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{{Short description|Extinct genus of placoderm fish}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| fossil_range = [[Late Devonian]] ([[Frasnian]] to [[Famennian]]), {{Fossil range|382|358}}
| image = Dunkleosteus (15677042802).jpg
| image_caption = Reconstructed skull, [[Vienna Natural History Museum]]
| image2 = D_Terrelli.png
| image2_caption = Artist's reconstruction of ''D. terrelli''
| taxon = Dunkleosteus
| authority = Lehman, 1956
| type_species = †''Dunkleosteus terrelli''
| type_species_authority = [[John Strong Newberry|Newberry]], 1873
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision = {{collapsible list|
''D. terrelli'' <small>(Newberry, 1873 [originally ''[[Dinichthys]]''])</small><br />
''D. ? belgicus'' <small>(Newberry) 1873</small><br />
''D. denisoni'' <small>(Kulczycki) 1957</small><br />
''D. marsaisi'' <small>Lehmann, 1956</small><br />
''D. magnificus'' <small>(Hussakof & Bryant) 1919</small><br />
''D. missouriensis'' <small>(Branson) 1914</small><br />
''D. newberryi'' <small>(Clarke) 1885</small><br />
''D. amblyodoratus'' <small>Carr & Hlavin, 2010</small><br />
''D. raveri'' <small>Carr & Hlavin, 2010</small>
}}
}}
'''''Dunkleosteus''''' is an [[Extinction (biology)|extinct]] [[genus]] of large [[arthrodira|armored, jawed fishes]] that existed during the [[Late Devonian]] period, about 382–358 [[million years ago]]. It consists of ten species, some of which are among the largest [[placoderm]]s to have ever lived: ''D. terrelli'', ''D. belgicus'', ''D. denisoni'', ''D. marsaisi'', ''D. magnificus'', ''D. missouriensis'', ''D. newberryi'', ''D. amblyodoratus'', and ''D. raveri''. The largest and most well known species is ''D. terrelli'', which grew up to {{convert|8.79|m|ft|1|abbr=on}} long<ref name="Ferron2017"/> and {{convert|4|MT|ST|abbr=on}}<ref name=ScienceDaily>{{cite news |title=Ancient Predator Had Strongest Bite Of Any Fish, Rivaling Bite Of Large Alligators And T. Rex |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061129094125.htm |access-date=October 1, 2020 |work=ScienceDaily |date=November 29, 2006 |language=en}}</ref>{{unreliable source|date=November 2021}} in weight. ''Dunkleosteus'' could quickly open and close its jaw, like modern-day [[Aquatic feeding mechanisms#Suction feeding|suction feeders]], and had a bite force of {{convert|6000|N|kg-f lb-f|0|abbr=on}} at the tip and {{convert|7400|N|kg-f lb-f|0|abbr=on}} at the blade edge. Numerous [[fossil]]s of the various species have been found in [[North America]], [[Poland]], [[Belgium]], and [[Morocco]].
The genus name combines [[David Dunkle]]'s surname with the Greek word {{wikt-lang|grc|ὀστέον}} ({{transl|grc|ostéon}} 'bone'), literally meaning 'Dunkle's-bone'.
==Taxonomy==
''Dunkleosteus'' was named in 1956 to honour [[David Dunkle]] (1911–1982), former curator of [[vertebrate paleontology]] at the [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]]. The [[type species]] ''D. terrelli'' was originally described in 1873 as a species of ''[[Dinichthys]]'', its specific epithet chosen in honor of Jay Terrell, the fossil's discoverer.<ref>"Dunkleosteus terrelli: Fierce prehistoric predator" page at ''Cleveland Museum of Natural History''. https://www.cmnh.org/dunk</ref>
''Dunkleosteus'' is an [[arthrodire]] originally placed in the family [[Dinichthyidae]], which is composed mostly of large, carnivorous fish like ''[[Gorgonichthys]]''. Anderson (2009) suggests, because of its primitive [[Fish jaw|jaw structure]], ''Dunkleosteus'' should be placed outside the family Dinichthyidae, perhaps close to the base of the [[clade]] Pachyosteomorpha, near ''[[Eastmanosteus]]''. Carr and Hlavin (2010) resurrect [[Dunkleosteidae]] and place ''Dunkleosteus'', ''Eastmanosteus'', and a few other genera from Dinichthyidae within it.<ref name="Carr+2010">{{cite journal| author =Carr R. K., Hlavin V. J.| title =Two new species of Dunkleosteus Lehman, 1956, from the Ohio Shale Formation (USA, Famennian) and the Kettle Point Formation (Canada, Upper Devonian), and a cladistic analysis of the Eubrachythoraci (Placodermi, Arthrodira)| journal =Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society| volume =159| issue =1| pages =195–222| year =2010| doi =10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00578.x| doi-access =free}}</ref> Dinichthyidae, in turn, is left a [[Monotypic taxon|monospecific]] family.<ref name=Carr1995>{{cite journal|last=Carr|first=Robert K.|author2=William J. Hlavin|title=Dinichthyidae (Placodermi):A paleontological fiction?|journal=Geobios|date=September 2, 1995|volume=28|pages=85–87|doi=10.1016/S0016-6995(95)80092-1}}</ref>
=== Species ===
[[File:Dunkleosteus marsaisi 45.JPG|thumb|''D. marsaisi'' skull]]
At least ten different species<ref name="Carr+2010"/><ref name=Denison>{{cite book|last=Denison|first=Robert|chapter=Placodermi|volume=2|title=Handbook of Paleoichthyology|year=1978|publisher=Gustav Fischer Verlag|location=Stuttgart New York|isbn=978-0-89574-027-4|pages=128}}</ref> of ''Dunkleosteus'' have been described so far.
The [[type species]], ''D. terrelli'', is the largest, best-known species of the genus, measuring {{convert|8.79|m|ft|1|abbr=on}} in length. It has a rounded snout. ''D. terrelli''{{'s}} fossil remains are found in Upper Frasnian to Upper Famennian Late Devonian strata of the United States (Huron and [[Cleveland Shale]] of Ohio, the Conneaut of [[Pennsylvania]], [[Chattanooga Shale]] of Tennessee, [[Lost Burro Formation]], California, and possibly Ives [[breccia]] of Texas<ref name=Denison/>) and [[Europe]].
''D. belgicus'' (?) is known from fragments described from the [[Famennian]] of [[Belgium]]. The median dorsal plate is characteristic of the genus, but, a plate that was described as a suborbital is anterolateral.<ref name=Denison/>
''D. denisoni'' is known from a small median dorsal plate, typical in appearance for ''Dunkleosteus'', but much smaller than normal. It is comparable in skull structure to ''D. marsaisi''.<ref name=Denison/>
''D. marsaisi'' refers to the ''Dunkleosteus'' fossils from the Lower Famennian Late Devonian strata of the [[Atlas Mountains]] in [[Morocco]]. It differs in size, the known skulls averaging a length of {{convert|35|cm|ft}} and in form to ''D. terrelli''. In ''D. marsaisi'', the snout is narrower, and a postpineal fenestra may be present. Many researchers and authorities consider it a synonym of ''D. terrelli''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Murray|first=A.M.|title=The Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic fishes of Africa|journal=Fish and Fisheries|year=2000|volume=1|issue=2|pages=111–145|doi=10.1046/j.1467-2979.2000.00015.x}}</ref> H. Schultze regards ''D. marsaisi'' as a member of ''[[Eastmanosteus]]''.<ref name=Denison/><ref name=Schultz>{{cite journal|last=Schultz|first=H|title=Large Upper Devonian arthrodires from Iran|journal=Fieldiana Geology|year=1973|volume=23|pages=53–78|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.5270|doi-access=free}}</ref>
''D. magnificus'' is a large placoderm from the Frasnian [[Rhinestreet Shale]] of New York. It was originally described as ''[[Dinichthys]] magnificus'' by Hussakof and Bryant in 1919, then as "'' Dinichthys mirabilis''" by Heintz in 1932. Dunkle and Lane moved it to ''Dunkleosteus'' in 1971.<ref name=Denison/>
''D. missouriensis'' is known from fragments from Frasnian [[Missouri]]. Dunkle and Lane regard them as being very similar to ''D. terrelli''.<ref name=Denison/>
''D. newberryi'' is known primarily from a {{convert|28|cm|in}} long infragnathal with a prominent anterior cusp, found in the Frasnian portion of the [[Genesee Group]] of New York, and originally described as ''Dinichthys newberryi''.<ref name=Denison/>
''D. amblyodoratus'' is known from some fragmentary remains from Late Devonian strata of [[Kettle Point 44, Ontario|Kettle Point]], Canada. The species name means 'blunt spear' and refers to the way the [[nuchal]] and [[paranuchal]] plates in the back of the head form the shape of a blunted spearhead. Although it is known only from fragments, it is estimated to have been about {{convert|6|m|ft|1}} long in life.<ref name="Carr+2010"/>
''D. raveri'' is a small species, possibly 1 meter long, known from an uncrushed skull roof found in a carbonate concretion from near the bottom of the Huron Shale, of the Famennian [[Ohio Shale]] strata. Besides its small size, it had comparatively large eyes. Because ''D. raveri'' was found in the strata directly below the strata where the remains of ''D. terrelli'' are found, ''D. raveri'' may have given rise to ''D. terrelli''. The species name commemorates Clarence Raver of [[Wakeman, Ohio]], who discovered the concretion where the [[holotype]] was found.<ref name="Carr+2010"/>
==Description==
[[File:Dunkleosteus2021.jpg|thumb|left|Restoration and size comparison of ''D. terrelli'']]
The largest species, ''D. terrelli'', is estimated to have grown up to {{cvt|8.8|m|ft}} in length and {{cvt|4|MT|ST}} in weight,<!--no reliable source for weight among the sources listed--> making it one of the largest placoderms to have existed.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/><ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/><ref name="Carr2010">{{cite journal |last1=Carr |first1=Robert K. |title=Paleoecology of Dunkleosteus terrelli (Placodermi: Arthrodira). |journal=Kirtlandia |date=2010 |volume=57 |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235924093}}</ref><ref name="Ferron2017" /><ref name=ScienceDaily/>{{unreliable source|date=November 2021}} Like other placoderms, ''Dunkleosteus'' had a two-part bony, [[Armour (anatomy)|armoured]] exterior, which may have made it a relatively slow but powerful swimmer. Instead of [[teeth]], ''Dunkleosteus'' possessed two pairs of sharp bony plates which formed a beak-like structure.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> ''Dunkleosteus'', together with most other placoderms, may have also been among the first [[vertebrate]]s to [[internal fertilization|internalize egg fertilization]], as seen in some modern sharks.<ref name=Ahlberg>{{cite journal |last1=Ahlberg |first1=Per |first2=Kate |last2=Trinajstic |first3=Zerina |last3=Johanson |first4=John |last4=Long |s2cid=205217467 |year=2009 |title=Pelvic claspers confirm chondrichthyan-like internal fertilization in arthrodires |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7257 |pages=888–889 |doi=10.1038/nature08176|pmid=19597477 |bibcode=2009Natur.460..888A }}</ref> Some other placoderms have been found with evidence that they may have been [[viviparity|viviparous]], including what appears to have been an [[umbilical cord]].
