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{{other uses|Innovation (disambiguation)|Innovators (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
[[Image:Edison and phonograph edit2.jpg|thumb|190px|[[Thomas Edison]] with [[phonograph]]. Edison was one of the most prolific inventors in history, holding [[List of Edison patents|1,093 U.S. patents in his name]].]]
'''Innovation''' is the practical implementation of [[ideas]] that result in the introduction of new [[goods]] or [[service (economics)|services]] or improvement in offering goods or services.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schumpeter, Joseph A., 1883–1950|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8493721|title=The theory of economic development : an inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest, and the business cycle|others=Opie, Redvers,, Elliott, John E.|year=1983|isbn=0-87855-698-2|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|oclc=8493721}}</ref> [[ISO TC 279]] in the standard ISO 56000:2020 <ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:56000:ed-1:v1:en:term:3.1.1| title = ISO 56000:2020(en)Innovation management — Fundamentals and vocabulary | date = 2020| work = ISO }}</ref> defines innovation as "a new or changed entity realizing or redistributing value". Others have different definitions; a common element in the definitions is a focus on newness, improvement, and spread of ideas or technologies.
Innovation often takes place through the development of more-effective [[product (business)|product]]s, processes, [[Service (economics)|service]]s, [[technologies]], [[art work]]s<ref>
{{cite book
| editor1-last = Lijster
| editor1-first = Thijs
| title = The Future of the New: Artistic Innovation in Times of Social Acceleration
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PH1ovQEACAAJ
| series = Arts in society
| publisher = Valiz
| date = 2018
| isbn = 9789492095589
| access-date = 10 September 2020
}}
</ref>
or [[business model]]s that '''innovators''' make available to [[Market (economics)|market]]s, [[government]]s and [[society]]. Innovation is related to, but not the same as, [[invention]]:<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.businessinsider.com/this-is-the-difference-between-invention-and-innovation-2012-4 | title = This Is The Difference Between 'Invention' And 'Innovation' | first = Kim | last = Bhasin | date = 2 April 2012 | work = Business Insider }}</ref> innovation is more apt to involve the practical implementation of an invention (i.e. new / improved ability) to make a meaningful impact in a market or society,<ref>{{citation | url= https://www.forbes.com/sites/jacobmorgan/2015/09/10/whats-the-difference-between-invention-and-innovation/ | title= What's the Difference Between Invention and Innovation?|magazine= Forbes|date= 10 September 2015}}</ref> and not all innovations require a new invention.<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Schumpeter
| first1 = Joseph Alois
| author-link1 = Joseph Schumpeter
| title = Business Cycles
| volume = 1
| date = 1939
| page = 84
| quote = Innovation is possible without anything we should identify as invention, and invention does not necessarily induce innovation.
}}
</ref>
Technical innovation often{{quantify|date=April 2018}} manifests itself via the [[engineering]] process when the problem being solved is of a technical or scientific nature. The opposite of innovation is [[exnovation]].
==Definition==
Surveys of the literature on innovation have found a variety of definitions. In 2009, Baregheh et al. found around 60 definitions in different scientific papers, while a 2014 survey found over 40.<ref name="Henry2014" /> Based on their survey, Baragheh et al. attempted to define a multidisciplinary definition and arrived at the following definition:<blockquote>"Innovation is the multi-stage process whereby organizations transform ideas into new/improved products, service or processes, in order to advance, compete and differentiate themselves successfully in their marketplace"<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baregheh|first1=Anahita|last2=Rowley|first2=Jennifer|last3=Sambrook|first3=Sally|date=2009-09-04|title=Towards a multidisciplinary definition of innovation|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/00251740910984578/full/html|journal=Management Decision|language=en|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1323–1339|doi=10.1108/00251740910984578|issn=0025-1747}}</ref></blockquote>
In an industrial survey of how the [[software industry]] defined innovation, the following definition given by Crossan and Apaydin was considered to be the most complete, which builds on the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)]] manual's definition:<ref name="Henry2014">Edison, H., Ali, N.B., & Torkar, R. (2014). [https://torkar.github.io/pdfs/jss-edisonNT13.pdf Towards innovation measurement in the software industry]. ''Journal of Systems and Software'' 86(5), 1390–407.</ref> {{blockquote|Innovation is production or adoption, assimilation, and exploitation of a value-added novelty in economic and social spheres; renewal and enlargement of products, services, and markets; development of new methods of production; and the establishment of new management systems. It is both a process and an outcome.|title=|source=}}
American sociologist [[Everett Rogers]], defined it as follows:<blockquote>"An idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rogers, Everett M.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52030797|title=Diffusion of innovations|date=2003|publisher=Free Press|isbn=0-7432-2209-1|edition=5th|location=New York|oclc=52030797}}</ref></blockquote>
According to Alan Altshuler and Robert D. Behn, innovation includes original invention and creative use and defines innovation as a generation, admission and realization of new ideas, products, services and processes.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Innovation in American Government: Challenges, Opportunities, and Dilemmas|publisher=Brookings Inst Pr|isbn=9780815703587|date=1 June 1997|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/innovationinamer0000unse}}</ref>
Two main dimensions of innovation are degree of [[novelty]] (i.e. whether an innovation is new to the firm, new to the market, new to the industry, or new to the world) and kind of innovation (i.e. whether it is process or [[product-service system]] innovation).<ref name="Henry2014" /> In organizational scholarship, researchers have also distinguished innovation to be separate from creativity, by providing an updated definition of these two related constructs:{{blockquote|Workplace creativity concerns the cognitive and behavioral processes applied when attempting to generate novel ideas. Workplace innovation concerns the processes applied when attempting to implement new ideas. Specifically, innovation involves some combination of problem/opportunity identification, the introduction, adoption or modification of new ideas germane to organizational needs, the promotion of these ideas, and the practical implementation of these ideas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hughes|first1=D. J.|last2=Lee|first2=A.|last3=Tian|first3=A. W.|last4=Newman|first4=A.|last5=Legood|first5=A.|year=2018|title=Leadership, creativity, and innovation: A critical review and practical recommendations|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|volume=29|issue=5|pages=549–569|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.03.001|hdl=10871/32289|s2cid=149671044|url=https://publications.aston.ac.uk/id/eprint/33129/1/LQfinalversionR2_2018.02.22.pdf|hdl-access=free}}</ref>|title=|source=}}
[[Peter Drucker]] wrote:
{{blockquote|Innovation is the specific function of entrepreneurship, whether in an existing business, a public service institution, or a new venture started by a lone individual in the family kitchen. It is the means by which the entrepreneur either creates new wealth-producing resources or endows existing resources with enhanced potential for creating wealth.<ref name="Drucker">{{cite journal |title=The Discipline of Innovation |journal=[[Harvard Business Review]] |url= http://hbr.org/2002/08/the-discipline-of-innovation/ar/1 |date=August 2002 |access-date=13 October 2013|last1=Drucker |first1=Peter F. }}</ref>|title=|source=}}
=== Creativity and innovation ===
In general, innovation is distinguished from [[creativity]] by its emphasis on the implementation of creative ideas in an economic setting. [[Teresa Amabile|Amabile]] and Pratt in 2016, drawing on the literature, distinguish between creativity ("the production of novel and useful ideas by an individual or small group of individuals working together") and innovation ("the successful implementation of creative ideas within an organization").<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amabile |first1=Teresa M. |last2=Pratt |first2=Michael G. |title=The dynamic componential model of creativity and innovation in organizations: Making progress, making meaning |journal=Research in Organizational Behavior |year=2016 |volume=36 |pages=157–183 |doi=10.1016/j.riob.2016.10.001}}</ref>
== Types ==
Several frameworks have been proposed for defining types of innovation.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Blank|first=Steve|date=1 February 2019|title=McKinsey's Three Horizons Model Defined Innovation for Years. Here's Why It No Longer Applies.|work=Harvard Business Review|url=https://hbr.org/2019/02/mckinseys-three-horizons-model-defined-innovation-for-years-heres-why-it-no-longer-applies|access-date=16 August 2020|issn=0017-8012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Satell|first=Greg|date=21 June 2017|title=The 4 Types of Innovation and the Problems They Solve|work=Harvard Business Review|url=https://hbr.org/2017/06/the-4-types-of-innovation-and-the-problems-they-solve|access-date=16 August 2020|issn=0017-8012}}</ref>
=== Sustaining vs disruptive innovation ===
One framework proposed by [[Clayton Christensen]] draws a distinction between sustaining and [[disruptive innovation]]s.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Bower|first1=Joseph L.|last2=Christensen|first2=Clayton M.|date=1 January 1995|title=Disruptive Technologies: Catching the Wave|work=Harvard Business Review|issue=January–February 1995|url=https://hbr.org/1995/01/disruptive-technologies-catching-the-wave|access-date=16 August 2020|issn=0017-8012}}</ref> Sustaining innovation is the improvement of a product or service based on the known needs of current customers (e.g. faster microprocessors, flat screen televisions). Disruptive innovation in contrast refers to a process by which a new product or service creates a new market (e.g. transistor radio, free crowdsourced encyclopedia, etc.), eventually displacing established competitors.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Christensen|first1=Clayton M.|last2=Raynor|first2=Michael E.|last3=McDonald|first3=Rory|date=1 December 2015|title=What Is Disruptive Innovation?|work=Harvard Business Review|issue=December 2015|url=https://hbr.org/2015/12/what-is-disruptive-innovation|access-date=16 August 2020|issn=0017-8012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Disruptive Innovations|url=https://www.christenseninstitute.org/disruptive-innovations/|access-date=16 August 2020|publisher=Christensen Institute|language=en-US}}</ref> According to Christensen, disruptive innovations are critical to long-term success in business.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Christensen, Clayton & Overdorf, Michael|year=2000|title=Meeting the Challenge of Disruptive Change|url=https://hbr.org/2000/03/meeting-the-challenge-of-disruptive-change|journal=Harvard Business Review}}</ref>
Disruptive innovation is often enabled by disruptive technology. Marco Iansiti and Karim R. Lakhani define foundational technology as having the potential to create new foundations for global technology systems over the longer term. Foundational technology tends to transform business [[operating model]]s as entirely new business models [[emergence|emerge]] over many years, with gradual and steady adoption of the innovation leading to waves of [[technological change|technological]] and [[institution]]al change that gain momentum more slowly.<ref name="hbr201701">
{{cite news |last1=Iansiti|first1=Marco |last2=Lakhani|first2=Karim R. |url=https://hbr.org/2017/01/the-truth-about-blockchain |title=The Truth About Blockchain |work=[[Harvard Business Review]] |publisher=[[Harvard University]] |date=January 2017 |access-date=17 January 2017 |quote=a foundational technology: It has the potential to create new foundations for our economic and social systems. }}</ref>{{Additional citation needed|date=August 2020}} The advent of the [[packet-switched]] communication protocol [[TCP/IP]]—originally introduced in 1972 to support a single [[use case]] for [[United States Department of Defense]] electronic communication (email), and which gained widespread adoption only in the mid-1990s with the advent of the [[World Wide Web]]—is a foundational technology.<ref name="hbr201701" />
=== Four types model ===
Another framework was suggested by Henderson and Clark. They divide innovation into four types;
* '''Radical innovation''': "establishes a new dominant design and, hence, a new set of core design concepts embodied in components that are linked together in a new architecture." (p. 11)<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Henderson|first1=Rebecca M.|last2=Clark|first2=Kim B.|date=March 1990|title=Architectural Innovation: The Reconfiguration of Existing Product Technologies and the Failure of Established Firms|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2393549|journal=Administrative Science Quarterly|volume=35|issue=1|pages=9|doi=10.2307/2393549|jstor=2393549|issn=0001-8392}}</ref>
* '''Incremental innovation''': "refines and extends an established design. Improvement occurs in individual components, but the underlying core design concepts, and the links between them, remain the same." (p. 11)<ref name=":1" />
* '''Architectural innovation''': "innovation that changes only the relationships between them [the core design concepts]" (p. 12)<ref name=":1" />
* '''Modular Innovation''': "innovation that changes only the core design concepts of a technology" (p. 12)<ref name=":1" />
While Henderson and Clark as well as Christensen talk about technical innovation there are other kinds of innovation as well, such as service innovation and organizational innovation.
===Non-economic innovation===
The classical definition of innovation being limited to the primary goal of generating profit for a firm, has led others to define other types of innovation such as: [[social innovation]], [[sustainable innovation]] (or green innovation), and [[responsible innovation]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Schiederig|first1=Tim|last2=Tietze|first2=Frank|last3=Herstatt|first3=Cornelius|date=22 February 2012|title=Green innovation in technology and innovation management – an exploratory literature review|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9310.2011.00672.x|journal=R&D Management|volume=42|issue=2|pages=180–192|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9310.2011.00672.x|s2cid=153958119|issn=0033-6807}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Blok|first1=Vincent|title=The Emerging Concept of Responsible Innovation. Three Reasons Why It Is Questionable and Calls for a Radical Transformation of the Concept of Innovation|year=2015|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17308-5_2|work=Responsible Innovation 2|pages=19–35|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-17307-8|access-date=17 September 2020|last2=Lemmens|first2=Pieter|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-17308-5_2}}</ref>
==History==
{{See also|Innovation economics}}
The word "innovation" once had a quite different meaning. The first full-length discussion about innovation is the account{{which?|date=February 2022}} by the Greek philosopher and historian [[Xenophon]] (430–355 BCE). He viewed the concept as multifaceted and connected it to political action. The word for innovation that he uses, 'kainotomia', had previously occurred in two plays by [[Aristophanes]] ({{circa |446}} – {{circa | 386}} BCE). [[Plato]] (died {{circa | 348}} BCE) discussed innovation in his [[Laws (dialogue) | ''Laws'']] dialogue and was not very fond of the concept. He was skeptical to it both in culture (dancing and art) and in education (he did not believe in introducing new games and toys to the kids).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Godin, Benoit|url= https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/903958473|title=Innovation contested : the idea of innovation over the centuries |year= 2015|isbn= 978-1-315-85560-8|location= New York, New York|oclc= 903958473}}</ref> [[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE) did not like organizational innovations: he believed that all possible forms of organization had been discovered.<ref>Politics II as cited by [[Benoît Godin]] 2015).</ref>
Before the 4th century in Rome, the words ''novitas'' and ''res nova / nova res'' were used with either negative or positive judgment on the innovator. This concept meant "renewing" and was incorporated into the new Latin verb word ''innovo'' ("I renew" or "I restore") in the centuries that followed. The ''[[Vulgate]]'' version of the Bible (late 4th century CE) used the word in spiritual as well as political contexts. It also appeared in poetry, mainly with spiritual connotations, but was also connected to political, material and cultural aspects.<ref name=":0" />
[[Niccolò Machiavelli| Machiavelli]]'s ''[[The Prince]]'' (1513), discusses innovation in a political setting. Machiavelli portrays it as a strategy a Prince may employ in order to cope with a constantly changing world as well as the corruption within it. Here innovation is described as introducing change in government (new laws and institutions); Machiavelli's later book ''The Discourses'' (1528) characterises innovation as imitation, as a return to the original that has been corrupted by people and by time.{{cn|date=February 2022}} Thus for Machiavelli innovation came with positive connotations. This is however an exception in the usage of the concept of innovation from the 16th century and onward. No innovator from the renaissance until the late 19th century ever thought of applying the word innovator upon themselves, it was a word used to attack enemies.<ref name=":0" />
From the 1400s{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} through the 1600s, the concept of innovation was pejorative – the term was an [[Early Modern English| early-modern]] synonym for "rebellion", "revolt" and "[[heresy]]".<ref name="Mazzaferro">{{cite journal|last1= Mazzaferro|first1= Alexander|year= 2018|title= Such a Murmur": Innovation, Rebellion, and Sovereignty in William Strachey's "True Reportory|journal=Early American Literature|volume= 53 |issue= 1|pages=3–32|doi=10.1353/eal.2018.0001|s2cid=166005186}}</ref><ref name="Diss">{{cite thesis|last1= Mazzaferro|first1=Alexander McLean|url=https://rucore.libraries.rutgers.edu/rutgers-lib/55583/|title="No newe enterprize" (Doctoral dissertation)|date=2017|publisher=Rutgers University|location=Camden, New Jersey|doi= 10.7282/T38W3HFQ|access-date=19 February 2019}}</ref><ref name="Lepore">{{cite magazine|last1= Lepore|first1= Jill |date= 23 June 2014|title=The Disruption Machine: What the gospel of innovation gets wrong|magazine=The New Yorker |url= https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/06/23/the-disruption-machine|access-date=19 February 2019|quote= The word 'innovate'—to make new—used to have chiefly negative connotations: it signified excessive novelty, without purpose or end. [[Edmund Burke]] called the French Revolution a 'revolt of innovation'; [[Federalists]] declared themselves to be 'enemies to innovation.' [[George Washington]], on his deathbed, was said to have uttered these words: 'Beware of innovation in politics.' Noah Webster warned in his dictionary, in 1828, 'It is often dangerous to innovate on the customs of a nation.'}}</ref><ref name="Green">{{cite news|last1= Green|first1= Emma|date= 20 June 2013|title=Innovation: The History of a Buzzword|work=The Atlantic|url= https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/06/innovation-the-history-of-a-buzzword/277067/|access-date=19 February 2019}}
</ref><ref>{{oed|innovation}}
</ref> In the 1800s{{Timeframe|date=February 2022}} people promoting [[capitalism]] saw [[socialism]] as an innovation and spent a lot of energy working against it. For instance, [[Goldwin Smith]] (1823-1910) saw the spread of social innovations as an attack on money and banks. These social innovations were socialism, communism, nationalization, cooperative associations.<ref name=":0" />
In the 20th century the concept of innovation did not become popular until after the Second World War of 1939-1945. This is the point in time when people started to talk about ''technological'' product innovation and tie it to the idea of economic growth and competitive advantage.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Godin, Benoit|url= https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1125747489|title= The invention of technological innovation : languages, discourses and ideology in historical perspective|others=Edward Elgar Publishing|year=2019|isbn=978-1-78990-334-8|location= Cheltenham, UK|oclc=1125747489}}</ref> [[Joseph Schumpeter]] (1883–1950) is often{{quantify|date=February 2022}} credited as the one who made the term popular - he contributed greatly to the study of [[innovation economics]],
In [[commerce |business]] and in [[economics]], innovation can provide a catalyst for growth in an enterprise or even in an industry. With rapid advances in [[transportation]] and [[communications]] over the past few decades, the old concepts of [[factor endowment]]s and [[comparative advantage]] which focused on an area's unique inputs are outmoded in today's [[globalization|global economy]].{{cn|date=February 2022}} Schumpeter argued that industries must incessantly revolutionize the economic structure from within, that is: innovate with better or more effective processes and products, as well as with market distribution (such as the transition from the craft shop to factory). He famously asserted that "[[creative destruction]] is the essential fact about [[capitalism]]".<ref name="capsocdem">{{cite book | author = Schumpeter, J. A. | author-link = Joseph Schumpeter | year = 1943 | title = Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy | publisher = Routledge | edition = 6 | pages = 81–84 | isbn = 978-0-415-10762-4}}</ref> [[Entrepreneur]]s continuously search for better ways to satisfy their [[consumer demand| consumer base]] with improved quality, durability, service and price - searches which may come to fruition in innovation with advanced technologies and organizational strategies.<ref>Heyne, P., Boettke, P. J., and Prychitko, D. L. (2010). ''The Economic Way of Thinking''. Prentice Hall, 12th ed. pp. 163, 317–18.</ref>
A prime example of innovation involved the boom of [[Silicon Valley]] start-ups out of the [[Stanford Industrial Park]]. In 1957, dissatisfied employees of [[Shockley Semiconductor]], the company of [[Nobel laureate]] and co-inventor of the [[transistor]] [[William Shockley]], left to form an independent firm, [[Fairchild Semiconductor]]. After several years, Fairchild developed into a formidable presence in the sector.{{which?|date=February 2022}} Eventually, these founders left to start their own companies based on their own unique ideas, and then leading employees started their own firms. Over the next 20 years this process resulted in the momentous [[startup company| startup-company]] explosion of [[information technology|information-technology]] firms.{{cn|date=February 2022}} Silicon Valley began as 65 new enterprises born out of Shockley's eight former employees.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.netvalley.com/svhistory.html |title= Silicon Valley History & Future |website= Netvalley.com |access-date= 14 March 2016 | quote = [...] over the course of just 20 years, a mere eight of Shockley’s former employees gave forth 65 new enterprises, which then went on to do the same. The process is still going [...].}}</ref>
Another example involves [[business incubator]]s – a phenomenon introduced in 1959 and subsequently nurtured by governments around the world. Such "incubators", located close to knowledge clusters (mostly research-based) like universities or other government [[Center of excellence | excellence centre]]s – aim primarily to channel generated knowledge to applied innovation outcomes in order to stimulate regional or national [[economic growth]].<ref>
{{Cite journal
|last1= Rubin|first1= Tzameret H.|last2= Aas|first2= Tor Helge
|last3= Stead|first3= Andrew|date= 1 July 2015
|title= Knowledge flow in Technological Business Incubators: Evidence from Australia and Israel
|journal= Technovation|volume= 41–42|pages= 11–24
|doi= 10.1016/j.technovation.2015.03.002
}}
</ref>
In the 21st century the [[Islamic State]] (IS) movement, while decrying [[Bidʻah | religious innovation]]s, has innovated in military tactics, recruitment, [[ideology]] and geopolitical activity.<ref>
{{cite book
|last1 = Hashim
|first1 = Ahmed S.
|author-link1 =
|title = The Caliphate at War: The Ideological, Organisational and Military Innovations of Islamic State
|year = 2018
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_KBfDwAAQBAJ
|location = London
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|publication-date = 2018
|page = 7
|isbn = 9781849046435
|access-date = 8 February 2022
|quote = Though IS is not unique as an example of a violent nonstate actor, I argue that IS has innovated in the fields of ideology, organization, war-fighting, and strategies of state-formation.
}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
|last1 = Scott Ligon
|first1 = Gina
|last2 = Derrick
|first2 = Douglas C.
|author-link2 =
|last3 = Harms
|first3 = Mackenzie
|editor-last1 = Reiter-Palmon
|editor-first1 = Roni
|chapter = Destruction Through Collaboration: How Terrorists Work Together Toward Malevolent Innovation
|title = Team Creativity and Innovation
|date = 15 November 2017
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5cM9DwAAQBAJ
|location = New York
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|publication-date = 2017
|isbn = 9780190695323
|access-date = 8 February 2022
|quote = As seen in recent advancements by the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), innovation from VEOs [violent extremist organisations] can also occur in recruiting/marketing campaigns and fundraising efforts.
}}
</ref>
== Process of innovation ==
An early model included only three phases of innovation. According to Utterback (1971), these phases were: 1) idea generation, 2) problem solving, and 3) implementation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Utterback|first=James|year=1971|title=The Process of Technological Innovation Within the Firm|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=14|issue=1|pages=78|via=Jstor}}</ref> By the time one completed phase 2, one had an invention, but until one got it to the point of having an economic impact, one didn't have an innovation. Diffusion wasn't considered a phase of innovation. Focus at this point in time was on manufacturing.
