''. Retrieved 28 September 2008.</ref> though estimates vary. They pride themselves on the apostolicity of the Egyptian Church whose founder was the first in an unbroken chain of patriarchs. The main body for 16 centuries has been out of communion with both the Roman Catholic Church (in Rome) and the various Eastern orthodox churches.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}
=== Foundation of the Christian Church in Egypt ===
According to ancient tradition, [[Christianity]] was introduced within present day [[Egypt]] by [[Mark the Evangelist|Saint Mark]] in [[Alexandria]], shortly after the ascension of [[Christ]] and during the reign of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[emperor]] [[Claudius]] around 42 AD.<ref>[[Eusebius of Caesarea]], the author of Ecclesiastical History in the fourth century, states that st. Mark came to Egypt in the first or third year of the reign of Emperor Claudius, i.e., 41 or 43 AD. "Two Thousand years of Coptic Christianity" Otto F.A. Meinardus p. 28.</ref> The legacy that [[Mark the Evangelist|Saint Mark]] left in [[Egypt]] was a considerable Christian community in [[Alexandria]]. From Alexandria, [[Christianity]] spread throughout [[Egypt]] within half a century of [[Mark the Evangelist|Saint Mark]]'s arrival in [[Alexandria]], as is clear from a fragment of the [[Gospel of John]], written in [[Coptic language|Coptic]], which was found in [[Upper Egypt]] and can be dated to the first half of the 2nd century, and the [[New Testament]] writings found in [[Oxyrhynchus]], in [[Middle Egypt]], which date around the year 200 AD. In the 2nd century, [[Christianity]] began to spread to the rural areas, and scriptures were translated into the local language, today known as the [[Coptic language]], but known as the ''Egyptian language'' at the time. By the beginning of the 3rd century AD, [[Christians]] constituted the majority of Egypt's population, and the [[Church of Alexandria]] was recognized as one of [[Christendom]]'s four Apostolic Sees, second in honor only to the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church of Rome]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2016}} The [[Church of Alexandria]] is therefore the oldest Christian church in Africa.
=== Contributions to Christianity ===
The Copts in Egypt contributed immensely to [[Christianity|Christian]] tradition. The [[Catechetical]] School of Alexandria was the oldest catechetical school in the world. Founded around 190 AD by the scholar [[Pantanaeus]], the school of Alexandria became an important institution of religious learning, where students were taught by scholars such as [[Athenagoras of Athens|Athenagoras]], [[Clement of Alexandria|Clement]], [[Didymus the Blind|Didymus]], and [[Origen]], the father of theology who was also active in the field of commentary and comparative Biblical studies. However, the scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects; science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there. The question-and-answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before [[Braille]], wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read and write.
Another major contribution made by the Copts in Egypt to [[Christianity]] was the creation and organization of [[monasticism]]. Worldwide Christian monasticism stems, either directly or indirectly, from the Egyptian example. The most prominent figures of the monastic movement were [[Anthony the Great]], [[Paul of Thebes]], [[Macarius the Great]], [[Shenouda the Archimandrite]] and [[Pachomius|Pachomius the Cenobite]]. By the end of the 5th century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian desert. Since then pilgrims have visited the Egyptian [[Desert Fathers]] to emulate their spiritual, disciplined lives. [[Saint Basil|Saint Basil the Great]] Archbishop of [[Caesarea Mazaca]], and the founder and organiser of the monastic movement in [[Asia Minor]], visited [[Egypt]] around 357 AD and his monastic rules are followed by the [[Eastern Orthodox Churches]]. [[Saint Jerome]], who translated the [[Bible]] into [[Latin]], came to [[Egypt]] while en route to [[Jerusalem]] around 400 AD and left details of his experiences in his letters. [[Benedict of Nursia|Saint Benedict]] founded the [[Benedictine Order]] in the 6th century on the model of [[Saint Pachomius]], although in a stricter form. [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Christians]] practice male [[circumcision]] as a rite of passage.<ref name=Columbia_encyc_2011_circ>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Circumcision |encyclopedia=Columbia Encyclopedia |publisher=Columbia University Press |url=http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/circumcision.html }}</ref>
=== Ecumenical councils ===
The major contributions that the [[See of Alexandria]] has contributed to the establishment of early Christian theology and dogma are attested to by fact that the first three [[ecumenical council]]s in the history of [[Christianity]] were headed by Egyptian patriarchs. The [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]] (325 AD) was presided over by [[Pope Alexander I of Alexandria|St. Alexander, Patriarch of Alexandria]], along with [[Hosius of Córdoba|Saint Hosius of Córdoba]]. In addition, the most prominent figure of the council was the future [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Athanasius]], who played the major role in the formulation of the [[Nicene Creed]], recited today in most Christian churches of different denominations. One of the council's decisions was to entrust the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] with calculating and annually announcing the exact date of [[Easter]] to the rest of the Christian churches. The [[First Council of Constantinople|Council of Constantinople]] (381 AD) was presided over by [[Timothy of Alexandria|Patriarch Timothy of Alexandria]], while the [[First Council of Ephesus|Council of Ephesus]] (431 AD) was presided over by [[Cyril of Alexandria]].
=== Council of Chalcedon ===
In 451 AD, following the [[Council of Chalcedon]], the [[Church of Alexandria]] was divided into two branches. Those who accepted the terms of the Council became known as [[Chalcedonian]]s or [[Melkites]]. Those who did not abide by the Council's terms were labeled [[non-Chalcedonian]]s or [[Monophysites]] and later Jacobite's after [[Jacob Baradaeus]]. The [[non-Chalcedonian]]s, however, rejected the term [[Monophysites]] as erroneous and referred to themselves as [[Miaphysitism|Miaphysites]]. The majority of the [[Egyptians]] belonged to the [[Miaphysitism|Miaphysite]] branch, which led to their persecution by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] in [[Egypt]].
=== Arab conquest of Egypt ===
{{Main|Islamization of Egypt}}
[[File:Kairo Hanging Church BW 1.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[The Hanging Church]] in [[Coptic Cairo]].]]