[[File: Dunkleosteus skull steveoc.jpg|thumb|A skull diagram of ''Dunkleosteus'']]
Mainly the armored frontal sections of specimens have been [[fossilized]], and consequently, the appearance of the other portions of the fish is mostly unknown.<ref>{{cite AV media|last=Dash|first=Sean|title=Prehistoric Monsters Revealed|location=United States|publisher=Workaholic Productions / History Channel|date=2008|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEEhm4rzxEg|access-date=December 18, 2015}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead Youtube links|date=February 2022}}</ref> In fact, only about 5% of ''Dunkleosteus'' specimens have more than a quarter of their skeleton preserved.<ref>Carr, R, & G.L. Jackson. 2008. The Vertebrates fauna of the Cleveland member (Famennian) of the Ohio Shale. Society of Vertebrates Paleontology. 1–17.</ref> Because of this, many reconstructions of the hindquarters are often based on fossils of smaller [[arthrodire]]s, such as ''[[Coccosteus]]'', which have preserved hind sections. However, an exceptionally preserved specimen of ''D. terrelli'' preserves ceratotrichia in a pectoral fin, implying that the fin morphology of placoderms was much more variable than previously thought, and was heavily influenced by locomotory requirements. This knowledge, coupled with the knowledge that fish morphology is more heavily influenced by feeding niche than phylogeny, allowed a 2017 study to infer the body shape of ''D. terrelli''. This new reconstruction gives D. terrelli a much more shark-like profile, including a strong anterior lobe on its tail, in contrast to reconstructions based on other placoderms.<ref name="Ferron2017">{{Cite journal|last1=Ferrón|first1=Humberto G.|last2=Martínez-Pérez|first2=Carlos|last3=Botella|first3=Héctor|date=December 6, 2017|title=Ecomorphological inferences in early vertebrates: reconstructing Dunkleosteus terrelli (Arthrodira, Placodermi) caudal fin from palaeoecological data|journal=PeerJ|language=en|volume=5|pages=e4081|doi=10.7717/peerj.4081|pmid=29230354|pmc=5723140|issn=2167-8359}}</ref>
The most famous specimens of ''Dunkleosteus'' are displayed at the [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]], and others are displayed at the [[American Museum of Natural History]], [[National Museum of Natural History]], [[State Museum of Pennsylvania]], Harrisburg and in the [[Queensland Museum]] in [[Brisbane]], Queensland.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}
===Diet===
''Dunkleosteus terrelli'' possessed a [[four-bar linkage]] mechanism for [[Fish jaw|jaw]] opening that incorporated connections between the skull, the thoracic shield, the lower jaw and the jaw muscles joined together by movable joints.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009>{{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=P.S.L. |author2=Westneat, M. |title=A biomechanical model of feeding kinematics for ''Dunkleosteus terrelli'' (Arthrodira, Placodermi) |journal=Paleobiology |date=2009 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=251–269 |doi=10.1666/08011.1 |s2cid=86203770 |url=http://projects.fieldmuseum.org/sites/default/files/DunkPaleoBio.pdf |access-date=October 29, 2017 |archive-date=November 7, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107014026/http://projects.fieldmuseum.org/sites/default/files/DunkPaleoBio.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=P.S.L. |author2=Westneat, M. |title=Feeding mechanics and bite force modelling of the skull of Dunkleosteus terrelli, an ancient apex predator |journal=Biology Letters |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=76–79 |date=2007 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2006.0569 |pmid=17443970 |pmc=2373817}}</ref> This mechanism allowed ''D. terrelli'' to both achieve a high speed of jaw opening, opening their jaws in 20 milliseconds and completing the whole process in 50–60 milliseconds (comparable to modern fishes that use [[Aquatic feeding mechanisms#Suction feeding|suction feeding]] to assist in prey capture;<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/>) and producing high bite forces when closing the jaw, estimated at {{cvt|6000|N|kg-f lb-f|0}} at the tip and {{cvt|7400|N|kg-f lb-f|0}} at the blade edge in the largest individuals.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> The pressures generated in those regions were high enough to puncture or cut through [[cuticle]] or [[dermal bone|dermal]] armor<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/> suggesting that ''D. terrelli'' was adapted to prey on free-swimming, armored prey such as [[ammonite]]s and other placoderms.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> Fossils of ''Dunkleosteus'' are frequently found with [[Bolus (digestion)|bolus]]es of fish bones, semidigested and partially eaten remains of other fish.<ref name="Virtual Fossil">{{cite web|url= http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil_Galleries/Fish_Devonian/Dunkleosteous/Dunkleosteus.htm |title=Dunkleosteus Placodermi Devonian Armored Fish from Morocco |work=Fossil Archives |publisher=The Virtual Fossil Museum |access-date=April 26, 2009}}</ref> As a result, the [[fossil]] record indicates it may have routinely regurgitated prey bones rather than digest them. Mature individuals probably inhabited deep sea locations, like other Placoderms, living in shallow waters during adolescence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/f2013/peters_sadi/habitat.htm|title=UWL Website}}</ref>
===Juveniles===
Morphological studies on the lower jaws of juveniles of ''D. terrelli'' reveal they were proportionally as robust as those of adults, indicating they already could produce high bite forces and likely were able to shear into resistant prey tissue similar to adults, albeit on a smaller scale. This pattern is in direct contrast to the condition common in tetrapods in which the jaws of juveniles are more gracile than in adults.<ref name=Snively_etal_2009>{{cite journal|last=Snively|first=E.|author2=Anderson, P.S.L. |author3=Ryan, M.J. |title=Functional and ontogenetic implications of bite stress in arthrodire placoderms|journal=Kirtlandia|date=2009|volume=57}}</ref>
==Media depictions==
''Dunkleosteus'' has occasionally been depicted in various media and games. These include the 2003 [[BBC]] TV series ''[[Sea Monsters (TV series)|Sea Monsters: A Walking with Dinosaurs Trilogy]]''<ref>{{cite web| title=IMDB | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/dinosaurs/seamonsters/}}</ref> and the [[Animal Planet]] series ''[[River Monsters]]'' episode "Prehistoric Terror",<ref>{{cite web| title=Episode: Prehistoric Terror| url=http://www.animalplanet.com/tv-shows/river-monsters/photos/episode-prehistoric-terror-cgi-photo-gallery/}}</ref> amongst other depictions. ''Dunkleosteus'' is one of the fossil types that can be found in the game ''[[Animal Crossing: New Horizons]]''. ''Dunkleosteus'' is one of the playable sharks in the mobile video game ''[[Hungry Shark|Hungry Shark Evolution]]''. ''Dunkleosteus'' is featured as a creature in the action-adventure survival video game ''[[Ark: Survival Evolved]]''. The Fossilized Drake from ''[[Pokémon Sword and Shield]]'' is based off of the ''Dunkleosteus'', and can be revived into Dracovish or Arctovish when combined with the Fossilized Drake or Fossilized Dino respectively. The upper halves of these Pokémon bear ''Dunkleosteus''-like heads.
==See also==
{{Portal|Paleontology|Fish}}
* [[List of placoderms]]
==References==
{{notes}}
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite journal|first=Philip S. L.|last=Anderson|s2cid=86583150|year=2008|title=Shape Variation Between Arthrodire Morphotypes Indicates Possible Feeding Niches|journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology|volume=28|number=4|pages=961–969|doi=10.1671/0272-4634-28.4.961}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Dunkleosteus}}
{{Wikispecies|Dunkleosteus}}
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/basalfish/placodermi.html ''Introduction to the Placodermi: Extinct Armored Fishes with Jaws''. Waggoner, Ben (2000). Retrieved Aug 1, 2005]
* [http://www.nbcnews.com/id/15940709 MSNBC: Prehistoric fish packed a mean bite]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6195188.stm BBC: Ancient 'Jaws' had monster bite]
{{Arthrodira|P.}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q131039}}
[[Category:Dunkleosteidae]]
[[Category:Apex predators]]
[[Category:Placoderms of Africa]]
[[Category:Fossils of Morocco]]
[[Category:Placoderms of Europe]]
[[Category:Fossils of Belgium]]
[[Category:Placoderms of North America]]
[[Category:Fossils of Canada]]
[[Category:Paleontology in Missouri]]
[[Category:Paleontology in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Paleontology in Tennessee]]
[[Category:Late Devonian first appearances]]
[[Category:Late Devonian animals]]
[[Category:Famennian extinctions]]
[[Category:Fossil taxa described in 1956]]
[[Category:Taxa named by John Strong Newberry]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext ) | '{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Short description|Extinct genus of placoderm fish}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| fossil_range = [[Late Devonian]] ([[Frasnian]] to [[Famennian]]), {{Fossil range|382|358}}
| image = Dunkleosteus (15677042802).jpg
| image_caption = Reconstructed skull, [[Vienna Natural History Museum]]
| image2 = D_Terrelli.png
| image2_caption = Artist's reconstruction of ''D. terrelli''
| taxon = Dunkleosteus
| authority = Lehman, 1956
| type_species = †''Dunkleosteus terrelli''
| type_species_authority = [[John Strong Newberry|Newberry]], 1873
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision = {{collapsible list|
''D. terrelli'' <small>(Newberry, 1873 [originally ''[[Dinichthys]]''])</small><br />
''D. ? belgicus'' <small>(Newberry) 1873</small><br />
''D. denisoni'' <small>(Kulczycki) 1957</small><br />
''D. marsaisi'' <small>Lehmann, 1956</small><br />
''D. magnificus'' <small>(Hussakof & Bryant) 1919</small><br />
''D. missouriensis'' <small>(Branson) 1914</small><br />
''D. newberryi'' <small>(Clarke) 1885</small><br />
''D. amblyodoratus'' <small>Carr & Hlavin, 2010</small><br />
''D. raveri'' <small>Carr & Hlavin, 2010</small>
}}
}}
'''''Dunkondeesnuts''''' is an [[Extinction (biology)|extinct]] [[genus]] of large [[arthrodira|armored, jawed fishes]] that existed during the [[Late Devonian]] period, about 382–358 [[million years ago]]. It consists of ten species, some of which are among the largest [[placoderm]]s to have ever lived: ''D. terrelli'', ''D. belgicus'', ''D. denisoni'', ''D. marsaisi'', ''D. magnificus'', ''D. missouriensis'', ''D. newberryi'', ''D. amblyodoratus'', and ''D. raveri''. The largest and most well known species is ''D. terrelli'', which grew up to {{convert|8.79|m|ft|1|abbr=on}} long<ref name="Ferron2017"/> and {{convert|4|MT|ST|abbr=on}}<ref name=ScienceDaily>{{cite news |title=Ancient Predator Had Strongest Bite Of Any Fish, Rivaling Bite Of Large Alligators And T. Rex |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061129094125.htm |access-date=October 1, 2020 |work=ScienceDaily |date=November 29, 2006 |language=en}}</ref>{{unreliable source|date=November 2021}} in weight. ''Dunkleosteus'' could quickly open and close its jaw, like modern-day [[Aquatic feeding mechanisms#Suction feeding|suction feeders]], and had a bite force of {{convert|6000|N|kg-f lb-f|0|abbr=on}} at the tip and {{convert|7400|N|kg-f lb-f|0|abbr=on}} at the blade edge. Numerous [[fossil]]s of the various species have been found in [[North America]], [[Poland]], [[Belgium]], and [[Morocco]].
The genus name combines [[David Dunkle]]'s surname with the Greek word {{wikt-lang|grc|ὀστέον}} ({{transl|grc|ostéon}} 'bone'), literally meaning 'Dunkle's-bone'.
==Taxonomy==
''Dunkondeesnuts'' was named in 1956 to honour [[David Dunkle]] (1911–1982), former curator of [[vertebrate paleontology]] at the [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]]. The [[type species]] ''D. terrelli'' was originally described in 1873 as a species of ''[[Dinichthys]]'', its specific epithet chosen in honor of Jay Terrell, the fossil's discoverer.<ref>"Dunkleosteus terrelli: Fierce prehistoric predator" page at ''Cleveland Museum of Natural History''. https://www.cmnh.org/dunk</ref>
''Dunkondeesnuts'' is an [[arthrodire]] originally placed in the family [[Dinichthyidae]], which is composed mostly of large, carnivorous fish like ''[[Gorgonichthys]]''. Anderson (2009) suggests, because of its primitive [[Fish jaw|jaw structure]], ''Dunkleosteus'' should be placed outside the family Dinichthyidae, perhaps close to the base of the [[clade]] Pachyosteomorpha, near ''[[Eastmanosteus]]''. Carr and Hlavin (2010) resurrect [[Dunkleosteidae]] and place ''Dunkondeesnuts'', ''Eastmanosteus'', and a few other genera from Dinichthyidae within it.<ref name="Carr+2010">{{cite journal| author =Carr R. K., Hlavin V. J.| title =Two new species of Dunkleosteus Lehman, 1956, from the Ohio Shale Formation (USA, Famennian) and the Kettle Point Formation (Canada, Upper Devonian), and a cladistic analysis of the Eubrachythoraci (Placodermi, Arthrodira)| journal =Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society| volume =159| issue =1| pages =195–222| year =2010| doi =10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00578.x| doi-access =free}}</ref> Dinichthyidae, in turn, is left a [[Monotypic taxon|monospecific]] family.<ref name=Carr1995>{{cite journal|last=Carr|first=Robert K.|author2=William J. Hlavin|title=Dinichthyidae (Placodermi):A paleontological fiction?|journal=Geobios|date=September 2, 1995|volume=28|pages=85–87|doi=10.1016/S0016-6995(95)80092-1}}</ref>
=== Species ===
[[File:Dunkleosteus marsaisi 45.JPG|thumb|''D. marsaisi'' skull]]
At least ten different species<ref name="Carr+2010"/><ref name=Denison>{{cite book|last=Denison|first=Robert|chapter=Placodermi|volume=2|title=Handbook of Paleoichthyology|year=1978|publisher=Gustav Fischer Verlag|location=Stuttgart New York|isbn=978-0-89574-027-4|pages=128}}</ref> of ''Dunkondeesnuts'' have been described so far.