All organizations can innovate, including for example hospitals, universities, and local governments.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=19104264|year=2009|last1=Salge|first1=T. O.|title=Hospital innovativeness and organizational performance: Evidence from English public acute care|journal=Health Care Management Review|volume=34|issue=1|pages=54–67|last2=Vera|first2=A.|doi=10.1097/01.HMR.0000342978.84307.80}}</ref> The organization requires a proper structure in order to retain competitive advantage. Organizations can also improve profits and performance by providing work groups opportunities and resources to innovate, in addition to employee's core job tasks.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=West|first1=Michael A.|year=2002|title=Sparkling Fountains or Stagnant Ponds: An Integrative Model of Creativity and Innovation Implementation in Work Groups|journal=Applied Psychology|volume=51|issue=3|pages=355–387|doi=10.1111/1464-0597.00951}}</ref> Executives and managers have been advised to break away from traditional ways of thinking and use change to their advantage.<ref>''MIT Sloan Management Review'' Spring 2002. "How to identify and build New Businesses"</ref> The world of work is changing with the increased use of technology and companies are becoming increasingly competitive. Companies will have to downsize or reengineer their operations to remain competitive. This will affect employment as businesses will be forced to reduce the number of people employed while accomplishing the same amount of work if not more.<ref>Anthony, Scott D.; Johnson, Mark W.; Sinfield, Joseph V.; Altman, Elizabeth J. (2008). ''Innovator's Guide to Growth''. "Putting Disruptive Innovation to Work". Harvard Business School Press. {{ISBN|978-1-59139-846-2}}.</ref>
For instance, former Mayor [[Martin O’Malley]] pushed the [[City of Baltimore]] to use [[CitiStat]], a [[Performance measurement|performance-measurement]] data and management system that allows city officials to maintain statistics on several areas from crime trends to the conditions of [[pothole]]s. This system aided in better evaluation of policies and procedures with accountability and efficiency in terms of time and money. In its first year, CitiStat saved the city $13.2 million.<ref>Perez, T. and Rushing R. (2007). [https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/general/reports/2007/04/23/2911/the-citistat-model-how-data-driven-government-can-increase-efficiency-and-effectiveness/ "The CitiStat Model: How Data-Driven Government Can Increase Efficiency and Effectiveness"]. ''Center for American Progress Report''. pp. 1–18.</ref> Even [[mass transit]] systems have innovated with [[hybrid vehicle|hybrid]] bus fleets to [[Real-time locating system|real-time tracking]] at bus stands. In addition, the growing use of [[mobile data terminal]]s in vehicles, that serve as communication hubs between vehicles and a control center, automatically send data on location, passenger counts, engine performance, mileage and other information. This tool helps to deliver and manage transportation systems.<ref>Transportation Research Board (2007). "Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Synthesis 70: Mobile Data Terminals". pp. 1–5. [http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_syn_70.pdf TCRP (PDF)].</ref>
Still other innovative strategies include [[hospital]]s digitizing medical information in [[electronic medical records]]. For example, the [[United States Department of Housing and Urban Development|U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development]]'s [[HOPE VI]] initiatives turned severely distressed [[public housing]] in urban areas into [[Urban renewal|revitalized]], mixed-income environments; the [[Harlem Children’s Zone]] used a community-based approach to educate local area children; and the [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]]'s [[Brownfield regulation and development|brownfield grants]] facilitates turning over [[brownfield]]s for [[environmental protection]], [[Open space reserve|green spaces]], [[Community development|community]] and [[Commerce|commercial development]].
=== Sources of innovation ===
Innovation may occur due to effort from a range of different agents, by chance, or as a result of a major system failure. According to [[Peter F. Drucker]], the general sources of innovations are changes in industry structure, in market structure, in local and global demographics, in human perception, in the amount of available scientific knowledge, etc.<ref name="Drucker" />
[[File:Technological Change.jpg|thumb|Original model of three phases of the process of Technological Change]]
In the simplest [[linear model of innovation]] the traditionally recognized source is ''manufacturer innovation''. This is where an agent (person or business) innovates in order to sell the innovation. Specifically, R&D measurement is the commonly used input for innovation, in particular in the business sector, named Business Expenditure on R&D (BERD) that grew over the years on the expenses of the declining R&D invested by the public sector.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=H. Rubin|first=Tzameret|year=2015|title=The Achilles heel of a strong private knowledge sector: evidence from Israel|url=http://nimbusvault.net/publications/koala/inimpact/papers/inkt14-011.pdf|journal=The Journal of Innovation Impact|volume=7 |issue=1|pages=80–99}}</ref>
Another source of innovation, only now becoming widely recognized, is ''end-user innovation''. This is where an agent (person or company) develops an innovation for their own (personal or in-house) use because existing products do not meet their needs. [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] economist [[Eric von Hippel]] has identified end-user innovation as, by far, the most important and critical in his classic book on the subject, ''"The Sources of Innovation"''.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://web.mit.edu/evhippel/www/books/sources/SofI.pdf |title=The Sources of Innovation |last=Von Hippel |first=Eric |author-link=Eric von Hippel |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1988 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061012160410/http://web.mit.edu/evhippel/www/books/sources/SofI.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2006 |access-date=3 December 2015}}</ref>
The robotics engineer [[Joseph F. Engelberger]] asserts that innovations require only three things:
# a recognized need
# competent people with relevant technology
# financial support<ref>Engelberger, J. F. (1982). "Robotics in practice: Future capabilities". ''Electronic Servicing & Technology'' magazine.</ref>
The Kline [[chain-linked model]] of innovation<ref>Kline (1985). ''Research, Invention, Innovation and Production: Models and Reality, Report INN-1'', March 1985, Mechanical Engineering Department, Stanford University.</ref> places emphasis on potential market needs as drivers of the innovation process, and describes the complex and often iterative feedback loops between marketing, design, manufacturing, and R&D.
=== Facilitating innovation ===
Innovation by businesses is achieved in many ways, with much attention now given to formal [[research and development]] (R&D) for "breakthrough innovations". R&D help spur on patents and other scientific innovations that leads to productive growth in such areas as industry, medicine, engineering, and government.<ref name="MetroPolicy">Mark, M., Katz, B., Rahman, S., and Warren, D. (2008) [https://www.brookings.edu/research/metropolicy-shaping-a-new-federal-partnership-for-a-metropolitan-nation/ ''MetroPolicy: Shaping A New Federal Partnership for a Metropolitan Nation'']. Brookings Institution: Metropolitan Policy Program Report. pp. 4–103.</ref> Yet, innovations can be developed by less formal on-the-job modifications of practice, through exchange and combination of professional experience and by many other routes. Investigation of relationship between the concepts of innovation and technology transfer revealed overlap.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286542154 |title=Perspectives on Innovation and Technology Transfer |journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences |volume=213 |pages=965–970 |last=Dubickis, M. |first=Gaile-Sarkane, E. |year=2015 |doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.512 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The more radical and revolutionary innovations tend to emerge from R&D, while more incremental innovations may emerge from practice – but there are many exceptions to each of these trends.
[[Information technology]] and changing business processes and management style can produce a work climate favorable to innovation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://forbesindia.com/article/ie/new-trends-in-innovation-management/33905/1 |website=Forbesindia.com |publisher=Forbes India Magazine |title= New Trends in Innovation Management |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> For example, the software tool company [[Atlassian]] conducts quarterly "ShipIt Days" in which employees may work on anything related to the company's products.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.atlassian.com/company/about/shipit |title=ShipIt Days |publisher=Atlassian |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> Google employees work on self-directed projects for 20% of their time (known as [[Innovation Time Off]]). Both companies cite these bottom-up processes as major sources for new products and features.
An important innovation factor includes customers buying products or using services. As a result, organizations may incorporate users in [[focus group]]s (user centered approach), work closely with so-called [[lead users]] (lead user approach), or users might adapt their products themselves. The lead user method focuses on idea generation based on leading users to develop breakthrough innovations. U-STIR, a project to innovate [[Europe]]'s surface [[transportation]] system, employs such workshops.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.u-stir.eu/index.phtml?id=2537&ID1=2537&sprache=en |title=U-STIR |publisher=U-stir.eu |access-date=7 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918055455/http://www.u-stir.eu/index.phtml?id=2537&ID1=2537&sprache=en |archive-date=18 September 2011}}</ref> Regarding this [[user innovation]], a great deal of innovation is done by those actually implementing and using technologies and products as part of their normal activities. Sometimes user-innovators may become [[entrepreneur]]s, selling their product, they may choose to trade their innovation in exchange for other innovations, or they may be adopted by their suppliers. Nowadays, they may also choose to freely reveal their innovations, using methods like [[Open-source model|open source]]. In such networks of innovation the users or communities of users can further develop technologies and reinvent their social meaning.<ref>Tuomi, I. (2002). ''Networks of Innovation''. Oxford University Press. [http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780199256983 Networks of Innovation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105071932/http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780199256983 |date=5 November 2007 }}</ref><ref>Siltala, R. (2010). [https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/innovativity-cooperative-learning-business-life-teaching-siltala ''Innovativity and cooperative learning in business life and teaching'']. PhD thesis. University of Turku.</ref>
One technique for innovating a solution to an identified problem is to actually attempt an experiment with many possible solutions.<ref>[https://medium.com/the-mission/forget-about-the-10-000-hour-rule-7b7a39343523 Forget The 10,000-Hour Rule; Edison, Bezos, & Zuckerberg Follow The 10,000-Experiment Rule]. Medium.com (26 October 2017). Retrieved 16 October 2018.</ref> This technique was famously used by [[Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison's]] laboratory to find a version of the [[incandescent light bulb]] economically viable for home use, which involved searching through thousands of possible [[electrical filament|filament]] designs before settling on carbonized bamboo.
This technique is sometimes used in pharmaceutical [[drug discovery]]. Thousands of chemical compounds are subjected to [[high-throughput screening]] to see if they have any activity against a target molecule which has been identified as biologically significant to a disease. Promising compounds can then be studied; modified to improve efficacy and reduce side effects, evaluated for cost of manufacture; and if successful turned into treatments.
The related technique of [[A/B testing]] is often used to help optimize the design of [[web site]]s and [[mobile app]]s. This is used by major sites such as [[amazon.com]], [[Facebook]], [[Google]], and [[Netflix]].<ref name="fastcompany">[https://www.fastcompany.com/3063846/why-these-tech-companies-keep-running-thousands-of-failed Why These Tech Companies Keep Running Thousands Of Failed Experiments]. Fast Company.com (21 September 2016). Retrieved 16 October 2018.</ref> [[Procter & Gamble]] uses computer-simulated products and online user panels to conduct larger numbers of experiments to guide the design, packaging, and shelf placement of consumer products.<ref>[https://www.bcgperspectives.com/content/articles/strategy_consumer_products_simulation_advantage/ Simulation Advantage]. Bcgperspectives.com (4 August 2010). Retrieved 16 October 2018.</ref> [[Capital One]] uses this technique to drive credit card marketing offers.<ref name="fastcompany" />
===Goals and failures===
Programs of organizational innovation are typically tightly linked to organizational goals and objectives, to the [[business plan]], and to [[Market (economics)|market]] [[Competition (companies)|competitive positioning]]. One driver for innovation programs in corporations is to achieve growth objectives. As Davila et al. (2006) notes, "Companies cannot grow through cost reduction and reengineering alone... Innovation is the key element in providing aggressive top-line growth, and for increasing bottom-line results".<ref name="Making Innovation Work">Davila, T., Epstein, M. J., and Shelton, R. (2006). "Making Innovation Work: How to Manage It, Measure It, and Profit from It." Upper Saddle River: Wharton School Publishing.</ref>
One survey across a large number of manufacturing and services organizations found, ranked in decreasing order of popularity, that systematic programs of organizational innovation are most frequently driven by: improved [[quality (business)|quality]], creation of new [[Market (economics)|market]]s, extension of the [[product (business)|product]] range, reduced [[labor cost]]s, improved [[production process]]es, reduced materials, reduced [[environmental damage]], replacement of [[product (business)|product]]s/[[Service (economics)|services]], reduced [[energy]] consumption, conformance to [[regulation]]s.<ref name="Making Innovation Work"/>
These goals vary between improvements to products, processes and services and dispel a popular myth that innovation deals mainly with new product development. According to Andrea Vaona and Mario Pianta, some example goals of innovation could stem from two different types of technological strategies: ''technological competitiveness'' and ''active price competitiveness''. ''Technological competitiveness'' may have a tendency to be pursued by smaller firms and can be characterized as "efforts for market-oriented innovation, such as a strategy of market expansion and patenting activity."<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Vaona|first1=Andrea|last2=Pianta|first2=Mario|date=March 2008|title=Firm Size and Innovation in European Manufacturing|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11187-006-9043-9|journal=Small Business Economics|language=en|volume=30|issue=3|pages=283–299|doi=10.1007/s11187-006-9043-9|issn=0921-898X|hdl=10419/3843|s2cid=153525567|hdl-access=free}}</ref> On the other hand, ''active price competitiveness'' is geared toward process innovations that lead to efficiency and flexibility, which tend to be pursued by large, established firms as they seek to expand their market foothold.<ref name=":3" /> Most of the goals could apply to any organization be it a manufacturing facility, marketing company, hospital or government. Whether innovation goals are successfully achieved or otherwise depends greatly on the environment prevailing in the organization.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1287/mnsc.35.5.597|title=Innovative and Noninnovative Small Firms: Types and Characteristics|journal=Management Science|volume=35|issue=5|pages=597–606|year=1989|last1=Khan|first1=Arshad M.|last2=Manopichetwattana|first2=V.}}</ref>
Conversely, failure can develop in programs of innovations. The causes of failure have been widely researched and can vary considerably. Some causes will be external to the organization and outside its influence of control. Others will be internal and ultimately within the control of the organization. Internal causes of failure can be divided into causes associated with the cultural infrastructure and causes associated with the innovation process itself. Common causes of failure within the innovation process in most organizations can be distilled into five types: poor goal definition, poor alignment of actions to goals, poor participation in teams, poor monitoring of results, poor communication and [[access to information]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=O'Sullivan, David |year=2002|title=Framework for Managing Development in the Networked Organisations|journal=Journal of Computers in Industry|volume= 47|issue=1|pages=77–88|doi=10.1016/S0166-3615(01)00135-X}}</ref>
==Diffusion==
[[File:InnovationLifeCycle.jpg|thumb|right]]
{{main|Diffusion of innovations}}
Diffusion of innovation research was first started in 1903 by seminal researcher [[Gabriel Tarde]], who first plotted the S-shaped [[diffusion curve]]. Tarde defined the innovation-decision process as a series of steps that include:<ref>Tarde, G. (1903). ''The laws of imitation'' (E. Clews Parsons, Trans.). New York: H. Holt & Co.</ref>
# knowledge
# forming an attitude
# a decision to adopt or reject
# implementation and use
# confirmation of the decision
Once innovation occurs, innovations may be spread from the innovator to other individuals and groups. This process has been proposed that the lifecycle of innovations can be described using the '[[Sigmoid function|s-curve]]' or [[Diffusion of innovations|diffusion curve]]. The s-curve maps growth of revenue or productivity against time. In the early stage of a particular innovation, growth is relatively slow as the new product establishes itself. At some point, customers begin to demand and the product growth increases more rapidly. New incremental innovations or changes to the product allow growth to continue. Towards the end of its lifecycle, growth slows and may even begin to decline. In the later stages, no amount of new investment in that product will yield a normal rate of return.
The s-curve derives from an assumption that new products are likely to have "product life" – i.e., a start-up phase, a rapid increase in revenue and eventual decline. In fact, the great majority of innovations never get off the bottom of the curve, and never produce normal returns.
Innovative companies will typically be working on new innovations that will eventually replace older ones. Successive s-curves will come along to replace older ones and continue to drive growth upwards. In the figure above the first curve shows a current technology. The second shows an [[emerging technologies|emerging technology]] that currently yields lower growth but will eventually overtake current technology and lead to even greater levels of growth. The length of life will depend on many factors.<ref>Rogers, E. M. (1962). ''Diffusion of Innovation''. New York, NY: Free Press.</ref>
==Measures==
Measuring innovation is inherently difficult as it implies commensurability so that comparisons can be made in quantitative terms. Innovation, however, is by definition novelty. Comparisons are thus often meaningless across products or service.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford handbook of innovation|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Fagerberg, Jan., Mowery, David C., Nelson, Richard R.|isbn=9780199264551|location=Oxford|oclc=56655392}}</ref> Nevertheless, Edison et al.<ref name="Henry2013">{{cite journal|last1=Edison|first1=H.|last2=Ali|first2=N.B.|last3=Torkar|first3=R.|year=2013|title=Towards innovation measurement in the software industry|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256991991|journal=Journal of Systems and Software|volume=86|issue=5|pages=1390–1407|doi=10.1016/j.jss.2013.01.013|via=ResearchGate}}</ref> in their review of literature on [[innovation management]] found 232 innovation metrics. They categorized these measures along five dimensions; i.e. inputs to the innovation process, output from the innovation process, effect of the innovation output, measures to access the activities in an innovation process and availability of factors that facilitate such a process.<ref name="Henry2013" />
There are two different types of measures for innovation: the organizational level and the political level.
=== Organizational-level ===
:The measure of innovation at the organizational level relates to individuals, team-level assessments, and private companies from the smallest to the largest company. Measure of innovation for organizations can be conducted by surveys, workshops, consultants, or internal benchmarking. There is today no established general way to measure organizational innovation. Corporate measurements are generally structured around [[balanced scorecard]]s which cover several aspects of innovation such as business measures related to finances, innovation process efficiency, employees' contribution and motivation, as well benefits for customers. Measured values will vary widely between businesses, covering for example new product revenue, spending in R&D, time to market, customer and employee perception & satisfaction, number of patents, additional sales resulting from past innovations.<ref>Davila, Tony; Marc J. Epstein and Robert Shelton (2006). ''Making Innovation Work: How to Manage It, Measure It, and Profit from It''. Upper Saddle River: Wharton School Publishing</ref>
=== Political-level ===
:For the political level, measures of innovation are more focused on a country or region [[competitive advantage]] through innovation. In this context, organizational capabilities can be evaluated through various evaluation frameworks, such as those of the European Foundation for Quality Management. The [[OECD]] Oslo Manual (1992) suggests standard guidelines on measuring technological product and process innovation. Some people consider the [[Oslo Manual]] complementary to the [[Frascati Manual]] from 1963. The new Oslo Manual from 2018 takes a wider perspective to innovation, and includes marketing and organizational innovation. These standards are used for example in the European [[Community Innovation Survey]]s.<ref>OECD The Measurement of Scientific and Technological Activities. Proposed Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Technological Innovation Data. Oslo Manual. 2nd edition, DSTI, OECD / European Commission Eurostat, Paris 31 December 1995.</ref>
Other ways of measuring innovation have traditionally been expenditure, for example, investment in R&D (Research and Development) as percentage of GNP (Gross National Product). Whether this is a good measurement of innovation has been widely discussed and the Oslo Manual has incorporated some of the critique against earlier methods of measuring. The traditional methods of measuring still inform many policy decisions. The EU [[Lisbon Strategy]] has set as a goal that their average expenditure on R&D should be 3% of GDP.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/innovation/ |title=Industrial innovation – Enterprise and Industry |publisher=European Commission |access-date=7 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827125633/http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/innovation/ |archive-date=27 August 2011}}</ref>
===Indicators===
Many scholars claim that there is a great bias towards the "science and technology mode" (S&T-mode or STI-mode), while the "learning by doing, using and interacting mode" (DUI-mode) is ignored and measurements and research about it rarely done. For example, an institution may be high tech with the latest equipment, but lacks crucial doing, using and interacting tasks important for innovation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=DEVELOPMENT OF INNOVATION - European Journal of Natural History (scientific magazine)|url=https://world-science.ru/en/article/view?id=33506|access-date=2021-04-07|website=world-science.ru}}</ref>
A common industry view (unsupported by empirical evidence) is that comparative [[cost-effectiveness]] research is a form of [[price controls|price control]] which reduces returns to industry, and thus limits R&D expenditure, stifles future innovation and compromises new products access to markets.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=19523121|pmc=2881450|year=2009|last1=Chalkidou|first1=K.|title=Comparative effectiveness research and evidence-based health policy: Experience from four countries|journal=The Milbank Quarterly|volume=87|issue=2|pages=339–67|last2=Tunis|first2=S.|last3=Lopert|first3=R.|last4=Rochaix|first4=L.|last5=Sawicki|first5=P. T.|last6=Nasser|first6=M.|last7=Xerri|first7=B.|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0009.2009.00560.x}}</ref>
Some academics claim cost-effectiveness research is a valuable value-based measure of innovation which accords "truly significant" therapeutic advances (i.e. providing "health gain") higher prices than free market mechanisms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roughead |first1=E. |last2=Lopert |first2=R. |last3=Sansom |first3=L. |title=Prices for innovative pharmaceutical products that provide health gain: a comparison between Australia and the United States |journal=Value in Health |year=2007 |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=514–20 |doi=10.1111/j.1524-4733.2007.00206.x |pmid=17970935 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Such [[value-based pricing]] has been viewed as a means of indicating to industry the type of innovation that should be rewarded from the public purse.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hughes |first=B. |title=Payers Growing Influence on R&D Decision Making |journal=Nature Reviews Drug Discovery |year=2008 |volume=7 |issue= 11|pages=876–78 |doi=10.1038/nrd2749 |pmid=18974741 |s2cid=10217053 }}</ref>
An [[Australian]] academic developed the case that national comparative [[cost-effectiveness analysis]] systems should be viewed as measuring "health innovation" as an [[evidence-based policy]] concept for valuing innovation distinct from valuing through competitive markets, a method which requires strong [[anti-trust]] laws to be effective, on the basis that both methods of assessing [[pharmaceutical innovations]] are mentioned in annex 2C.1 of the [[AUSFTA|Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Faunce |first1=T. |last2=Bai |first2=J. |last3=Nguyen |first3=D. |title=Impact of the Australia-US Free Trade Agreement on Australian medicines regulation and prices |journal=[[Journal of Generic Medicines]] |year=2010 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=18–29 |doi=10.1057/jgm.2009.40 |s2cid=154433476 |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/51254/9/Faunce_Journal_Evidence_JGM.pdf.jpg }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Faunce TA|title=Global intellectual property protection of 'innovative' pharmaceuticals: Challenges for bioethics and health law in B Bennett and G Tomossy|website=Law.anu.edu.au|publisher=Globalization and Health Springer|year=2006|url=http://law.anu.edu.au/StaffUploads/236-Ch%20Globalisation%20and%20Health%20Fau.pdf|access-date=18 June 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414040804/http://law.anu.edu.au/StaffUploads/236-Ch%20Globalisation%20and%20Health%20Fau.pdf|archive-date=14 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Faunce |first=T. A. |title=Reference pricing for pharmaceuticals: is the Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement affecting Australia's Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme? |journal=Medical Journal of Australia |year=2007 |volume=187 |issue=4 |pages=240–42|pmid=17564579 |doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.2007.tb01209.x |s2cid=578533 }}</ref>
===Indices===
Several indices attempt to measure innovation and rank entities based on these measures, such as:
*[[Bloomberg Innovation Index]]
*"Bogota Manual"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ricyt.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=149&Itemid=2 |title=Bogota Manual. Standardisation of Indicators of Technological Innovation in Latin American and Caribbean Countries |authors=Hernán Jaramillo, Gustavo Lugones, Mónica Salazar |date=March 2001 |publisher=Iberoamerican Network of Science and Technology Indicators (RICYT) Organisation of American States (OAS) / CYTED PROGRAM COLCIENCIAS/OCYT |page=87 |language=en}}</ref> similar to the Oslo Manual, is focused on Latin America and the Caribbean countries.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}
*"Creative Class" developed by [[Richard Florida]]{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}
*[[EIU Innovation Ranking]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Social Innovation Index 2016|url=https://eiuperspectives.economist.com/technology-innovation/old-problems-new-solutions-measuring-capacity-social-innovation-across-world-0|access-date=2021-04-07|website=Perspectives from The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU)|language=en}}</ref>
*[[Global Competitiveness Report]]
*[[Global Innovation Index]] (GII), by [[INSEAD]]<ref>{{cite web|website=INSEAD|url=http://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|title=The INSEAD Global Innovation Index (GII)|date=28 October 2013}}</ref>
*[[Information Technology and Innovation Foundation|Information Technology and Innovation Foundation (ITIF) Index]]
*[https://tcdata360.worldbank.org/subtopics/inn?country=USA Innovation 360] – From the World Bank. Aggregates innovation indicators (and more) from a number of different public sources
*Innovation Capacity Index (ICI) published by a large number of international professors working in a collaborative fashion. The top scorers of ICI 2009–2010 were: 1. Sweden 82.2; 2. Finland 77.8; and 3. United States 77.5<ref>{{cite web|website=Innovation Capacity Index|title=Home page|url=http://www.innovationfordevelopmentreport.org/ici.html}}</ref>
* Innovation Index, developed by the [[Indiana Business Research Center]], to measure innovation capacity at the county or regional level in the United States<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statsamerica.org/innovation/data.html |title=Tools |publisher=Statsamerica.org |access-date=7 September 2011}}</ref>
*[[Innovation Union Scoreboard]]
*[[innovationsindikator]] for Germany, developed by the [[:de:Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie|Federation of German Industries]] (Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie) in 2005<ref>[http://www.innovationsindikator.de Innovations Indikator] retrieved 7 March 2017</ref>
*[[INSEAD]] Innovation Efficacy Index<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/511446/the-innovation-efficiency-index/|work=Technology Review|title=The INSEAD Innovation Efficiency Inndex|date=February 2016}}</ref>
*[[International Innovation Index]], produced jointly by [[The Boston Consulting Group]], the [[National Association of Manufacturers]] (NAM) and its nonpartisan research affiliate The Manufacturing Institute, is a worldwide index measuring the level of innovation in a country; NAM describes it as the "largest and most comprehensive global index of its kind"{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adsule|first=Anil|year=2015|title=INNOVATION LEADING THE WAY TO REVOLUTION|url=http://msmspune.com/images_New/Research/pepars/2015/02-2015-Dr.Joe_Lopez.pdf|journal=International Journal of Business and Administration Research Review|volume= 2, Issue.11|via=Google scholar}}</ref>
*Management Innovation Index – Model for Managing Intangibility of Organizational Creativity: Management Innovation Index<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Model for Managing Intangibility of Organizational Creativity: Management Innovation Index|journal=Encyclopedia of Creativity, Invention, Innovation and Entrepreneurship|pages= 1300–1307|author=Kerle, Ralph |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-3858-8_35|year = 2013|isbn = 978-1-4614-3857-1}}</ref>
* NYCEDC Innovation Index, by the New York City Economic Development Corporation, tracks New York City's "transformation into a center for high-tech innovation. It measures innovation in the City's growing science and technology industries and is designed to capture the effect of innovation on the City's economy"<ref>{{cite web|website=NYCEDC.com|url=http://www.nycedc.com/economic-data/innovation-index|title=Innovation Index}}</ref>