In 641 AD, [[Egypt]] was conquered by the [[Arabs]] who faced off with the [[Byzantine]] army. Local resistance by the Egyptians however began to materialize shortly thereafter and would last until at least the 9th century.<ref>Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar (2 vols., Bulaq, 1854), by [[Al-Maqrizi]]</ref><ref>Chronicles, by [[John of Nikiû]]</ref> Despite the political upheaval, Egypt remained mainly Christian, but Coptic Christians lost their majority status after the 14th century,<ref name="FA">{{cite journal|last1=Shea|first1=Nina|title=Do Copts have a future in Egypt|journal=Foreign Affairs|date=June 2017|url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/egypt/2017-06-20/do-copts-have-future-egypt|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620201311/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/egypt/2017-06-20/do-copts-have-future-egypt|archive-date=2017-06-20|url-access=subscription}}</ref> as a result of the intermittent persecution and the destruction of the Christian churches there.<ref name="auto"/> From the [[Muslim conquest of Egypt]] onwards, the Coptic Christians were persecuted by different Muslim regimes,<ref name="auto1"/> such as the [[Umayyad Caliphate]],<ref> H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 219.</ref> [[Abbasid Caliphate]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Goddard|first=Hugh|title=A History of Christian–Muslim Relations|date=2000|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=1566633400 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Bq2oLEvHzl8C&pg=PA71 |page=71|access-date=20 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Frank |last=Feder |chapter=The Bashmurite Revolts in the Delta and the ‘Bashmuric Dialect’ |title=Christianity and Monasticism in Northern Egypt: Beni Suef, Giza, Cairo, and the Nile Delta |editor-first1=Gawdat |editor-last1=Gabra |editor-first2=Hany N. |editor-last2=Takla |year=2017 |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |pages=33–35}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Ira M. Lapidus |first=Ira M. |last=Lapidus |title=The Conversion of Egypt to Islam |journal=Israel Oriental Studies |volume=2 |year=1972 |page=257}}</ref> [[Fatimid Caliphate]],<ref name="Robert Ousterhout 1989 pp. 66-78">Robert Ousterhout, "Rebuilding the Temple: Constantine Monomachus and the Holy Sepulchre" in ''The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'', Vol. 48, No. 1 (March, 1989), pp.66–78</ref><ref name="Saunders2002">{{cite book|author=John Joseph Saunders|title=A History of Medieval Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_d2KAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT109|date=11 March 2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-93005-0|pages=109–}}</ref><ref name="Rustow2014">{{cite book|author=[[Marina Rustow]]|title=Heresy and the Politics of Community: The Jews of the Fatimid Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGWsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT219|date=3 October 2014|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-5529-2|pages=219–}}</ref> [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Teule|first1=Herman G. B.|editor1-last=Thomas|editor1-first=David|editor2-last=Mallett|editor2-first=Alex|title=Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History, Volume 5 (1350-1500)|date=2013|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004252783|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgy7SN3ZixsC&pg=PA11|chapter=Introduction: Constantinople and Granada, Christian-Muslim Interaction 1350-1516 |page=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Coptic Identity and Ayyubid Politics in Egypt, 1218-1250| first= Kurt J.|last=Werthmuller |year= 2010| isbn= 9780805440737| page = 76|publisher= American Univ in Cairo Press}}</ref> and [[Ottoman Empire]]; the [[Persecution of Copts|persecution of Coptic]] Christians included closing and demolishing churches, [[forced conversion]] to [[Islam]],<ref name="auto2"/><ref>{{cite book|title=The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641-1517)| first=Mark |last= N. Swanson|year= 2010| isbn= 9789774160936| page =54|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|quote= By late 1012 the persecution had moved into high gear with demolitions of churches and the forced conversion of Christian ...}}</ref><ref>ha-Mizraḥit ha-Yiśreʼelit, Ḥevrah (1988). Asian and African Studies, Volume 22. Jerusalem Academic Press. Muslim historians note the destruction of dozens of churches and the forced conversion of dozens of people to Islam under al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in Egypt ...These events also reflect the Muslim attitude toward forced conversion and toward converts.</ref> and heavy [[tax|taxes]] for those who refused to convert.<ref>{{Citation|title=Conversion, Exemption, and Manipulation: Social Benefits and Conversion to Islam in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages: Forcing taxes on those who refuse to convert|url=https://www.medievalworlds.net/0xc1aa5576%200x00372f27.pdf|quote= ʿUmar is depicted as having ordered that "the poll-tax should be taken from all men who would not become Muslims"}}</ref>
=== Copts in modern Egypt ===
{{Main|Copts in Egypt}}
{{further|Christianity in Egypt}}
[[File:Copts-with-Nasser-1965.jpg|180px|thumb|left|President Nasser welcomes a delegation of Coptic bishops (1965)]]
Under Muslim rule, Christians paid special taxes and had lower access to political power, but were exempt from military service. Their position improved dramatically under the rule of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] in the early 19th century. He abolished the [[Jizya]] (a tax on non-Muslims) and allowed Egyptians (Copts) to enroll in the army. [[Pope Cyril IV of Alexandria|Pope Cyril IV]], 1854–61, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs. Khedive [[Isma'il Pasha]], in power 1863–79, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights and representation in government. They flourished in business affairs.<ref>Todros, ch 3–4. {{dead link|date=October 2018}}</ref>
Some Copts participated in the Egyptian national movement for independence and occupied many influential positions. Two significant cultural achievements include the founding of the [[Coptic Museum]] in 1910 and the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies in 1954. Some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period are [[Salama Moussa]], [[Louis Awad]] and Secretary General of the [[Wafd Party]] [[Makram Ebeid]].
In 1952, [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] led some army officers in a coup d'état against [[Farouk of Egypt|King Farouk]], which overthrew the Kingdom of Egypt and established a republic. [[Nasser]]'s mainstream policy was [[pan-Arab]] nationalism and socialism. The Copts were severely affected by Nasser's nationalization policies, though they represented about 10 to 20 percent of the population.<ref name="nisan">{{Cite book | last = Nisan | first = Mordechai | title = Minorities in the Middle East | publisher = McFarland | year = 2002 | page = 144 | isbn = 978-0-7864-1375-1}}</ref> In addition, Nasser's pan-Arab policies undermined the Copts' strong attachment to and sense of identity about their Egyptian pre-Arab, and certainly non-Arab identity which resulted in permits to construct churches to be delayed along with Christian religious courts to be closed.<ref name= nisan />
In Egypt, Copts have relatively higher [[educational attainment]], relatively higher [[wealth]] index, and a stronger representation in [[White-collar worker|white collar job]] types, but limited representation in security agencies. The majority of demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators are similar among Copts and Muslims.<ref>Mohamoud YA, Cuadros DF, Abu-Raddad LJ. Characterizing the Copts in Egypt: Demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators, QScience Connect 2013:22 <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.5339/connect.2013.22</nowiki></ref> Historically; many Copts were [[accountants]], and in 1961 Coptic Christians owned 51% of the [[List of banks in Egypt|Egyptian banks]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/comparative-studies-in-society-and-history/article/abs/accursed-superior-men-ethnoreligious-minorities-and-politics-in-the-medieval-mediterranean/EB9A103390FE521CB065862F5918BA07|title=Accursed, Superior Men: Ethno-Religious Minorities and Politics in the Medieval Mediterranean|date=3 October 2014|publisher= Cambridge University Press|qoute=In the mid-nineteenth century, Lane reported that many Copts were accountants, who served primarily in government bureaus. As late as 1961, Coptic Christians owned 51 percent of Egyptian banks.}}</ref> According to the scholar Andrea Rugh Copts tend to belong to the educated [[Middle class|middle]] and [[Upper middle class|upper-middle class]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Christians in Egypt: Strategies and Survival|first=Andrea |last=B. Rugh |year= 2016| isbn=9781137566133| page =30|publisher=Springer|quote=}}</ref> and according to scholar Lois Farag "The Copts still played the major role in managing Egypt's state finances. They held 20% of total state capital, 45% of government employment, and 45% of government salarie".<ref>{{cite book|title=The Coptic Christian Heritage: History, Faith and Culture|first=Lois|last= M. Farag |year= 2013| isbn=9781134666843| page =83|publisher=Routledge|quote=The Copts, who were 7 percent of the population in the nineteenth century, still played the major role in managing Egypt's state finances. They held 20 percent of total state capital, 45 percent of government employment ...}}</ref> [[Sawiris family]]i s an Egyptian [[Copts in Egypt|Coptic Christian]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.arabianbusiness.com/culture-society/432946-naguib-sawiris-if-god-wanted-women-to-be-veiled-he-would-have-created-them-with-veil |title=Naguib Sawiris: 'If God wanted women to be veiled, he would have created them with a veil' |website=Arabian Business |date=11 November 2019 }}</ref> family that owns the [[Orascom group|Orascom conglomerate]], spanning telecommunications, construction, tourism, industries and technology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arabianbusiness.com/richlist/profile/16|title=Arabian Business: The Sawiris Family|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100407183236/http://www.arabianbusiness.com/richlist/profile/16?|archive-date=1 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clickafrique.com/Magazine/ST014/CP0000003388.aspx|title=The richest men in Africa – 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921050058/http://www.clickafrique.com/Magazine/ST014/CP0000003388.aspx|archive-date=1 August 2021}}</ref> In 2008, ''[[Forbes]]'' estimated the family's net worth at $36 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/10/billionaires08_Naguib-Sawiris_4MRK.html|title=#60 Naguib Sawiris - Forbes.com|website=www.forbes.com|access-date=2019-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/10/billionaires08_Nassef-Sawiris_FWHQ.html|title=#68 Nassef Sawiris - Forbes.com|website=www.forbes.com|access-date=2019-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/10/billionaires08_Onsi-Sawiris_PPZY.html|title=#96 Onsi Sawiris - Forbes.com|website=www.forbes.com|access-date=2019-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/10/billionaires08_Samih-Sawiris_L391.html|title=#396 Samih Sawiris - Forbes.com|website=www.forbes.com|access-date=2019-02-06}}</ref>
==== Pharaonism ====
{{Main|Pharaonism}}
{{See also|Coptic identity}}
Many Coptic intellectuals hold to [[Pharaonism]], which states that Coptic culture is largely derived from pre-Christian, [[Pharaoh|Pharaonic]] culture, and is not indebted to Greece. It gives the Copts a claim to a deep heritage in Egyptian history and culture. Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic and Muslim scholars in the early 20th century, and it helped bridge the divide between those groups. Some scholars see Pharaonism as shaped by [[Orientalism]].<ref>{{Citation | first = Jacques | last = van der Vliet | title = The Copts: 'Modern Sons of the Pharaohs'? | journal = Church History & Religious Culture |date=June 2009 | volume = 89 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 279–90 | doi=10.1163/187124109x407934}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book| first = Donald Malcolm | last = Reid| title= Whose Pharaohs?: Archaeology, Museums, and Egyptian National Identity from Napoleon to World War I | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FeviPDy08e8C&pg=PA258 |year= 2003|publisher= U. of California Press|pages= 258ff | chapter = 7| isbn = 9780520240698}}</ref>
=== Church affairs ===
[[File:Coptic monks.jpg|thumb|Egyptian Coptic monks at the [[American Colony, Jerusalem]], between 1898 and 1914.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Matson|first1=G. Olaf|title=The American Colony Guide-book to Jerusalem and Environs|date=1925|publisher=Vester|page=20|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=KMLTAAAAMAAJ|access-date=7 September 2017|quote=Copts. A very small community representing the large Coptic Church in Egypt.[...] Abyssinian. Also represented by a Bishop in Jerusalem. They, like the Copts, are Monophysites}}</ref>]]
Today, members of the [[non-Chalcedonian]] Coptic Orthodox Church constitute the majority of the Egyptian Christian population. Mainly through emigration and partly through European, American, and other missionary work and conversions, the Egyptian Christian community now also includes other Christian denominations such as [[Protestants]] (known in Arabic as [[Evangelicals]]), [[Roman Catholic]]s and [[Eastern Rite Catholic]]s, and other [[Orthodox Christianity|Orthodox]] congregations. The term ''Coptic'' remains exclusive however to the Egyptian natives, as opposed to the Christians of non-Egyptian origins. Some Protestant churches for instance are called "[[Coptic Evangelical Church]]", thus helping differentiate their native Egyptian congregations from churches attended by non-Egyptian immigrant communities such as Europeans or Americans.