The [[type species]], ''D. terrelli'', is the largest, best-known species of the genus, measuring {{convert|8.79|m|ft|1|abbr=on}} in length. It has a rounded snout. ''D. terrelli''{{'s}} fossil remains are found in Upper Frasnian to Upper Famennian Late Devonian strata of the United States (Huron and [[Cleveland Shale]] of Ohio, the Conneaut of [[Pennsylvania]], [[Chattanooga Shale]] of Tennessee, [[Lost Burro Formation]], California, and possibly Ives [[breccia]] of Texas<ref name=Denison/>) and [[Europe]].
''D. belgicus'' (?) is known from fragments described from the [[Famennian]] of [[Belgium]]. The median dorsal plate is characteristic of the genus, but, a plate that was described as a suborbital is anterolateral.<ref name=Denison/>
''D. denisoni'' is known from a small median dorsal plate, typical in appearance for ''Dunkondeesnuts'', but much smaller than normal. It is comparable in skull structure to ''D. marsaisi''.<ref name=Denison/>
''D. marsaisi'' refers to the ''Dunkondeesnuts'' fossils from the Lower Famennian Late Devonian strata of the [[Atlas Mountains]] in [[Morocco]]. It differs in size, the known skulls averaging a length of {{convert|35|cm|ft}} and in form to ''D. terrelli''. In ''D. marsaisi'', the snout is narrower, and a postpineal fenestra may be present. Many researchers and authorities consider it a synonym of ''D. terrelli''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Murray|first=A.M.|title=The Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic fishes of Africa|journal=Fish and Fisheries|year=2000|volume=1|issue=2|pages=111–145|doi=10.1046/j.1467-2979.2000.00015.x}}</ref> H. Schultze regards ''D. marsaisi'' as a member of ''[[Eastmanosteus]]''.<ref name=Denison/><ref name=Schultz>{{cite journal|last=Schultz|first=H|title=Large Upper Devonian arthrodires from Iran|journal=Fieldiana Geology|year=1973|volume=23|pages=53–78|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.5270|doi-access=free}}</ref>
''D. magnificus'' is a large placoderm from the Frasnian [[Rhinestreet Shale]] of New York. It was originally described as ''[[Dinichthys]] magnificus'' by Hussakof and Bryant in 1919, then as "'' Dinichthys mirabilis''" by Heintz in 1932. Dunkle and Lane moved it to ''Dunkondeesnuts'' in 1971.<ref name=Denison/>
''D. missouriensis'' is known from fragments from Frasnian [[Missouri]]. Dunkle and Lane regard them as being very similar to ''D. terrelli''.<ref name=Denison/>
''D. newberryi'' is known primarily from a {{convert|28|cm|in}} long infragnathal with a prominent anterior cusp, found in the Frasnian portion of the [[Genesee Group]] of New York, and originally described as ''Dinichthys newberryi''.<ref name=Denison/>
''D. amblyodoratus'' is known from some fragmentary remains from Late Devonian strata of [[Kettle Point 44, Ontario|Kettle Point]], Canada. The species name means 'blunt spear' and refers to the way the [[nuchal]] and [[paranuchal]] plates in the back of the head form the shape of a blunted spearhead. Although it is known only from fragments, it is estimated to have been about {{convert|6|m|ft|1}} long in life.<ref name="Carr+2010"/>
''D. raveri'' is a small species, possibly 1 meter long, known from an uncrushed skull roof found in a carbonate concretion from near the bottom of the Huron Shale, of the Famennian [[Ohio Shale]] strata. Besides its small size, it had comparatively large eyes. Because ''D. raveri'' was found in the strata directly below the strata where the remains of ''D. terrelli'' are found, ''D. raveri'' may have given rise to ''D. terrelli''. The species name commemorates Clarence Raver of [[Wakeman, Ohio]], who discovered the concretion where the [[holotype]] was found.<ref name="Carr+2010"/>
==Description==
[[File:Dunkleosteus2021.jpg|thumb|left|Restoration and size comparison of ''D. terrelli'']]
The largest species, ''D. terrelli'', is estimated to have grown up to {{cvt|8.8|m|ft}} in length and {{cvt|4|MT|ST}} in weight,<!--no reliable source for weight among the sources listed--> making it one of the largest placoderms to have existed.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/><ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/><ref name="Carr2010">{{cite journal |last1=Carr |first1=Robert K. |title=Paleoecology of Dunkleosteus terrelli (Placodermi: Arthrodira). |journal=Kirtlandia |date=2010 |volume=57 |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235924093}}</ref><ref name="Ferron2017" /><ref name=ScienceDaily/>{{unreliable source|date=November 2021}} Like other placoderms, ''Dunkondeesnuts'' had a two-part bony, [[Armour (anatomy)|armoured]] exterior, which may have made it a relatively slow but powerful swimmer. Instead of [[teeth]], ''Dunkondeesnuts'' possessed two pairs of sharp bony plates which formed a beak-like structure.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> ''Dunkondeesnuts'', together with most other placoderms, may have also been among the first [[vertebrate]]s to [[internal fertilization|internalize egg fertilization]], as seen in some modern sharks.<ref name=Ahlberg>{{cite journal |last1=Ahlberg |first1=Per |first2=Kate |last2=Trinajstic |first3=Zerina |last3=Johanson |first4=John |last4=Long |s2cid=205217467 |year=2009 |title=Pelvic claspers confirm chondrichthyan-like internal fertilization in arthrodires |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7257 |pages=888–889 |doi=10.1038/nature08176|pmid=19597477 |bibcode=2009Natur.460..888A }}</ref> Some other placoderms have been found with evidence that they may have been [[viviparity|viviparous]], including what appears to have been an [[umbilical cord]].
[[File: Dunkleosteus skull steveoc.jpg|thumb|A skull diagram of ''Dunkleosteus'']]
Mainly the armored frontal sections of specimens have been [[fossilized]], and consequently, the appearance of the other portions of the fish is mostly unknown.<ref>{{cite AV media|last=Dash|first=Sean|title=Prehistoric Monsters Revealed|location=United States|publisher=Workaholic Productions / History Channel|date=2008|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEEhm4rzxEg|access-date=December 18, 2015}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead Youtube links|date=February 2022}}</ref> In fact, only about 5% of ''Dunkondeesnuts'' specimens have more than a quarter of their skeleton preserved.<ref>Carr, R, & G.L. Jackson. 2008. The Vertebrates fauna of the Cleveland member (Famennian) of the Ohio Shale. Society of Vertebrates Paleontology. 1–17.</ref> Because of this, many reconstructions of the hindquarters are often based on fossils of smaller [[arthrodire]]s, such as ''[[Coccosteus]]'', which have preserved hind sections. However, an exceptionally preserved specimen of ''D. terrelli'' preserves ceratotrichia in a pectoral fin, implying that the fin morphology of placoderms was much more variable than previously thought, and was heavily influenced by locomotory requirements. This knowledge, coupled with the knowledge that fish morphology is more heavily influenced by feeding niche than phylogeny, allowed a 2017 study to infer the body shape of ''D. terrelli''. This new reconstruction gives D. terrelli a much more shark-like profile, including a strong anterior lobe on its tail, in contrast to reconstructions based on other placoderms.<ref name="Ferron2017">{{Cite journal|last1=Ferrón|first1=Humberto G.|last2=Martínez-Pérez|first2=Carlos|last3=Botella|first3=Héctor|date=December 6, 2017|title=Ecomorphological inferences in early vertebrates: reconstructing Dunkleosteus terrelli (Arthrodira, Placodermi) caudal fin from palaeoecological data|journal=PeerJ|language=en|volume=5|pages=e4081|doi=10.7717/peerj.4081|pmid=29230354|pmc=5723140|issn=2167-8359}}</ref>
The most famous specimens of ''Dunkondeesnuts'' are displayed at the [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]], and others are displayed at the [[American Museum of Natural History]], [[National Museum of Natural History]], [[State Museum of Pennsylvania]], Harrisburg and in the [[Queensland Museum]] in [[Brisbane]], Queensland.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}
===Diet===
''Dunkondeesnuts terrelli'' possessed a [[four-bar linkage]] mechanism for [[Fish jaw|jaw]] opening that incorporated connections between the skull, the thoracic shield, the lower jaw and the jaw muscles joined together by movable joints.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009>{{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=P.S.L. |author2=Westneat, M. |title=A biomechanical model of feeding kinematics for ''Dunkleosteus terrelli'' (Arthrodira, Placodermi) |journal=Paleobiology |date=2009 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=251–269 |doi=10.1666/08011.1 |s2cid=86203770 |url=http://projects.fieldmuseum.org/sites/default/files/DunkPaleoBio.pdf |access-date=October 29, 2017 |archive-date=November 7, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107014026/http://projects.fieldmuseum.org/sites/default/files/DunkPaleoBio.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=P.S.L. |author2=Westneat, M. |title=Feeding mechanics and bite force modelling of the skull of Dunkleosteus terrelli, an ancient apex predator |journal=Biology Letters |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=76–79 |date=2007 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2006.0569 |pmid=17443970 |pmc=2373817}}</ref> This mechanism allowed ''D. terrelli'' to both achieve a high speed of jaw opening, opening their jaws in 20 milliseconds and completing the whole process in 50–60 milliseconds (comparable to modern fishes that use [[Aquatic feeding mechanisms#Suction feeding|suction feeding]] to assist in prey capture;<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/>) and producing high bite forces when closing the jaw, estimated at {{cvt|6000|N|kg-f lb-f|0}} at the tip and {{cvt|7400|N|kg-f lb-f|0}} at the blade edge in the largest individuals.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> The pressures generated in those regions were high enough to puncture or cut through [[cuticle]] or [[dermal bone|dermal]] armor<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/> suggesting that ''D. terrelli'' was adapted to prey on free-swimming, armored prey such as [[ammonite]]s and other placoderms.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> Fossils of ''Dunkondeesnuts'' are frequently found with [[Bolus (digestion)|bolus]]es of fish bones, semidigested and partially eaten remains of other fish.<ref name="Virtual Fossil">{{cite web|url= http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil_Galleries/Fish_Devonian/Dunkleosteous/Dunkleosteus.htm |title=Dunkleosteus Placodermi Devonian Armored Fish from Morocco |work=Fossil Archives |publisher=The Virtual Fossil Museum |access-date=April 26, 2009}}</ref> As a result, the [[fossil]] record indicates it may have routinely regurgitated prey bones rather than digest them. Mature individuals probably inhabited deep sea locations, like other Placoderms, living in shallow waters during adolescence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/f2013/peters_sadi/habitat.htm|title=UWL Website}}</ref>
===Juveniles===
Morphological studies on the lower jaws of juveniles of ''D. terrelli'' reveal they were proportionally as robust as those of adults, indicating they already could produce high bite forces and likely were able to shear into resistant prey tissue similar to adults, albeit on a smaller scale. This pattern is in direct contrast to the condition common in tetrapods in which the jaws of juveniles are more gracile than in adults.<ref name=Snively_etal_2009>{{cite journal|last=Snively|first=E.|author2=Anderson, P.S.L. |author3=Ryan, M.J. |title=Functional and ontogenetic implications of bite stress in arthrodire placoderms|journal=Kirtlandia|date=2009|volume=57}}</ref>
==Media depictions==
''Dunkondeesnuts'' has occasionally been depicted in various media and games. These include the 2003 [[BBC]] TV series ''[[Sea Monsters (TV series)|Sea Monsters: A Walking with Dinosaurs Trilogy]]''<ref>{{cite web| title=IMDB | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/dinosaurs/seamonsters/}}</ref> and the [[Animal Planet]] series ''[[River Monsters]]'' episode "Prehistoric Terror",<ref>{{cite web| title=Episode: Prehistoric Terror| url=http://www.animalplanet.com/tv-shows/river-monsters/photos/episode-prehistoric-terror-cgi-photo-gallery/}}</ref> amongst other depictions. ''Dunkondeesnuts'' is one of the fossil types that can be found in the game ''[[Animal Crossing: New Horizons]]''. ''Dunkondeesnuts'' is one of the playable sharks in the mobile video game ''[[Hungry Shark|Hungry Shark Evolution]]''. ''Dunkondeesnuts'' is featured as a creature in the action-adventure survival video game ''[[Ark: Survival Evolved]]''. The Fossilized Drake from ''[[Pokémon Sword and Shield]]'' is based off of the ''Dunkondeesnuts'', and can be revived into Dracovish or Arctovish when combined with the Fossilized Drake or Fossilized Dino respectively. The upper halves of these Pokémon bear ''Dunkondeesnuts''-like heads.