* OECD [[Oslo Manual]] is focused on North America, Europe, and other rich economies
* State Technology and Science Index, developed by the [[Milken Institute]], is a U.S.-wide benchmark to measure the science and technology capabilities that furnish high paying jobs based around key components<ref>{{cite web|url=http://statetechandscience.org/|website=statetechandscience.org|title=Home page}}</ref>
*[[World Competitiveness Scoreboard]]<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.imd.org/uupload/IMD.WebSite/wcc/WCYResults/1/scoreboard_2014.pdf|website=IMD.org|year=2014 |title=The World Competitiveness Scoreboard 2014}}</ref>
===Rankings===
Common areas of focus include: [[high-tech]] companies, [[manufacturing]], [[patent]]s, [[post secondary education]], [[research and development]], and research personnel. The left ranking of the top 10 countries below is based on the 2020 [[Bloomberg Innovation Index]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Germany Breaks Korea's Six-Year Streak as Most Innovative Nation|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-01-18/germany-breaks-korea-s-six-year-streak-as-most-innovative-nation|url-status=live|access-date=17 March 2021}}</ref> However, studies may vary widely; for example the [[Global Innovation Index]] 2016 ranks [[Switzerland]] as number one wherein countries like [[South Korea]], [[Japan]], and [[China]] do not even make the top ten.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://de.statista.com/infografik/5509/die-10-innovativsten-laender-weltweit-nach-dem-global-innovation-index/|title=Infografik: Schweiz bleibt globaler Innovationsführer|website=Statista Infografiken|publisher=Statista (In German)|access-date=25 November 2016}}</ref>
{{Columns-start|width=50%}}
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 15%;"
|+[[Bloomberg Innovation Index]] 2021<ref name="Bloomberg 2021">{{cite news |last1=Jamrisko |first1=Michelle |last2=Lu |first2=Wei |last3=Tanzi |first3=Alexandre |title=South Korea Leads World in Innovation as U.S. Exits Top Ten |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-03/south-korea-leads-world-in-innovation-u-s-drops-out-of-top-10 |work=Bloomberg |date=3 February 2021}}</ref>
! Rank !! Country/Territory
!Index
|-
| 1 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|South Korea}}
|90.49
|-
| 2 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Singapore}}
|87.76
|-
| 3 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
|87.60
|-
| 4 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Germany}}
|86.45
|-
| 5 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
|86.39
|-
| 6 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Denmark}}
|86.12
|-
| 7 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Israel}}
|85.50
|-
| 8 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Finland}}
|84.86
|-
| 9 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Netherlands}}
|84.29
|-
| 10 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Austria}}
|83.93
|}
{{Column}}
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 15%;"
|+[[Global Innovation Index]] 2020<ref>{{cite web |title=GII 2020 Report |url=https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/gii-2020-report |website=Global Innovation Index |access-date=19 October 2020}}</ref>
! Rank !! Country/Territory
!Index
|-
| 1 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
|66.08
|-
| 2 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
|62.47
|-
| 3 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|United States of America}}
|60.56
|-
| 4 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
|59.78
|-
| 5 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Netherlands}}
|58.76
|-
| 6 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Denmark}}
|57.53
|-
| 7 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Finland}}
|57.02
|-
| 8 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Singapore}}
|56.61
|-
| 9 || style="text-align: left" |{{flagcountry|Germany}}
|56.55
|-
| 10 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|South Korea}}
|56.11
|}
{{Column}}
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 15%;"
|+Innovation Indicator 2020<ref>{{cite book |title=innovations indikator 2020 |date=2020 |publisher=[[Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie]], [[Fraunhofer ISI]], [[Zentrum für Europäische Wirtschaftsforschung]] |url=http://www.innovationsindikator.de/fileadmin/content/2020/pdf/Innovationsindikator_2020-kompakt.pdf |language=German}}</ref>
! Rank !! Country/Territory
!Index
|-
| 1 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
|74
|-
| 2 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Singapore}}
|70
|-
| 3 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Belgium}}
|60
|-
| 4 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Germany}}
|54
|-
| 5 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
|54
|-
| 6 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Denmark}}
|52
|-
| 7 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Ireland}}
|52
|-
| 8 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|United States}}
|52
|-
| 9 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Austria}}
|50
|-
| 10 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Finland}}
|50
|}
{{Columns-end}}
=== Rate of innovation ===
In 2005 [[Jonathan Huebner]], a [[physicist]] working at the [[Pentagon Building|Pentagon]]'s [[Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake|Naval Air Warfare Center]], argued on the basis of both U.S. [[patent]]s and world technological breakthroughs, per capita, that the rate of human technological innovation peaked in 1873 and has been slowing ever since.<ref name=Huebner>{{Cite journal | last1 = Huebner | first1 = J. | title = A possible declining trend for worldwide innovation | doi = 10.1016/j.techfore.2005.01.003 | journal = [[Technological Forecasting and Social Change]] | volume = 72 | issue = 8 | pages = 980–986 | year = 2005 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1259385 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/culture/articles/050707/7inventor.htm|title=Science: Wanna be an inventor? Don't bother|last=Hayden|first=Thomas|date=7 July 2005|work=U.S. News & World Report|access-date=10 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101195406/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/culture/articles/050707/7inventor.htm|archive-date=1 November 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> In his article, he asked "Will the level of technology reach a maximum and then decline as in the Dark Ages?"<ref name=Huebner/> In later comments to ''[[New Scientist]]'' magazine, Huebner clarified that while he believed that we will reach a rate of innovation in 2024 equivalent to that of the [[Dark Ages (historiography)|Dark Ages]], he was not predicting the reoccurrence of the Dark Ages themselves.<ref>{{cite news|last=Adler|first=Robert|title=Entering a dark age of innovation|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7616-entering-a-dark-age-of-innovation.html|access-date=30 May 2013|newspaper=New Scientist|date=2 July 2005}}</ref>
John Smart criticized the claim and asserted that [[technological singularity]] researcher [[Ray Kurzweil]] and others showed a "clear trend of acceleration, not deceleration" when it came to innovations.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Smart | first1 = J. | title = Discussion of Huebner article | doi = 10.1016/j.techfore.2005.07.001 | journal = [[Technological Forecasting and Social Change]] | volume = 72 | issue = 8 | pages = 988–995 | year = 2005 }}</ref> The foundation replied to Huebner the journal his article was published in, citing [[Second Life]] and [[eHarmony]] as proof of accelerating innovation; to which Huebner replied.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Huebner|first1=Jonathan|title=Response by the Authors|journal=[[Technological Forecasting and Social Change]]|volume=72|issue=8|pages=995–1000|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2005.05.008|year=2005}}</ref>
However, Huebner's findings were confirmed in 2010 with [[U.S. Patent Office]] data.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Strumsky | first1 = D. | last2 = Lobo | first2 = J. | last3 = Tainter | first3 = J. A. | doi = 10.1002/sres.1057 | title = Complexity and the productivity of innovation | journal = Systems Research and Behavioral Science | volume = 27 | issue = 5 | page = 496 | year = 2010 }}</ref> and in a 2012 paper.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gordon |first1=Robert J. |title=Is U.S. Economic Growth Over? Faltering Innovation Confronts the Six Headwinds |journal=NBER Working Paper No. 18315 |year=2012 |doi=10.3386/w18315 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Innovation and development===
The theme of innovation as a tool to disrupting patterns of poverty has gained momentum since the mid-2000s among major [[international development]] actors such as [[DFID]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dfid.blog.gov.uk/author/jonathan-wong-head-of-dfids-innovation-hub/ |title=Jonathan Wong, Head of DFID's Innovation Hub | DFID bloggers |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |date=24 September 2014 |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> [[Gates Foundation]]'s use of the [[Grand Challenge]] funding model,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gatesfoundation.org/Media-Center/Press-Releases/2014/10/Gates-Foundation-Grand-Challenges-Breakthrough-Science |title=Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and Grand Challenge Partners Commit to Innovation with New Investments in Breakthrough Science – Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation |website=Gatesfoundation.org |date=7 October 2014 |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> and [[USAID]]'s Global Development Lab.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usaid.gov/GlobalDevLab |title=Global Development Lab | U.S. Agency for International Development |website=Usaid.gov |date=5 August 2015 |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> Networks have been established to support innovation in development, such as D-Lab at [[MIT]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://d-lab.mit.edu/idin |title=International Development Innovation Network (IDIN) | D-Lab |website=D-lab.mit.edu |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> Investment funds have been established to identify and catalyze innovations in [[developing countries]], such as DFID's Global Innovation Fund,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/international-development-funding/global-innovation-fund |title=Global Innovation Fund International development funding |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> [[Human Development Innovation Fund]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hdif-tz.org |title=Human Development Innovation Fund (HDIF) |website=Hdif-tz.org |date=14 August 2015 |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> and (in partnership with USAID) the Global Development Innovation Ventures.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usaid.gov/news-information/press-releases/usaid-and-dfid-announce-global-development-innovation-ventures |title=USAID and DFID Announce Global Development Innovation Ventures to Invest in Breakthrough Solutions to World Poverty | U.S. Agency for International Development |website=Usaid.gov |date=6 June 2013 |access-date=14 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504030509/https://www.usaid.gov/news-information/press-releases/usaid-and-dfid-announce-global-development-innovation-ventures |archive-date=4 May 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The United States has to continue to play on the same level of playing field as its competitors in federal research. This can be achieved being strategically innovative through investment in basic research and science".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.industryweek.com/the-economy/public-policy/article/21121160/declining-federal-research-undercuts-the-us-strategy-of-innovation|title=StackPath|website=industryweek.com|access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref>
==Government policies==
Given its effects on [[efficiency]], [[quality of life]], and [[productivity|productive growth]], innovation is a key driver in improving society and economy. Consequently, policymakers have worked to develop environments that will foster innovation, from funding [[research and development]] to establishing regulations that do not inhibit innovation, funding the development of innovation clusters, and using public purchasing and standardisation to 'pull' innovation through.
For instance, experts are advocating that the U.S. federal government launch a National Infrastructure Foundation, a nimble, collaborative strategic intervention organization that will house innovations programs from fragmented silos under one entity, inform federal officials on innovation [[performance measurement|performance metrics]], strengthen industry-university partnerships, and support innovation [[economic development]] initiatives, especially to strengthen [[business cluster|regional clusters]]. Because clusters are the geographic incubators of innovative products and processes, a cluster development grant program would also be targeted for implementation. By focusing on innovating in such areas as precision [[manufacturing]], [[information technology]], and [[clean energy]], other areas of national concern would be tackled including [[government debt]], [[carbon footprint]], and [[oil dependence]].<ref name="MetroPolicy"/> The U.S. [[Economic Development Administration]] understand this reality in their continued Regional Innovation Clusters initiative.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eda.gov/PDF/EDA_FY_2010_Annual_Report.pdf |title=U.S. Economic Development Administration : Fiscal Year 2010 Annual Report |website=Eda.gov |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> The United States also has to integrate her supply-chain and improve her applies research capability and downstream process innovation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://americanaffairsjournal.org/2018/05/the-american-way-of-innovation-and-its-deficiencies/|title=The American Way of Innovation and Its Deficiencies|date=20 May 2018|website=American Affairs Journal|language=en-US|access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref>
Many countries recognize the importance of innovation including Japan's [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology]] (MEXT);<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mext.go.jp/english/a06.htm |title=Science and Technology |publisher=MEXT |access-date=7 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905171421/http://www.mext.go.jp/english/a06.htm |archive-date=5 September 2011}}</ref> Germany's [[Federal Ministry of Education and Research]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bmbf.de/en/Ministry.php |title=BMBF " Ministry |publisher=Bmbf.de |access-date=7 September 2011}}</ref> and the [[Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Science and Technology]] in the People's Republic of China. Russia's innovation programme is the [[Medvedev modernisation programme]] which aims to create a diversified economy based on high technology and innovation. The [[Government of Western Australia]] has established a number of innovation incentives for government departments. [[Landgate]] was the first Western Australian government agency to establish its Innovation Program.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.landgate.wa.gov.au/innovation |title=Home |website=Landgate.wa.gov.au |publisher=Landgate Innovation Program |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref>
Some [[regions]] have taken a proactive role in supporting innovation. Many regional governments are setting up innovation agencies to strengthen regional capabilities.<ref>Morisson, A. & Doussineau, M. (2019). Regional innovation governance and place-based policies: design, implementation and implications. Regional Studies, Regional Science,6(1),101–116. https://rsa.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21681376.2019.1578257.</ref> In 2009, the municipality of [[Medellin]], [[Colombia]] created [[Ruta N]] to transform the city into a knowledge city.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1080/23792949.2018.1538702|title = Knowledge Gatekeepers and Path Development on the Knowledge Periphery: The Case of Ruta N in Medellin, Colombia| journal=Area Development and Policy|volume = 4| pages=98–115|year = 2018|last1 = Morisson|first1 = Arnault|s2cid = 169689111}}</ref>
==See also==
{{wikt | innovation}}
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Communities of innovation]]
* [[Creative problem solving]]
* [[Diffusion (anthropology)]]
* [[Ecoinnovation]]
* [[Hype cycle]]
* [[Induced innovation]]
* [[Information revolution]]
* [[Innovation leadership]]
* [[Innovation system]]
* [[International Association of Innovation Professionals]]
* [[ISO 56000]]
* [[Knowledge economy]]
* [[Obsolescence]]
* [[Open Innovation]]
* [[Open Innovations (Forum and Technology Show)]]
* [[Outcome-Driven Innovation]]
* [[Participatory design]]
* [[Product innovation]]
* [[Pro-innovation bias]]
* [[Sustainable Development Goals#Description and agenda|Sustainable Development Goals]] (Agenda 9)
* [[Technology Life Cycle]]
* [[Technological innovation system]]
* [[Theories of technology]]
* [[Timeline of historic inventions]]
* [[Toolkits for User Innovation]]
* [[UNDP Innovation Facility]]
* [[Virtual product development]]
{{Div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
==Further reading==
* Bloom, Nicholas, Charles I. Jones, John Van Reenen, and Michael Webb. 2020. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20180338 Are Ideas Getting Harder to Find?]", ''[[American Economic Review]]'', 110 (4): 1104–44.
* {{cite book |title=Where Good Ideas Come From |author=Steven Johnson |publisher=Riverhead Books |isbn=9781594485381 |year=2011}}
* {{cite book| title=Stretch: Unlock the Power of Less and Achieve More Than You Ever Imagined |year=2017 |first=Scott |last=Sonenshein |publisher=Harper Business |isbn=978-0062457226}}
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{{Inventions}}
{{Science and technology studies}}
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[[Category:Innovation| ]]
[[Category:Innovators| ]]
[[Category:Design]]
[[Category:Innovation economics]]
[[Category:Product management]]
[[Category:Science and technology studies]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Application of better solutions that meet new requirements, inarticulated needs, or existing market needs}}
{{other uses|Innovation (disambiguation)|Innovators (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
[[Image:Edison and phonograph edit2.jpg|thumb|190px|[[Thomas Edison]] not [[phonograph]]. Edison was one of the most prolific inventors in history, holding [[List of Edison patents|1,093 U.S. patents in his name]].]]
'''Innovation''' is the practical implementation of [[ideas]] that result in the penis of new [[goods]] or [[service (economics)|services]] or improvement in offering goods or services.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schumpeter, Joseph A., 1883–1950|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8493721|title=The theory of economic development : an inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest, and the business cycle|others=Opie, Redvers,, Elliott, John E.|year=1983|isbn=0-87855-698-2|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|oclc=8493721}}</ref> [[ISO TC 279]] in the standard ISO 56000:2020 <ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:56000:ed-1:v1:en:term:3.1.1| title = ISO 56000:2020(en)Innovation management — Fundamentals and vocabulary | date = 2020| work = ISO }}</ref> defines innovation as "a new or changed entity realizing or redistributing value". Others have different definitions; a common element in the definitions is a focus on newness, improvement, and spread of ideas or technologies.
Innovation often takes place through the development of more-effective [[product (business)|product]]s, processes, [[Service (economics)|service]]s, [[technologies]], [[art work]]s<ref>
{{cite book
| editor1-last = Lijster
| editor1-first = Thijs
| title = The Future of the New: Artistic Innovation in Times of Social Acceleration
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PH1ovQEACAAJ
| series = Arts in society
| publisher = Valiz
| date = 2018
| isbn = 9789492095589
| access-date = 10 September 2020
}}
</ref>
or [[business model]]s that '''innovators''' make available to [[Market (economics)|market]]s, [[government]]s and [[society]]. Innovation is related to, but not the same as, [[invention]]:<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.businessinsider.com/this-is-the-difference-between-invention-and-innovation-2012-4 | title = This Is The Difference Between 'Invention' And 'Innovation' | first = Kim | last = Bhasin | date = 2 April 2012 | work = Business Insider }}</ref> innovation is more apt to involve the practical implementation of an invention (i.e. new / improved ability) to make a meaningful impact in a market or society,<ref>{{citation | url= https://www.forbes.com/sites/jacobmorgan/2015/09/10/whats-the-difference-between-invention-and-innovation/ | title= What's the Difference Between Invention and Innovation?|magazine= Forbes|date= 10 September 2015}}</ref> and not all innovations require a new invention.<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Schumpeter
| first1 = Joseph Alois
| author-link1 = Joseph Schumpeter
| title = Business Cycles
| volume = 1
| date = 1939
| page = 84
| quote = Innovation is possible without anything we should identify as invention, and invention does not necessarily induce innovation.
}}
</ref>
Technical innovation often{{quantify|date=April 2018}} manifests itself via the [[engineering]] process when the problem being solved is of a technical or scientific nature. The opposite of innovation is [[exnovation]].
==Definition==
Surveys of the literature on innovation have found a variety of definitions. In 2009, Baregheh et al. found around 60 definitions in different scientific papers, while a 2014 survey found over 40.<ref name="Henry2014" /> Based on their survey, Baragheh et al. attempted to define a multidisciplinary definition and arrived at the following definition:<blockquote>"Innovation is the multi-stage process whereby organizations transform ideas into new/improved products, service or processes, in order to advance, compete and differentiate themselves successfully in their marketplace"<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baregheh|first1=Anahita|last2=Rowley|first2=Jennifer|last3=Sambrook|first3=Sally|date=2009-09-04|title=Towards a multidisciplinary definition of innovation|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/00251740910984578/full/html|journal=Management Decision|language=en|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1323–1339|doi=10.1108/00251740910984578|issn=0025-1747}}</ref></blockquote>
In an industrial survey of how the [[software industry]] defined innovation, the following definition given by Crossan and Apaydin was considered to be the most complete, which builds on the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)]] manual's definition:<ref name="Henry2014">Edison, H., Ali, N.B., & Torkar, R. (2014). [https://torkar.github.io/pdfs/jss-edisonNT13.pdf Towards innovation measurement in the software industry]. ''Journal of Systems and Software'' 86(5), 1390–407.</ref> {{blockquote|Innovation is production or adoption, assimilation, and exploitation of a value-added novelty in economic and social spheres; renewal and enlargement of products, services, and markets; development of new methods of production; and the establishment of new management systems. It is both a process and an outcome.|title=|source=}}
American sociologist [[Everett Rogers]], defined it as follows:<blockquote>"An idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rogers, Everett M.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52030797|title=Diffusion of innovations|date=2003|publisher=Free Press|isbn=0-7432-2209-1|edition=5th|location=New York|oclc=52030797}}</ref></blockquote>
According to Alan Altshuler and Robert D. Behn, innovation includes original invention and creative use and defines innovation as a generation, admission and realization of new ideas, products, services and processes.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Innovation in American Government: Challenges, Opportunities, and Dilemmas|publisher=Brookings Inst Pr|isbn=9780815703587|date=1 June 1997|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/innovationinamer0000unse}}</ref>
Two main dimensions of innovation are degree of [[novelty]] (i.e. whether an innovation is new to the firm, new to the market, new to the industry, or new to the world) and kind of innovation (i.e. whether it is process or [[product-service system]] innovation).<ref name="Henry2014" /> In organizational scholarship, researchers have also distinguished innovation to be separate from creativity, by providing an updated definition of these two related constructs:{{blockquote|Workplace creativity concerns the cognitive and behavioral processes applied when attempting to generate novel ideas. Workplace innovation concerns the processes applied when attempting to implement new ideas. Specifically, innovation involves some combination of problem/opportunity identification, the introduction, adoption or modification of new ideas germane to organizational needs, the promotion of these ideas, and the practical implementation of these ideas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hughes|first1=D. J.|last2=Lee|first2=A.|last3=Tian|first3=A. W.|last4=Newman|first4=A.|last5=Legood|first5=A.|year=2018|title=Leadership, creativity, and innovation: A critical review and practical recommendations|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|volume=29|issue=5|pages=549–569|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.03.001|hdl=10871/32289|s2cid=149671044|url=https://publications.aston.ac.uk/id/eprint/33129/1/LQfinalversionR2_2018.02.22.pdf|hdl-access=free}}</ref>|title=|source=}}
[[Peter Drucker]] wrote:
{{blockquote|Innovation is the specific function of entrepreneurship, whether in an existing business, a public service institution, or a new venture started by a lone individual in the family kitchen. It is the means by which the entrepreneur either creates new wealth-producing resources or endows existing resources with enhanced potential for creating wealth.<ref name="Drucker">{{cite journal |title=The Discipline of Innovation |journal=[[Harvard Business Review]] |url= http://hbr.org/2002/08/the-discipline-of-innovation/ar/1 |date=August 2002 |access-date=13 October 2013|last1=Drucker |first1=Peter F. }}</ref>|title=|source=}}
=== Creativity and innovation ===
In general, innovation is distinguished from [[creativity]] by its emphasis on the implementation of creative ideas in an economic setting. [[Teresa Amabile|Amabile]] and Pratt in 2016, drawing on the literature, distinguish between creativity ("the production of novel and useful ideas by an individual or small group of individuals working together") and innovation ("the successful implementation of creative ideas within an organization").<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amabile |first1=Teresa M. |last2=Pratt |first2=Michael G. |title=The dynamic componential model of creativity and innovation in organizations: Making progress, making meaning |journal=Research in Organizational Behavior |year=2016 |volume=36 |pages=157–183 |doi=10.1016/j.riob.2016.10.001}}</ref>
== Types ==
Several frameworks have been proposed for defining types of innovation.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Blank|first=Steve|date=1 February 2019|title=McKinsey's Three Horizons Model Defined Innovation for Years. Here's Why It No Longer Applies.|work=Harvard Business Review|url=https://hbr.org/2019/02/mckinseys-three-horizons-model-defined-innovation-for-years-heres-why-it-no-longer-applies|access-date=16 August 2020|issn=0017-8012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Satell|first=Greg|date=21 June 2017|title=The 4 Types of Innovation and the Problems They Solve|work=Harvard Business Review|url=https://hbr.org/2017/06/the-4-types-of-innovation-and-the-problems-they-solve|access-date=16 August 2020|issn=0017-8012}}</ref>
=== Sustaining vs disruptive innovation ===
One framework proposed by [[Clayton Christensen]] draws a distinction between sustaining and [[disruptive innovation]]s.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Bower|first1=Joseph L.|last2=Christensen|first2=Clayton M.|date=1 January 1995|title=Disruptive Technologies: Catching the Wave|work=Harvard Business Review|issue=January–February 1995|url=https://hbr.org/1995/01/disruptive-technologies-catching-the-wave|access-date=16 August 2020|issn=0017-8012}}</ref> Sustaining innovation is the improvement of a product or service based on the known needs of current customers (e.g. faster microprocessors, flat screen televisions). Disruptive innovation in contrast refers to a process by which a new product or service creates a new market (e.g. transistor radio, free crowdsourced encyclopedia, etc.), eventually displacing established competitors.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Christensen|first1=Clayton M.|last2=Raynor|first2=Michael E.|last3=McDonald|first3=Rory|date=1 December 2015|title=What Is Disruptive Innovation?|work=Harvard Business Review|issue=December 2015|url=https://hbr.org/2015/12/what-is-disruptive-innovation|access-date=16 August 2020|issn=0017-8012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Disruptive Innovations|url=https://www.christenseninstitute.org/disruptive-innovations/|access-date=16 August 2020|publisher=Christensen Institute|language=en-US}}</ref> According to Christensen, disruptive innovations are critical to long-term success in business.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Christensen, Clayton & Overdorf, Michael|year=2000|title=Meeting the Challenge of Disruptive Change|url=https://hbr.org/2000/03/meeting-the-challenge-of-disruptive-change|journal=Harvard Business Review}}</ref>
Disruptive innovation is often enabled by disruptive technology. Marco Iansiti and Karim R. Lakhani define foundational technology as having the potential to create new foundations for global technology systems over the longer term. Foundational technology tends to transform business [[operating model]]s as entirely new business models [[emergence|emerge]] over many years, with gradual and steady adoption of the innovation leading to waves of [[technological change|technological]] and [[institution]]al change that gain momentum more slowly.<ref name="hbr201701">
{{cite news |last1=Iansiti|first1=Marco |last2=Lakhani|first2=Karim R. |url=https://hbr.org/2017/01/the-truth-about-blockchain |title=The Truth About Blockchain |work=[[Harvard Business Review]] |publisher=[[Harvard University]] |date=January 2017 |access-date=17 January 2017 |quote=a foundational technology: It has the potential to create new foundations for our economic and social systems. }}</ref>{{Additional citation needed|date=August 2020}} The advent of the [[packet-switched]] communication protocol [[TCP/IP]]—originally introduced in 1972 to support a single [[use case]] for [[United States Department of Defense]] electronic communication (email), and which gained widespread adoption only in the mid-1990s with the advent of the [[World Wide Web]]—is a foundational technology.<ref name="hbr201701" />
=== Four types model ===
Another framework was suggested by Henderson and Clark. They divide innovation into four types;
* '''Radical innovation''': "establishes a new dominant design and, hence, a new set of core design concepts embodied in components that are linked together in a new architecture." (p. 11)<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Henderson|first1=Rebecca M.|last2=Clark|first2=Kim B.|date=March 1990|title=Architectural Innovation: The Reconfiguration of Existing Product Technologies and the Failure of Established Firms|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2393549|journal=Administrative Science Quarterly|volume=35|issue=1|pages=9|doi=10.2307/2393549|jstor=2393549|issn=0001-8392}}</ref>
* '''Incremental innovation''': "refines and extends an established design. Improvement occurs in individual components, but the underlying core design concepts, and the links between them, remain the same." (p. 11)<ref name=":1" />
* '''Architectural innovation''': "innovation that changes only the relationships between them [the core design concepts]" (p. 12)<ref name=":1" />
* '''Modular Innovation''': "innovation that changes only the core design concepts of a technology" (p. 12)<ref name=":1" />
While Henderson and Clark as well as Christensen talk about technical innovation there are other kinds of innovation as well, such as service innovation and organizational innovation.