In 2005, a group of Coptic activists created a [[Coptic flag|flag]] to represent Copts worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://freecopts.net/english/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14&Itemid=38|title=Freecopts.net|website=freecopts.net|access-date=2018-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017064123/http://freecopts.net/english/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14&Itemid=38|archive-date=2015-10-17|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The previous head of the Coptic Orthodox Church, [[Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria]], died 17 March 2012. On 4 November 2012, [[Pope Tawadros II of Alexandria|Bishop Tawadros]] was chosen as the new pope of Egypt's Coptic Christians. His name was selected from a glass bowl containing the three shortlisted candidates by a blindfolded boy at a ceremony in [[Cairo]]'s [[Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, Cairo|St Mark's Cathedral]].<ref name=CNANKH-BBC-4NOV2012>{{cite news|title=Bishop Tawadros new pope of Egypt's Coptic Christians|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20192922|access-date=4 November 2012|date=4 November 2012|work=BBC News}}</ref>
=== Copts in modern Sudan ===
{{Main|Copts in Sudan}}
{{further|Christianity in Sudan}}
[[File:Coptic cathedral (Khartoum) 001.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Holy Virgin Mary Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in [[Khartoum]].]]
[[Sudan]] has a native Coptic minority, although many Copts in Sudan are descended from more recent Egyptian immigrants.<ref name="unhcr1" />
Copts in Sudan live mostly in northern cities, including [[Al Obeid]], [[Atbara]], [[Dongola]], [[Khartoum]], [[Omdurman]], [[Port Sudan]], and [[Wad Medani]].<ref name="unhcr1" /> They number up to 500,000, or slightly over 1 percent of the Sudanese population.<ref name="unhcr1" /> Due to their advanced education, their role in the life of the country has been more significant than their numbers suggest.<ref name="unhcr1" /> They have occasionally faced forced conversion to [[Islam]], resulting in their emigration and decrease in number.<ref name="unhcr1" />
Modern immigration of Copts to Sudan peaked in the early 19th century, and they generally received a tolerant welcome there. However, this was interrupted by a decade of persecution under [[History of Mahdist Sudan|Mahdist rule]] at the end of the 19th century.<ref name="unhcr1" /> As a result of this persecution, many were forced to relinquish their faith, adopt [[Islam]], and intermarry with the native Sudanese. The [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian invasion]] in 1898 allowed Copts greater religious and economic freedom, and they extended their original roles as artisans and merchants into trading, banking, engineering, medicine, and the civil service. Proficiency in business and administration made them a privileged minority. However, the return of [[Islamism|militant Islam]] in the mid-1960s and subsequent demands by radicals for an [[Sharia|Islamic constitution]] prompted Copts to join in public opposition to religious rule.<ref name="unhcr1" />
[[Gaafar Nimeiry]]'s introduction of Islamic [[Sharia]] law in 1983 began a new phase of oppressive treatment of Copts, among other non-Muslims.<ref name="unhcr1" /> After the overthrow of Nimeiry, Coptic leaders supported a secular candidate in the 1986 elections. However, when the [[National Islamic Front]] overthrew the elected government of [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]] with the help of the military, discrimination against Copts returned in earnest. Hundreds of Copts were dismissed from the civil service and judiciary.<ref name="unhcr1" />
In February 1991, a Coptic pilot working for [[Sudan Airways]] was executed for illegal possession of foreign currency.<ref name="sudanupdate1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sudanupdate.org/REPORTS/PEOPLES/COPTS.HTM|title=Copts|website=www.sudanupdate.org}}</ref> Before his execution, he had been offered amnesty and money if he converted to [[Islam]], but he refused. Thousands attended his funeral, and the execution was taken as a warning by many Copts, who began to flee the country.<ref name="sudanupdate1" />
Restrictions on the Copts' rights to Sudanese nationality followed, and it became difficult for them to obtain Sudanese nationality by birth or by naturalization, resulting in problems when attempting to travel abroad. The confiscation of Christian schools and the imposition of an Arab-Islamic emphasis in language and history teaching were accompanied by harassment of Christian children and the introduction of [[hijab]] dress laws. A Coptic child was flogged for failing to recite a [[Koranic]] verse.<ref name="sudanupdate1" /> In contrast with the extensive media broadcasting of the Muslim [[Friday prayers]], the radio ceased coverage of the Christian Sunday service. As the civil war raged throughout the 1990s, the government focused its religious fervor on the south. Although experiencing discrimination, the Copts and other long-established Christian groups in the north had fewer restrictions than other types of Christians in the [[South Sudan|south]].
Today, the [[Coptic Church]] in Sudan is officially registered with the government, and is exempt from property tax.<ref name="unhcr1" /> In 2005, the Sudanese government of National Unity (GNU) named a [[Coptic Orthodox]] priest to a government position, though the ruling Islamist party's continued dominance under the GNU provides ample reason to doubt its commitment to broader religious or ethnic representation.<ref name="unhcr1" />
=== Copts in modern Libya ===
{{Main|Copts in Libya}}
{{further|Christianity in Libya}}
The largest Christian group in Libya is the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Orthodox Church]], with a population of 60,000.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}} The Coptic Church is known to have historical roots in Libya long before the Arabs advanced westward from Egypt into Libya.
== Demographics ==
{{further|Christianity in Egypt|Christianity in Sudan|Christianity in Libya}}
Living in countries with Muslim majorities (Egypt, Sudan, Libya), the size of the population of Copts is a continuously disputed matter, frequently for reasons of religious jealousy and animosity.