==See also==
{{Portal|Paleontology|Fish}}
* [[List of placoderms]]
==References==
{{notes}}
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite journal|first=Philip S. L.|last=Anderson|s2cid=86583150|year=2008|title=Shape Variation Between Arthrodire Morphotypes Indicates Possible Feeding Niches|journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology|volume=28|number=4|pages=961–969|doi=10.1671/0272-4634-28.4.961}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Dunkleosteus}}
{{Wikispecies|Dunkleosteus}}
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/basalfish/placodermi.html ''Introduction to the Placodermi: Extinct Armored Fishes with Jaws''. Waggoner, Ben (2000). Retrieved Aug 1, 2005]
* [http://www.nbcnews.com/id/15940709 MSNBC: Prehistoric fish packed a mean bite]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6195188.stm BBC: Ancient 'Jaws' had monster bite]
{{Arthrodira|P.}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q131039}}
[[Category:Dunkleosteidae]]
[[Category:Apex predators]]
[[Category:Placoderms of Africa]]
[[Category:Fossils of Morocco]]
[[Category:Placoderms of Europe]]
[[Category:Fossils of Belgium]]
[[Category:Placoderms of North America]]
[[Category:Fossils of Canada]]
[[Category:Paleontology in Missouri]]
[[Category:Paleontology in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Paleontology in Tennessee]]
[[Category:Late Devonian first appearances]]
[[Category:Late Devonian animals]]
[[Category:Famennian extinctions]]
[[Category:Fossil taxa described in 1956]]
[[Category:Taxa named by John Strong Newberry]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff ) | '@@ -25,16 +25,16 @@
}}
-'''''Dunkleosteus''''' is an [[Extinction (biology)|extinct]] [[genus]] of large [[arthrodira|armored, jawed fishes]] that existed during the [[Late Devonian]] period, about 382–358 [[million years ago]]. It consists of ten species, some of which are among the largest [[placoderm]]s to have ever lived: ''D. terrelli'', ''D. belgicus'', ''D. denisoni'', ''D. marsaisi'', ''D. magnificus'', ''D. missouriensis'', ''D. newberryi'', ''D. amblyodoratus'', and ''D. raveri''. The largest and most well known species is ''D. terrelli'', which grew up to {{convert|8.79|m|ft|1|abbr=on}} long<ref name="Ferron2017"/> and {{convert|4|MT|ST|abbr=on}}<ref name=ScienceDaily>{{cite news |title=Ancient Predator Had Strongest Bite Of Any Fish, Rivaling Bite Of Large Alligators And T. Rex |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061129094125.htm |access-date=October 1, 2020 |work=ScienceDaily |date=November 29, 2006 |language=en}}</ref>{{unreliable source|date=November 2021}} in weight. ''Dunkleosteus'' could quickly open and close its jaw, like modern-day [[Aquatic feeding mechanisms#Suction feeding|suction feeders]], and had a bite force of {{convert|6000|N|kg-f lb-f|0|abbr=on}} at the tip and {{convert|7400|N|kg-f lb-f|0|abbr=on}} at the blade edge. Numerous [[fossil]]s of the various species have been found in [[North America]], [[Poland]], [[Belgium]], and [[Morocco]].
+'''''Dunkondeesnuts''''' is an [[Extinction (biology)|extinct]] [[genus]] of large [[arthrodira|armored, jawed fishes]] that existed during the [[Late Devonian]] period, about 382–358 [[million years ago]]. It consists of ten species, some of which are among the largest [[placoderm]]s to have ever lived: ''D. terrelli'', ''D. belgicus'', ''D. denisoni'', ''D. marsaisi'', ''D. magnificus'', ''D. missouriensis'', ''D. newberryi'', ''D. amblyodoratus'', and ''D. raveri''. The largest and most well known species is ''D. terrelli'', which grew up to {{convert|8.79|m|ft|1|abbr=on}} long<ref name="Ferron2017"/> and {{convert|4|MT|ST|abbr=on}}<ref name=ScienceDaily>{{cite news |title=Ancient Predator Had Strongest Bite Of Any Fish, Rivaling Bite Of Large Alligators And T. Rex |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061129094125.htm |access-date=October 1, 2020 |work=ScienceDaily |date=November 29, 2006 |language=en}}</ref>{{unreliable source|date=November 2021}} in weight. ''Dunkleosteus'' could quickly open and close its jaw, like modern-day [[Aquatic feeding mechanisms#Suction feeding|suction feeders]], and had a bite force of {{convert|6000|N|kg-f lb-f|0|abbr=on}} at the tip and {{convert|7400|N|kg-f lb-f|0|abbr=on}} at the blade edge. Numerous [[fossil]]s of the various species have been found in [[North America]], [[Poland]], [[Belgium]], and [[Morocco]].
The genus name combines [[David Dunkle]]'s surname with the Greek word {{wikt-lang|grc|ὀστέον}} ({{transl|grc|ostéon}} 'bone'), literally meaning 'Dunkle's-bone'.
==Taxonomy==
-''Dunkleosteus'' was named in 1956 to honour [[David Dunkle]] (1911–1982), former curator of [[vertebrate paleontology]] at the [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]]. The [[type species]] ''D. terrelli'' was originally described in 1873 as a species of ''[[Dinichthys]]'', its specific epithet chosen in honor of Jay Terrell, the fossil's discoverer.<ref>"Dunkleosteus terrelli: Fierce prehistoric predator" page at ''Cleveland Museum of Natural History''. https://www.cmnh.org/dunk</ref>
+''Dunkondeesnuts'' was named in 1956 to honour [[David Dunkle]] (1911–1982), former curator of [[vertebrate paleontology]] at the [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]]. The [[type species]] ''D. terrelli'' was originally described in 1873 as a species of ''[[Dinichthys]]'', its specific epithet chosen in honor of Jay Terrell, the fossil's discoverer.<ref>"Dunkleosteus terrelli: Fierce prehistoric predator" page at ''Cleveland Museum of Natural History''. https://www.cmnh.org/dunk</ref>
-''Dunkleosteus'' is an [[arthrodire]] originally placed in the family [[Dinichthyidae]], which is composed mostly of large, carnivorous fish like ''[[Gorgonichthys]]''. Anderson (2009) suggests, because of its primitive [[Fish jaw|jaw structure]], ''Dunkleosteus'' should be placed outside the family Dinichthyidae, perhaps close to the base of the [[clade]] Pachyosteomorpha, near ''[[Eastmanosteus]]''. Carr and Hlavin (2010) resurrect [[Dunkleosteidae]] and place ''Dunkleosteus'', ''Eastmanosteus'', and a few other genera from Dinichthyidae within it.<ref name="Carr+2010">{{cite journal| author =Carr R. K., Hlavin V. J.| title =Two new species of Dunkleosteus Lehman, 1956, from the Ohio Shale Formation (USA, Famennian) and the Kettle Point Formation (Canada, Upper Devonian), and a cladistic analysis of the Eubrachythoraci (Placodermi, Arthrodira)| journal =Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society| volume =159| issue =1| pages =195–222| year =2010| doi =10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00578.x| doi-access =free}}</ref> Dinichthyidae, in turn, is left a [[Monotypic taxon|monospecific]] family.<ref name=Carr1995>{{cite journal|last=Carr|first=Robert K.|author2=William J. Hlavin|title=Dinichthyidae (Placodermi):A paleontological fiction?|journal=Geobios|date=September 2, 1995|volume=28|pages=85–87|doi=10.1016/S0016-6995(95)80092-1}}</ref>
+''Dunkondeesnuts'' is an [[arthrodire]] originally placed in the family [[Dinichthyidae]], which is composed mostly of large, carnivorous fish like ''[[Gorgonichthys]]''. Anderson (2009) suggests, because of its primitive [[Fish jaw|jaw structure]], ''Dunkleosteus'' should be placed outside the family Dinichthyidae, perhaps close to the base of the [[clade]] Pachyosteomorpha, near ''[[Eastmanosteus]]''. Carr and Hlavin (2010) resurrect [[Dunkleosteidae]] and place ''Dunkondeesnuts'', ''Eastmanosteus'', and a few other genera from Dinichthyidae within it.<ref name="Carr+2010">{{cite journal| author =Carr R. K., Hlavin V. J.| title =Two new species of Dunkleosteus Lehman, 1956, from the Ohio Shale Formation (USA, Famennian) and the Kettle Point Formation (Canada, Upper Devonian), and a cladistic analysis of the Eubrachythoraci (Placodermi, Arthrodira)| journal =Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society| volume =159| issue =1| pages =195–222| year =2010| doi =10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00578.x| doi-access =free}}</ref> Dinichthyidae, in turn, is left a [[Monotypic taxon|monospecific]] family.<ref name=Carr1995>{{cite journal|last=Carr|first=Robert K.|author2=William J. Hlavin|title=Dinichthyidae (Placodermi):A paleontological fiction?|journal=Geobios|date=September 2, 1995|volume=28|pages=85–87|doi=10.1016/S0016-6995(95)80092-1}}</ref>
=== Species ===
[[File:Dunkleosteus marsaisi 45.JPG|thumb|''D. marsaisi'' skull]]
-At least ten different species<ref name="Carr+2010"/><ref name=Denison>{{cite book|last=Denison|first=Robert|chapter=Placodermi|volume=2|title=Handbook of Paleoichthyology|year=1978|publisher=Gustav Fischer Verlag|location=Stuttgart New York|isbn=978-0-89574-027-4|pages=128}}</ref> of ''Dunkleosteus'' have been described so far.
+At least ten different species<ref name="Carr+2010"/><ref name=Denison>{{cite book|last=Denison|first=Robert|chapter=Placodermi|volume=2|title=Handbook of Paleoichthyology|year=1978|publisher=Gustav Fischer Verlag|location=Stuttgart New York|isbn=978-0-89574-027-4|pages=128}}</ref> of ''Dunkondeesnuts'' have been described so far.
The [[type species]], ''D. terrelli'', is the largest, best-known species of the genus, measuring {{convert|8.79|m|ft|1|abbr=on}} in length. It has a rounded snout. ''D. terrelli''{{'s}} fossil remains are found in Upper Frasnian to Upper Famennian Late Devonian strata of the United States (Huron and [[Cleveland Shale]] of Ohio, the Conneaut of [[Pennsylvania]], [[Chattanooga Shale]] of Tennessee, [[Lost Burro Formation]], California, and possibly Ives [[breccia]] of Texas<ref name=Denison/>) and [[Europe]].