===Non-economic innovation===
The classical definition of innovation being limited to the primary goal of generating profit for a firm, has led others to define other types of innovation such as: [[social innovation]], [[sustainable innovation]] (or green innovation), and [[responsible innovation]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Schiederig|first1=Tim|last2=Tietze|first2=Frank|last3=Herstatt|first3=Cornelius|date=22 February 2012|title=Green innovation in technology and innovation management – an exploratory literature review|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9310.2011.00672.x|journal=R&D Management|volume=42|issue=2|pages=180–192|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9310.2011.00672.x|s2cid=153958119|issn=0033-6807}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Blok|first1=Vincent|title=The Emerging Concept of Responsible Innovation. Three Reasons Why It Is Questionable and Calls for a Radical Transformation of the Concept of Innovation|year=2015|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17308-5_2|work=Responsible Innovation 2|pages=19–35|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-17307-8|access-date=17 September 2020|last2=Lemmens|first2=Pieter|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-17308-5_2}}</ref>
==History==
{{See also|Innovation economics}}
The word "innovation" once had a quite different meaning. The first full-length discussion about innovation is the account{{which?|date=February 2022}} by the Greek philosopher and historian [[Xenophon]] (430–355 BCE). He viewed the concept as multifaceted and connected it to political action. The word for innovation that he uses, 'kainotomia', had previously occurred in two plays by [[Aristophanes]] ({{circa |446}} – {{circa | 386}} BCE). [[Plato]] (died {{circa | 348}} BCE) discussed innovation in his [[Laws (dialogue) | ''Laws'']] dialogue and was not very fond of the concept. He was skeptical to it both in culture (dancing and art) and in education (he did not believe in introducing new games and toys to the kids).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Godin, Benoit|url= https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/903958473|title=Innovation contested : the idea of innovation over the centuries |year= 2015|isbn= 978-1-315-85560-8|location= New York, New York|oclc= 903958473}}</ref> [[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE) did not like organizational innovations: he believed that all possible forms of organization had been discovered.<ref>Politics II as cited by [[Benoît Godin]] 2015).</ref>
Before the 4th century in Rome, the words ''novitas'' and ''res nova / nova res'' were used with either negative or positive judgment on the innovator. This concept meant "renewing" and was incorporated into the new Latin verb word ''innovo'' ("I renew" or "I restore") in the centuries that followed. The ''[[Vulgate]]'' version of the Bible (late 4th century CE) used the word in spiritual as well as political contexts. It also appeared in poetry, mainly with spiritual connotations, but was also connected to political, material and cultural aspects.<ref name=":0" />
[[Niccolò Machiavelli| Machiavelli]]'s ''[[The Prince]]'' (1513), discusses innovation in a political setting. Machiavelli portrays it as a strategy a Prince may employ in order to cope with a constantly changing world as well as the corruption within it. Here innovation is described as introducing change in government (new laws and institutions); Machiavelli's later book ''The Discourses'' (1528) characterises innovation as imitation, as a return to the original that has been corrupted by people and by time.{{cn|date=February 2022}} Thus for Machiavelli innovation came with positive connotations. This is however an exception in the usage of the concept of innovation from the 16th century and onward. No innovator from the renaissance until the late 19th century ever thought of applying the word innovator upon themselves, it was a word used to attack enemies.<ref name=":0" />
From the 1400s{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} through the 1600s, the concept of innovation was pejorative – the term was an [[Early Modern English| early-modern]] synonym for "rebellion", "revolt" and "[[heresy]]".<ref name="Mazzaferro">{{cite journal|last1= Mazzaferro|first1= Alexander|year= 2018|title= Such a Murmur": Innovation, Rebellion, and Sovereignty in William Strachey's "True Reportory|journal=Early American Literature|volume= 53 |issue= 1|pages=3–32|doi=10.1353/eal.2018.0001|s2cid=166005186}}</ref><ref name="Diss">{{cite thesis|last1= Mazzaferro|first1=Alexander McLean|url=https://rucore.libraries.rutgers.edu/rutgers-lib/55583/|title="No newe enterprize" (Doctoral dissertation)|date=2017|publisher=Rutgers University|location=Camden, New Jersey|doi= 10.7282/T38W3HFQ|access-date=19 February 2019}}</ref><ref name="Lepore">{{cite magazine|last1= Lepore|first1= Jill |date= 23 June 2014|title=The Disruption Machine: What the gospel of innovation gets wrong|magazine=The New Yorker |url= https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/06/23/the-disruption-machine|access-date=19 February 2019|quote= The word 'innovate'—to make new—used to have chiefly negative connotations: it signified excessive novelty, without purpose or end. [[Edmund Burke]] called the French Revolution a 'revolt of innovation'; [[Federalists]] declared themselves to be 'enemies to innovation.' [[George Washington]], on his deathbed, was said to have uttered these words: 'Beware of innovation in politics.' Noah Webster warned in his dictionary, in 1828, 'It is often dangerous to innovate on the customs of a nation.'}}</ref><ref name="Green">{{cite news|last1= Green|first1= Emma|date= 20 June 2013|title=Innovation: The History of a Buzzword|work=The Atlantic|url= https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/06/innovation-the-history-of-a-buzzword/277067/|access-date=19 February 2019}}
</ref><ref>{{oed|innovation}}
</ref> In the 1800s{{Timeframe|date=February 2022}} people promoting [[capitalism]] saw [[socialism]] as an innovation and spent a lot of energy working against it. For instance, [[Goldwin Smith]] (1823-1910) saw the spread of social innovations as an attack on money and banks. These social innovations were socialism, communism, nationalization, cooperative associations.<ref name=":0" />
In the 20th century the concept of innovation did not become popular until after the Second World War of 1939-1945. This is the point in time when people started to talk about ''technological'' product innovation and tie it to the idea of economic growth and competitive advantage.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Godin, Benoit|url= https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1125747489|title= The invention of technological innovation : languages, discourses and ideology in historical perspective|others=Edward Elgar Publishing|year=2019|isbn=978-1-78990-334-8|location= Cheltenham, UK|oclc=1125747489}}</ref> [[Joseph Schumpeter]] (1883–1950) is often{{quantify|date=February 2022}} credited as the one who made the term popular - he contributed greatly to the study of [[innovation economics]],
In [[commerce |business]] and in [[economics]], innovation can provide a catalyst for growth in an enterprise or even in an industry. With rapid advances in [[transportation]] and [[communications]] over the past few decades, the old concepts of [[factor endowment]]s and [[comparative advantage]] which focused on an area's unique inputs are outmoded in today's [[globalization|global economy]].{{cn|date=February 2022}} Schumpeter argued that industries must incessantly revolutionize the economic structure from within, that is: innovate with better or more effective processes and products, as well as with market distribution (such as the transition from the craft shop to factory). He famously asserted that "[[creative destruction]] is the essential fact about [[capitalism]]".<ref name="capsocdem">{{cite book | author = Schumpeter, J. A. | author-link = Joseph Schumpeter | year = 1943 | title = Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy | publisher = Routledge | edition = 6 | pages = 81–84 | isbn = 978-0-415-10762-4}}</ref> [[Entrepreneur]]s continuously search for better ways to satisfy their [[consumer demand| consumer base]] with improved quality, durability, service and price - searches which may come to fruition in innovation with advanced technologies and organizational strategies.<ref>Heyne, P., Boettke, P. J., and Prychitko, D. L. (2010). ''The Economic Way of Thinking''. Prentice Hall, 12th ed. pp. 163, 317–18.</ref>
A prime example of innovation involved the boom of [[Silicon Valley]] start-ups out of the [[Stanford Industrial Park]]. In 1957, dissatisfied employees of [[Shockley Semiconductor]], the company of [[Nobel laureate]] and co-inventor of the [[transistor]] [[William Shockley]], left to form an independent firm, [[Fairchild Semiconductor]]. After several years, Fairchild developed into a formidable presence in the sector.{{which?|date=February 2022}} Eventually, these founders left to start their own companies based on their own unique ideas, and then leading employees started their own firms. Over the next 20 years this process resulted in the momentous [[startup company| startup-company]] explosion of [[information technology|information-technology]] firms.{{cn|date=February 2022}} Silicon Valley began as 65 new enterprises born out of Shockley's eight former employees.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.netvalley.com/svhistory.html |title= Silicon Valley History & Future |website= Netvalley.com |access-date= 14 March 2016 | quote = [...] over the course of just 20 years, a mere eight of Shockley’s former employees gave forth 65 new enterprises, which then went on to do the same. The process is still going [...].}}</ref>
Another example involves [[business incubator]]s – a phenomenon introduced in 1959 and subsequently nurtured by governments around the world. Such "incubators", located close to knowledge clusters (mostly research-based) like universities or other government [[Center of excellence | excellence centre]]s – aim primarily to channel generated knowledge to applied innovation outcomes in order to stimulate regional or national [[economic growth]].<ref>
{{Cite journal
|last1= Rubin|first1= Tzameret H.|last2= Aas|first2= Tor Helge
|last3= Stead|first3= Andrew|date= 1 July 2015
|title= Knowledge flow in Technological Business Incubators: Evidence from Australia and Israel
|journal= Technovation|volume= 41–42|pages= 11–24
|doi= 10.1016/j.technovation.2015.03.002
}}
</ref>
In the 21st century the [[Islamic State]] (IS) movement, while decrying [[Bidʻah | religious innovation]]s, has innovated in military tactics, recruitment, [[ideology]] and geopolitical activity.<ref>
{{cite book
|last1 = Hashim
|first1 = Ahmed S.
|author-link1 =
|title = The Caliphate at War: The Ideological, Organisational and Military Innovations of Islamic State
|year = 2018
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_KBfDwAAQBAJ
|location = London
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|publication-date = 2018
|page = 7
|isbn = 9781849046435
|access-date = 8 February 2022
|quote = Though IS is not unique as an example of a violent nonstate actor, I argue that IS has innovated in the fields of ideology, organization, war-fighting, and strategies of state-formation.
}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
|last1 = Scott Ligon
|first1 = Gina
|last2 = Derrick
|first2 = Douglas C.
|author-link2 =
|last3 = Harms
|first3 = Mackenzie
|editor-last1 = Reiter-Palmon
|editor-first1 = Roni
|chapter = Destruction Through Collaboration: How Terrorists Work Together Toward Malevolent Innovation
|title = Team Creativity and Innovation
|date = 15 November 2017
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5cM9DwAAQBAJ
|location = New York
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|publication-date = 2017
|isbn = 9780190695323
|access-date = 8 February 2022
|quote = As seen in recent advancements by the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), innovation from VEOs [violent extremist organisations] can also occur in recruiting/marketing campaigns and fundraising efforts.
}}
</ref>
== Process of innovation ==
An early model included only three phases of innovation. According to Utterback (1971), these phases were: 1) idea generation, 2) problem solving, and 3) implementation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Utterback|first=James|year=1971|title=The Process of Technological Innovation Within the Firm|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=14|issue=1|pages=78|via=Jstor}}</ref> By the time one completed phase 2, one had an invention, but until one got it to the point of having an economic impact, one didn't have an innovation. Diffusion wasn't considered a phase of innovation. Focus at this point in time was on manufacturing.
All organizations can innovate, including for example hospitals, universities, and local governments.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=19104264|year=2009|last1=Salge|first1=T. O.|title=Hospital innovativeness and organizational performance: Evidence from English public acute care|journal=Health Care Management Review|volume=34|issue=1|pages=54–67|last2=Vera|first2=A.|doi=10.1097/01.HMR.0000342978.84307.80}}</ref> The organization requires a proper structure in order to retain competitive advantage. Organizations can also improve profits and performance by providing work groups opportunities and resources to innovate, in addition to employee's core job tasks.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=West|first1=Michael A.|year=2002|title=Sparkling Fountains or Stagnant Ponds: An Integrative Model of Creativity and Innovation Implementation in Work Groups|journal=Applied Psychology|volume=51|issue=3|pages=355–387|doi=10.1111/1464-0597.00951}}</ref> Executives and managers have been advised to break away from traditional ways of thinking and use change to their advantage.<ref>''MIT Sloan Management Review'' Spring 2002. "How to identify and build New Businesses"</ref> The world of work is changing with the increased use of technology and companies are becoming increasingly competitive. Companies will have to downsize or reengineer their operations to remain competitive. This will affect employment as businesses will be forced to reduce the number of people employed while accomplishing the same amount of work if not more.<ref>Anthony, Scott D.; Johnson, Mark W.; Sinfield, Joseph V.; Altman, Elizabeth J. (2008). ''Innovator's Guide to Growth''. "Putting Disruptive Innovation to Work". Harvard Business School Press. {{ISBN|978-1-59139-846-2}}.</ref>
For instance, former Mayor [[Martin O’Malley]] pushed the [[City of Baltimore]] to use [[CitiStat]], a [[Performance measurement|performance-measurement]] data and management system that allows city officials to maintain statistics on several areas from crime trends to the conditions of [[pothole]]s. This system aided in better evaluation of policies and procedures with accountability and efficiency in terms of time and money. In its first year, CitiStat saved the city $13.2 million.<ref>Perez, T. and Rushing R. (2007). [https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/general/reports/2007/04/23/2911/the-citistat-model-how-data-driven-government-can-increase-efficiency-and-effectiveness/ "The CitiStat Model: How Data-Driven Government Can Increase Efficiency and Effectiveness"]. ''Center for American Progress Report''. pp. 1–18.</ref> Even [[mass transit]] systems have innovated with [[hybrid vehicle|hybrid]] bus fleets to [[Real-time locating system|real-time tracking]] at bus stands. In addition, the growing use of [[mobile data terminal]]s in vehicles, that serve as communication hubs between vehicles and a control center, automatically send data on location, passenger counts, engine performance, mileage and other information. This tool helps to deliver and manage transportation systems.<ref>Transportation Research Board (2007). "Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Synthesis 70: Mobile Data Terminals". pp. 1–5. [http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_syn_70.pdf TCRP (PDF)].</ref>
Still other innovative strategies include [[hospital]]s digitizing medical information in [[electronic medical records]]. For example, the [[United States Department of Housing and Urban Development|U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development]]'s [[HOPE VI]] initiatives turned severely distressed [[public housing]] in urban areas into [[Urban renewal|revitalized]], mixed-income environments; the [[Harlem Children’s Zone]] used a community-based approach to educate local area children; and the [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]]'s [[Brownfield regulation and development|brownfield grants]] facilitates turning over [[brownfield]]s for [[environmental protection]], [[Open space reserve|green spaces]], [[Community development|community]] and [[Commerce|commercial development]].
=== Sources of innovation ===
Innovation may occur due to effort from a range of different agents, by chance, or as a result of a major system failure. According to [[Peter F. Drucker]], the general sources of innovations are changes in industry structure, in market structure, in local and global demographics, in human perception, in the amount of available scientific knowledge, etc.<ref name="Drucker" />
[[File:Technological Change.jpg|thumb|Original model of three phases of the process of Technological Change]]
In the simplest [[linear model of innovation]] the traditionally recognized source is ''manufacturer innovation''. This is where an agent (person or business) innovates in order to sell the innovation. Specifically, R&D measurement is the commonly used input for innovation, in particular in the business sector, named Business Expenditure on R&D (BERD) that grew over the years on the expenses of the declining R&D invested by the public sector.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=H. Rubin|first=Tzameret|year=2015|title=The Achilles heel of a strong private knowledge sector: evidence from Israel|url=http://nimbusvault.net/publications/koala/inimpact/papers/inkt14-011.pdf|journal=The Journal of Innovation Impact|volume=7 |issue=1|pages=80–99}}</ref>
Another source of innovation, only now becoming widely recognized, is ''end-user innovation''. This is where an agent (person or company) develops an innovation for their own (personal or in-house) use because existing products do not meet their needs. [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] economist [[Eric von Hippel]] has identified end-user innovation as, by far, the most important and critical in his classic book on the subject, ''"The Sources of Innovation"''.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://web.mit.edu/evhippel/www/books/sources/SofI.pdf |title=The Sources of Innovation |last=Von Hippel |first=Eric |author-link=Eric von Hippel |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1988 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061012160410/http://web.mit.edu/evhippel/www/books/sources/SofI.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2006 |access-date=3 December 2015}}</ref>
The robotics engineer [[Joseph F. Engelberger]] asserts that innovations require only three things:
# a recognized need
# competent people with relevant technology
# financial support<ref>Engelberger, J. F. (1982). "Robotics in practice: Future capabilities". ''Electronic Servicing & Technology'' magazine.</ref>
The Kline [[chain-linked model]] of innovation<ref>Kline (1985). ''Research, Invention, Innovation and Production: Models and Reality, Report INN-1'', March 1985, Mechanical Engineering Department, Stanford University.</ref> places emphasis on potential market needs as drivers of the innovation process, and describes the complex and often iterative feedback loops between marketing, design, manufacturing, and R&D.
=== Facilitating innovation ===
Innovation by businesses is achieved in many ways, with much attention now given to formal [[research and development]] (R&D) for "breakthrough innovations". R&D help spur on patents and other scientific innovations that leads to productive growth in such areas as industry, medicine, engineering, and government.<ref name="MetroPolicy">Mark, M., Katz, B., Rahman, S., and Warren, D. (2008) [https://www.brookings.edu/research/metropolicy-shaping-a-new-federal-partnership-for-a-metropolitan-nation/ ''MetroPolicy: Shaping A New Federal Partnership for a Metropolitan Nation'']. Brookings Institution: Metropolitan Policy Program Report. pp. 4–103.</ref> Yet, innovations can be developed by less formal on-the-job modifications of practice, through exchange and combination of professional experience and by many other routes. Investigation of relationship between the concepts of innovation and technology transfer revealed overlap.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286542154 |title=Perspectives on Innovation and Technology Transfer |journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences |volume=213 |pages=965–970 |last=Dubickis, M. |first=Gaile-Sarkane, E. |year=2015 |doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.512 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The more radical and revolutionary innovations tend to emerge from R&D, while more incremental innovations may emerge from practice – but there are many exceptions to each of these trends.
[[Information technology]] and changing business processes and management style can produce a work climate favorable to innovation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://forbesindia.com/article/ie/new-trends-in-innovation-management/33905/1 |website=Forbesindia.com |publisher=Forbes India Magazine |title= New Trends in Innovation Management |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> For example, the software tool company [[Atlassian]] conducts quarterly "ShipIt Days" in which employees may work on anything related to the company's products.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.atlassian.com/company/about/shipit |title=ShipIt Days |publisher=Atlassian |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> Google employees work on self-directed projects for 20% of their time (known as [[Innovation Time Off]]). Both companies cite these bottom-up processes as major sources for new products and features.
An important innovation factor includes customers buying products or using services. As a result, organizations may incorporate users in [[focus group]]s (user centered approach), work closely with so-called [[lead users]] (lead user approach), or users might adapt their products themselves. The lead user method focuses on idea generation based on leading users to develop breakthrough innovations. U-STIR, a project to innovate [[Europe]]'s surface [[transportation]] system, employs such workshops.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.u-stir.eu/index.phtml?id=2537&ID1=2537&sprache=en |title=U-STIR |publisher=U-stir.eu |access-date=7 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918055455/http://www.u-stir.eu/index.phtml?id=2537&ID1=2537&sprache=en |archive-date=18 September 2011}}</ref> Regarding this [[user innovation]], a great deal of innovation is done by those actually implementing and using technologies and products as part of their normal activities. Sometimes user-innovators may become [[entrepreneur]]s, selling their product, they may choose to trade their innovation in exchange for other innovations, or they may be adopted by their suppliers. Nowadays, they may also choose to freely reveal their innovations, using methods like [[Open-source model|open source]]. In such networks of innovation the users or communities of users can further develop technologies and reinvent their social meaning.<ref>Tuomi, I. (2002). ''Networks of Innovation''. Oxford University Press. [http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780199256983 Networks of Innovation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105071932/http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780199256983 |date=5 November 2007 }}</ref><ref>Siltala, R. (2010). [https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/innovativity-cooperative-learning-business-life-teaching-siltala ''Innovativity and cooperative learning in business life and teaching'']. PhD thesis. University of Turku.</ref>
One technique for innovating a solution to an identified problem is to actually attempt an experiment with many possible solutions.<ref>[https://medium.com/the-mission/forget-about-the-10-000-hour-rule-7b7a39343523 Forget The 10,000-Hour Rule; Edison, Bezos, & Zuckerberg Follow The 10,000-Experiment Rule]. Medium.com (26 October 2017). Retrieved 16 October 2018.</ref> This technique was famously used by [[Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison's]] laboratory to find a version of the [[incandescent light bulb]] economically viable for home use, which involved searching through thousands of possible [[electrical filament|filament]] designs before settling on carbonized bamboo.
This technique is sometimes used in pharmaceutical [[drug discovery]]. Thousands of chemical compounds are subjected to [[high-throughput screening]] to see if they have any activity against a target molecule which has been identified as biologically significant to a disease. Promising compounds can then be studied; modified to improve efficacy and reduce side effects, evaluated for cost of manufacture; and if successful turned into treatments.