The Coptic population [[Copts in Egypt|in Egypt]] is difficult to estimate because researchers are forbidden by Egyptian authorities to ask a survey participant's religion,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/markaz/2016/06/20/what-egypt-under-sissi-is-really-like-for-coptic-christians/|title=What Egypt under Sissi is really like for Coptic Christians|last=Yerkes|first=Sarah|date=20 June 2016|quote=Egyptian authorities prevent surveyors from asking a participant's religion when doing research.}}</ref> although official estimates state that Coptic Christians represent 10 to 15 percent<ref name="U.S.Dept of State/Egypt">{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm|title= Egypt from "U.S. Department of State/Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs"|date=September 30, 2008 |publisher= [[United States Department of State]]}}</ref><ref name="FCO/Egypt/">{{cite web|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/egypt|title=Egypt from "Foreign and Commonwealth Office"|date=August 15, 2008|publisher=[[Foreign and Commonwealth Office|Foreign and Commonwealth Office -UK Ministry of Foreign Affairs]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121212135632/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/egypt|archive-date=December 12, 2012}}</ref><ref name="The world factbook/Egypt/">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/|title=Egypt from "The World Factbook"|date=September 4, 2008|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency|American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)]]}}</ref><ref name="IPS News">[http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=32988 IPS News] . Retrieved 09-27-2008.</ref><ref name="christianpost.com">Chan, Kenneth. [http://www.christianpost.com/article/20041207/thousands-protest-egypt-s-neglect-of-coptic-persecution.htm Thousands Protest Egypt's Neglect of Coptic Persecution]". ''[[The Christian Post]]''. December 7, 2004. Retrieved 28 September 2008.</ref><ref name="Washington Institute">{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC05.php?CID=2386|title=The Copts and Their Political Implications in Egypt|date=October 25, 2005|publisher=[[Washington Institute for Near East Policy]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4117831.stm |title=Egyptian Coptic protesters freed |date=22 December 2004 |publisher=BBC |access-date=27 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asharqalawsat.com/leader.asp?section=3&article=157751&issueno=8872 |title=Research in population and demography of France estimates the coptic population to be |publisher=Institut National Etudes Démographiques |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206155030/http://www.asharqalawsat.com/leader.asp?section=3 |archive-date=2007-12-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/1097/9710087.html |title=Estimates of the size of Egypt's Christian population vary from the low government figures of 6 to 7 million to the 12 million reported by some Christian leaders. The actual numbers may be in the 9 to 9.5 million range, out of an Egyptian population of more than 60 million |work=The Washington Post |access-date=10 October 2008}}</ref><ref name="msn encarta/Egypt">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557408_3/Egypt.html|title=Egypt from "msn encarta"|date=September 30, 2008|publisher=[[Microsoft Encarta|Encarta]]|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5kwQyp3zM?url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557408_3/Egypt.html|archive-date=2009-10-31|url-status=dead}}</ref> while other independent and Christian sources estimate much higher numbers, up to 25 percent of the population.<ref name="U.S.Dept of State/Egypt" /><ref name="FCO/Egypt/" /><ref name="The world factbook/Egypt/" /><ref name="IPS News" /><ref name="christianpost.com" /><ref name="washingtoninstitute.org">{{Cite web|url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/rise-uae-and-meaning-mbz|title=The Rise of the UAE and the Meaning of MbZ|website=The Washington Institute}}</ref>
The Coptic population [[Copts in Sudan|in Sudan]] is at about half a million or 1 percent of Sudanese population.<ref name="unhcr1" />
The Coptic population [[Copts in Libya|in Libya]] is about over 60,000 or 1 percent of Libyan population.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/libya-religious-freedom-report-2004 |title=Reports on Religious Freedom: Libya |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=2018-03-11}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2018}}
=== Diaspora ===
{{Main|Coptic diaspora}}
[[File:StMarkCopticOrthodoxChurchBellaireTX0.JPG|thumb|180px|St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church in [[Bellaire, Texas]] ([[Greater Houston]]). There are about 1–2 million Egyptian born Copts living outside of Egypt, and are known as the ''[[Coptic diaspora]]''.]]
Outside of the Coptic primary area of residence within parts of present-day Egypt ([[Copts in Egypt]]), Sudan ([[Copts in Sudan]]), and Libya ([[Copts in Libya]]), the largest Coptic diaspora population is located within the United States, Canada, and Australia. The numbers of the Censuses in the United States, Canada, and Australia are not fully correct since many Copts listed themselves in the 2011 Census mistakenly as either Egyptians, Sudanese, Libyans, Americans, Canadians or Australians and by this way reducing the Coptic population in the 2011 Census in the United States, Canada, and Australia respectively.
Nevertheless, the [[Coptic American|Coptic American (US)]] population is estimated to number about 200,000 (estimates of Coptic organizations ranging as high as a million).<ref name="2009 American Community Survey" /><ref name="Pittsburgh Tribune 2007" /><ref name="JS Online" /><ref name="US-Copts" /> According to published accounts and several Coptic/US sources (including the ''US-Coptic Association''), the Coptic Orthodox Church has between 700,000 and one million members in the United States (c. 2005–2007).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.copticcu.com/WhyCCU.html|title=''Why CCU?''|access-date=June 21, 2009|publisher=Coptic Credit Union}}</ref> The [[Copts in Canada|Coptic Canadian]] population is estimated to number about 50,000<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://canadafreepress.com/article/protest-egyptian-government-allowing-criminal-attacks-on-coptic-christians|title=Protest Egyptian government allowing criminal attacks on Coptic Christians|first=Guest|last=Column|website=Canada Free Press}}</ref> (estimates of Coptic organizations ranging as high as 200,000).<ref name="Montreal Gazette" /><ref name="elaph.com" /> The [[Copts in Australia|Coptic Australian]] population is estimated to number about 100,000<ref name="parliament.nsw.gov.au" /><ref name="coptic.org.au">{{cite web|title=Diocese of Australia|url=http://www.coptic.org.au/|website=Diocese of Australia}}</ref> (estimates of Coptic organizations ranging as high as 100,000).
Smaller communities are found in [[Kuwait]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51603.htm|title=Kuwait|work=U.S. Department of State|access-date=2018-03-17}}</ref> the United Kingdom,<ref>Copts number at least 20,000 in Britain [http://www.middlekilleavy.com/index.php?artid=2631&option=com_cifeed&task=newsarticle middle school ireland marriages family at middlekilleavy.com] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090121192147/http://www.middlekilleavy.com/index.php?artid=2631&option=com_cifeed&task=newsarticle |date=January 21, 2009 }} plus another 5,000 – 10,000 Copts who are directly under the [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090521225825/http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_86.html British Orthodox Church (1999 figures)]</ref>
France (45,000),<ref name="la-croix.com" /> South Africa.<ref name="Come Across And Help Us Book 2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.copticafrica.org/bookcomehelp3.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008090221/http://www.copticafrica.org/bookcomehelp3.htm|url-status=dead|title=Come Across And Help Us Book 2|archive-date=October 8, 2008}}</ref><ref name="CopticMission">{{Cite web|url=http://www.copticmission.org/copticmission|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131014720/http://www.copticmission.org/copticmission|url-status=dead|title=CopticMission|archive-date=January 31, 2011}}</ref>
Minor communities below 10,000 people are reported from [[Jordan]] (8,000 Copts),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jordanembassyus.org/06032005001.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926234617/http://www.jordanembassyus.org/06032005001.htm|url-status=dead|title=King commends Coptic Church's role in promoting coexistence|archive-date=September 26, 2011}}</ref> [[Lebanon]] (3,000 – 4,000 Copts),<ref name="state2"/> [[Germany]] (3,000 Copts),{{fact|date=September 2021}} [[Austria]] (2,000 Copts),<ref name="Austria 2004"/> Switzerland (1,000 Copts),<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/swissinfo.html?siteSect=105&sid=5090250|title=Orthodox Copts open church in Switzerland|last=Burnand|first=Frédéric|work=SWI swissinfo.ch|access-date=2018-03-17|language=en}}</ref> and elsewhere.
It is noted that Copts also live in Denmark, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, and Sweden.