@@ -42,9 +42,9 @@
''D. belgicus'' (?) is known from fragments described from the [[Famennian]] of [[Belgium]]. The median dorsal plate is characteristic of the genus, but, a plate that was described as a suborbital is anterolateral.<ref name=Denison/>
-''D. denisoni'' is known from a small median dorsal plate, typical in appearance for ''Dunkleosteus'', but much smaller than normal. It is comparable in skull structure to ''D. marsaisi''.<ref name=Denison/>
+''D. denisoni'' is known from a small median dorsal plate, typical in appearance for ''Dunkondeesnuts'', but much smaller than normal. It is comparable in skull structure to ''D. marsaisi''.<ref name=Denison/>
-''D. marsaisi'' refers to the ''Dunkleosteus'' fossils from the Lower Famennian Late Devonian strata of the [[Atlas Mountains]] in [[Morocco]]. It differs in size, the known skulls averaging a length of {{convert|35|cm|ft}} and in form to ''D. terrelli''. In ''D. marsaisi'', the snout is narrower, and a postpineal fenestra may be present. Many researchers and authorities consider it a synonym of ''D. terrelli''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Murray|first=A.M.|title=The Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic fishes of Africa|journal=Fish and Fisheries|year=2000|volume=1|issue=2|pages=111–145|doi=10.1046/j.1467-2979.2000.00015.x}}</ref> H. Schultze regards ''D. marsaisi'' as a member of ''[[Eastmanosteus]]''.<ref name=Denison/><ref name=Schultz>{{cite journal|last=Schultz|first=H|title=Large Upper Devonian arthrodires from Iran|journal=Fieldiana Geology|year=1973|volume=23|pages=53–78|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.5270|doi-access=free}}</ref>
+''D. marsaisi'' refers to the ''Dunkondeesnuts'' fossils from the Lower Famennian Late Devonian strata of the [[Atlas Mountains]] in [[Morocco]]. It differs in size, the known skulls averaging a length of {{convert|35|cm|ft}} and in form to ''D. terrelli''. In ''D. marsaisi'', the snout is narrower, and a postpineal fenestra may be present. Many researchers and authorities consider it a synonym of ''D. terrelli''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Murray|first=A.M.|title=The Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic fishes of Africa|journal=Fish and Fisheries|year=2000|volume=1|issue=2|pages=111–145|doi=10.1046/j.1467-2979.2000.00015.x}}</ref> H. Schultze regards ''D. marsaisi'' as a member of ''[[Eastmanosteus]]''.<ref name=Denison/><ref name=Schultz>{{cite journal|last=Schultz|first=H|title=Large Upper Devonian arthrodires from Iran|journal=Fieldiana Geology|year=1973|volume=23|pages=53–78|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.5270|doi-access=free}}</ref>
-''D. magnificus'' is a large placoderm from the Frasnian [[Rhinestreet Shale]] of New York. It was originally described as ''[[Dinichthys]] magnificus'' by Hussakof and Bryant in 1919, then as "'' Dinichthys mirabilis''" by Heintz in 1932. Dunkle and Lane moved it to ''Dunkleosteus'' in 1971.<ref name=Denison/>
+''D. magnificus'' is a large placoderm from the Frasnian [[Rhinestreet Shale]] of New York. It was originally described as ''[[Dinichthys]] magnificus'' by Hussakof and Bryant in 1919, then as "'' Dinichthys mirabilis''" by Heintz in 1932. Dunkle and Lane moved it to ''Dunkondeesnuts'' in 1971.<ref name=Denison/>
''D. missouriensis'' is known from fragments from Frasnian [[Missouri]]. Dunkle and Lane regard them as being very similar to ''D. terrelli''.<ref name=Denison/>
@@ -58,13 +58,13 @@
==Description==
[[File:Dunkleosteus2021.jpg|thumb|left|Restoration and size comparison of ''D. terrelli'']]
-The largest species, ''D. terrelli'', is estimated to have grown up to {{cvt|8.8|m|ft}} in length and {{cvt|4|MT|ST}} in weight,<!--no reliable source for weight among the sources listed--> making it one of the largest placoderms to have existed.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/><ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/><ref name="Carr2010">{{cite journal |last1=Carr |first1=Robert K. |title=Paleoecology of Dunkleosteus terrelli (Placodermi: Arthrodira). |journal=Kirtlandia |date=2010 |volume=57 |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235924093}}</ref><ref name="Ferron2017" /><ref name=ScienceDaily/>{{unreliable source|date=November 2021}} Like other placoderms, ''Dunkleosteus'' had a two-part bony, [[Armour (anatomy)|armoured]] exterior, which may have made it a relatively slow but powerful swimmer. Instead of [[teeth]], ''Dunkleosteus'' possessed two pairs of sharp bony plates which formed a beak-like structure.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> ''Dunkleosteus'', together with most other placoderms, may have also been among the first [[vertebrate]]s to [[internal fertilization|internalize egg fertilization]], as seen in some modern sharks.<ref name=Ahlberg>{{cite journal |last1=Ahlberg |first1=Per |first2=Kate |last2=Trinajstic |first3=Zerina |last3=Johanson |first4=John |last4=Long |s2cid=205217467 |year=2009 |title=Pelvic claspers confirm chondrichthyan-like internal fertilization in arthrodires |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7257 |pages=888–889 |doi=10.1038/nature08176|pmid=19597477 |bibcode=2009Natur.460..888A }}</ref> Some other placoderms have been found with evidence that they may have been [[viviparity|viviparous]], including what appears to have been an [[umbilical cord]].
+The largest species, ''D. terrelli'', is estimated to have grown up to {{cvt|8.8|m|ft}} in length and {{cvt|4|MT|ST}} in weight,<!--no reliable source for weight among the sources listed--> making it one of the largest placoderms to have existed.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/><ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/><ref name="Carr2010">{{cite journal |last1=Carr |first1=Robert K. |title=Paleoecology of Dunkleosteus terrelli (Placodermi: Arthrodira). |journal=Kirtlandia |date=2010 |volume=57 |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235924093}}</ref><ref name="Ferron2017" /><ref name=ScienceDaily/>{{unreliable source|date=November 2021}} Like other placoderms, ''Dunkondeesnuts'' had a two-part bony, [[Armour (anatomy)|armoured]] exterior, which may have made it a relatively slow but powerful swimmer. Instead of [[teeth]], ''Dunkondeesnuts'' possessed two pairs of sharp bony plates which formed a beak-like structure.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> ''Dunkondeesnuts'', together with most other placoderms, may have also been among the first [[vertebrate]]s to [[internal fertilization|internalize egg fertilization]], as seen in some modern sharks.<ref name=Ahlberg>{{cite journal |last1=Ahlberg |first1=Per |first2=Kate |last2=Trinajstic |first3=Zerina |last3=Johanson |first4=John |last4=Long |s2cid=205217467 |year=2009 |title=Pelvic claspers confirm chondrichthyan-like internal fertilization in arthrodires |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7257 |pages=888–889 |doi=10.1038/nature08176|pmid=19597477 |bibcode=2009Natur.460..888A }}</ref> Some other placoderms have been found with evidence that they may have been [[viviparity|viviparous]], including what appears to have been an [[umbilical cord]].
[[File: Dunkleosteus skull steveoc.jpg|thumb|A skull diagram of ''Dunkleosteus'']]
-Mainly the armored frontal sections of specimens have been [[fossilized]], and consequently, the appearance of the other portions of the fish is mostly unknown.<ref>{{cite AV media|last=Dash|first=Sean|title=Prehistoric Monsters Revealed|location=United States|publisher=Workaholic Productions / History Channel|date=2008|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEEhm4rzxEg|access-date=December 18, 2015}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead Youtube links|date=February 2022}}</ref> In fact, only about 5% of ''Dunkleosteus'' specimens have more than a quarter of their skeleton preserved.<ref>Carr, R, & G.L. Jackson. 2008. The Vertebrates fauna of the Cleveland member (Famennian) of the Ohio Shale. Society of Vertebrates Paleontology. 1–17.</ref> Because of this, many reconstructions of the hindquarters are often based on fossils of smaller [[arthrodire]]s, such as ''[[Coccosteus]]'', which have preserved hind sections. However, an exceptionally preserved specimen of ''D. terrelli'' preserves ceratotrichia in a pectoral fin, implying that the fin morphology of placoderms was much more variable than previously thought, and was heavily influenced by locomotory requirements. This knowledge, coupled with the knowledge that fish morphology is more heavily influenced by feeding niche than phylogeny, allowed a 2017 study to infer the body shape of ''D. terrelli''. This new reconstruction gives D. terrelli a much more shark-like profile, including a strong anterior lobe on its tail, in contrast to reconstructions based on other placoderms.<ref name="Ferron2017">{{Cite journal|last1=Ferrón|first1=Humberto G.|last2=Martínez-Pérez|first2=Carlos|last3=Botella|first3=Héctor|date=December 6, 2017|title=Ecomorphological inferences in early vertebrates: reconstructing Dunkleosteus terrelli (Arthrodira, Placodermi) caudal fin from palaeoecological data|journal=PeerJ|language=en|volume=5|pages=e4081|doi=10.7717/peerj.4081|pmid=29230354|pmc=5723140|issn=2167-8359}}</ref>
+Mainly the armored frontal sections of specimens have been [[fossilized]], and consequently, the appearance of the other portions of the fish is mostly unknown.<ref>{{cite AV media|last=Dash|first=Sean|title=Prehistoric Monsters Revealed|location=United States|publisher=Workaholic Productions / History Channel|date=2008|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEEhm4rzxEg|access-date=December 18, 2015}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead Youtube links|date=February 2022}}</ref> In fact, only about 5% of ''Dunkondeesnuts'' specimens have more than a quarter of their skeleton preserved.<ref>Carr, R, & G.L. Jackson. 2008. The Vertebrates fauna of the Cleveland member (Famennian) of the Ohio Shale. Society of Vertebrates Paleontology. 1–17.</ref> Because of this, many reconstructions of the hindquarters are often based on fossils of smaller [[arthrodire]]s, such as ''[[Coccosteus]]'', which have preserved hind sections. However, an exceptionally preserved specimen of ''D. terrelli'' preserves ceratotrichia in a pectoral fin, implying that the fin morphology of placoderms was much more variable than previously thought, and was heavily influenced by locomotory requirements. This knowledge, coupled with the knowledge that fish morphology is more heavily influenced by feeding niche than phylogeny, allowed a 2017 study to infer the body shape of ''D. terrelli''. This new reconstruction gives D. terrelli a much more shark-like profile, including a strong anterior lobe on its tail, in contrast to reconstructions based on other placoderms.<ref name="Ferron2017">{{Cite journal|last1=Ferrón|first1=Humberto G.|last2=Martínez-Pérez|first2=Carlos|last3=Botella|first3=Héctor|date=December 6, 2017|title=Ecomorphological inferences in early vertebrates: reconstructing Dunkleosteus terrelli (Arthrodira, Placodermi) caudal fin from palaeoecological data|journal=PeerJ|language=en|volume=5|pages=e4081|doi=10.7717/peerj.4081|pmid=29230354|pmc=5723140|issn=2167-8359}}</ref>