The related technique of [[A/B testing]] is often used to help optimize the design of [[web site]]s and [[mobile app]]s. This is used by major sites such as [[amazon.com]], [[Facebook]], [[Google]], and [[Netflix]].<ref name="fastcompany">[https://www.fastcompany.com/3063846/why-these-tech-companies-keep-running-thousands-of-failed Why These Tech Companies Keep Running Thousands Of Failed Experiments]. Fast Company.com (21 September 2016). Retrieved 16 October 2018.</ref> [[Procter & Gamble]] uses computer-simulated products and online user panels to conduct larger numbers of experiments to guide the design, packaging, and shelf placement of consumer products.<ref>[https://www.bcgperspectives.com/content/articles/strategy_consumer_products_simulation_advantage/ Simulation Advantage]. Bcgperspectives.com (4 August 2010). Retrieved 16 October 2018.</ref> [[Capital One]] uses this technique to drive credit card marketing offers.<ref name="fastcompany" />
===Goals and failures===
Programs of organizational innovation are typically tightly linked to organizational goals and objectives, to the [[business plan]], and to [[Market (economics)|market]] [[Competition (companies)|competitive positioning]]. One driver for innovation programs in corporations is to achieve growth objectives. As Davila et al. (2006) notes, "Companies cannot grow through cost reduction and reengineering alone... Innovation is the key element in providing aggressive top-line growth, and for increasing bottom-line results".<ref name="Making Innovation Work">Davila, T., Epstein, M. J., and Shelton, R. (2006). "Making Innovation Work: How to Manage It, Measure It, and Profit from It." Upper Saddle River: Wharton School Publishing.</ref>
One survey across a large number of manufacturing and services organizations found, ranked in decreasing order of popularity, that systematic programs of organizational innovation are most frequently driven by: improved [[quality (business)|quality]], creation of new [[Market (economics)|market]]s, extension of the [[product (business)|product]] range, reduced [[labor cost]]s, improved [[production process]]es, reduced materials, reduced [[environmental damage]], replacement of [[product (business)|product]]s/[[Service (economics)|services]], reduced [[energy]] consumption, conformance to [[regulation]]s.<ref name="Making Innovation Work"/>
These goals vary between improvements to products, processes and services and dispel a popular myth that innovation deals mainly with new product development. According to Andrea Vaona and Mario Pianta, some example goals of innovation could stem from two different types of technological strategies: ''technological competitiveness'' and ''active price competitiveness''. ''Technological competitiveness'' may have a tendency to be pursued by smaller firms and can be characterized as "efforts for market-oriented innovation, such as a strategy of market expansion and patenting activity."<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Vaona|first1=Andrea|last2=Pianta|first2=Mario|date=March 2008|title=Firm Size and Innovation in European Manufacturing|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11187-006-9043-9|journal=Small Business Economics|language=en|volume=30|issue=3|pages=283–299|doi=10.1007/s11187-006-9043-9|issn=0921-898X|hdl=10419/3843|s2cid=153525567|hdl-access=free}}</ref> On the other hand, ''active price competitiveness'' is geared toward process innovations that lead to efficiency and flexibility, which tend to be pursued by large, established firms as they seek to expand their market foothold.<ref name=":3" /> Most of the goals could apply to any organization be it a manufacturing facility, marketing company, hospital or government. Whether innovation goals are successfully achieved or otherwise depends greatly on the environment prevailing in the organization.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1287/mnsc.35.5.597|title=Innovative and Noninnovative Small Firms: Types and Characteristics|journal=Management Science|volume=35|issue=5|pages=597–606|year=1989|last1=Khan|first1=Arshad M.|last2=Manopichetwattana|first2=V.}}</ref>
Conversely, failure can develop in programs of innovations. The causes of failure have been widely researched and can vary considerably. Some causes will be external to the organization and outside its influence of control. Others will be internal and ultimately within the control of the organization. Internal causes of failure can be divided into causes associated with the cultural infrastructure and causes associated with the innovation process itself. Common causes of failure within the innovation process in most organizations can be distilled into five types: poor goal definition, poor alignment of actions to goals, poor participation in teams, poor monitoring of results, poor communication and [[access to information]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=O'Sullivan, David |year=2002|title=Framework for Managing Development in the Networked Organisations|journal=Journal of Computers in Industry|volume= 47|issue=1|pages=77–88|doi=10.1016/S0166-3615(01)00135-X}}</ref>
==Diffusion==
[[File:InnovationLifeCycle.jpg|thumb|right]]
{{main|Diffusion of innovations}}
Diffusion of innovation research was first started in 1903 by seminal researcher [[Gabriel Tarde]], who first plotted the S-shaped [[diffusion curve]]. Tarde defined the innovation-decision process as a series of steps that include:<ref>Tarde, G. (1903). ''The laws of imitation'' (E. Clews Parsons, Trans.). New York: H. Holt & Co.</ref>
# knowledge
# forming an attitude
# a decision to adopt or reject
# implementation and use
# confirmation of the decision
Once innovation occurs, innovations may be spread from the innovator to other individuals and groups. This process has been proposed that the lifecycle of innovations can be described using the '[[Sigmoid function|s-curve]]' or [[Diffusion of innovations|diffusion curve]]. The s-curve maps growth of revenue or productivity against time. In the early stage of a particular innovation, growth is relatively slow as the new product establishes itself. At some point, customers begin to demand and the product growth increases more rapidly. New incremental innovations or changes to the product allow growth to continue. Towards the end of its lifecycle, growth slows and may even begin to decline. In the later stages, no amount of new investment in that product will yield a normal rate of return.
The s-curve derives from an assumption that new products are likely to have "product life" – i.e., a start-up phase, a rapid increase in revenue and eventual decline. In fact, the great majority of innovations never get off the bottom of the curve, and never produce normal returns.
Innovative companies will typically be working on new innovations that will eventually replace older ones. Successive s-curves will come along to replace older ones and continue to drive growth upwards. In the figure above the first curve shows a current technology. The second shows an [[emerging technologies|emerging technology]] that currently yields lower growth but will eventually overtake current technology and lead to even greater levels of growth. The length of life will depend on many factors.<ref>Rogers, E. M. (1962). ''Diffusion of Innovation''. New York, NY: Free Press.</ref>
==Measures==
Measuring innovation is inherently difficult as it implies commensurability so that comparisons can be made in quantitative terms. Innovation, however, is by definition novelty. Comparisons are thus often meaningless across products or service.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford handbook of innovation|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Fagerberg, Jan., Mowery, David C., Nelson, Richard R.|isbn=9780199264551|location=Oxford|oclc=56655392}}</ref> Nevertheless, Edison et al.<ref name="Henry2013">{{cite journal|last1=Edison|first1=H.|last2=Ali|first2=N.B.|last3=Torkar|first3=R.|year=2013|title=Towards innovation measurement in the software industry|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256991991|journal=Journal of Systems and Software|volume=86|issue=5|pages=1390–1407|doi=10.1016/j.jss.2013.01.013|via=ResearchGate}}</ref> in their review of literature on [[innovation management]] found 232 innovation metrics. They categorized these measures along five dimensions; i.e. inputs to the innovation process, output from the innovation process, effect of the innovation output, measures to access the activities in an innovation process and availability of factors that facilitate such a process.<ref name="Henry2013" />
There are two different types of measures for innovation: the organizational level and the political level.
=== Organizational-level ===
:The measure of innovation at the organizational level relates to individuals, team-level assessments, and private companies from the smallest to the largest company. Measure of innovation for organizations can be conducted by surveys, workshops, consultants, or internal benchmarking. There is today no established general way to measure organizational innovation. Corporate measurements are generally structured around [[balanced scorecard]]s which cover several aspects of innovation such as business measures related to finances, innovation process efficiency, employees' contribution and motivation, as well benefits for customers. Measured values will vary widely between businesses, covering for example new product revenue, spending in R&D, time to market, customer and employee perception & satisfaction, number of patents, additional sales resulting from past innovations.<ref>Davila, Tony; Marc J. Epstein and Robert Shelton (2006). ''Making Innovation Work: How to Manage It, Measure It, and Profit from It''. Upper Saddle River: Wharton School Publishing</ref>
=== Political-level ===
:For the political level, measures of innovation are more focused on a country or region [[competitive advantage]] through innovation. In this context, organizational capabilities can be evaluated through various evaluation frameworks, such as those of the European Foundation for Quality Management. The [[OECD]] Oslo Manual (1992) suggests standard guidelines on measuring technological product and process innovation. Some people consider the [[Oslo Manual]] complementary to the [[Frascati Manual]] from 1963. The new Oslo Manual from 2018 takes a wider perspective to innovation, and includes marketing and organizational innovation. These standards are used for example in the European [[Community Innovation Survey]]s.<ref>OECD The Measurement of Scientific and Technological Activities. Proposed Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Technological Innovation Data. Oslo Manual. 2nd edition, DSTI, OECD / European Commission Eurostat, Paris 31 December 1995.</ref>
Other ways of measuring innovation have traditionally been expenditure, for example, investment in R&D (Research and Development) as percentage of GNP (Gross National Product). Whether this is a good measurement of innovation has been widely discussed and the Oslo Manual has incorporated some of the critique against earlier methods of measuring. The traditional methods of measuring still inform many policy decisions. The EU [[Lisbon Strategy]] has set as a goal that their average expenditure on R&D should be 3% of GDP.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/innovation/ |title=Industrial innovation – Enterprise and Industry |publisher=European Commission |access-date=7 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827125633/http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/innovation/ |archive-date=27 August 2011}}</ref>
===Indicators===
Many scholars claim that there is a great bias towards the "science and technology mode" (S&T-mode or STI-mode), while the "learning by doing, using and interacting mode" (DUI-mode) is ignored and measurements and research about it rarely done. For example, an institution may be high tech with the latest equipment, but lacks crucial doing, using and interacting tasks important for innovation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=DEVELOPMENT OF INNOVATION - European Journal of Natural History (scientific magazine)|url=https://world-science.ru/en/article/view?id=33506|access-date=2021-04-07|website=world-science.ru}}</ref>
A common industry view (unsupported by empirical evidence) is that comparative [[cost-effectiveness]] research is a form of [[price controls|price control]] which reduces returns to industry, and thus limits R&D expenditure, stifles future innovation and compromises new products access to markets.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=19523121|pmc=2881450|year=2009|last1=Chalkidou|first1=K.|title=Comparative effectiveness research and evidence-based health policy: Experience from four countries|journal=The Milbank Quarterly|volume=87|issue=2|pages=339–67|last2=Tunis|first2=S.|last3=Lopert|first3=R.|last4=Rochaix|first4=L.|last5=Sawicki|first5=P. T.|last6=Nasser|first6=M.|last7=Xerri|first7=B.|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0009.2009.00560.x}}</ref>
Some academics claim cost-effectiveness research is a valuable value-based measure of innovation which accords "truly significant" therapeutic advances (i.e. providing "health gain") higher prices than free market mechanisms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roughead |first1=E. |last2=Lopert |first2=R. |last3=Sansom |first3=L. |title=Prices for innovative pharmaceutical products that provide health gain: a comparison between Australia and the United States |journal=Value in Health |year=2007 |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=514–20 |doi=10.1111/j.1524-4733.2007.00206.x |pmid=17970935 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Such [[value-based pricing]] has been viewed as a means of indicating to industry the type of innovation that should be rewarded from the public purse.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hughes |first=B. |title=Payers Growing Influence on R&D Decision Making |journal=Nature Reviews Drug Discovery |year=2008 |volume=7 |issue= 11|pages=876–78 |doi=10.1038/nrd2749 |pmid=18974741 |s2cid=10217053 }}</ref>
An [[Australian]] academic developed the case that national comparative [[cost-effectiveness analysis]] systems should be viewed as measuring "health innovation" as an [[evidence-based policy]] concept for valuing innovation distinct from valuing through competitive markets, a method which requires strong [[anti-trust]] laws to be effective, on the basis that both methods of assessing [[pharmaceutical innovations]] are mentioned in annex 2C.1 of the [[AUSFTA|Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Faunce |first1=T. |last2=Bai |first2=J. |last3=Nguyen |first3=D. |title=Impact of the Australia-US Free Trade Agreement on Australian medicines regulation and prices |journal=[[Journal of Generic Medicines]] |year=2010 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=18–29 |doi=10.1057/jgm.2009.40 |s2cid=154433476 |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/51254/9/Faunce_Journal_Evidence_JGM.pdf.jpg }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Faunce TA|title=Global intellectual property protection of 'innovative' pharmaceuticals: Challenges for bioethics and health law in B Bennett and G Tomossy|website=Law.anu.edu.au|publisher=Globalization and Health Springer|year=2006|url=http://law.anu.edu.au/StaffUploads/236-Ch%20Globalisation%20and%20Health%20Fau.pdf|access-date=18 June 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414040804/http://law.anu.edu.au/StaffUploads/236-Ch%20Globalisation%20and%20Health%20Fau.pdf|archive-date=14 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Faunce |first=T. A. |title=Reference pricing for pharmaceuticals: is the Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement affecting Australia's Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme? |journal=Medical Journal of Australia |year=2007 |volume=187 |issue=4 |pages=240–42|pmid=17564579 |doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.2007.tb01209.x |s2cid=578533 }}</ref>
===Indices===
Several indices attempt to measure innovation and rank entities based on these measures, such as:
*[[Bloomberg Innovation Index]]
*"Bogota Manual"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ricyt.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=149&Itemid=2 |title=Bogota Manual. Standardisation of Indicators of Technological Innovation in Latin American and Caribbean Countries |authors=Hernán Jaramillo, Gustavo Lugones, Mónica Salazar |date=March 2001 |publisher=Iberoamerican Network of Science and Technology Indicators (RICYT) Organisation of American States (OAS) / CYTED PROGRAM COLCIENCIAS/OCYT |page=87 |language=en}}</ref> similar to the Oslo Manual, is focused on Latin America and the Caribbean countries.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}
*"Creative Class" developed by [[Richard Florida]]{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}
*[[EIU Innovation Ranking]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Social Innovation Index 2016|url=https://eiuperspectives.economist.com/technology-innovation/old-problems-new-solutions-measuring-capacity-social-innovation-across-world-0|access-date=2021-04-07|website=Perspectives from The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU)|language=en}}</ref>
*[[Global Competitiveness Report]]
*[[Global Innovation Index]] (GII), by [[INSEAD]]<ref>{{cite web|website=INSEAD|url=http://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|title=The INSEAD Global Innovation Index (GII)|date=28 October 2013}}</ref>
*[[Information Technology and Innovation Foundation|Information Technology and Innovation Foundation (ITIF) Index]]
*[https://tcdata360.worldbank.org/subtopics/inn?country=USA Innovation 360] – From the World Bank. Aggregates innovation indicators (and more) from a number of different public sources
*Innovation Capacity Index (ICI) published by a large number of international professors working in a collaborative fashion. The top scorers of ICI 2009–2010 were: 1. Sweden 82.2; 2. Finland 77.8; and 3. United States 77.5<ref>{{cite web|website=Innovation Capacity Index|title=Home page|url=http://www.innovationfordevelopmentreport.org/ici.html}}</ref>
* Innovation Index, developed by the [[Indiana Business Research Center]], to measure innovation capacity at the county or regional level in the United States<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statsamerica.org/innovation/data.html |title=Tools |publisher=Statsamerica.org |access-date=7 September 2011}}</ref>
*[[Innovation Union Scoreboard]]
*[[innovationsindikator]] for Germany, developed by the [[:de:Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie|Federation of German Industries]] (Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie) in 2005<ref>[http://www.innovationsindikator.de Innovations Indikator] retrieved 7 March 2017</ref>
*[[INSEAD]] Innovation Efficacy Index<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/511446/the-innovation-efficiency-index/|work=Technology Review|title=The INSEAD Innovation Efficiency Inndex|date=February 2016}}</ref>
*[[International Innovation Index]], produced jointly by [[The Boston Consulting Group]], the [[National Association of Manufacturers]] (NAM) and its nonpartisan research affiliate The Manufacturing Institute, is a worldwide index measuring the level of innovation in a country; NAM describes it as the "largest and most comprehensive global index of its kind"{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adsule|first=Anil|year=2015|title=INNOVATION LEADING THE WAY TO REVOLUTION|url=http://msmspune.com/images_New/Research/pepars/2015/02-2015-Dr.Joe_Lopez.pdf|journal=International Journal of Business and Administration Research Review|volume= 2, Issue.11|via=Google scholar}}</ref>
*Management Innovation Index – Model for Managing Intangibility of Organizational Creativity: Management Innovation Index<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Model for Managing Intangibility of Organizational Creativity: Management Innovation Index|journal=Encyclopedia of Creativity, Invention, Innovation and Entrepreneurship|pages= 1300–1307|author=Kerle, Ralph |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-3858-8_35|year = 2013|isbn = 978-1-4614-3857-1}}</ref>
* NYCEDC Innovation Index, by the New York City Economic Development Corporation, tracks New York City's "transformation into a center for high-tech innovation. It measures innovation in the City's growing science and technology industries and is designed to capture the effect of innovation on the City's economy"<ref>{{cite web|website=NYCEDC.com|url=http://www.nycedc.com/economic-data/innovation-index|title=Innovation Index}}</ref>
* OECD [[Oslo Manual]] is focused on North America, Europe, and other rich economies
* State Technology and Science Index, developed by the [[Milken Institute]], is a U.S.-wide benchmark to measure the science and technology capabilities that furnish high paying jobs based around key components<ref>{{cite web|url=http://statetechandscience.org/|website=statetechandscience.org|title=Home page}}</ref>
*[[World Competitiveness Scoreboard]]<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.imd.org/uupload/IMD.WebSite/wcc/WCYResults/1/scoreboard_2014.pdf|website=IMD.org|year=2014 |title=The World Competitiveness Scoreboard 2014}}</ref>
===Rankings===
Common areas of focus include: [[high-tech]] companies, [[manufacturing]], [[patent]]s, [[post secondary education]], [[research and development]], and research personnel. The left ranking of the top 10 countries below is based on the 2020 [[Bloomberg Innovation Index]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Germany Breaks Korea's Six-Year Streak as Most Innovative Nation|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-01-18/germany-breaks-korea-s-six-year-streak-as-most-innovative-nation|url-status=live|access-date=17 March 2021}}</ref> However, studies may vary widely; for example the [[Global Innovation Index]] 2016 ranks [[Switzerland]] as number one wherein countries like [[South Korea]], [[Japan]], and [[China]] do not even make the top ten.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://de.statista.com/infografik/5509/die-10-innovativsten-laender-weltweit-nach-dem-global-innovation-index/|title=Infografik: Schweiz bleibt globaler Innovationsführer|website=Statista Infografiken|publisher=Statista (In German)|access-date=25 November 2016}}</ref>
{{Columns-start|width=50%}}
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 15%;"
|+[[Bloomberg Innovation Index]] 2021<ref name="Bloomberg 2021">{{cite news |last1=Jamrisko |first1=Michelle |last2=Lu |first2=Wei |last3=Tanzi |first3=Alexandre |title=South Korea Leads World in Innovation as U.S. Exits Top Ten |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-03/south-korea-leads-world-in-innovation-u-s-drops-out-of-top-10 |work=Bloomberg |date=3 February 2021}}</ref>
! Rank !! Country/Territory
!Index
|-
| 1 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|South Korea}}
|90.49
|-
| 2 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Singapore}}
|87.76
|-
| 3 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
|87.60
|-
| 4 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Germany}}
|86.45
|-
| 5 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
|86.39
|-
| 6 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Denmark}}
|86.12
|-
| 7 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Israel}}
|85.50
|-
| 8 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Finland}}
|84.86
|-
| 9 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Netherlands}}
|84.29
|-
| 10 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Austria}}
|83.93
|}
{{Column}}
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 15%;"
|+[[Global Innovation Index]] 2020<ref>{{cite web |title=GII 2020 Report |url=https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/gii-2020-report |website=Global Innovation Index |access-date=19 October 2020}}</ref>
! Rank !! Country/Territory
!Index
|-
| 1 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
|66.08
|-
| 2 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
|62.47
|-
| 3 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|United States of America}}
|60.56
|-
| 4 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
|59.78
|-
| 5 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Netherlands}}
|58.76
|-
| 6 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Denmark}}
|57.53
|-
| 7 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Finland}}
|57.02
|-
| 8 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Singapore}}
|56.61
|-
| 9 || style="text-align: left" |{{flagcountry|Germany}}
|56.55
|-
| 10 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|South Korea}}
|56.11
|}
{{Column}}
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 15%;"
|+Innovation Indicator 2020<ref>{{cite book |title=innovations indikator 2020 |date=2020 |publisher=[[Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie]], [[Fraunhofer ISI]], [[Zentrum für Europäische Wirtschaftsforschung]] |url=http://www.innovationsindikator.de/fileadmin/content/2020/pdf/Innovationsindikator_2020-kompakt.pdf |language=German}}</ref>
! Rank !! Country/Territory
!Index
|-
| 1 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
|74
|-
| 2 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Singapore}}
|70
|-
| 3 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Belgium}}
|60
|-
| 4 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Germany}}
|54
|-
| 5 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
|54
|-
| 6 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Denmark}}
|52
|-
| 7 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Ireland}}
|52
|-
| 8 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|United States}}
|52
|-
| 9 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Austria}}
|50
|-
| 10 || style="text-align: left" | {{flagcountry|Finland}}
|50
|}
{{Columns-end}}
=== Rate of innovation ===
In 2005 [[Jonathan Huebner]], a [[physicist]] working at the [[Pentagon Building|Pentagon]]'s [[Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake|Naval Air Warfare Center]], argued on the basis of both U.S. [[patent]]s and world technological breakthroughs, per capita, that the rate of human technological innovation peaked in 1873 and has been slowing ever since.<ref name=Huebner>{{Cite journal | last1 = Huebner | first1 = J. | title = A possible declining trend for worldwide innovation | doi = 10.1016/j.techfore.2005.01.003 | journal = [[Technological Forecasting and Social Change]] | volume = 72 | issue = 8 | pages = 980–986 | year = 2005 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1259385 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/culture/articles/050707/7inventor.htm|title=Science: Wanna be an inventor? Don't bother|last=Hayden|first=Thomas|date=7 July 2005|work=U.S. News & World Report|access-date=10 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101195406/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/culture/articles/050707/7inventor.htm|archive-date=1 November 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> In his article, he asked "Will the level of technology reach a maximum and then decline as in the Dark Ages?"<ref name=Huebner/> In later comments to ''[[New Scientist]]'' magazine, Huebner clarified that while he believed that we will reach a rate of innovation in 2024 equivalent to that of the [[Dark Ages (historiography)|Dark Ages]], he was not predicting the reoccurrence of the Dark Ages themselves.<ref>{{cite news|last=Adler|first=Robert|title=Entering a dark age of innovation|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7616-entering-a-dark-age-of-innovation.html|access-date=30 May 2013|newspaper=New Scientist|date=2 July 2005}}</ref>
John Smart criticized the claim and asserted that [[technological singularity]] researcher [[Ray Kurzweil]] and others showed a "clear trend of acceleration, not deceleration" when it came to innovations.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Smart | first1 = J. | title = Discussion of Huebner article | doi = 10.1016/j.techfore.2005.07.001 | journal = [[Technological Forecasting and Social Change]] | volume = 72 | issue = 8 | pages = 988–995 | year = 2005 }}</ref> The foundation replied to Huebner the journal his article was published in, citing [[Second Life]] and [[eHarmony]] as proof of accelerating innovation; to which Huebner replied.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Huebner|first1=Jonathan|title=Response by the Authors|journal=[[Technological Forecasting and Social Change]]|volume=72|issue=8|pages=995–1000|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2005.05.008|year=2005}}</ref>
However, Huebner's findings were confirmed in 2010 with [[U.S. Patent Office]] data.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Strumsky | first1 = D. | last2 = Lobo | first2 = J. | last3 = Tainter | first3 = J. A. | doi = 10.1002/sres.1057 | title = Complexity and the productivity of innovation | journal = Systems Research and Behavioral Science | volume = 27 | issue = 5 | page = 496 | year = 2010 }}</ref> and in a 2012 paper.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gordon |first1=Robert J. |title=Is U.S. Economic Growth Over? Faltering Innovation Confronts the Six Headwinds |journal=NBER Working Paper No. 18315 |year=2012 |doi=10.3386/w18315 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Innovation and development===
The theme of innovation as a tool to disrupting patterns of poverty has gained momentum since the mid-2000s among major [[international development]] actors such as [[DFID]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dfid.blog.gov.uk/author/jonathan-wong-head-of-dfids-innovation-hub/ |title=Jonathan Wong, Head of DFID's Innovation Hub | DFID bloggers |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |date=24 September 2014 |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> [[Gates Foundation]]'s use of the [[Grand Challenge]] funding model,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gatesfoundation.org/Media-Center/Press-Releases/2014/10/Gates-Foundation-Grand-Challenges-Breakthrough-Science |title=Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and Grand Challenge Partners Commit to Innovation with New Investments in Breakthrough Science – Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation |website=Gatesfoundation.org |date=7 October 2014 |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> and [[USAID]]'s Global Development Lab.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usaid.gov/GlobalDevLab |title=Global Development Lab | U.S. Agency for International Development |website=Usaid.gov |date=5 August 2015 |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> Networks have been established to support innovation in development, such as D-Lab at [[MIT]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://d-lab.mit.edu/idin |title=International Development Innovation Network (IDIN) | D-Lab |website=D-lab.mit.edu |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> Investment funds have been established to identify and catalyze innovations in [[developing countries]], such as DFID's Global Innovation Fund,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/international-development-funding/global-innovation-fund |title=Global Innovation Fund International development funding |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> [[Human Development Innovation Fund]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hdif-tz.org |title=Human Development Innovation Fund (HDIF) |website=Hdif-tz.org |date=14 August 2015 |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> and (in partnership with USAID) the Global Development Innovation Ventures.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usaid.gov/news-information/press-releases/usaid-and-dfid-announce-global-development-innovation-ventures |title=USAID and DFID Announce Global Development Innovation Ventures to Invest in Breakthrough Solutions to World Poverty | U.S. Agency for International Development |website=Usaid.gov |date=6 June 2013 |access-date=14 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504030509/https://www.usaid.gov/news-information/press-releases/usaid-and-dfid-announce-global-development-innovation-ventures |archive-date=4 May 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The United States has to continue to play on the same level of playing field as its competitors in federal research. This can be achieved being strategically innovative through investment in basic research and science".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.industryweek.com/the-economy/public-policy/article/21121160/declining-federal-research-undercuts-the-us-strategy-of-innovation|title=StackPath|website=industryweek.com|access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref>
==Government policies==
Given its effects on [[efficiency]], [[quality of life]], and [[productivity|productive growth]], innovation is a key driver in improving society and economy. Consequently, policymakers have worked to develop environments that will foster innovation, from funding [[research and development]] to establishing regulations that do not inhibit innovation, funding the development of innovation clusters, and using public purchasing and standardisation to 'pull' innovation through.