== Persecution and discrimination in Egypt ==
{{Main|Persecution of Copts|Religion in Egypt}}
{{Modern persecution of Coptic Christians}}
[[Freedom of religion|Religious freedom]] in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by discriminatory and restrictive government policies. Coptic Christians, being the largest religious minority in Egypt, are also negatively affected. Copts have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 [[coup d'état]] led by [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]]. Until recently, [[Christians]] were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles and restrictions in building new churches. These restrictions do not apply for building mosques.<ref>WorldWide Religious News. [http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=19813&sec=36&cont=3 Church Building Regulations Eased] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318161245/http://www.wwrn.org/article.php?idd=19813&sec=36&cont=3 |date=March 18, 2009 }}. December 13, 2005.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=13 December 2005|title=Egypt: Church Building Regulations Eased|work=Compass Direct News|url=http://www.compassdirect.org/en/display.php?page=news&lang=en&length=long&idelement=4132|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20071017013530/http://www.compassdirect.org/en/display.php?page=news&lang=en&length=long&idelement=4132|archive-date=17 October 2007}}</ref>
The Coptic community has been targeted by hate crimes by Islamic extremists. The most significant was the 2000–01 El Kosheh attacks, in which Muslims and Christians were involved in bloody inter-religious clashes following a dispute between a Muslim and a Christian. "Twenty Christians and one Muslim were killed after violence broke out in the town of el-Kosheh, {{convert|440|km|mi}} south of Cairo".<ref name="Egyptian court orders clashes retrial">{{cite news|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1465023.stm|title= Egyptian court orders clashes retrial|date=July 30, 2001|work=BBC News}}</ref> In February 2001 a new Coptic church and 35 houses belonging to Christians were burned.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=9C0zAAAAIBAJ&pg=6308,5873985&dq=international-christian-concern&hl=en |title=Copts Under Fire |publisher=The Free Lance–Star |date=November 23, 2002 |access-date=August 2, 2015}}</ref>
In 2006, one person attacked three churches in [[Alexandria]], killing one person and injuring 5–16.<ref name="Coptic Christians attacked in churches">{{cite news | last = Miles | first = Hugh| title= Coptic Christians attacked in churches| publisher= [[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] | date=April 15, 2006 | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/1515829/Coptic-Christians-attacked-in-churches.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/1515829/Coptic-Christians-attacked-in-churches.html |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2008-10-07 | location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The attacker was not linked to any organisation and described as "psychologically disturbed" by the [[Ministry of Interior (Egypt)|Ministry of Interior]].<ref>BBC. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4911346.stm Egypt church attacks spark anger], April 15, 2006.</ref> In May 2010, [[The Wall Street Journal]] reported increasing waves of mob attacks by Muslims against Copts.<ref name="Egypt's Persecuted Christians">{{cite news | last = Zaki | first = Moheb| title= Egypt's Persecuted Christians| work= The Wall Street Journal | date=May 18, 2010 | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703745904575248301172607696|access-date=June 4, 2010 }}</ref> Despite frantic calls for help, the police typically arrived after the violence was over.<ref name="Egypt's Persecuted Christians" /> The police also coerced the Copts to accept "reconciliation" with their attackers to avoid prosecuting them, with no Muslims convicted for any of the attacks.<ref name="2010 USCIRF">{{cite web|title=United States Commission on Int'l Religious Freedom|url=http://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/resources/ar2010/egypt2010.pdf|website=USCIRF}}</ref> In [[Marsa Matrouh]], a Bedouin mob of Muslims tried to attack Copts, with 400 Copts having to barricade themselves in their church while the mob destroyed 18 homes, 23 shops and 16 cars.<ref name="Egypt's Persecuted Christians" />
Members of U.S. Congress have expressed concern about "human trafficking" of Coptic women and girls who are victims of abductions, forced conversion to Islam, sexual exploitation and forced marriage to Muslim men.<ref name="trafficking">{{cite news | url = http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2010/04/21/house-members-press-white-house-confront-egypt-forced-marriages/ | title = House Members Press White House to Confront Egypt on Forced Marriages | last = Abrams | first = Joseph |date = April 21, 2010 | work = foxnews.com | access-date = November 8, 2010}}</ref>
[[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]] was a Copt who served as [[Egypt]]'s foreign minister under President [[Anwar Sadat]]. Previously, only two Copts were in [[Egypt]]'s governmental cabinet: Finance Minister [[Youssef Boutros Ghali]] and Environment Minister Magued George during former president Mubarak's rule. There also used to be one Coptic governor out of 25, that of the [[upper Egypt]]ian governorate of [[Qena]], and is the first Coptic governor in decades due to the higher concentration of Copts in [[Upper Egypt]]. In addition, [[Naguib Sawiris]], [[Nassef Sawiris]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/katevinton/2017/01/09/african-billionaire-fortunes-decline-on-new-forbes-list-of-the-continents-richest/#6dc10049363d|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110080525/http://www.forbes.com/sites/katevinton/2017/01/09/african-billionaire-fortunes-decline-on-new-forbes-list-of-the-continents-richest/#6dc10049363d|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 10, 2017|title=African Billionaire Fortunes Decline On New FORBES List Of The Continent's Richest|last=Vinton|first=Kate|newspaper=Forbes|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> and [[Samih Sawiris]],<ref>[https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/10/billionaires08_Samih-Sawiris_L391.html The World's Billionaires: #396 Samih Sawiris]. ''Forbes''. March 5, 2008.</ref> who are extremely successful businessmen and one of the world's 100 wealthiest people, are Copts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/africa-billionaires/list/|title=Africa's Billionaires|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2019-09-28}}</ref> In 2002, under the [[Mubarak]] government, [[Coptic calendar|Coptic Christmas]] (January 7) was recognized as an official holiday.<ref>ArabicNews.com. [http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/021220/2002122025.html Copts welcome Presidential announcement on Eastern Christmas Holiday] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930211738/http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/021220/2002122025.html |date=September 30, 2007 }}. December 20, 2002.</ref> However, many Copts continue to complain of being minimally represented in higher positions in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion.<ref>Freedom House. [http://www.freedomhouse.org/religion/publications/endangered Egypt's Endangered Christians.] {{webarchive |url=https://archive.today/20030107001824/http://www.freedomhouse.org/religion/publications/endangered |date=January 7, 2003 }}</ref><ref>Human Rights Watch. [https://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081114115428/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm |date=2008-11-14 }}. 2005</ref> Most Copts do not support independence or separation movement from other Egyptians.<ref>[http://www.cpr-government.org/index_English.htm Coptic Pharaonic Republic] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218014241/http://www.cpr-government.org/index_English.htm |date=February 18, 2009 }}</ref>
While freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Egyptian constitution, according to [[Human Rights Watch]], "Egyptians are able to [[Religious conversion|convert]] to Islam generally without difficulty, but Muslims who convert to Christianity face difficulties in getting new identity papers and some have been arrested for allegedly forging such documents."<ref>[https://hrw.org/englishwr2k7/docs/2007/01/11/egypt14701.htm Human Rights Watch. World report 2007: Egypt] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928034724/http://hrw.org/englishwr2k7/docs/2007/01/11/egypt14701.htm |date=September 28, 2008 }}.</ref> The Coptic community, however, takes pains to prevent conversions from Christianity to Islam due to the ease with which Christians can often become Muslim.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ahram.org.eg/acpss/eng/ahram/2004/7/5/ARAB43.HTM |title=Egypt: National Unity and the Coptic issue. (Arab Strategic Report 2004–2005) |access-date=2007-09-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912060035/http://www.ahram.org.eg/acpss/eng/ahram/2004/7/5/ARAB43.HTM |archive-date=2007-09-12 }}</ref> Public officials, being conservative themselves, intensify the complexity of the legal procedures required to recognize the religion change as required by law. Security agencies will sometimes claim that such conversions from [[Islam]] to [[Christianity]] (or occasionally vice versa) may stir social unrest, and thereby justify themselves in wrongfully detaining the subjects, insisting that they are simply taking steps to prevent likely social troubles from happening.<ref>[http://www.comeandsee.