-The most famous specimens of ''Dunkleosteus'' are displayed at the [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]], and others are displayed at the [[American Museum of Natural History]], [[National Museum of Natural History]], [[State Museum of Pennsylvania]], Harrisburg and in the [[Queensland Museum]] in [[Brisbane]], Queensland.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}
+The most famous specimens of ''Dunkondeesnuts'' are displayed at the [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]], and others are displayed at the [[American Museum of Natural History]], [[National Museum of Natural History]], [[State Museum of Pennsylvania]], Harrisburg and in the [[Queensland Museum]] in [[Brisbane]], Queensland.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}
===Diet===
-''Dunkleosteus terrelli'' possessed a [[four-bar linkage]] mechanism for [[Fish jaw|jaw]] opening that incorporated connections between the skull, the thoracic shield, the lower jaw and the jaw muscles joined together by movable joints.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009>{{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=P.S.L. |author2=Westneat, M. |title=A biomechanical model of feeding kinematics for ''Dunkleosteus terrelli'' (Arthrodira, Placodermi) |journal=Paleobiology |date=2009 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=251–269 |doi=10.1666/08011.1 |s2cid=86203770 |url=http://projects.fieldmuseum.org/sites/default/files/DunkPaleoBio.pdf |access-date=October 29, 2017 |archive-date=November 7, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107014026/http://projects.fieldmuseum.org/sites/default/files/DunkPaleoBio.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=P.S.L. |author2=Westneat, M. |title=Feeding mechanics and bite force modelling of the skull of Dunkleosteus terrelli, an ancient apex predator |journal=Biology Letters |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=76–79 |date=2007 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2006.0569 |pmid=17443970 |pmc=2373817}}</ref> This mechanism allowed ''D. terrelli'' to both achieve a high speed of jaw opening, opening their jaws in 20 milliseconds and completing the whole process in 50–60 milliseconds (comparable to modern fishes that use [[Aquatic feeding mechanisms#Suction feeding|suction feeding]] to assist in prey capture;<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/>) and producing high bite forces when closing the jaw, estimated at {{cvt|6000|N|kg-f lb-f|0}} at the tip and {{cvt|7400|N|kg-f lb-f|0}} at the blade edge in the largest individuals.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> The pressures generated in those regions were high enough to puncture or cut through [[cuticle]] or [[dermal bone|dermal]] armor<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/> suggesting that ''D. terrelli'' was adapted to prey on free-swimming, armored prey such as [[ammonite]]s and other placoderms.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> Fossils of ''Dunkleosteus'' are frequently found with [[Bolus (digestion)|bolus]]es of fish bones, semidigested and partially eaten remains of other fish.<ref name="Virtual Fossil">{{cite web|url= http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil_Galleries/Fish_Devonian/Dunkleosteous/Dunkleosteus.htm |title=Dunkleosteus Placodermi Devonian Armored Fish from Morocco |work=Fossil Archives |publisher=The Virtual Fossil Museum |access-date=April 26, 2009}}</ref> As a result, the [[fossil]] record indicates it may have routinely regurgitated prey bones rather than digest them. Mature individuals probably inhabited deep sea locations, like other Placoderms, living in shallow waters during adolescence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/f2013/peters_sadi/habitat.htm|title=UWL Website}}</ref>
+''Dunkondeesnuts terrelli'' possessed a [[four-bar linkage]] mechanism for [[Fish jaw|jaw]] opening that incorporated connections between the skull, the thoracic shield, the lower jaw and the jaw muscles joined together by movable joints.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009>{{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=P.S.L. |author2=Westneat, M. |title=A biomechanical model of feeding kinematics for ''Dunkleosteus terrelli'' (Arthrodira, Placodermi) |journal=Paleobiology |date=2009 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=251–269 |doi=10.1666/08011.1 |s2cid=86203770 |url=http://projects.fieldmuseum.org/sites/default/files/DunkPaleoBio.pdf |access-date=October 29, 2017 |archive-date=November 7, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107014026/http://projects.fieldmuseum.org/sites/default/files/DunkPaleoBio.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=P.S.L. |author2=Westneat, M. |title=Feeding mechanics and bite force modelling of the skull of Dunkleosteus terrelli, an ancient apex predator |journal=Biology Letters |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=76–79 |date=2007 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2006.0569 |pmid=17443970 |pmc=2373817}}</ref> This mechanism allowed ''D. terrelli'' to both achieve a high speed of jaw opening, opening their jaws in 20 milliseconds and completing the whole process in 50–60 milliseconds (comparable to modern fishes that use [[Aquatic feeding mechanisms#Suction feeding|suction feeding]] to assist in prey capture;<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/>) and producing high bite forces when closing the jaw, estimated at {{cvt|6000|N|kg-f lb-f|0}} at the tip and {{cvt|7400|N|kg-f lb-f|0}} at the blade edge in the largest individuals.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> The pressures generated in those regions were high enough to puncture or cut through [[cuticle]] or [[dermal bone|dermal]] armor<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/> suggesting that ''D. terrelli'' was adapted to prey on free-swimming, armored prey such as [[ammonite]]s and other placoderms.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> Fossils of ''Dunkondeesnuts'' are frequently found with [[Bolus (digestion)|bolus]]es of fish bones, semidigested and partially eaten remains of other fish.<ref name="Virtual Fossil">{{cite web|url= http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil_Galleries/Fish_Devonian/Dunkleosteous/Dunkleosteus.htm |title=Dunkleosteus Placodermi Devonian Armored Fish from Morocco |work=Fossil Archives |publisher=The Virtual Fossil Museum |access-date=April 26, 2009}}</ref> As a result, the [[fossil]] record indicates it may have routinely regurgitated prey bones rather than digest them. Mature individuals probably inhabited deep sea locations, like other Placoderms, living in shallow waters during adolescence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/f2013/peters_sadi/habitat.htm|title=UWL Website}}</ref>
===Juveniles===
@@ -72,5 +72,5 @@
==Media depictions==
-''Dunkleosteus'' has occasionally been depicted in various media and games. These include the 2003 [[BBC]] TV series ''[[Sea Monsters (TV series)|Sea Monsters: A Walking with Dinosaurs Trilogy]]''<ref>{{cite web| title=IMDB | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/dinosaurs/seamonsters/}}</ref> and the [[Animal Planet]] series ''[[River Monsters]]'' episode "Prehistoric Terror",<ref>{{cite web| title=Episode: Prehistoric Terror| url=http://www.animalplanet.com/tv-shows/river-monsters/photos/episode-prehistoric-terror-cgi-photo-gallery/}}</ref> amongst other depictions. ''Dunkleosteus'' is one of the fossil types that can be found in the game ''[[Animal Crossing: New Horizons]]''. ''Dunkleosteus'' is one of the playable sharks in the mobile video game ''[[Hungry Shark|Hungry Shark Evolution]]''. ''Dunkleosteus'' is featured as a creature in the action-adventure survival video game ''[[Ark: Survival Evolved]]''. The Fossilized Drake from ''[[Pokémon Sword and Shield]]'' is based off of the ''Dunkleosteus'', and can be revived into Dracovish or Arctovish when combined with the Fossilized Drake or Fossilized Dino respectively. The upper halves of these Pokémon bear ''Dunkleosteus''-like heads.
+''Dunkondeesnuts'' has occasionally been depicted in various media and games. These include the 2003 [[BBC]] TV series ''[[Sea Monsters (TV series)|Sea Monsters: A Walking with Dinosaurs Trilogy]]''<ref>{{cite web| title=IMDB | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/dinosaurs/seamonsters/}}</ref> and the [[Animal Planet]] series ''[[River Monsters]]'' episode "Prehistoric Terror",<ref>{{cite web| title=Episode: Prehistoric Terror| url=http://www.animalplanet.com/tv-shows/river-monsters/photos/episode-prehistoric-terror-cgi-photo-gallery/}}</ref> amongst other depictions. ''Dunkondeesnuts'' is one of the fossil types that can be found in the game ''[[Animal Crossing: New Horizons]]''. ''Dunkondeesnuts'' is one of the playable sharks in the mobile video game ''[[Hungry Shark|Hungry Shark Evolution]]''. ''Dunkondeesnuts'' is featured as a creature in the action-adventure survival video game ''[[Ark: Survival Evolved]]''. The Fossilized Drake from ''[[Pokémon Sword and Shield]]'' is based off of the ''Dunkondeesnuts'', and can be revived into Dracovish or Arctovish when combined with the Fossilized Drake or Fossilized Dino respectively. The upper halves of these Pokémon bear ''Dunkondeesnuts''-like heads.
==See also==
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0 => ''''''Dunkondeesnuts''''' is an [[Extinction (biology)|extinct]] [[genus]] of large [[arthrodira|armored, jawed fishes]] that existed during the [[Late Devonian]] period, about 382–358 [[million years ago]]. It consists of ten species, some of which are among the largest [[placoderm]]s to have ever lived: ''D. terrelli'', ''D. belgicus'', ''D. denisoni'', ''D. marsaisi'', ''D. magnificus'', ''D. missouriensis'', ''D. newberryi'', ''D. amblyodoratus'', and ''D. raveri''. The largest and most well known species is ''D. terrelli'', which grew up to {{convert|8.79|m|ft|1|abbr=on}} long<ref name="Ferron2017"/> and {{convert|4|MT|ST|abbr=on}}<ref name=ScienceDaily>{{cite news |title=Ancient Predator Had Strongest Bite Of Any Fish, Rivaling Bite Of Large Alligators And T. Rex |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061129094125.htm |access-date=October 1, 2020 |work=ScienceDaily |date=November 29, 2006 |language=en}}</ref>{{unreliable source|date=November 2021}} in weight. ''Dunkleosteus'' could quickly open and close its jaw, like modern-day [[Aquatic feeding mechanisms#Suction feeding|suction feeders]], and had a bite force of {{convert|6000|N|kg-f lb-f|0|abbr=on}} at the tip and {{convert|7400|N|kg-f lb-f|0|abbr=on}} at the blade edge. Numerous [[fossil]]s of the various species have been found in [[North America]], [[Poland]], [[Belgium]], and [[Morocco]].',
1 => '''Dunkondeesnuts'' was named in 1956 to honour [[David Dunkle]] (1911–1982), former curator of [[vertebrate paleontology]] at the [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]]. The [[type species]] ''D. terrelli'' was originally described in 1873 as a species of ''[[Dinichthys]]'', its specific epithet chosen in honor of Jay Terrell, the fossil's discoverer.<ref>"Dunkleosteus terrelli: Fierce prehistoric predator" page at ''Cleveland Museum of Natural History''. https://www.cmnh.org/dunk</ref>',