For instance, experts are advocating that the U.S. federal government launch a National Infrastructure Foundation, a nimble, collaborative strategic intervention organization that will house innovations programs from fragmented silos under one entity, inform federal officials on innovation [[performance measurement|performance metrics]], strengthen industry-university partnerships, and support innovation [[economic development]] initiatives, especially to strengthen [[business cluster|regional clusters]]. Because clusters are the geographic incubators of innovative products and processes, a cluster development grant program would also be targeted for implementation. By focusing on innovating in such areas as precision [[manufacturing]], [[information technology]], and [[clean energy]], other areas of national concern would be tackled including [[government debt]], [[carbon footprint]], and [[oil dependence]].<ref name="MetroPolicy"/> The U.S. [[Economic Development Administration]] understand this reality in their continued Regional Innovation Clusters initiative.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eda.gov/PDF/EDA_FY_2010_Annual_Report.pdf |title=U.S. Economic Development Administration : Fiscal Year 2010 Annual Report |website=Eda.gov |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> The United States also has to integrate her supply-chain and improve her applies research capability and downstream process innovation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://americanaffairsjournal.org/2018/05/the-american-way-of-innovation-and-its-deficiencies/|title=The American Way of Innovation and Its Deficiencies|date=20 May 2018|website=American Affairs Journal|language=en-US|access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref>
Many countries recognize the importance of innovation including Japan's [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology]] (MEXT);<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mext.go.jp/english/a06.htm |title=Science and Technology |publisher=MEXT |access-date=7 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905171421/http://www.mext.go.jp/english/a06.htm |archive-date=5 September 2011}}</ref> Germany's [[Federal Ministry of Education and Research]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bmbf.de/en/Ministry.php |title=BMBF " Ministry |publisher=Bmbf.de |access-date=7 September 2011}}</ref> and the [[Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Science and Technology]] in the People's Republic of China. Russia's innovation programme is the [[Medvedev modernisation programme]] which aims to create a diversified economy based on high technology and innovation. The [[Government of Western Australia]] has established a number of innovation incentives for government departments. [[Landgate]] was the first Western Australian government agency to establish its Innovation Program.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.landgate.wa.gov.au/innovation |title=Home |website=Landgate.wa.gov.au |publisher=Landgate Innovation Program |access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref>
Some [[regions]] have taken a proactive role in supporting innovation. Many regional governments are setting up innovation agencies to strengthen regional capabilities.<ref>Morisson, A. & Doussineau, M. (2019). Regional innovation governance and place-based policies: design, implementation and implications. Regional Studies, Regional Science,6(1),101–116. https://rsa.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21681376.2019.1578257.</ref> In 2009, the municipality of [[Medellin]], [[Colombia]] created [[Ruta N]] to transform the city into a knowledge city.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1080/23792949.2018.1538702|title = Knowledge Gatekeepers and Path Development on the Knowledge Periphery: The Case of Ruta N in Medellin, Colombia| journal=Area Development and Policy|volume = 4| pages=98–115|year = 2018|last1 = Morisson|first1 = Arnault|s2cid = 169689111}}</ref>
==See also==
{{wikt | innovation}}
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Communities of innovation]]
* [[Creative problem solving]]
* [[Diffusion (anthropology)]]
* [[Ecoinnovation]]
* [[Hype cycle]]
* [[Induced innovation]]
* [[Information revolution]]
* [[Innovation leadership]]
* [[Innovation system]]
* [[International Association of Innovation Professionals]]
* [[ISO 56000]]
* [[Knowledge economy]]
* [[Obsolescence]]
* [[Open Innovation]]
* [[Open Innovations (Forum and Technology Show)]]
* [[Outcome-Driven Innovation]]
* [[Participatory design]]
* [[Product innovation]]
* [[Pro-innovation bias]]
* [[Sustainable Development Goals#Description and agenda|Sustainable Development Goals]] (Agenda 9)
* [[Technology Life Cycle]]
* [[Technological innovation system]]
* [[Theories of technology]]
* [[Timeline of historic inventions]]
* [[Toolkits for User Innovation]]
* [[UNDP Innovation Facility]]
* [[Virtual product development]]
{{Div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
==Further reading==
* Bloom, Nicholas, Charles I. Jones, John Van Reenen, and Michael Webb. 2020. "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20180338 Are Ideas Getting Harder to Find?]", ''[[American Economic Review]]'', 110 (4): 1104–44.
* {{cite book |title=Where Good Ideas Come From |author=Steven Johnson |publisher=Riverhead Books |isbn=9781594485381 |year=2011}}
* {{cite book| title=Stretch: Unlock the Power of Less and Achieve More Than You Ever Imagined |year=2017 |first=Scott |last=Sonenshein |publisher=Harper Business |isbn=978-0062457226}}
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{{Inventions}}
{{Science and technology studies}}
{{Industries}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Innovation| ]]
[[Category:Innovators| ]]
[[Category:Design]]
[[Category:Innovation economics]]
[[Category:Product management]]
[[Category:Science and technology studies]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
{{other uses|Innovation (disambiguation)|Innovators (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
-[[Image:Edison and phonograph edit2.jpg|thumb|190px|[[Thomas Edison]] with [[phonograph]]. Edison was one of the most prolific inventors in history, holding [[List of Edison patents|1,093 U.S. patents in his name]].]]
+[[Image:Edison and phonograph edit2.jpg|thumb|190px|[[Thomas Edison]] not [[phonograph]]. Edison was one of the most prolific inventors in history, holding [[List of Edison patents|1,093 U.S. patents in his name]].]]
-'''Innovation''' is the practical implementation of [[ideas]] that result in the introduction of new [[goods]] or [[service (economics)|services]] or improvement in offering goods or services.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schumpeter, Joseph A., 1883–1950|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8493721|title=The theory of economic development : an inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest, and the business cycle|others=Opie, Redvers,, Elliott, John E.|year=1983|isbn=0-87855-698-2|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|oclc=8493721}}</ref> [[ISO TC 279]] in the standard ISO 56000:2020 <ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:56000:ed-1:v1:en:term:3.1.1| title = ISO 56000:2020(en)Innovation management — Fundamentals and vocabulary | date = 2020| work = ISO }}</ref> defines innovation as "a new or changed entity realizing or redistributing value". Others have different definitions; a common element in the definitions is a focus on newness, improvement, and spread of ideas or technologies.
+'''Innovation''' is the practical implementation of [[ideas]] that result in the penis of new [[goods]] or [[service (economics)|services]] or improvement in offering goods or services.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schumpeter, Joseph A., 1883–1950|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8493721|title=The theory of economic development : an inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest, and the business cycle|others=Opie, Redvers,, Elliott, John E.|year=1983|isbn=0-87855-698-2|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|oclc=8493721}}</ref> [[ISO TC 279]] in the standard ISO 56000:2020 <ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:56000:ed-1:v1:en:term:3.1.1| title = ISO 56000:2020(en)Innovation management — Fundamentals and vocabulary | date = 2020| work = ISO }}</ref> defines innovation as "a new or changed entity realizing or redistributing value". Others have different definitions; a common element in the definitions is a focus on newness, improvement, and spread of ideas or technologies.
Innovation often takes place through the development of more-effective [[product (business)|product]]s, processes, [[Service (economics)|service]]s, [[technologies]], [[art work]]s<ref>
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0 => '[[Image:Edison and phonograph edit2.jpg|thumb|190px|[[Thomas Edison]] not [[phonograph]]. Edison was one of the most prolific inventors in history, holding [[List of Edison patents|1,093 U.S. patents in his name]].]]',
1 => ''''Innovation''' is the practical implementation of [[ideas]] that result in the penis of new [[goods]] or [[service (economics)|services]] or improvement in offering goods or services.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schumpeter, Joseph A., 1883–1950|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8493721|title=The theory of economic development : an inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest, and the business cycle|others=Opie, Redvers,, Elliott, John E.|year=1983|isbn=0-87855-698-2|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|oclc=8493721}}</ref> [[ISO TC 279]] in the standard ISO 56000:2020 <ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:56000:ed-1:v1:en:term:3.1.1| title = ISO 56000:2020(en)Innovation management — Fundamentals and vocabulary | date = 2020| work = ISO }}</ref> defines innovation as "a new or changed entity realizing or redistributing value". Others have different definitions; a common element in the definitions is a focus on newness, improvement, and spread of ideas or technologies.'
] |
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0 => '[[Image:Edison and phonograph edit2.jpg|thumb|190px|[[Thomas Edison]] with [[phonograph]]. Edison was one of the most prolific inventors in history, holding [[List of Edison patents|1,093 U.S. patents in his name]].]]',
1 => ''''Innovation''' is the practical implementation of [[ideas]] that result in the introduction of new [[goods]] or [[service (economics)|services]] or improvement in offering goods or services.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schumpeter, Joseph A., 1883–1950|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8493721|title=The theory of economic development : an inquiry into profits, capital, credit, interest, and the business cycle|others=Opie, Redvers,, Elliott, John E.|year=1983|isbn=0-87855-698-2|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|oclc=8493721}}</ref> [[ISO TC 279]] in the standard ISO 56000:2020 <ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:56000:ed-1:v1:en:term:3.1.1| title = ISO 56000:2020(en)Innovation management — Fundamentals and vocabulary | date = 2020| work = ISO }}</ref> defines innovation as "a new or changed entity realizing or redistributing value". Others have different definitions; a common element in the definitions is a focus on newness, improvement, and spread of ideas or technologies.'
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Application of better solutions that meet new requirements, inarticulated needs, or existing market needs</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Innovation_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Innovation (disambiguation)">Innovation (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Innovators_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Innovators (disambiguation)">Innovators (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:192px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Edison_and_phonograph_edit2.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Edison_and_phonograph_edit2.jpg/190px-Edison_and_phonograph_edit2.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="239" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Edison_and_phonograph_edit2.jpg/285px-Edison_and_phonograph_edit2.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Edison_and_phonograph_edit2.jpg/380px-Edison_and_phonograph_edit2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2640" data-file-height="3327" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Edison_and_phonograph_edit2.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a> not <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phonograph" title="Phonograph">phonograph</a>. Edison was one of the most prolific inventors in history, holding <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Edison_patents" title="List of Edison patents">1,093 U.S. patents in his name</a>.</div></div></div>
<p><b>Innovation</b> is the practical implementation of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ideas" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideas">ideas</a> that result in the penis of new <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Goods" title="Goods">goods</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">services</a> or improvement in offering goods or services.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISO_TC_279" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO TC 279">ISO TC 279</a> in the standard ISO 56000:2020 <sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> defines innovation as "a new or changed entity realizing or redistributing value". Others have different definitions; a common element in the definitions is a focus on newness, improvement, and spread of ideas or technologies.
</p><p>Innovation often takes place through the development of more-effective <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Product_(business)" title="Product (business)">products</a>, processes, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">services</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Technologies">technologies</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Art_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Art work">art works</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Business_model" title="Business model">business models</a> that <b>innovators</b> make available to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">markets</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government" title="Government">governments</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a>. Innovation is related to, but not the same as, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">invention</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> innovation is more apt to involve the practical implementation of an invention (i.e. new / improved ability) to make a meaningful impact in a market or society,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> and not all innovations require a new invention.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>Technical innovation often<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="This term requires quantification. (April 2018)">quantify</span></a></i>]</sup> manifests itself via the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> process when the problem being solved is of a technical or scientific nature. The opposite of innovation is <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Exnovation" title="Exnovation">exnovation</a>.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Definition"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Definition</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Creativity_and_innovation"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Creativity and innovation</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Types"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Types</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Sustaining_vs_disruptive_innovation"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sustaining vs disruptive innovation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Four_types_model"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Four types model</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Non-economic_innovation"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Non-economic innovation</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Process_of_innovation"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Process of innovation</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Sources_of_innovation"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sources of innovation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Facilitating_innovation"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Facilitating innovation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Goals_and_failures"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Goals and failures</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Diffusion"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Diffusion</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Measures"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Measures</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Organizational-level"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Organizational-level</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Political-level"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Political-level</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Indicators"><span class="tocnumber">6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Indicators</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Indices"><span class="tocnumber">6.4</span> <span class="toctext">Indices</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Rankings"><span class="tocnumber">6.5</span> <span class="toctext">Rankings</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Rate_of_innovation"><span class="tocnumber">6.6</span> <span class="toctext">Rate of innovation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Innovation_and_development"><span class="tocnumber">6.7</span> <span class="toctext">Innovation and development</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Government_policies"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Government policies</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Definition">Definition</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2><p>
Surveys of the literature on innovation have found a variety of definitions. In 2009, Baregheh et al. found around 60 definitions in different scientific papers, while a 2014 survey found over 40.<sup id="cite_ref-Henry2014_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henry2014-7">[7]</a></sup> Based on their survey, Baragheh et al. attempted to define a multidisciplinary definition and arrived at the following definition:</p><blockquote><p>"Innovation is the multi-stage process whereby organizations transform ideas into new/improved products, service or processes, in order to advance, compete and differentiate themselves successfully in their marketplace"<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup></p></blockquote><p>
In an industrial survey of how the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Software_industry" title="Software industry">software industry</a> defined innovation, the following definition given by Crossan and Apaydin was considered to be the most complete, which builds on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)</a> manual's definition:<sup id="cite_ref-Henry2014_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henry2014-7">[7]</a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996844942">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Innovation is production or adoption, assimilation, and exploitation of a value-added novelty in economic and social spheres; renewal and enlargement of products, services, and markets; development of new methods of production; and the establishment of new management systems. It is both a process and an outcome.</p></blockquote><p>
American sociologist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Everett_Rogers" title="Everett Rogers">Everett Rogers</a>, defined it as follows:</p><blockquote><p>"An idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption"<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>According to Alan Altshuler and Robert D. Behn, innovation includes original invention and creative use and defines innovation as a generation, admission and realization of new ideas, products, services and processes.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>
Two main dimensions of innovation are degree of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Novelty" title="Novelty">novelty</a> (i.e. whether an innovation is new to the firm, new to the market, new to the industry, or new to the world) and kind of innovation (i.e. whether it is process or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Product-service_system" title="Product-service system">product-service system</a> innovation).<sup id="cite_ref-Henry2014_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henry2014-7">[7]</a></sup> In organizational scholarship, researchers have also distinguished innovation to be separate from creativity, by providing an updated definition of these two related constructs:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996844942"/></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Workplace creativity concerns the cognitive and behavioral processes applied when attempting to generate novel ideas. Workplace innovation concerns the processes applied when attempting to implement new ideas. Specifically, innovation involves some combination of problem/opportunity identification, the introduction, adoption or modification of new ideas germane to organizational needs, the promotion of these ideas, and the practical implementation of these ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Drucker" title="Peter Drucker">Peter Drucker</a> wrote:
</p>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996844942"/><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Innovation is the specific function of entrepreneurship, whether in an existing business, a public service institution, or a new venture started by a lone individual in the family kitchen. It is the means by which the entrepreneur either creates new wealth-producing resources or endows existing resources with enhanced potential for creating wealth.<sup id="cite_ref-Drucker_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drucker-12">[12]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Creativity_and_innovation">Creativity and innovation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Creativity and innovation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In general, innovation is distinguished from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creativity</a> by its emphasis on the implementation of creative ideas in an economic setting. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Teresa_Amabile" title="Teresa Amabile">Amabile</a> and Pratt in 2016, drawing on the literature, distinguish between creativity ("the production of novel and useful ideas by an individual or small group of individuals working together") and innovation ("the successful implementation of creative ideas within an organization").<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Types">Types</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Types">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Several frameworks have been proposed for defining types of innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sustaining_vs_disruptive_innovation">Sustaining vs disruptive innovation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sustaining vs disruptive innovation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>One framework proposed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Clayton_Christensen" title="Clayton Christensen">Clayton Christensen</a> draws a distinction between sustaining and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive innovations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> Sustaining innovation is the improvement of a product or service based on the known needs of current customers (e.g. faster microprocessors, flat screen televisions). Disruptive innovation in contrast refers to a process by which a new product or service creates a new market (e.g. transistor radio, free crowdsourced encyclopedia, etc.), eventually displacing established competitors.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> According to Christensen, disruptive innovations are critical to long-term success in business.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p><p>Disruptive innovation is often enabled by disruptive technology. Marco Iansiti and Karim R. Lakhani define foundational technology as having the potential to create new foundations for global technology systems over the longer term. Foundational technology tends to transform business <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operating_model" title="Operating model">operating models</a> as entirely new business models <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emerge</a> over many years, with gradual and steady adoption of the innovation leading to waves of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">technological</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institutional</a> change that gain momentum more slowly.<sup id="cite_ref-hbr201701_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hbr201701-20">[20]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The advent of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Packet-switched" class="mw-redirect" title="Packet-switched">packet-switched</a> communication protocol <a href="/enwiki/wiki/TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect" title="TCP/IP">TCP/IP</a>—originally introduced in 1972 to support a single <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Use_case" title="Use case">use case</a> for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a> electronic communication (email), and which gained widespread adoption only in the mid-1990s with the advent of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>—is a foundational technology.<sup id="cite_ref-hbr201701_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hbr201701-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Four_types_model">Four types model</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Four types model">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Another framework was suggested by Henderson and Clark. They divide innovation into four types;
</p>
<ul><li><b>Radical innovation</b>: "establishes a new dominant design and, hence, a new set of core design concepts embodied in components that are linked together in a new architecture." (p. 11)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21">[21]</a></sup></li>
<li><b>Incremental innovation</b>: "refines and extends an established design. Improvement occurs in individual components, but the underlying core design concepts, and the links between them, remain the same." (p. 11)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21">[21]</a></sup></li>
<li><b>Architectural innovation</b>: "innovation that changes only the relationships between them [the core design concepts]" (p. 12)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21">[21]</a></sup></li>
<li><b>Modular Innovation</b>: "innovation that changes only the core design concepts of a technology" (p. 12)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21">[21]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>While Henderson and Clark as well as Christensen talk about technical innovation there are other kinds of innovation as well, such as service innovation and organizational innovation.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Non-economic_innovation">Non-economic innovation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Non-economic innovation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The classical definition of innovation being limited to the primary goal of generating profit for a firm, has led others to define other types of innovation such as: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_innovation" title="Social innovation">social innovation</a>, <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_innovation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sustainable innovation (page does not exist)">sustainable innovation</a> (or green innovation), and <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Responsible_innovation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Responsible innovation (page does not exist)">responsible innovation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Innovation_economics" title="Innovation economics">Innovation economics</a></div>
<p>The word "innovation" once had a quite different meaning. The first full-length discussion about innovation is the account<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2022)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> by the Greek philosopher and historian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a> (430–355 BCE). He viewed the concept as multifaceted and connected it to political action. The word for innovation that he uses, 'kainotomia', had previously occurred in two plays by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 446</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;">  386</span> BCE). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (died <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;">  348</span> BCE) discussed innovation in his <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)"> <i>Laws</i></a> dialogue and was not very fond of the concept. He was skeptical to it both in culture (dancing and art) and in education (he did not believe in introducing new games and toys to the kids).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24">[24]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BCE) did not like organizational innovations: he believed that all possible forms of organization had been discovered.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p>Before the 4th century in Rome, the words <i>novitas</i> and <i>res nova / nova res</i> were used with either negative or positive judgment on the innovator. This concept meant "renewing" and was incorporated into the new Latin verb word <i>innovo</i> ("I renew" or "I restore") in the centuries that followed. The <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></i> version of the Bible (late 4th century CE) used the word in spiritual as well as political contexts. It also appeared in poetry, mainly with spiritual connotations, but was also connected to political, material and cultural aspects.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli"> Machiavelli</a>'s <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> (1513), discusses innovation in a political setting. Machiavelli portrays it as a strategy a Prince may employ in order to cope with a constantly changing world as well as the corruption within it. Here innovation is described as introducing change in government (new laws and institutions); Machiavelli's later book <i>The Discourses</i> (1528) characterises innovation as imitation, as a return to the original that has been corrupted by people and by time.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Thus for Machiavelli innovation came with positive connotations. This is however an exception in the usage of the concept of innovation from the 16th century and onward. No innovator from the renaissance until the late 19th century ever thought of applying the word innovator upon themselves, it was a word used to attack enemies.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p>From the 1400s<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> through the 1600s, the concept of innovation was pejorative – the term was an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English"> early-modern</a> synonym for "rebellion", "revolt" and "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Mazzaferro_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazzaferro-26">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Diss_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diss-27">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lepore_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lepore-28">[28]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Green_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green-29">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> In the 1800s<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Relative_time_references" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="Clarify the applicable timeframe so that it is unambiguous when read at a later date. (February 2022)">timeframe?</span></a></i>]</sup> people promoting <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> saw <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> as an innovation and spent a lot of energy working against it. For instance, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Goldwin_Smith" title="Goldwin Smith">Goldwin Smith</a> (1823-1910) saw the spread of social innovations as an attack on money and banks. These social innovations were socialism, communism, nationalization, cooperative associations.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the 20th century the concept of innovation did not become popular until after the Second World War of 1939-1945. This is the point in time when people started to talk about <i>technological</i> product innovation and tie it to the idea of economic growth and competitive advantage.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a> (1883–1950) is often<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="This term requires quantification. (February 2022)">quantify</span></a></i>]</sup> credited as the one who made the term popular - he contributed greatly to the study of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Innovation_economics" title="Innovation economics">innovation economics</a>,
</p><p>In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">business</a> and in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, innovation can provide a catalyst for growth in an enterprise or even in an industry. With rapid advances in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation">transportation</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Communications">communications</a> over the past few decades, the old concepts of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Factor_endowment" title="Factor endowment">factor endowments</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Comparative_advantage" title="Comparative advantage">comparative advantage</a> which focused on an area's unique inputs are outmoded in today's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">global economy</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Schumpeter argued that industries must incessantly revolutionize the economic structure from within, that is: innovate with better or more effective processes and products, as well as with market distribution (such as the transition from the craft shop to factory). He famously asserted that "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Creative_destruction" title="Creative destruction">creative destruction</a> is the essential fact about <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-capsocdem_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-capsocdem-32">[32]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Entrepreneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Entrepreneur">Entrepreneurs</a> continuously search for better ways to satisfy their <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Consumer_demand" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer demand"> consumer base</a> with improved quality, durability, service and price - searches which may come to fruition in innovation with advanced technologies and organizational strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>A prime example of innovation involved the boom of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Silicon_Valley" title="Silicon Valley">Silicon Valley</a> start-ups out of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stanford_Industrial_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Industrial Park">Stanford Industrial Park</a>. In 1957, dissatisfied employees of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shockley_Semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Shockley Semiconductor">Shockley Semiconductor</a>, the company of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nobel_laureate" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel laureate">Nobel laureate</a> and co-inventor of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a>, left to form an independent firm, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild Semiconductor</a>. After several years, Fairchild developed into a formidable presence in the sector.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2022)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> Eventually, these founders left to start their own companies based on their own unique ideas, and then leading employees started their own firms. Over the next 20 years this process resulted in the momentous <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Startup_company" title="Startup company"> startup-company</a> explosion of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information-technology</a> firms.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Silicon Valley began as 65 new enterprises born out of Shockley's eight former employees.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>Another example involves <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Business_incubator" title="Business incubator">business incubators</a> – a phenomenon introduced in 1959 and subsequently nurtured by governments around the world. Such "incubators", located close to knowledge clusters (mostly research-based) like universities or other government <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Center_of_excellence" title="Center of excellence"> excellence centres</a> – aim primarily to channel generated knowledge to applied innovation outcomes in order to stimulate regional or national <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the 21st century the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_State" title="Islamic State">Islamic State</a> (IS) movement, while decrying <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bid%CA%BBah" title="Bidʻah"> religious innovations</a>, has innovated in military tactics, recruitment, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> and geopolitical activity.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Process_of_innovation">Process of innovation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Process of innovation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>An early model included only three phases of innovation. According to Utterback (1971), these phases were: 1) idea generation, 2) problem solving, and 3) implementation.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> By the time one completed phase 2, one had an invention, but until one got it to the point of having an economic impact, one didn't have an innovation. Diffusion wasn't considered a phase of innovation. Focus at this point in time was on manufacturing.