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=502 Egypt: Egypt Arrests 22 Muslim converts to Christianity]. November 03, 2003</ref> In 2007, a Cairo administrative court denied 45 citizens the right to obtain identity papers documenting their reversion to Christianity after converting to Islam.<ref>Shahine, Gihan. [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2007/843/eg8.htm "Fraud, not Freedom".] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015153850/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2007/843/eg8.htm |date=October 15, 2008 }} Ahram Weekly, 3 – May 9, 2007</ref> However, in February 2008 the Supreme Administrative Court overturned the decision, allowing 12 citizens who had reverted to Christianity to re-list their religion on identity cards,<ref name="Egyptian Court Allows Return to Christianity">{{cite news | last = Audi | first = Nadim | title= Egyptian Court Allows Return to Christianity | work= [[The New York Times]] | date= February 11, 2008 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/11/world/africa/11egypt.html?ex=1360386000&en=03faf391c4592600&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss | access-date=2008-10-07}}</ref><ref>[[Associated Press]]. [http://www.pr-inside.com/egypt-court-upholds-right-of-converted-r430320.htm Egypt court upholds right of converted Muslims to return to Christianity] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121180512/http://www.pr-inside.com/egypt-court-upholds-right-of-converted-r430320.htm |date=November 21, 2011 }}. 2008-02-09.</ref> but they will specify that they had adopted Islam for a brief period of time.<ref>AFP. [http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5g8Ro5sk6sChDNUGMQTIMBj6HsHQQ Egypt allows converts to revert to Christianity on ID] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416155254/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5g8Ro5sk6sChDNUGMQTIMBj6HsHQQ |date=April 16, 2009 }}. February, 2008.</ref>
In August 2013, following the [[2013 Egyptian coup d'état|3 July 2013 Coup]] and clashes between the military and Morsi supporters, there were [[2013 Egyptian coup d'état#Violence against Coptic Christians|widespread attacks]] on Coptic churches and institutions in Egypt by [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]].<ref>{{cite news | last = Chulov | first = Martin | title= Egypt's Coptic Christians report fresh attacks on churches: Christian leaders blame Muslim Brotherhood supporters for arson and other attacks, including shooting death of teenage girl | work= The Guardian | date= Aug 15, 2013 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/15/egypt-coptic-christians-attacks-churches | access-date=2013-08-16}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite news | last = Khairat | first = Mohamed | title= Coptic churches burn amid violence in Egypt: Coptic Christians call for greater protection as wave of violence sweeps across Egypt | work= Egyptian Streets | date= Aug 16, 2013 | url = http://egyptianstreets.com/2013/08/16/coptic-churches-burn-amid-violence-in-egypt/ | access-date=2013-08-16}}</ref> According to at least one Egyptian scholar (Samuel Tadros), the attacks are the worst violence against the Coptic Church since the 14th century.<ref name=MB-war>{{cite web | url = https://www.hudson.org/research/11318-egypt-s-coptic-christians-braced-for-persecution | title = Egypt's Coptic Christians – Braced for Persecution | last = Gilbert |first = Lela |date = 25 May 2015 | website = Hudson Institute | access-date = 17 February 2018}}</ref>
''[[USA Today]]'' reported that "forty churches have been looted and torched, while 23 others have been attacked and heavily damaged". More than 45 churches across Egypt were attacked.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://egyptianstreets.com/2013/08/16/coptic-churches-burn-amid-violence-in-egypt/|title=Coptic churches burn amid violence in Egypt|author=Egyptian Streets|work=Egyptian Streets|date=16 August 2013}}</ref> The [[Facebook]] page of the Muslim Brotherhood's Freedom and Justice Party was "rife with false accusations meant to foment hatred against Copts". The Party's page claimed that the Coptic Church had declared "war against Islam and Muslims" and that "The Pope of the Church is involved in the removal of the first elected Islamist president. The Pope of the Church alleges Islamic Sharia is backwards, stubborn, and reactionary."{{Relevance inline|date=October 2018}} On August 15, nine Egyptian human rights groups under the umbrella group "Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights", released a statement saying, <blockquote>"In December … Brotherhood leaders began fomenting anti-Christian sectarian incitement. The anti-Coptic incitement and threats continued unabated up to the demonstrations of June 30 and, with the removal of President Morsi … morphed into sectarian violence, which was sanctioned by … the continued anti-Coptic rhetoric heard from the group's leaders on the stage … throughout the sit-in."<ref name=personal>{{cite web|title=Joint Press Release: Non-peaceful assembly does not justify collective punishment – Rights groups condemn lethal violence against those in sit-in and terrorist acts of the Muslim Brotherhood|url=http://eipr.org/en/pressrelease/2013/08/15/1782|work=15 August 2013|publisher=Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights|access-date=22 August 2013}}</ref></blockquote>
Coptic women and girls are abducted, [[forced religious conversions in Egypt|forced to convert to Islam]] and marry Muslim men.<ref name=trafficking/><ref name=bbcforcedmarriage>{{cite news | url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12014779 | title = Christian minority under pressure in Egypt | date = December 17, 2010 | work = BBC News | access-date = January 1, 2011 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170322014332/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12014779 | archive-date = March 22, 2017 }}</ref> In 2009 the Washington, D.C. based group [[Christian Solidarity International]] published a study of the abductions and [[forced marriage]]s and the anguish felt by the young women because returning to Christianity is against the law. Further allegations of organised abduction of Copts, trafficking and police collusion continue in 2017.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.worldwatchmonitor.org/2017/09/egypt-ex-kidnapper-admits-get-paid-every-copt-christian-girl-bring/ |title=Egypt: ex-kidnapper admits 'they get paid for every Coptic Christian girl they bring in' |date= 2017-09-14 |publisher= World Watch Monitor |access-date=2017-12-25 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180913115753/https://www.worldwatchmonitor.org/2017/09/egypt-ex-kidnapper-admits-get-paid-every-copt-christian-girl-bring/ |url-status= live |archive-date= 2018-09-13}}</ref>
In April 2010, a bipartisan group of 17 members of the U.S. Congress expressed concern to the State Department's Trafficking in Persons Office about Coptic women who faced "physical and sexual violence, captivity ... exploitation in forced domestic servitude or commercial sexual exploitation, and financial benefit to the individuals who secure the forced conversion of the victim."<ref name=trafficking/>
According to the ''Egyptian NGO Association of Victims of Abduction and Forced Disappearance'', between 2011 and March 2014, around 550 Coptic girls have been kidnapped, and forced to converted to Islam. According the same survey around 40% of the girls were raped prior to their conversion to Islam and married their captors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/557e7e814.html|title=Refworld | Egypt: Situation of Coptic Christians, including treatment; state protection available (2014-May 2015)|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|last=Refugees|website=Refworld}}</ref>
== Language ==
{{Main|Coptic language|Egyptian language}}
[[File:Coptic and Arabic inscriptions in an Old Cairo church.jpg|thumb|223px|right|Coptic and Arabic inscriptions in an Old Cairo church.]]
The [[Coptic language]] is the most recent stage of the [[Egyptian language]]. Coptic should more correctly be used to refer to the script rather than the language itself. Even though this script was introduced as far back as the 1st century BC, it has been applied to the writing of the Egyptian language from the 1st century AD to the present day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stshenouda.com/coptlang/copthist.htm#Definition|title=The Coptic Studies' Corner|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419152624/http://www.stshenouda.com/coptlang/copthist.htm#Definition|archive-date=2012-04-19}}</ref> Coptic remained the spoken language of most Egyptians until it was slowly replaced by colloquial [[Egyptian Arabic]] in [[Lower Egypt]] and [[Sa'idi Arabic]] in [[Upper Egypt]] by the end of the 17th century, although it may have survived in isolated pockets for a little longer.<ref name="Allen2010">{{Cite book |last=Allen |first=James P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lF78Max-h8MC&pg=PA2 |title=Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-139-48635-4 |edition=2nd |pages=1–2 |author-link=James Peter Allen |access-date=19 May 2014}}</ref>
Today, Coptic is the native language of only about 300 Copts around the world. It is also the [[liturgical language]] of the native Egyptian Churches (the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and the [[Coptic Catholic Church]]). It is taught worldwide in many prestigious institutions, but its teaching within Egypt remains limited.
Dialects of the Coptic language:
* [[Sahidic]]: Theban or [[Upper Egypt]]ian.
* [[Bohairic]]: The dialect of the [[Nile Delta]] and of the medieval and modern Coptic Church.