2 => '''Dunkondeesnuts'' is an [[arthrodire]] originally placed in the family [[Dinichthyidae]], which is composed mostly of large, carnivorous fish like ''[[Gorgonichthys]]''. Anderson (2009) suggests, because of its primitive [[Fish jaw|jaw structure]], ''Dunkleosteus'' should be placed outside the family Dinichthyidae, perhaps close to the base of the [[clade]] Pachyosteomorpha, near ''[[Eastmanosteus]]''. Carr and Hlavin (2010) resurrect [[Dunkleosteidae]] and place ''Dunkondeesnuts'', ''Eastmanosteus'', and a few other genera from Dinichthyidae within it.<ref name="Carr+2010">{{cite journal| author =Carr R. K., Hlavin V. J.| title =Two new species of Dunkleosteus Lehman, 1956, from the Ohio Shale Formation (USA, Famennian) and the Kettle Point Formation (Canada, Upper Devonian), and a cladistic analysis of the Eubrachythoraci (Placodermi, Arthrodira)| journal =Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society| volume =159| issue =1| pages =195–222| year =2010| doi =10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00578.x| doi-access =free}}</ref> Dinichthyidae, in turn, is left a [[Monotypic taxon|monospecific]] family.<ref name=Carr1995>{{cite journal|last=Carr|first=Robert K.|author2=William J. Hlavin|title=Dinichthyidae (Placodermi):A paleontological fiction?|journal=Geobios|date=September 2, 1995|volume=28|pages=85–87|doi=10.1016/S0016-6995(95)80092-1}}</ref>',
3 => 'At least ten different species<ref name="Carr+2010"/><ref name=Denison>{{cite book|last=Denison|first=Robert|chapter=Placodermi|volume=2|title=Handbook of Paleoichthyology|year=1978|publisher=Gustav Fischer Verlag|location=Stuttgart New York|isbn=978-0-89574-027-4|pages=128}}</ref> of ''Dunkondeesnuts'' have been described so far.',
4 => '''D. denisoni'' is known from a small median dorsal plate, typical in appearance for ''Dunkondeesnuts'', but much smaller than normal. It is comparable in skull structure to ''D. marsaisi''.<ref name=Denison/>',
5 => '''D. marsaisi'' refers to the ''Dunkondeesnuts'' fossils from the Lower Famennian Late Devonian strata of the [[Atlas Mountains]] in [[Morocco]]. It differs in size, the known skulls averaging a length of {{convert|35|cm|ft}} and in form to ''D. terrelli''. In ''D. marsaisi'', the snout is narrower, and a postpineal fenestra may be present. Many researchers and authorities consider it a synonym of ''D. terrelli''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Murray|first=A.M.|title=The Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic fishes of Africa|journal=Fish and Fisheries|year=2000|volume=1|issue=2|pages=111–145|doi=10.1046/j.1467-2979.2000.00015.x}}</ref> H. Schultze regards ''D. marsaisi'' as a member of ''[[Eastmanosteus]]''.<ref name=Denison/><ref name=Schultz>{{cite journal|last=Schultz|first=H|title=Large Upper Devonian arthrodires from Iran|journal=Fieldiana Geology|year=1973|volume=23|pages=53–78|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.5270|doi-access=free}}</ref>',
6 => '''D. magnificus'' is a large placoderm from the Frasnian [[Rhinestreet Shale]] of New York. It was originally described as ''[[Dinichthys]] magnificus'' by Hussakof and Bryant in 1919, then as "'' Dinichthys mirabilis''" by Heintz in 1932. Dunkle and Lane moved it to ''Dunkondeesnuts'' in 1971.<ref name=Denison/>',
7 => 'The largest species, ''D. terrelli'', is estimated to have grown up to {{cvt|8.8|m|ft}} in length and {{cvt|4|MT|ST}} in weight,<!--no reliable source for weight among the sources listed--> making it one of the largest placoderms to have existed.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/><ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/><ref name="Carr2010">{{cite journal |last1=Carr |first1=Robert K. |title=Paleoecology of Dunkleosteus terrelli (Placodermi: Arthrodira). |journal=Kirtlandia |date=2010 |volume=57 |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235924093}}</ref><ref name="Ferron2017" /><ref name=ScienceDaily/>{{unreliable source|date=November 2021}} Like other placoderms, ''Dunkondeesnuts'' had a two-part bony, [[Armour (anatomy)|armoured]] exterior, which may have made it a relatively slow but powerful swimmer. Instead of [[teeth]], ''Dunkondeesnuts'' possessed two pairs of sharp bony plates which formed a beak-like structure.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> ''Dunkondeesnuts'', together with most other placoderms, may have also been among the first [[vertebrate]]s to [[internal fertilization|internalize egg fertilization]], as seen in some modern sharks.<ref name=Ahlberg>{{cite journal |last1=Ahlberg |first1=Per |first2=Kate |last2=Trinajstic |first3=Zerina |last3=Johanson |first4=John |last4=Long |s2cid=205217467 |year=2009 |title=Pelvic claspers confirm chondrichthyan-like internal fertilization in arthrodires |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7257 |pages=888–889 |doi=10.1038/nature08176|pmid=19597477 |bibcode=2009Natur.460..888A }}</ref> Some other placoderms have been found with evidence that they may have been [[viviparity|viviparous]], including what appears to have been an [[umbilical cord]].',
8 => 'Mainly the armored frontal sections of specimens have been [[fossilized]], and consequently, the appearance of the other portions of the fish is mostly unknown.<ref>{{cite AV media|last=Dash|first=Sean|title=Prehistoric Monsters Revealed|location=United States|publisher=Workaholic Productions / History Channel|date=2008|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEEhm4rzxEg|access-date=December 18, 2015}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead Youtube links|date=February 2022}}</ref> In fact, only about 5% of ''Dunkondeesnuts'' specimens have more than a quarter of their skeleton preserved.<ref>Carr, R, & G.L. Jackson. 2008. The Vertebrates fauna of the Cleveland member (Famennian) of the Ohio Shale. Society of Vertebrates Paleontology. 1–17.</ref> Because of this, many reconstructions of the hindquarters are often based on fossils of smaller [[arthrodire]]s, such as ''[[Coccosteus]]'', which have preserved hind sections. However, an exceptionally preserved specimen of ''D. terrelli'' preserves ceratotrichia in a pectoral fin, implying that the fin morphology of placoderms was much more variable than previously thought, and was heavily influenced by locomotory requirements. This knowledge, coupled with the knowledge that fish morphology is more heavily influenced by feeding niche than phylogeny, allowed a 2017 study to infer the body shape of ''D. terrelli''. This new reconstruction gives D. terrelli a much more shark-like profile, including a strong anterior lobe on its tail, in contrast to reconstructions based on other placoderms.<ref name="Ferron2017">{{Cite journal|last1=Ferrón|first1=Humberto G.|last2=Martínez-Pérez|first2=Carlos|last3=Botella|first3=Héctor|date=December 6, 2017|title=Ecomorphological inferences in early vertebrates: reconstructing Dunkleosteus terrelli (Arthrodira, Placodermi) caudal fin from palaeoecological data|journal=PeerJ|language=en|volume=5|pages=e4081|doi=10.7717/peerj.4081|pmid=29230354|pmc=5723140|issn=2167-8359}}</ref>',
9 => 'The most famous specimens of ''Dunkondeesnuts'' are displayed at the [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]], and others are displayed at the [[American Museum of Natural History]], [[National Museum of Natural History]], [[State Museum of Pennsylvania]], Harrisburg and in the [[Queensland Museum]] in [[Brisbane]], Queensland.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}',
10 => '''Dunkondeesnuts terrelli'' possessed a [[four-bar linkage]] mechanism for [[Fish jaw|jaw]] opening that incorporated connections between the skull, the thoracic shield, the lower jaw and the jaw muscles joined together by movable joints.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009>{{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=P.S.L. |author2=Westneat, M. |title=A biomechanical model of feeding kinematics for ''Dunkleosteus terrelli'' (Arthrodira, Placodermi) |journal=Paleobiology |date=2009 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=251–269 |doi=10.1666/08011.1 |s2cid=86203770 |url=http://projects.fieldmuseum.org/sites/default/files/DunkPaleoBio.pdf |access-date=October 29, 2017 |archive-date=November 7, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107014026/http://projects.fieldmuseum.org/sites/default/files/DunkPaleoBio.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=P.S.L. |author2=Westneat, M. |title=Feeding mechanics and bite force modelling of the skull of Dunkleosteus terrelli, an ancient apex predator |journal=Biology Letters |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=76–79 |date=2007 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2006.0569 |pmid=17443970 |pmc=2373817}}</ref> This mechanism allowed ''D. terrelli'' to both achieve a high speed of jaw opening, opening their jaws in 20 milliseconds and completing the whole process in 50–60 milliseconds (comparable to modern fishes that use [[Aquatic feeding mechanisms#Suction feeding|suction feeding]] to assist in prey capture;<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/>) and producing high bite forces when closing the jaw, estimated at {{cvt|6000|N|kg-f lb-f|0}} at the tip and {{cvt|7400|N|kg-f lb-f|0}} at the blade edge in the largest individuals.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> The pressures generated in those regions were high enough to puncture or cut through [[cuticle]] or [[dermal bone|dermal]] armor<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/> suggesting that ''D. terrelli'' was adapted to prey on free-swimming, armored prey such as [[ammonite]]s and other placoderms.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> Fossils of ''Dunkondeesnuts'' are frequently found with [[Bolus (digestion)|bolus]]es of fish bones, semidigested and partially eaten remains of other fish.<ref name="Virtual Fossil">{{cite web|url= http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil_Galleries/Fish_Devonian/Dunkleosteous/Dunkleosteus.htm |title=Dunkleosteus Placodermi Devonian Armored Fish from Morocco |work=Fossil Archives |publisher=The Virtual Fossil Museum |access-date=April 26, 2009}}</ref> As a result, the [[fossil]] record indicates it may have routinely regurgitated prey bones rather than digest them. Mature individuals probably inhabited deep sea locations, like other Placoderms, living in shallow waters during adolescence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/f2013/peters_sadi/habitat.htm|title=UWL Website}}</ref>',
11 => '''Dunkondeesnuts'' has occasionally been depicted in various media and games. These include the 2003 [[BBC]] TV series ''[[Sea Monsters (TV series)|Sea Monsters: A Walking with Dinosaurs Trilogy]]''<ref>{{cite web| title=IMDB | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/dinosaurs/seamonsters/}}</ref> and the [[Animal Planet]] series ''[[River Monsters]]'' episode "Prehistoric Terror",<ref>{{cite web| title=Episode: Prehistoric Terror| url=http://www.animalplanet.com/tv-shows/river-monsters/photos/episode-prehistoric-terror-cgi-photo-gallery/}}</ref> amongst other depictions. ''Dunkondeesnuts'' is one of the fossil types that can be found in the game ''[[Animal Crossing: New Horizons]]''. ''Dunkondeesnuts'' is one of the playable sharks in the mobile video game ''[[Hungry Shark|Hungry Shark Evolution]]''. ''Dunkondeesnuts'' is featured as a creature in the action-adventure survival video game ''[[Ark: Survival Evolved]]''. The Fossilized Drake from ''[[Pokémon Sword and Shield]]'' is based off of the ''Dunkondeesnuts'', and can be revived into Dracovish or Arctovish when combined with the Fossilized Drake or Fossilized Dino respectively. The upper halves of these Pokémon bear ''Dunkondeesnuts''-like heads.'
] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines ) | [
0 => ''''''Dunkleosteus''''' is an [[Extinction (biology)|extinct]] [[genus]] of large [[arthrodira|armored, jawed fishes]] that existed during the [[Late Devonian]] period, about 382–358 [[million years ago]]. It consists of ten species, some of which are among the largest [[placoderm]]s to have ever lived: ''D. terrelli'', ''D. belgicus'', ''D. denisoni'', ''D. marsaisi'', ''D. magnificus'', ''D. missouriensis'', ''D. newberryi'', ''D. amblyodoratus'', and ''D. raveri''. The largest and most well known species is ''D. terrelli'', which grew up to {{convert|8.79|m|ft|1|abbr=on}} long<ref name="Ferron2017"/> and {{convert|4|MT|ST|abbr=on}}<ref name=ScienceDaily>{{cite news |title=Ancient Predator Had Strongest Bite Of Any Fish, Rivaling Bite Of Large Alligators And T. Rex |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061129094125.htm |access-date=October 1, 2020 |work=ScienceDaily |date=November 29, 2006 |language=en}}</ref>{{unreliable source|date=November 2021}} in weight. ''Dunkleosteus'' could quickly open and close its jaw, like modern-day [[Aquatic feeding mechanisms#Suction feeding|suction feeders]], and had a bite force of {{convert|6000|N|kg-f lb-f|0|abbr=on}} at the tip and {{convert|7400|N|kg-f lb-f|0|abbr=on}} at the blade edge. Numerous [[fossil]]s of the various species have been found in [[North America]], [[Poland]], [[Belgium]], and [[Morocco]].',
1 => '''Dunkleosteus'' was named in 1956 to honour [[David Dunkle]] (1911–1982), former curator of [[vertebrate paleontology]] at the [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]]. The [[type species]] ''D. terrelli'' was originally described in 1873 as a species of ''[[Dinichthys]]'', its specific epithet chosen in honor of Jay Terrell, the fossil's discoverer.<ref>"Dunkleosteus terrelli: Fierce prehistoric predator" page at ''Cleveland Museum of Natural History''. https://www.cmnh.org/dunk</ref>',
2 => '''Dunkleosteus'' is an [[arthrodire]] originally placed in the family [[Dinichthyidae]], which is composed mostly of large, carnivorous fish like ''[[Gorgonichthys]]''. Anderson (2009) suggests, because of its primitive [[Fish jaw|jaw structure]], ''Dunkleosteus'' should be placed outside the family Dinichthyidae, perhaps close to the base of the [[clade]] Pachyosteomorpha, near ''[[Eastmanosteus]]''. Carr and Hlavin (2010) resurrect [[Dunkleosteidae]] and place ''Dunkleosteus'', ''Eastmanosteus'', and a few other genera from Dinichthyidae within it.<ref name="Carr+2010">{{cite journal| author =Carr R. K., Hlavin V. J.| title =Two new species of Dunkleosteus Lehman, 1956, from the Ohio Shale Formation (USA, Famennian) and the Kettle Point Formation (Canada, Upper Devonian), and a cladistic analysis of the Eubrachythoraci (Placodermi, Arthrodira)| journal =Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society| volume =159| issue =1| pages =195–222| year =2010| doi =10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00578.x| doi-access =free}}</ref> Dinichthyidae, in turn, is left a [[Monotypic taxon|monospecific]] family.<ref name=Carr1995>{{cite journal|last=Carr|first=Robert K.|author2=William J. Hlavin|title=Dinichthyidae (Placodermi):A paleontological fiction?|journal=Geobios|date=September 2, 1995|volume=28|pages=85–87|doi=10.1016/S0016-6995(95)80092-1}}</ref>',
3 => 'At least ten different species<ref name="Carr+2010"/><ref name=Denison>{{cite book|last=Denison|first=Robert|chapter=Placodermi|volume=2|title=Handbook of Paleoichthyology|year=1978|publisher=Gustav Fischer Verlag|location=Stuttgart New York|isbn=978-0-89574-027-4|pages=128}}</ref> of ''Dunkleosteus'' have been described so far.',
4 => '''D. denisoni'' is known from a small median dorsal plate, typical in appearance for ''Dunkleosteus'', but much smaller than normal. It is comparable in skull structure to ''D. marsaisi''.<ref name=Denison/>',
5 => '''D. marsaisi'' refers to the ''Dunkleosteus'' fossils from the Lower Famennian Late Devonian strata of the [[Atlas Mountains]] in [[Morocco]]. It differs in size, the known skulls averaging a length of {{convert|35|cm|ft}} and in form to ''D. terrelli''. In ''D. marsaisi'', the snout is narrower, and a postpineal fenestra may be present. Many researchers and authorities consider it a synonym of ''D. terrelli''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Murray|first=A.M.|title=The Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic fishes of Africa|journal=Fish and Fisheries|year=2000|volume=1|issue=2|pages=111–145|doi=10.1046/j.1467-2979.2000.00015.x}}</ref> H. Schultze regards ''D. marsaisi'' as a member of ''[[Eastmanosteus]]''.<ref name=Denison/><ref name=Schultz>{{cite journal|last=Schultz|first=H|title=Large Upper Devonian arthrodires from Iran|journal=Fieldiana Geology|year=1973|volume=23|pages=53–78|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.5270|doi-access=free}}</ref>',
6 => '''D. magnificus'' is a large placoderm from the Frasnian [[Rhinestreet Shale]] of New York. It was originally described as ''[[Dinichthys]] magnificus'' by Hussakof and Bryant in 1919, then as "'' Dinichthys mirabilis''" by Heintz in 1932. Dunkle and Lane moved it to ''Dunkleosteus'' in 1971.<ref name=Denison/>',
7 => 'The largest species, ''D. terrelli'', is estimated to have grown up to {{cvt|8.8|m|ft}} in length and {{cvt|4|MT|ST}} in weight,<!--no reliable source for weight among the sources listed--> making it one of the largest placoderms to have existed.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/><ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/><ref name="Carr2010">{{cite journal |last1=Carr |first1=Robert K. |title=Paleoecology of Dunkleosteus terrelli (Placodermi: Arthrodira). |journal=Kirtlandia |date=2010 |volume=57 |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235924093}}</ref><ref name="Ferron2017" /><ref name=ScienceDaily/>{{unreliable source|date=November 2021}} Like other placoderms, ''Dunkleosteus'' had a two-part bony, [[Armour (anatomy)|armoured]] exterior, which may have made it a relatively slow but powerful swimmer. Instead of [[teeth]], ''Dunkleosteus'' possessed two pairs of sharp bony plates which formed a beak-like structure.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> ''Dunkleosteus'', together with most other placoderms, may have also been among the first [[vertebrate]]s to [[internal fertilization|internalize egg fertilization]], as seen in some modern sharks.<ref name=Ahlberg>{{cite journal |last1=Ahlberg |first1=Per |first2=Kate |last2=Trinajstic |first3=Zerina |last3=Johanson |first4=John |last4=Long |s2cid=205217467 |year=2009 |title=Pelvic claspers confirm chondrichthyan-like internal fertilization in arthrodires |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7257 |pages=888–889 |doi=10.1038/nature08176|pmid=19597477 |bibcode=2009Natur.460..888A }}</ref> Some other placoderms have been found with evidence that they may have been [[viviparity|viviparous]], including what appears to have been an [[umbilical cord]].',
8 => 'Mainly the armored frontal sections of specimens have been [[fossilized]], and consequently, the appearance of the other portions of the fish is mostly unknown.<ref>{{cite AV media|last=Dash|first=Sean|title=Prehistoric Monsters Revealed|location=United States|publisher=Workaholic Productions / History Channel|date=2008|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEEhm4rzxEg|access-date=December 18, 2015}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead Youtube links|date=February 2022}}</ref> In fact, only about 5% of ''Dunkleosteus'' specimens have more than a quarter of their skeleton preserved.<ref>Carr, R, & G.L. Jackson. 2008. The Vertebrates fauna of the Cleveland member (Famennian) of the Ohio Shale. Society of Vertebrates Paleontology. 1–17.</ref> Because of this, many reconstructions of the hindquarters are often based on fossils of smaller [[arthrodire]]s, such as ''[[Coccosteus]]'', which have preserved hind sections. However, an exceptionally preserved specimen of ''D. terrelli'' preserves ceratotrichia in a pectoral fin, implying that the fin morphology of placoderms was much more variable than previously thought, and was heavily influenced by locomotory requirements. This knowledge, coupled with the knowledge that fish morphology is more heavily influenced by feeding niche than phylogeny, allowed a 2017 study to infer the body shape of ''D. terrelli''. This new reconstruction gives D. terrelli a much more shark-like profile, including a strong anterior lobe on its tail, in contrast to reconstructions based on other placoderms.<ref name="Ferron2017">{{Cite journal|last1=Ferrón|first1=Humberto G.|last2=Martínez-Pérez|first2=Carlos|last3=Botella|first3=Héctor|date=December 6, 2017|title=Ecomorphological inferences in early vertebrates: reconstructing Dunkleosteus terrelli (Arthrodira, Placodermi) caudal fin from palaeoecological data|journal=PeerJ|language=en|volume=5|pages=e4081|doi=10.7717/peerj.4081|pmid=29230354|pmc=5723140|issn=2167-8359}}</ref>',
9 => 'The most famous specimens of ''Dunkleosteus'' are displayed at the [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]], and others are displayed at the [[American Museum of Natural History]], [[National Museum of Natural History]], [[State Museum of Pennsylvania]], Harrisburg and in the [[Queensland Museum]] in [[Brisbane]], Queensland.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}',
10 => '''Dunkleosteus terrelli'' possessed a [[four-bar linkage]] mechanism for [[Fish jaw|jaw]] opening that incorporated connections between the skull, the thoracic shield, the lower jaw and the jaw muscles joined together by movable joints.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009>{{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=P.S.L. |author2=Westneat, M. |title=A biomechanical model of feeding kinematics for ''Dunkleosteus terrelli'' (Arthrodira, Placodermi) |journal=Paleobiology |date=2009 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=251–269 |doi=10.1666/08011.1 |s2cid=86203770 |url=http://projects.fieldmuseum.org/sites/default/files/DunkPaleoBio.pdf |access-date=October 29, 2017 |archive-date=November 7, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107014026/http://projects.fieldmuseum.org/sites/default/files/DunkPaleoBio.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=P.S.L. |author2=Westneat, M. |title=Feeding mechanics and bite force modelling of the skull of Dunkleosteus terrelli, an ancient apex predator |journal=Biology Letters |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=76–79 |date=2007 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2006.0569 |pmid=17443970 |pmc=2373817}}</ref> This mechanism allowed ''D. terrelli'' to both achieve a high speed of jaw opening, opening their jaws in 20 milliseconds and completing the whole process in 50–60 milliseconds (comparable to modern fishes that use [[Aquatic feeding mechanisms#Suction feeding|suction feeding]] to assist in prey capture;<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/>) and producing high bite forces when closing the jaw, estimated at {{cvt|6000|N|kg-f lb-f|0}} at the tip and {{cvt|7400|N|kg-f lb-f|0}} at the blade edge in the largest individuals.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> The pressures generated in those regions were high enough to puncture or cut through [[cuticle]] or [[dermal bone|dermal]] armor<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2007/> suggesting that ''D. terrelli'' was adapted to prey on free-swimming, armored prey such as [[ammonite]]s and other placoderms.<ref name=Anderson&Westneat2009/> Fossils of ''Dunkleosteus'' are frequently found with [[Bolus (digestion)|bolus]]es of fish bones, semidigested and partially eaten remains of other fish.<ref name="Virtual Fossil">{{cite web|url= http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil_Galleries/Fish_Devonian/Dunkleosteous/Dunkleosteus.htm |title=Dunkleosteus Placodermi Devonian Armored Fish from Morocco |work=Fossil Archives |publisher=The Virtual Fossil Museum |access-date=April 26, 2009}}</ref> As a result, the [[fossil]] record indicates it may have routinely regurgitated prey bones rather than digest them. Mature individuals probably inhabited deep sea locations, like other Placoderms, living in shallow waters during adolescence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/f2013/peters_sadi/habitat.htm|title=UWL Website}}</ref>',
11 => '''Dunkleosteus'' has occasionally been depicted in various media and games. These include the 2003 [[BBC]] TV series ''[[Sea Monsters (TV series)|Sea Monsters: A Walking with Dinosaurs Trilogy]]''<ref>{{cite web| title=IMDB | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/dinosaurs/seamonsters/}}</ref> and the [[Animal Planet]] series ''[[River Monsters]]'' episode "Prehistoric Terror",<ref>{{cite web| title=Episode: Prehistoric Terror| url=http://www.animalplanet.com/tv-shows/river-monsters/photos/episode-prehistoric-terror-cgi-photo-gallery/}}</ref> amongst other depictions. ''Dunkleosteus'' is one of the fossil types that can be found in the game ''[[Animal Crossing: New Horizons]]''. ''Dunkleosteus'' is one of the playable sharks in the mobile video game ''[[Hungry Shark|Hungry Shark Evolution]]''. ''Dunkleosteus'' is featured as a creature in the action-adventure survival video game ''[[Ark: Survival Evolved]]''. The Fossilized Drake from ''[[Pokémon Sword and Shield]]'' is based off of the ''Dunkleosteus'', and can be revived into Dracovish or Arctovish when combined with the Fossilized Drake or Fossilized Dino respectively. The upper halves of these Pokémon bear ''Dunkleosteus''-like heads.'
] |
All external links added in the edit (added_links ) | [] |
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24 => '//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2373817',
25 => '//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2373817',
26 => '//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5723140',
27 => '//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5723140',
28 => '//www.worldcat.org/issn/2167-8359',
29 => '//www.worldcat.org/issn/2167-8359',
30 => 'http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/f2013/peters_sadi/habitat.htm',
31 => 'http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6195188.stm',
32 => 'http://projects.fieldmuseum.org/sites/default/files/DunkPaleoBio.pdf',
33 => 'http://www.animalplanet.com/tv-shows/river-monsters/photos/episode-prehistoric-terror-cgi-photo-gallery/',
34 => 'http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/dinosaurs/seamonsters/',
35 => 'http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil_Galleries/Fish_Devonian/Dunkleosteous/Dunkleosteus.htm',
36 => 'http://www.fossilworks.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=34328',
37 => 'http://www.nbcnews.com/id/15940709',
38 => 'http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/basalfish/placodermi.html',
39 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205217467',
40 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86583150',
41 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86203770',
42 => 'https://eol.org/pages/4655862',
43 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Natur.460..888A',
44 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20171107014026/http://projects.fieldmuseum.org/sites/default/files/DunkPaleoBio.pdf',
45 => 'https://www.cmnh.org/dunk',
46 => 'https://www.gbif.org/species/4842483',
47 => 'https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/714993',
48 => 'https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=1041512',
49 => 'https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235924093',
50 => 'https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061129094125.htm',
51 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEEhm4rzxEg'
] |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node ) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp ) | 1650933946 |