</p><p>All organizations can innovate, including for example hospitals, universities, and local governments.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> The organization requires a proper structure in order to retain competitive advantage. Organizations can also improve profits and performance by providing work groups opportunities and resources to innovate, in addition to employee's core job tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> Executives and managers have been advised to break away from traditional ways of thinking and use change to their advantage.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> The world of work is changing with the increased use of technology and companies are becoming increasingly competitive. Companies will have to downsize or reengineer their operations to remain competitive. This will affect employment as businesses will be forced to reduce the number of people employed while accomplishing the same amount of work if not more.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup>
</p><p>For instance, former Mayor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_O%E2%80%99Malley" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin O’Malley">Martin O’Malley</a> pushed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/City_of_Baltimore" class="mw-redirect" title="City of Baltimore">City of Baltimore</a> to use <a href="/enwiki/wiki/CitiStat" class="mw-redirect" title="CitiStat">CitiStat</a>, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Performance_measurement" title="Performance measurement">performance-measurement</a> data and management system that allows city officials to maintain statistics on several areas from crime trends to the conditions of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pothole" title="Pothole">potholes</a>. This system aided in better evaluation of policies and procedures with accountability and efficiency in terms of time and money. In its first year, CitiStat saved the city $13.2 million.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> Even <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mass_transit" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass transit">mass transit</a> systems have innovated with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle" title="Hybrid vehicle">hybrid</a> bus fleets to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Real-time_locating_system" title="Real-time locating system">real-time tracking</a> at bus stands. In addition, the growing use of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mobile_data_terminal" title="Mobile data terminal">mobile data terminals</a> in vehicles, that serve as communication hubs between vehicles and a control center, automatically send data on location, passenger counts, engine performance, mileage and other information. This tool helps to deliver and manage transportation systems.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup>
</p><p>Still other innovative strategies include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">hospitals</a> digitizing medical information in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electronic_medical_records" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic medical records">electronic medical records</a>. For example, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development" title="United States Department of Housing and Urban Development">U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/HOPE_VI" title="HOPE VI">HOPE VI</a> initiatives turned severely distressed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">public housing</a> in urban areas into <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urban_renewal" title="Urban renewal">revitalized</a>, mixed-income environments; the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harlem_Children%E2%80%99s_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlem Children’s Zone">Harlem Children’s Zone</a> used a community-based approach to educate local area children; and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/U.S._Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brownfield_regulation_and_development" title="Brownfield regulation and development">brownfield grants</a> facilitates turning over <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brownfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Brownfield">brownfields</a> for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">environmental protection</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">green spaces</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Community_development" title="Community development">community</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">commercial development</a>.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources_of_innovation">Sources of innovation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sources of innovation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Innovation may occur due to effort from a range of different agents, by chance, or as a result of a major system failure. According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_F._Drucker" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter F. Drucker">Peter F. Drucker</a>, the general sources of innovations are changes in industry structure, in market structure, in local and global demographics, in human perception, in the amount of available scientific knowledge, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-Drucker_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drucker-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Technological_Change.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Technological_Change.jpg/220px-Technological_Change.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="38" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Technological_Change.jpg/330px-Technological_Change.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Technological_Change.jpg/440px-Technological_Change.jpg 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="98" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Technological_Change.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Original model of three phases of the process of Technological Change</div></div></div>
<p>In the simplest <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model of innovation</a> the traditionally recognized source is <i>manufacturer innovation</i>. This is where an agent (person or business) innovates in order to sell the innovation. Specifically, R&D measurement is the commonly used input for innovation, in particular in the business sector, named Business Expenditure on R&D (BERD) that grew over the years on the expenses of the declining R&D invested by the public sector.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup>
</p><p>Another source of innovation, only now becoming widely recognized, is <i>end-user innovation</i>. This is where an agent (person or company) develops an innovation for their own (personal or in-house) use because existing products do not meet their needs. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a> economist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eric_von_Hippel" title="Eric von Hippel">Eric von Hippel</a> has identified end-user innovation as, by far, the most important and critical in his classic book on the subject, <i>"The Sources of Innovation"</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup>
</p><p>The robotics engineer <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joseph_F._Engelberger" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph F. Engelberger">Joseph F. Engelberger</a> asserts that innovations require only three things:
</p>
<ol><li>a recognized need</li>
<li>competent people with relevant technology</li>
<li>financial support<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup></li></ol>
<p>The Kline <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chain-linked_model" title="Chain-linked model">chain-linked model</a> of innovation<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> places emphasis on potential market needs as drivers of the innovation process, and describes the complex and often iterative feedback loops between marketing, design, manufacturing, and R&D.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Facilitating_innovation">Facilitating innovation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Facilitating innovation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Innovation by businesses is achieved in many ways, with much attention now given to formal <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> (R&D) for "breakthrough innovations". R&D help spur on patents and other scientific innovations that leads to productive growth in such areas as industry, medicine, engineering, and government.<sup id="cite_ref-MetroPolicy_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MetroPolicy-49">[49]</a></sup> Yet, innovations can be developed by less formal on-the-job modifications of practice, through exchange and combination of professional experience and by many other routes. Investigation of relationship between the concepts of innovation and technology transfer revealed overlap.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> The more radical and revolutionary innovations tend to emerge from R&D, while more incremental innovations may emerge from practice – but there are many exceptions to each of these trends.
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">Information technology</a> and changing business processes and management style can produce a work climate favorable to innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> For example, the software tool company <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atlassian" title="Atlassian">Atlassian</a> conducts quarterly "ShipIt Days" in which employees may work on anything related to the company's products.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> Google employees work on self-directed projects for 20% of their time (known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Innovation_Time_Off" class="mw-redirect" title="Innovation Time Off">Innovation Time Off</a>). Both companies cite these bottom-up processes as major sources for new products and features.
</p><p>An important innovation factor includes customers buying products or using services. As a result, organizations may incorporate users in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Focus_group" title="Focus group">focus groups</a> (user centered approach), work closely with so-called <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lead_users" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead users">lead users</a> (lead user approach), or users might adapt their products themselves. The lead user method focuses on idea generation based on leading users to develop breakthrough innovations. U-STIR, a project to innovate <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>'s surface <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation">transportation</a> system, employs such workshops.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> Regarding this <a href="/enwiki/wiki/User_innovation" title="User innovation">user innovation</a>, a great deal of innovation is done by those actually implementing and using technologies and products as part of their normal activities. Sometimes user-innovators may become <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Entrepreneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Entrepreneur">entrepreneurs</a>, selling their product, they may choose to trade their innovation in exchange for other innovations, or they may be adopted by their suppliers. Nowadays, they may also choose to freely reveal their innovations, using methods like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Open-source_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-source model">open source</a>. In such networks of innovation the users or communities of users can further develop technologies and reinvent their social meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup>
</p><p>One technique for innovating a solution to an identified problem is to actually attempt an experiment with many possible solutions.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> This technique was famously used by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison's</a> laboratory to find a version of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" title="Incandescent light bulb">incandescent light bulb</a> economically viable for home use, which involved searching through thousands of possible <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electrical_filament" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical filament">filament</a> designs before settling on carbonized bamboo.
</p><p>This technique is sometimes used in pharmaceutical <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Drug_discovery" title="Drug discovery">drug discovery</a>. Thousands of chemical compounds are subjected to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/High-throughput_screening" title="High-throughput screening">high-throughput screening</a> to see if they have any activity against a target molecule which has been identified as biologically significant to a disease. Promising compounds can then be studied; modified to improve efficacy and reduce side effects, evaluated for cost of manufacture; and if successful turned into treatments.
</p><p>The related technique of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/A/B_testing" title="A/B testing">A/B testing</a> is often used to help optimize the design of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Web_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Web site">web sites</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mobile_app" title="Mobile app">mobile apps</a>. This is used by major sites such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amazon.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon.com">amazon.com</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Netflix" title="Netflix">Netflix</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fastcompany_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fastcompany-57">[57]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Procter_%26_Gamble" title="Procter & Gamble">Procter & Gamble</a> uses computer-simulated products and online user panels to conduct larger numbers of experiments to guide the design, packaging, and shelf placement of consumer products.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capital_One" title="Capital One">Capital One</a> uses this technique to drive credit card marketing offers.<sup id="cite_ref-fastcompany_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fastcompany-57">[57]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Goals_and_failures">Goals and failures</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Goals and failures">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Programs of organizational innovation are typically tightly linked to organizational goals and objectives, to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Business_plan" title="Business plan">business plan</a>, and to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">market</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Competition_(companies)" class="mw-redirect" title="Competition (companies)">competitive positioning</a>. One driver for innovation programs in corporations is to achieve growth objectives. As Davila et al. (2006) notes, "Companies cannot grow through cost reduction and reengineering alone... Innovation is the key element in providing aggressive top-line growth, and for increasing bottom-line results".<sup id="cite_ref-Making_Innovation_Work_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Making_Innovation_Work-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p><p>One survey across a large number of manufacturing and services organizations found, ranked in decreasing order of popularity, that systematic programs of organizational innovation are most frequently driven by: improved <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quality_(business)" title="Quality (business)">quality</a>, creation of new <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">markets</a>, extension of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Product_(business)" title="Product (business)">product</a> range, reduced <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Labor_cost" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor cost">labor costs</a>, improved <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Production_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Production process">production processes</a>, reduced materials, reduced <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental damage">environmental damage</a>, replacement of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Product_(business)" title="Product (business)">products</a>/<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">services</a>, reduced <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> consumption, conformance to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">regulations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Making_Innovation_Work_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Making_Innovation_Work-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p><p>These goals vary between improvements to products, processes and services and dispel a popular myth that innovation deals mainly with new product development. According to Andrea Vaona and Mario Pianta, some example goals of innovation could stem from two different types of technological strategies: <i>technological competitiveness</i> and <i>active price competitiveness</i>. <i>Technological competitiveness</i> may have a tendency to be pursued by smaller firms and can be characterized as "efforts for market-oriented innovation, such as a strategy of market expansion and patenting activity."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-60">[60]</a></sup> On the other hand, <i>active price competitiveness</i> is geared toward process innovations that lead to efficiency and flexibility, which tend to be pursued by large, established firms as they seek to expand their market foothold.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-60">[60]</a></sup> Most of the goals could apply to any organization be it a manufacturing facility, marketing company, hospital or government. Whether innovation goals are successfully achieved or otherwise depends greatly on the environment prevailing in the organization.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup>
</p><p>Conversely, failure can develop in programs of innovations. The causes of failure have been widely researched and can vary considerably. Some causes will be external to the organization and outside its influence of control. Others will be internal and ultimately within the control of the organization. Internal causes of failure can be divided into causes associated with the cultural infrastructure and causes associated with the innovation process itself. Common causes of failure within the innovation process in most organizations can be distilled into five types: poor goal definition, poor alignment of actions to goals, poor participation in teams, poor monitoring of results, poor communication and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Access_to_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Access to information">access to information</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Diffusion">Diffusion</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Diffusion">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:InnovationLifeCycle.jpg" class="image"><img alt="InnovationLifeCycle.jpg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/InnovationLifeCycle.jpg/220px-InnovationLifeCycle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/InnovationLifeCycle.jpg/330px-InnovationLifeCycle.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/InnovationLifeCycle.jpg/440px-InnovationLifeCycle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="287" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:InnovationLifeCycle.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div></div></div></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></div>
<p>Diffusion of innovation research was first started in 1903 by seminal researcher <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gabriel_Tarde" title="Gabriel Tarde">Gabriel Tarde</a>, who first plotted the S-shaped <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diffusion_curve" title="Diffusion curve">diffusion curve</a>. Tarde defined the innovation-decision process as a series of steps that include:<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup>
</p>
<ol><li>knowledge</li>
<li>forming an attitude</li>
<li>a decision to adopt or reject</li>
<li>implementation and use</li>
<li>confirmation of the decision</li></ol>
<p>Once innovation occurs, innovations may be spread from the innovator to other individuals and groups. This process has been proposed that the lifecycle of innovations can be described using the '<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sigmoid_function" title="Sigmoid function">s-curve</a>' or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion curve</a>. The s-curve maps growth of revenue or productivity against time. In the early stage of a particular innovation, growth is relatively slow as the new product establishes itself. At some point, customers begin to demand and the product growth increases more rapidly. New incremental innovations or changes to the product allow growth to continue. Towards the end of its lifecycle, growth slows and may even begin to decline. In the later stages, no amount of new investment in that product will yield a normal rate of return.
</p><p>The s-curve derives from an assumption that new products are likely to have "product life" – i.e., a start-up phase, a rapid increase in revenue and eventual decline. In fact, the great majority of innovations never get off the bottom of the curve, and never produce normal returns.
</p><p>Innovative companies will typically be working on new innovations that will eventually replace older ones. Successive s-curves will come along to replace older ones and continue to drive growth upwards. In the figure above the first curve shows a current technology. The second shows an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">emerging technology</a> that currently yields lower growth but will eventually overtake current technology and lead to even greater levels of growth. The length of life will depend on many factors.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Measures">Measures</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Measures">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Measuring innovation is inherently difficult as it implies commensurability so that comparisons can be made in quantitative terms. Innovation, however, is by definition novelty. Comparisons are thus often meaningless across products or service.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup> Nevertheless, Edison et al.<sup id="cite_ref-Henry2013_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henry2013-66">[66]</a></sup> in their review of literature on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Innovation_management" title="Innovation management">innovation management</a> found 232 innovation metrics. They categorized these measures along five dimensions; i.e. inputs to the innovation process, output from the innovation process, effect of the innovation output, measures to access the activities in an innovation process and availability of factors that facilitate such a process.<sup id="cite_ref-Henry2013_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henry2013-66">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>There are two different types of measures for innovation: the organizational level and the political level.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Organizational-level">Organizational-level</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Organizational-level">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<dl><dd>The measure of innovation at the organizational level relates to individuals, team-level assessments, and private companies from the smallest to the largest company. Measure of innovation for organizations can be conducted by surveys, workshops, consultants, or internal benchmarking. There is today no established general way to measure organizational innovation. Corporate measurements are generally structured around <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Balanced_scorecard" title="Balanced scorecard">balanced scorecards</a> which cover several aspects of innovation such as business measures related to finances, innovation process efficiency, employees' contribution and motivation, as well benefits for customers. Measured values will vary widely between businesses, covering for example new product revenue, spending in R&D, time to market, customer and employee perception & satisfaction, number of patents, additional sales resulting from past innovations.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Political-level">Political-level</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Political-level">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<dl><dd>For the political level, measures of innovation are more focused on a country or region <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Competitive_advantage" title="Competitive advantage">competitive advantage</a> through innovation. In this context, organizational capabilities can be evaluated through various evaluation frameworks, such as those of the European Foundation for Quality Management. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> Oslo Manual (1992) suggests standard guidelines on measuring technological product and process innovation. Some people consider the <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Oslo_Manual&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oslo Manual (page does not exist)">Oslo Manual</a> complementary to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frascati_Manual" title="Frascati Manual">Frascati Manual</a> from 1963. The new Oslo Manual from 2018 takes a wider perspective to innovation, and includes marketing and organizational innovation. These standards are used for example in the European <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Community_Innovation_Survey" title="Community Innovation Survey">Community Innovation Surveys</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>Other ways of measuring innovation have traditionally been expenditure, for example, investment in R&D (Research and Development) as percentage of GNP (Gross National Product). Whether this is a good measurement of innovation has been widely discussed and the Oslo Manual has incorporated some of the critique against earlier methods of measuring. The traditional methods of measuring still inform many policy decisions. The EU <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lisbon_Strategy" title="Lisbon Strategy">Lisbon Strategy</a> has set as a goal that their average expenditure on R&D should be 3% of GDP.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Indicators">Indicators</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Indicators">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Many scholars claim that there is a great bias towards the "science and technology mode" (S&T-mode or STI-mode), while the "learning by doing, using and interacting mode" (DUI-mode) is ignored and measurements and research about it rarely done. For example, an institution may be high tech with the latest equipment, but lacks crucial doing, using and interacting tasks important for innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup>
</p><p>A common industry view (unsupported by empirical evidence) is that comparative <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cost-effectiveness" class="mw-redirect" title="Cost-effectiveness">cost-effectiveness</a> research is a form of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Price_controls" title="Price controls">price control</a> which reduces returns to industry, and thus limits R&D expenditure, stifles future innovation and compromises new products access to markets.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup>
Some academics claim cost-effectiveness research is a valuable value-based measure of innovation which accords "truly significant" therapeutic advances (i.e. providing "health gain") higher prices than free market mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup> Such <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Value-based_pricing" title="Value-based pricing">value-based pricing</a> has been viewed as a means of indicating to industry the type of innovation that should be rewarded from the public purse.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup>
</p><p>An <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Australian" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian">Australian</a> academic developed the case that national comparative <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cost-effectiveness_analysis" title="Cost-effectiveness analysis">cost-effectiveness analysis</a> systems should be viewed as measuring "health innovation" as an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">evidence-based policy</a> concept for valuing innovation distinct from valuing through competitive markets, a method which requires strong <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-trust">anti-trust</a> laws to be effective, on the basis that both methods of assessing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharmaceutical_innovations" title="Pharmaceutical innovations">pharmaceutical innovations</a> are mentioned in annex 2C.1 of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/AUSFTA" class="mw-redirect" title="AUSFTA">Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Indices">Indices</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Indices">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Several indices attempt to measure innovation and rank entities based on these measures, such as:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bloomberg_Innovation_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloomberg Innovation Index">Bloomberg Innovation Index</a></li>
<li>"Bogota Manual"<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup> similar to the Oslo Manual, is focused on Latin America and the Caribbean countries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>"Creative Class" developed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Richard_Florida" title="Richard Florida">Richard Florida</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=EIU_Innovation_Ranking&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="EIU Innovation Ranking (page does not exist)">EIU Innovation Ranking</a><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_Competitiveness_Report" title="Global Competitiveness Report">Global Competitiveness Report</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_Innovation_Index" title="Global Innovation Index">Global Innovation Index</a> (GII), by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/INSEAD" title="INSEAD">INSEAD</a><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Information_Technology_and_Innovation_Foundation" title="Information Technology and Innovation Foundation">Information Technology and Innovation Foundation (ITIF) Index</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tcdata360.worldbank.org/subtopics/inn?country=USA">Innovation 360</a> – From the World Bank. Aggregates innovation indicators (and more) from a number of different public sources</li>
<li>Innovation Capacity Index (ICI) published by a large number of international professors working in a collaborative fashion. The top scorers of ICI 2009–2010 were: 1. Sweden 82.2; 2. Finland 77.8; and 3. United States 77.5<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup></li>
<li>Innovation Index, developed by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indiana_Business_Research_Center" title="Indiana Business Research Center">Indiana Business Research Center</a>, to measure innovation capacity at the county or regional level in the United States<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Innovation_Union_Scoreboard" class="mw-redirect" title="Innovation Union Scoreboard">Innovation Union Scoreboard</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovationsindikator&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Innovationsindikator (page does not exist)">innovationsindikator</a> for Germany, developed by the <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundesverband_der_Deutschen_Industrie" class="extiw" title="de:Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie">Federation of German Industries</a> (Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie) in 2005<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/INSEAD" title="INSEAD">INSEAD</a> Innovation Efficacy Index<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Innovation_Index" title="International Innovation Index">International Innovation Index</a>, produced jointly by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Boston_Consulting_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="The Boston Consulting Group">The Boston Consulting Group</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Association_of_Manufacturers" title="National Association of Manufacturers">National Association of Manufacturers</a> (NAM) and its nonpartisan research affiliate The Manufacturing Institute, is a worldwide index measuring the level of innovation in a country; NAM describes it as the "largest and most comprehensive global index of its kind"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup></li>
<li>Management Innovation Index – Model for Managing Intangibility of Organizational Creativity: Management Innovation Index<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup></li>
<li>NYCEDC Innovation Index, by the New York City Economic Development Corporation, tracks New York City's "transformation into a center for high-tech innovation. It measures innovation in the City's growing science and technology industries and is designed to capture the effect of innovation on the City's economy"<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup></li>
<li>OECD <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Oslo_Manual&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oslo Manual (page does not exist)">Oslo Manual</a> is focused on North America, Europe, and other rich economies</li>
<li>State Technology and Science Index, developed by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Milken_Institute" title="Milken Institute">Milken Institute</a>, is a U.S.-wide benchmark to measure the science and technology capabilities that furnish high paying jobs based around key components<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=World_Competitiveness_Scoreboard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="World Competitiveness Scoreboard (page does not exist)">World Competitiveness Scoreboard</a><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Rankings">Rankings</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Rankings">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Common areas of focus include: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/High-tech" class="mw-redirect" title="High-tech">high-tech</a> companies, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Post_secondary_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Post secondary education">post secondary education</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a>, and research personnel. The left ranking of the top 10 countries below is based on the 2020 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bloomberg_Innovation_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloomberg Innovation Index">Bloomberg Innovation Index</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup> However, studies may vary widely; for example the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_Innovation_Index" title="Global Innovation Index">Global Innovation Index</a> 2016 ranks <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> as number one wherein countries like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> do not even make the top ten.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup>
</p>
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<table class="wikitable" style="width: 15%;">
<caption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bloomberg_Innovation_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloomberg Innovation Index">Bloomberg Innovation Index</a> 2021<sup id="cite_ref-Bloomberg_2021_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloomberg_2021-91">[91]</a></sup>
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Rank</th>
<th>Country/Territory
</th>
<th>Index
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>1</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="South Korea"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></span>
</td>
<td>90.49
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>2</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Singapore"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/23px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/35px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/45px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></span>
</td>
<td>87.76
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>3</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Switzerland"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/16px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/24px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" />  </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></span>
</td>
<td>87.60
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>4</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Germany"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></span>
</td>
<td>86.45
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>5</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Sweden"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></span>
</td>
<td>86.39
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>6</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Denmark"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/20px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/31px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/40px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></span>
</td>
<td>86.12
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>7</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Israel"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/21px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/32px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/41px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></span>
</td>
<td>85.50
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>8</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Finland"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></span>
</td>
<td>84.86
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>9</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Netherlands"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></span>
</td>
<td>84.29
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>10</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Austria"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a></span>
</td>
<td>83.93
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1058064093"/></div><div class="column">
<table class="wikitable" style="width: 15%;">
<caption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_Innovation_Index" title="Global Innovation Index">Global Innovation Index</a> 2020<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup>
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Rank</th>
<th>Country/Territory
</th>
<th>Index
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>1</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Switzerland"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/16px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/24px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" />  </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></span>
</td>
<td>66.08
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>2</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Sweden"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></span>
</td>
<td>62.47
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>3</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="United States"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></span>
</td>
<td>60.56
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>4</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="United Kingdom"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></span>
</td>
<td>59.78
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>5</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Netherlands"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></span>
</td>
<td>58.76
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>6</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Denmark"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/20px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/31px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/40px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></span>
</td>
<td>57.53
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>7</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Finland"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></span>
</td>
<td>57.02
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>8</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Singapore"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/23px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/35px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/45px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></span>
</td>
<td>56.61
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>9</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Germany"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></span>
</td>
<td>56.55
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>10</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="South Korea"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></span>
</td>
<td>56.11
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1058064093"/></div><div class="column">
<table class="wikitable" style="width: 15%;">
<caption>Innovation Indicator 2020<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup>
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Rank</th>
<th>Country/Territory
</th>
<th>Index
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>1</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Switzerland"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/16px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/24px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" />  </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></span>
</td>
<td>74
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>2</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Singapore"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/23px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/35px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/45px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></span>
</td>
<td>70
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>3</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Belgium"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></span>
</td>
<td>60
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>4</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Germany"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></span>
</td>
<td>54
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>5</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Sweden"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></span>
</td>
<td>54
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>6</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Denmark"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/20px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/31px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/40px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></span>
</td>
<td>52
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>7</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Ireland"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></span>
</td>
<td>52
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>8</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="United States"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></span>
</td>
<td>52
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>9</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Austria"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a></span>
</td>
<td>50
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>10</td>
<td style="text-align: left"><span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Finland"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></span>
</td>
<td>50
</td></tr></tbody></table>
</div><div style="clear: both"></div></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Rate_of_innovation">Rate of innovation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Rate of innovation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In 2005 <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Jonathan_Huebner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jonathan Huebner (page does not exist)">Jonathan Huebner</a>, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> working at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pentagon_Building" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentagon Building">Pentagon</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naval_Air_Weapons_Station_China_Lake" title="Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake">Naval Air Warfare Center</a>, argued on the basis of both U.S. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a> and world technological breakthroughs, per capita, that the rate of human technological innovation peaked in 1873 and has been slowing ever since.<sup id="cite_ref-Huebner_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huebner-94">[94]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup> In his article, he asked "Will the level of technology reach a maximum and then decline as in the Dark Ages?"<sup id="cite_ref-Huebner_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huebner-94">[94]</a></sup> In later comments to <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i> magazine, Huebner clarified that while he believed that we will reach a rate of innovation in 2024 equivalent to that of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a>, he was not predicting the reoccurrence of the Dark Ages themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup>
</p><p>John Smart criticized the claim and asserted that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">technological singularity</a> researcher <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ray_Kurzweil" title="Ray Kurzweil">Ray Kurzweil</a> and others showed a "clear trend of acceleration, not deceleration" when it came to innovations.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup> The foundation replied to Huebner the journal his article was published in, citing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Life" title="Second Life">Second Life</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/EHarmony" title="EHarmony">eHarmony</a> as proof of accelerating innovation; to which Huebner replied.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup>
However, Huebner's findings were confirmed in 2010 with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/U.S._Patent_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Patent Office">U.S. Patent Office</a> data.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup> and in a 2012 paper.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Innovation_and_development">Innovation and development</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Innovation and development">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The theme of innovation as a tool to disrupting patterns of poverty has gained momentum since the mid-2000s among major <a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_development" title="International development">international development</a> actors such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/DFID" class="mw-redirect" title="DFID">DFID</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gates_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gates Foundation">Gates Foundation</a>'s use of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grand_Challenge" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Challenge">Grand Challenge</a> funding model,<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/USAID" class="mw-redirect" title="USAID">USAID</a>'s Global Development Lab.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup> Networks have been established to support innovation in development, such as D-Lab at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup> Investment funds have been established to identify and catalyze innovations in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a>, such as DFID's Global Innovation Fund,<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_Development_Innovation_Fund" title="Human Development Innovation Fund">Human Development Innovation Fund</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup> and (in partnership with USAID) the Global Development Innovation Ventures.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup>
</p><p>The United States has to continue to play on the same level of playing field as its competitors in federal research. This can be achieved being strategically innovative through investment in basic research and science".<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Government_policies">Government policies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Government policies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Given its effects on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Efficiency" title="Efficiency">efficiency</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productive growth</a>, innovation is a key driver in improving society and economy. Consequently, policymakers have worked to develop environments that will foster innovation, from funding <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> to establishing regulations that do not inhibit innovation, funding the development of innovation clusters, and using public purchasing and standardisation to 'pull' innovation through.