* [[Akhmimic]]
* [[Lycopolitan]] (also known as Subakhmimic)
* [[Fayyumic]]
* [[Oxyrhynchite]]
== Calendar ==
{{Main|Coptic calendar}}
The [[Coptic calendar]], also called the Alexandrian calendar, is used by the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and also by [[Ethiopian calendar|Ethiopia]] as its official calendar (with different names). This [[calendar]] is based on the ancient [[Egyptian calendar]]. To avoid the calendar creep of the latter, a reform of the ancient Egyptian calendar was introduced at the time of [[Ptolemy III]] (Decree of Canopus, in 238 BC) which consisted of the intercalation of a sixth [[epagomenal day]] every fourth year. However, this reform was opposed by the Egyptian priests, and the idea was not adopted until 25 BC, when the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] Emperor [[Augustus]] formally reformed the calendar of [[Egypt]], keeping it forever synchronized with the newly introduced [[Julian calendar]]. To distinguish it from the Ancient Egyptian calendar, which remained in use by some astronomers until medieval times, this reformed calendar is known as the Coptic calendar. Its years and months coincide with those of the [[Ethiopian calendar]] but have different numbers and names.<ref name="calendar">{{cite web|title=The Coptic Calendar of Martyrs|url=http://www.copticchurch.net/easter.html|website=Coptic Orthodox Church Network}}</ref>
=== Coptic year ===
{{See also|Computus}}
[[File:Coptic cross.svg|left|220px|Coptic Orthodox Cross with traditional Coptic script reading: 'Jesus Christ, the Son of God']]
The Coptic year is the extension of the ancient Egyptian civil year, retaining its subdivision into the three seasons, four months each. The three seasons are commemorated by special prayers in the Coptic Liturgy. This calendar is still in use all over Egypt by farmers to keep track of the various agricultural seasons. The Coptic calendar has 13 months, 12 of 30 days each and an intercalary month at the end of the year of 5 or 6 days, depending whether the year is a leap year or not. The year starts on 29 August in the [[Julian Calendar]] or on the 30th in the year before (Julian) Leap Years. The Coptic Leap Year follows the same rules as the Julian Calendar so that the extra month always has six days in the year before a Julian Leap Year.{{sfn|Declercq|2000|p=80}}
The Feast of [[Neyrouz]] marks the first day of the Coptic year. Ignorant of the Egyptian language for the most part, the Arabs confused the Egyptian new year's celebrations, which the Egyptians called the feast of ''Ni-Yarouou'' (the feast of the rivers), with the Persian feast of [[Nowruz]].<ref name="calendar" /> The misnomer remains today, and the celebrations of the Egyptian new year on the first day of the month of Thout are known as the Neyrouz. Its celebration falls on the 1st day of the month of [[Thout]], the first month of the Egyptian year, which for AD 1901 to 2098 usually coincides with 11 September, except before a Gregorian leap year when it's September 12. Coptic years are counted from 284 AD, the year [[Diocletian]] became Roman Emperor, whose reign was marked by tortures and mass executions of Christians, especially in Egypt. Hence, the Coptic year is identified by the abbreviation A.M. (for ''Anno Martyrum'' or "Year of the Martyrs").{{citation needed|date=April 2015}} The A.M. abbreviation is also used for the unrelated Jewish year (''Anno Mundi'').{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}
Every fourth Coptic year is a leap year ''without exception'', as in the Julian calendar, so the above-mentioned new year dates apply only between AD 1900 and 2099 inclusive in the Gregorian Calendar. In the Julian Calendar, the new year is ''always'' 29 August, except before a Julian leap year when it's August 30. [[Easter]] is reckoned by the Julian Calendar in the Old Calendarist way.
To obtain the Coptic year number, subtract from the Julian year number either 283 (before the Julian new year) or 284 (after it).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://copticchurch.net/easter.html|title=Coptic Orthodox Calendar / Easter Calculation|website=copticchurch.net|access-date=2018-03-17}}</ref>
== Genetics ==
According to Y-DNA analysis by Hassan et al. (2008), around 45% of Copts in Sudan carry the [[Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|haplogroup J]]. The remainder mainly belong to the [[Haplogroup E-M215 (Y-DNA)|E1b1b]] clade (21%). Both paternal lineages are common among other local [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]]-speaking populations (Beja, Ethiopians, Sudanese Arabs), as well as many Nubians.<ref name="Hassan2008">{{cite journal|author=Hassan, Hisham Y.|display-authors=et al|title=Y‐chromosome variation among Sudanese: Restricted gene flow, concordance with language, geography, and history|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|date=2008|volume=137|issue=3|pages=316–323|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/45024883/Y-chromosome_variation_among_Sudanese_re20160423-13798-werau.pdf|access-date=14 October 2016|doi=10.1002/ajpa.20876|pmid=18618658}}{{dead link|date=January 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> E1b1b/E3b reaches its highest frequencies among North Africans, Levantine Middle Easterners, and Ethiopid East Africans.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Trombetta, Beniamino|display-authors=et al|title=Phylogeographic refinement and large scale genotyping of human Y chromosome haplogroup E provide new insights into the dispersal of early pastoralists in the African continent|journal=Genome Biology and Evolution|date=2015|volume=7|issue=7|pages=1940–1950|doi=10.1093/gbe/evv118|pmid=26108492|pmc=4524485}}</ref> The next most common haplogroups borne by Copts are the European-linked [[Haplogroup R1b|R1b]] clade (15%), as well as the archaic African [[Haplogroup B-M60|B]] lineage (15%).<ref name="Hassan2008" />
Maternally, Hassan (2009) found that Copts in Sudan exclusively carry various descendants of the [[Haplogroup N (mtDNA)|macrohaplogroup N]]. This mtDNA clade is likewise closely associated with local Afroasiatic-speaking populations, including Berbers and Ethiopid peoples. Of the N derivatives borne by Copts, [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|U6]] is most frequent (28%), followed by the [[Haplogroup T (mtDNA)|haplogroup T]] (17%).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mohamed|first1=Hisham Yousif Hassan|title=Genetic Patterns of Y-chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Variation, with Implications to the Peopling of the Sudan|url=http://khartoumspace.uofk.edu/bitstream/handle/123456789/6376/Genetic%20Patterns%20of%20Y-chromosome%20and%20Mitochondrial.pdf?sequence=1|publisher=University of Khartoum|access-date=13 October 2016}}{{Dead link|date=March 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
A 2015 study by Dobon et al. identified an ancestral autosomal component of West Eurasian origin that is common to many modern Afroasiatic-speaking populations in [[Northeast Africa]]. Known as the ''Coptic'' component, it peaks among Egyptian Copts who settled in Sudan over the past two centuries. Copts also formed a separated group in [[principal component analysis|PCA]], a close outlier to other Egyptians, Afro-Asiatic-speaking Northeast Africans and Middle East populations. The scientists suggest that this points to a common origin for the general population of Egypt or middle eastern and North African populations. The study says “Copts share the same main ancestral component than North African and Middle East populations (dark blue), supporting a common origin with Egypt (or other North African/Middle Eastern populations). They are known to be the most ancient population of Egypt and at k = 4 (Fig.3), they show their own component (dark green) different from the current Egyptian population which is closer to the Arabic population of Qatar.” This supports that Copts have common origin with Egypt or other North African/Middle Eastern populations. This supports that Copts originate from same ancestors as North African and Middle Eastern or Egypt.<ref name=Dobon2015>{{cite journal|author=Begoña Dobon|display-authors=et al|title=The genetics of East African populations: a Nilo-Saharan component in the African genetic landscape|journal=Scientific Reports|date=28 May 2015|volume=5|doi=10.1038/srep09996|pages=9996|pmid=26017457|pmc=4446898|bibcode=2015NatSR...5E9996D}}</ref> They also associate the Coptic component with Ancient Egyptian ancestry, without the later Arabian influence that is present among other Egyptians.<ref name=Dobon2015-cae>{{cite journal|author=Begoña Dobon|display-authors=et al|title=The genetics of East African populations: a Nilo-Saharan component in the African genetic landscape|journal=Scientific Reports|date=28 May 2015|volume=5|doi=10.1038/srep09996|page=8|pmid=26017457|pmc=4446898|bibcode=2015NatSR...5E9996D|quote=The North African/Middle Eastern genetic component is identified especially in Copts. The Coptic population present in Sudan is an example of a recent migration from Egypt over the past two centuries. They are close to Egyptians in the PCA, but remain a differentiated cluster, showing their own component at k = 4 (Fig. 3). The Coptic component at k = 4 peaks highest among Copts and makes up most of their distribution while it is not predominant among Egyptians. K = 2 to K = 5 (Fig. 3) shows Egyptians distribution resemble Qatar more than Copts. Copts lack the influence found in Egyptians from Qatar, an Arabic population. It may suggest that Copts have a genetic composition that could resemble the ancestral Egyptian population, without the present strong Arab influence}}</ref>
Hollfelder et al. (2017) analysed various populations in Sudan and observed that [[Egyptians]] and Copts showed low levels of genetic differentiation and lower levels of genetic diversity compared to northeast African groups. Copts and Egyptians displayed similar levels of European or Middle Eastern ancestry (Copts were estimated to be of 69.54% ± 2.57 European ancestry and the Egyptians of 70.65% ± 2.47 European ancestry). The authors concluded that the Copts and the Egyptians have a common history linked to smaller population sizes, and that Sudanese Copts have remained relatively isolated since their arrival to Sudan with only low levels of admixture with local northeastern Sudanese groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hollfelder|first1=Nina|last2=Schlebusch|first2=Carina M.|last3=Günther|first3=Torsten|last4=Babiker|first4=Hiba|last5=Hassan|first5=Hisham Y.|last6=Jakobsson|first6=Mattias|date=2017-08-24|title=Northeast African genomic variation shaped by the continuity of indigenous groups and Eurasian migrations|journal=PLOS Genetics|language=en|volume=13|issue=8|pages=e1006976|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1006976|pmid=28837655|pmc=5587336|issn=1553-7404|doi-access=free}}{{CC-notice|by4|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1006976}}</ref>
An allele frequency comparative study across 9 nine between the two main Egyptian ethnic groups, Muslims and Christians, supported the conclusion that Egyptian Muslims and Egyptian Christians genetically originate from the same ancestors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Taha|first1=Tarek|last2=Elzalabany|first2=Sagy|last3=Fawzi|first3=Sahar|last4=Hisham|first4=Ahmed|last5=Amer|first5=Khaled|last6=Shaker|first6=Olfat|date=August 2020|title=Allele frequency comparative study between the two main Egyptian ethnic groups|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32521421/|journal=Forensic Science International|volume=313|pages=110348|doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110348|issn=1872-6283|pmid=32521421|s2cid=219586129}}</ref> This is consistent with the Dobon 2015 study which says “Copts share the same main ancestral component than North African and Middle East populations (dark blue), supporting a common origin with Egypt (or other North African/Middle Eastern populations). They are known to be the most ancient population of Egypt and at k = 4 (Fig.3), they show their own component (dark green) different from the current Egyptian population which is closer to the Arabic population of Qatar.” This supports that Copts have common origin with Egypt or other North African/Middle Eastern populations. This supports that Copts originate from same ancestors as North African and Middle Eastern or Egypt.<ref name=Dobon2015>{{cite journal|author=Begoña Dobon|display-authors=et al|title=The genetics of East African populations: a Nilo-Saharan component in the African genetic landscape|journal=Scientific Reports|date=28 May 2015|volume=5|doi=10.1038/srep09996|pages=9996|pmid=26017457|pmc=4446898|bibcode=2015NatSR...5E9996D}}</ref>
Copts originate from the same ancestors as Egyptians or North African/Middle Eastern populations and thus have an ancestral overlap with these populations. At the same time K = 4 to K = 5 ( Fig. 3) shows the Coptic component (Dark Green) makes up most of Copts distribution and peaks highest among Copts while the Middle Eastern/North African component(Dark blue) makes up most of Egypt and Qatar distribution at K = 4 to K = 5. K = 2 to K = 5 also shows that the Egypt distribution resembles Qatar more than it does Copts.
== Prominent Copts ==
[[File:Halim El-Dabh2.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Halim El-Dabh at a [[Cleveland]] festival in 2009.]]
[[File:Naelachohanboutrosghali-2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]]]]{{Main|List of Copts}}
Some famous Copts include:
* [[Hani Azer]], prominent civil engineer
* [[Halim El-Dabh]], Egyptian-American musician and academic
* [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]], the sixth [[United Nations Secretary-General|Secretary-General]] of the [[United Nations]].
* [[Rami Malek]], an [[Egyptian-American]] actor of Coptic origins.
* [[Mena Massoud]], an [[Egyptian-Canadian]] actor.
* [[Dina Powell]], American Politician.
* [[Fayez Sarofim]], heir to the Sarofim family fortune.
* [[Naguib Sawiris]], the CEO of [[Orascom]].
* [[Magdi Yacoub]], Egyptian-British cardiothoracic surgeon.
{{clear}}
== See also ==
{{Portal|Egypt|Libya|Christianity}}
{{cols|colwidth=21em}}
* [[Aigyptos]], in [[Greek mythology]]
* [[Coptic art]]
* [[Coptic Catholic Church]]
* [[Coptic diaspora]]
* [[Coptic flag]]
* [[Coptic identity]]
* [[Coptic language]]
* [[Coptic Museum]]
* [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Orthodox Church]]
* [[Coptic Saints]]
* [[Coptology]]
* [[Christianity in Egypt]]
* [[Christianity in Sudan]]
* [[Christianity in Libya]]
* [[List of Copts|List of prominent Copts worldwide]]
{{colend}}
== Footnotes ==
{{Reflist|2}}
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Betts|first=Robert B.|title=Christians in the Arab East: A Political Study|year=1978|edition=2nd rev.|location=Athens|publisher=Lycabettus Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHstAQAAIAAJ|isbn=9780804207966}}
* Capuani, Massimo et al. ''Christian Egypt: Coptic Art and Monuments Through Two Millennia'' (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/Christian-Egypt-Monuments-Through-Millennia/dp/0814624065/ excerpt and text search]
* {{Cite book |last=Charles|first=Robert H.|author-link=Robert Charles (scholar)|title=The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text|year=2007|orig-year=1916|location=Merchantville, New Jersey|publisher=Evolution Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KgZ-DOr77OQC|isbn=9781889758879}}
* Courbage, Youssef and Phillipe Fargues. Judy Mabro (Translator) ''Christians and Jews Under Islam'', 1997.
* Ibrahim, Vivian. ''The Copts of Egypt: The Challenges of Modernisation and Identity'' (I.B. Tauris, distributed by Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 258 pages; examines historical relations between Coptic Christians and the Egyptian state and describes factionalism and activism in the community.
* Kamil, Jill. ''Coptic Egypt: History and a Guide.'' Revised Ed. American University in Cairo Press, 1990.
* Meinardus, Otto Friedrich August. ''Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity'' (2010)
* {{cite book| editor-last=Thomas |editor-first=Martyn |title=Copts in Egypt: A Christian Minority Under Siege : Papers Presented at the First International Coptic Symposium, Zurich, September 23–25, 2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooAaaMdOwpAC|year=2006|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht|isbn=9783857100406}}
* {{Cite book |last=Meyendorff|first=John|author-link=John Meyendorff|year=1989|title=Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D.|series=The Church in history|volume=2|location=Crestwood, New York|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9780881410556}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ostrogorsky|first=George|author-link=George Ostrogorsky|year=1956|title=History of the Byzantine State|location=Oxford|publisher=Basil Blackwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bt0_AAAAYAAJ}}
* Van Doorn-Harder, Nelly. "Finding a Platform: Studying the Copts in the 19th and 20th Centuries" ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'' (Aug 2010) 42#3 pp 479–482. Historiography
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|Copt}}
* [http://directory.nihov.org/ Worldwide Coptic Directory]
* [http://www.coptsunited.com/ Copts United Newspaper]
* [http://www.coptic-cairo.com/ Coptic Cairo]
* [https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5636.htm U.S. Department of State International Religious Freedom Report: Egypt]
{{Copts footer}}
{{Eastern Christianity footer}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Copts| ]]
[[Category:Egyptian Christians]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of North Africa]]
[[Category:Coptic Orthodox Church]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy in Egypt]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy in Sudan]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy in Libya]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Egypt]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Sudan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Libya]]
[[Category:Christian terminology]]
[[Category:North African people]]
[[Category:Ethnoreligious groups]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East]]' |
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