</p><p>For instance, experts are advocating that the U.S. federal government launch a National Infrastructure Foundation, a nimble, collaborative strategic intervention organization that will house innovations programs from fragmented silos under one entity, inform federal officials on innovation <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Performance_measurement" title="Performance measurement">performance metrics</a>, strengthen industry-university partnerships, and support innovation <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a> initiatives, especially to strengthen <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Business_cluster" title="Business cluster">regional clusters</a>. Because clusters are the geographic incubators of innovative products and processes, a cluster development grant program would also be targeted for implementation. By focusing on innovating in such areas as precision <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Clean_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Clean energy">clean energy</a>, other areas of national concern would be tackled including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_debt" title="Government debt">government debt</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oil_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil dependence">oil dependence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MetroPolicy_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MetroPolicy-49">[49]</a></sup> The U.S. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_Development_Administration" title="Economic Development Administration">Economic Development Administration</a> understand this reality in their continued Regional Innovation Clusters initiative.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup> The United States also has to integrate her supply-chain and improve her applies research capability and downstream process innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup>
</p><p>Many countries recognize the importance of innovation including Japan's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ministry_of_Education,_Culture,_Sports,_Science_and_Technology" title="Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology">Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology</a> (MEXT);<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup> Germany's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Ministry_of_Education_and_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Ministry of Education and Research">Federal Ministry of Education and Research</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ministry_of_Science_and_Technology_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China">Ministry of Science and Technology</a> in the People's Republic of China. Russia's innovation programme is the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medvedev_modernisation_programme" title="Medvedev modernisation programme">Medvedev modernisation programme</a> which aims to create a diversified economy based on high technology and innovation. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_of_Western_Australia" title="Government of Western Australia">Government of Western Australia</a> has established a number of innovation incentives for government departments. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Landgate" title="Landgate">Landgate</a> was the first Western Australian government agency to establish its Innovation Program.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Regions" class="mw-redirect" title="Regions">regions</a> have taken a proactive role in supporting innovation. Many regional governments are setting up innovation agencies to strengthen regional capabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup> In 2009, the municipality of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medellin" class="mw-redirect" title="Medellin">Medellin</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> created <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ruta_N" title="Ruta N">Ruta N</a> to transform the city into a knowledge city.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/innovation" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:innovation"> innovation</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r998391716">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communities_of_innovation" title="Communities of innovation">Communities of innovation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Creative_problem_solving" class="mw-redirect" title="Creative problem solving">Creative problem solving</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diffusion_(anthropology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion (anthropology)">Diffusion (anthropology)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecoinnovation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecoinnovation">Ecoinnovation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Induced_innovation" title="Induced innovation">Induced innovation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Information_revolution" title="Information revolution">Information revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Innovation_leadership" title="Innovation leadership">Innovation leadership</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Innovation_system" title="Innovation system">Innovation system</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Association_of_Innovation_Professionals" title="International Association of Innovation Professionals">International Association of Innovation Professionals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISO_56000" title="ISO 56000">ISO 56000</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge economy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Obsolescence" title="Obsolescence">Obsolescence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Open_Innovation" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Innovation">Open Innovation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Open_Innovations_(Forum_and_Technology_Show)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Innovations (Forum and Technology Show)">Open Innovations (Forum and Technology Show)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outcome-Driven_Innovation" title="Outcome-Driven Innovation">Outcome-Driven Innovation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Participatory_design" title="Participatory design">Participatory design</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Product_innovation" title="Product innovation">Product innovation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pro-innovation_bias" title="Pro-innovation bias">Pro-innovation bias</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals#Description_and_agenda" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> (Agenda 9)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technology_Life_Cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Technology Life Cycle">Technology Life Cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">Technological innovation system</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">Theories of technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline of historic inventions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Toolkits_for_User_Innovation" class="mw-redirect" title="Toolkits for User Innovation">Toolkits for User Innovation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/UNDP_Innovation_Facility" class="mw-redirect" title="UNDP Innovation Facility">UNDP Innovation Facility</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virtual_product_development" title="Virtual product development">Virtual product development</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;">
<ol class="references">
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/jacobmorgan/2015/09/10/whats-the-difference-between-invention-and-innovation/">"What's the Difference Between Invention and Innovation?"</a>, <i>Forbes</i>, 10 September 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=What%27s+the+Difference+Between+Invention+and+Innovation%3F&rft.date=2015-09-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fjacobmorgan%2F2015%2F09%2F10%2Fwhats-the-difference-between-invention-and-innovation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:2-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSchiederigTietzeHerstatt2012" class="citation journal cs1">Schiederig, Tim; Tietze, Frank; Herstatt, Cornelius (22 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9310.2011.00672.x">"Green innovation in technology and innovation management – an exploratory literature review"</a>. <i>R&D Management</i>. <b>42</b> (2): 180–192. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9310.2011.00672.x">10.1111/j.1467-9310.2011.00672.x</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/issn/0033-6807">0033-6807</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153958119">153958119</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=R%26D+Management&rft.atitle=Green+innovation+in+technology+and+innovation+management+%E2%80%93+an+exploratory+literature+review&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=180-192&rft.date=2012-02-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153958119%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0033-6807&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9310.2011.00672.x&rft.aulast=Schiederig&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft.au=Tietze%2C+Frank&rft.au=Herstatt%2C+Cornelius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9310.2011.00672.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFBlokLemmens2015" class="citation cs2">Blok, Vincent; Lemmens, Pieter (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17308-5_2">"The Emerging Concept of Responsible Innovation. Three Reasons Why It Is Questionable and Calls for a Radical Transformation of the Concept of Innovation"</a>, <i>Responsible Innovation 2</i>, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 19–35, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-17308-5_2">10.1007/978-3-319-17308-5_2</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-17307-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-17307-8"><bdi>978-3-319-17307-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Responsible+Innovation+2&rft.atitle=The+Emerging+Concept+of+Responsible+Innovation.+Three+Reasons+Why+It+Is+Questionable+and+Calls+for+a+Radical+Transformation+of+the+Concept+of+Innovation&rft.pages=19-35&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-17308-5_2&rft.isbn=978-3-319-17307-8&rft.aulast=Blok&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rft.au=Lemmens%2C+Pieter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-17308-5_2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:0-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFGodin,_Benoit2015" class="citation book cs1">Godin, Benoit (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/903958473"><i>Innovation contested : the idea of innovation over the centuries</i></a>. New York, New York. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-85560-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-85560-8"><bdi>978-1-315-85560-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/903958473">903958473</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Innovation+contested+%3A+the+idea+of+innovation+over+the+centuries&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F903958473&rft.isbn=978-1-315-85560-8&rft.au=Godin%2C+Benoit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F903958473&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Politics II as cited by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_Godin" title="Benoît Godin">Benoît Godin</a> 2015).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Mazzaferro-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mazzaferro_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFMazzaferro2018" class="citation journal cs1">Mazzaferro, Alexander (2018). "Such a Murmur": Innovation, Rebellion, and Sovereignty in William Strachey's "True Reportory". <i>Early American Literature</i>. <b>53</b> (1): 3–32. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Feal.2018.0001">10.1353/eal.2018.0001</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:166005186">166005186</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Early+American+Literature&rft.atitle=Such+a+Murmur%22%3A+Innovation%2C+Rebellion%2C+and+Sovereignty+in+William+Strachey%27s+%22True+Reportory&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-32&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Feal.2018.0001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A166005186%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mazzaferro&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Diss-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Diss_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFMazzaferro2017" class="citation thesis cs1">Mazzaferro, Alexander McLean (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rucore.libraries.rutgers.edu/rutgers-lib/55583/"><i>"No newe enterprize" (Doctoral dissertation)</i></a> (Thesis). Camden, New Jersey: Rutgers University. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7282%2FT38W3HFQ">10.7282/T38W3HFQ</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=%22No+newe+enterprize%22+%28Doctoral+dissertation%29&rft.inst=Rutgers+University&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7282%2FT38W3HFQ&rft.aulast=Mazzaferro&rft.aufirst=Alexander+McLean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frucore.libraries.rutgers.edu%2Frutgers-lib%2F55583%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Lepore-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lepore_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFLepore2014" class="citation magazine cs1">Lepore, Jill (23 June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/06/23/the-disruption-machine">"The Disruption Machine: What the gospel of innovation gets wrong"</a>. <i>The New Yorker</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2019</span>. <q>The word 'innovate'—to make new—used to have chiefly negative connotations: it signified excessive novelty, without purpose or end. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a> called the French Revolution a 'revolt of innovation'; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Federalists">Federalists</a> declared themselves to be 'enemies to innovation.' <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>, on his deathbed, was said to have uttered these words: 'Beware of innovation in politics.' Noah Webster warned in his dictionary, in 1828, 'It is often dangerous to innovate on the customs of a nation.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=The+Disruption+Machine%3A+What+the+gospel+of+innovation+gets+wrong&rft.date=2014-06-23&rft.aulast=Lepore&rft.aufirst=Jill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2014%2F06%2F23%2Fthe-disruption-machine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Green-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Green_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFGreen2013" class="citation news cs1">Green, Emma (20 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/06/innovation-the-history-of-a-buzzword/277067/">"Innovation: The History of a Buzzword"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Innovation%3A+The+History+of+a+Buzzword&rft.date=2013-06-20&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Emma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fbusiness%2Farchive%2F2013%2F06%2Finnovation-the-history-of-a-buzzword%2F277067%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-innovation" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=innovation">"innovation"</a></span>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=innovation&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foed.com%2Fsearch%3FsearchType%3Ddictionary%26q%3Dinnovation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:90%; color:#555">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFGodin,_Benoit2019" class="citation book cs1">Godin, Benoit (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1125747489"><i>The invention of technological innovation : languages, discourses and ideology in historical perspective</i></a>. Edward Elgar Publishing. Cheltenham, UK. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78990-334-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78990-334-8"><bdi>978-1-78990-334-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1125747489">1125747489</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+invention+of+technological+innovation+%3A+languages%2C+discourses+and+ideology+in+historical+perspective&rft.place=Cheltenham%2C+UK&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1125747489&rft.isbn=978-1-78990-334-8&rft.au=Godin%2C+Benoit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1125747489&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-capsocdem-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-capsocdem_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSchumpeter,_J._A.1943" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter, J. A.</a> (1943). <i>Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy</i> (6 ed.). Routledge. pp. 81–84. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10762-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10762-4"><bdi>978-0-415-10762-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capitalism%2C+Socialism%2C+and+Democracy&rft.pages=81-84&rft.edition=6&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1943&rft.isbn=978-0-415-10762-4&rft.au=Schumpeter%2C+J.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heyne, P., Boettke, P. J., and Prychitko, D. L. (2010). <i>The Economic Way of Thinking</i>. Prentice Hall, 12th ed. pp. 163, 317–18.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.netvalley.com/svhistory.html">"Silicon Valley History & Future"</a>. <i>Netvalley.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 March</span> 2016</span>. <q>[...] over the course of just 20 years, a mere eight of Shockley’s former employees gave forth 65 new enterprises, which then went on to do the same. The process is still going [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Netvalley.com&rft.atitle=Silicon+Valley+History+%26+Future&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.netvalley.com%2Fsvhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFRubinAasStead2015" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Rubin, Tzameret H.; Aas, Tor Helge; Stead, Andrew (1 July 2015). "Knowledge flow in Technological Business Incubators: Evidence from Australia and Israel". <i>Technovation</i>. 41–42: 11–24. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.technovation.2015.03.002">10.1016/j.technovation.2015.03.002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technovation&rft.atitle=Knowledge+flow+in+Technological+Business+Incubators%3A+Evidence+from+Australia+and+Israel&rft.volume=41%E2%80%9342&rft.pages=11-24&rft.date=2015-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.technovation.2015.03.002&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Tzameret+H.&rft.au=Aas%2C+Tor+Helge&rft.au=Stead%2C+Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHashim2018" class="citation book cs1">Hashim, Ahmed S. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_KBfDwAAQBAJ"><i>The Caliphate at War: The Ideological, Organisational and Military Innovations of Islamic State</i></a>. London: Oxford University Press. p. 7. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781849046435" title="Special:BookSources/9781849046435"><bdi>9781849046435</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2022</span>. <q>Though IS is not unique as an example of a violent nonstate actor, I argue that IS has innovated in the fields of ideology, organization, war-fighting, and strategies of state-formation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Caliphate+at+War%3A+The+Ideological%2C+Organisational+and+Military+Innovations+of+Islamic+State&rft.place=London&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781849046435&rft.aulast=Hashim&rft.aufirst=Ahmed+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_KBfDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span> </span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFScott_LigonDerrickHarms2017" class="citation book cs1">Scott Ligon, Gina; Derrick, Douglas C.; Harms, Mackenzie (15 November 2017). "Destruction Through Collaboration: How Terrorists Work Together Toward Malevolent Innovation". In Reiter-Palmon, Roni (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5cM9DwAAQBAJ"><i>Team Creativity and Innovation</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press (published 2017). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190695323" title="Special:BookSources/9780190695323"><bdi>9780190695323</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2022</span>. <q>As seen in recent advancements by the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), innovation from VEOs [violent extremist organisations] can also occur in recruiting/marketing campaigns and fundraising efforts.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Destruction+Through+Collaboration%3A+How+Terrorists+Work+Together+Toward+Malevolent+Innovation&rft.btitle=Team+Creativity+and+Innovation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017-11-15&rft.isbn=9780190695323&rft.aulast=Scott+Ligon&rft.aufirst=Gina&rft.au=Derrick%2C+Douglas+C.&rft.au=Harms%2C+Mackenzie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5cM9DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span> </span>
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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFUtterback1971" class="citation journal cs1">Utterback, James (1971). "The Process of Technological Innovation Within the Firm". <i>Academy of Management Journal</i>. <b>14</b> (1): 78 – via Jstor.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Academy+of+Management+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Process+of+Technological+Innovation+Within+the+Firm&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=78&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Utterback&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSalgeVera2009" class="citation journal cs1">Salge, T. O.; Vera, A. (2009). "Hospital innovativeness and organizational performance: Evidence from English public acute care". <i>Health Care Management Review</i>. <b>34</b> (1): 54–67. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F01.HMR.0000342978.84307.80">10.1097/01.HMR.0000342978.84307.80</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19104264">19104264</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Care+Management+Review&rft.atitle=Hospital+innovativeness+and+organizational+performance%3A+Evidence+from+English+public+acute+care&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=54-67&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F01.HMR.0000342978.84307.80&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19104264&rft.aulast=Salge&rft.aufirst=T.+O.&rft.au=Vera%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFWest2002" class="citation journal cs1">West, Michael A. (2002). "Sparkling Fountains or Stagnant Ponds: An Integrative Model of Creativity and Innovation Implementation in Work Groups". <i>Applied Psychology</i>. <b>51</b> (3): 355–387. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1464-0597.00951">10.1111/1464-0597.00951</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Psychology&rft.atitle=Sparkling+Fountains+or+Stagnant+Ponds%3A+An+Integrative+Model+of+Creativity+and+Innovation+Implementation+in+Work+Groups&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=355-387&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1464-0597.00951&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>MIT Sloan Management Review</i> Spring 2002. "How to identify and build New Businesses"</span>
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<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony, Scott D.; Johnson, Mark W.; Sinfield, Joseph V.; Altman, Elizabeth J. (2008). <i>Innovator's Guide to Growth</i>. "Putting Disruptive Innovation to Work". Harvard Business School Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59139-846-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59139-846-2">978-1-59139-846-2</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFH._Rubin2015" class="citation journal cs1">H. Rubin, Tzameret (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nimbusvault.net/publications/koala/inimpact/papers/inkt14-011.pdf">"The Achilles heel of a strong private knowledge sector: evidence from Israel"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Journal of Innovation Impact</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 80–99.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Innovation+Impact&rft.atitle=The+Achilles+heel+of+a+strong+private+knowledge+sector%3A+evidence+from+Israel&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=80-99&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=H.+Rubin&rft.aufirst=Tzameret&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnimbusvault.net%2Fpublications%2Fkoala%2Finimpact%2Fpapers%2Finkt14-011.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-MetroPolicy-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MetroPolicy_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MetroPolicy_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark, M., Katz, B., Rahman, S., and Warren, D. (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brookings.edu/research/metropolicy-shaping-a-new-federal-partnership-for-a-metropolitan-nation/"><i>MetroPolicy: Shaping A New Federal Partnership for a Metropolitan Nation</i></a>. Brookings Institution: Metropolitan Policy Program Report. pp. 4–103.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110905171421/http://www.mext.go.jp/english/a06.htm">"Science and Technology"</a>. MEXT. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mext.go.jp/english/a06.htm">the original</a> on 5 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Science+and+Technology&rft.pub=MEXT&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mext.go.jp%2Fenglish%2Fa06.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bmbf.de/en/Ministry.php">"BMBF " Ministry"</a>. Bmbf.de<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BMBF+%22+Ministry&rft.pub=Bmbf.de&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bmbf.de%2Fen%2FMinistry.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.landgate.wa.gov.au/innovation">"Home"</a>. <i>Landgate.wa.gov.au</i>. Landgate Innovation Program<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Landgate.wa.gov.au&rft.atitle=Home&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.landgate.wa.gov.au%2Finnovation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morisson, A. & Doussineau, M. (2019). Regional innovation governance and place-based policies: design, implementation and implications. Regional Studies, Regional Science,6(1),101–116. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://rsa.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21681376.2019.1578257">https://rsa.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21681376.2019.1578257</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFMorisson2018" class="citation journal cs1">Morisson, Arnault (2018). "Knowledge Gatekeepers and Path Development on the Knowledge Periphery: The Case of Ruta N in Medellin, Colombia". <i>Area Development and Policy</i>. <b>4</b>: 98–115. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F23792949.2018.1538702">10.1080/23792949.2018.1538702</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:169689111">169689111</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Area+Development+and+Policy&rft.atitle=Knowledge+Gatekeepers+and+Path+Development+on+the+Knowledge+Periphery%3A+The+Case+of+Ruta+N+in+Medellin%2C+Colombia&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=98-115&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F23792949.2018.1538702&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A169689111%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Morisson&rft.aufirst=Arnault&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Innovation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li>Bloom, Nicholas, Charles I. Jones, John Van Reenen, and Michael Webb. 2020. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20180338">Are Ideas Getting Harder to Find?</a>", <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Economic_Review" title="American Economic Review">American Economic Review</a></i>, 110 (4): 1104–44.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSteven_Johnson2011" class="citation book cs1">Steven Johnson (2011). <i>Where Good Ideas Come From</i>. Riverhead Books. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781594485381" title="Special:BookSources/9781594485381"><bdi>9781594485381</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Where+Good+Ideas+Come+From&rft.pub=Riverhead+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781594485381&rft.au=Steven+Johnson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSonenshein2017" class="citation book cs1">Sonenshein, Scott (2017). <i>Stretch: Unlock the Power of Less and Achieve More Than You Ever Imagined</i>. Harper Business. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0062457226" title="Special:BookSources/978-0062457226"><bdi>978-0062457226</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stretch%3A+Unlock+the+Power+of+Less+and+Achieve+More+Than+You+Ever+Imagined&rft.pub=Harper+Business&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0062457226&rft.aulast=Sonenshein&rft.aufirst=Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInnovation" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1061467846">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Inventions_and_discoveries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Inventions" title="Template:Inventions"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Inventions" title="Template talk:Inventions"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Inventions&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Inventions_and_discoveries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Inventions</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Discovery_(observation)" title="Discovery (observation)">discoveries</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Lists_of_inventions_or_discoveries" title="Category:Lists of inventions or discoveries">Lists of inventions or discoveries</a><br />by country/region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_Australian_inventions" title="Timeline of Australian inventions">Australia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Austrian inventions and discoveries">Austria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Azerbaijani_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Azerbaijani inventions and discoveries">Azerbaijan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Bangladeshi_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Bangladeshi inventions and discoveries">Bangladesh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Brazilian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Brazilian inventions and discoveries">Brazil</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_British_innovations_and_discoveries" title="List of British innovations and discoveries">Britain</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_English_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of English inventions and discoveries">England</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scottish_inventions_and_discoveries" title="Scottish inventions and discoveries">Scotland</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Canadian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Canadian inventions and discoveries">Canada</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">China</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">inventions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">discoveries</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Croatian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Croatian inventions and discoveries">Croatia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Egyptian inventions and discoveries">Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_French_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of French inventions and discoveries">France</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_German_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of German inventions and discoveries">Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Greek_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Greek inventions and discoveries">Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Indian inventions and discoveries">India</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Indonesian inventions and discoveries">Indonesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_Irish_inventions_and_discoveries" title="Timeline of Irish inventions and discoveries">Ireland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Israeli_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Israeli inventions and discoveries">Israel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Italian inventions and discoveries">Italy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Jamaican_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Jamaican inventions and discoveries">Jamaica</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Japanese inventions and discoveries">Japan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Korean_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Korean inventions and discoveries">Korea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Malaysian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Malaysian inventions and discoveries">Malaysia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Mexican_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Mexican inventions and discoveries">Mexico</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Dutch_inventions_and_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Dutch inventions and discoveries">Netherlands</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Dutch_inventions_and_innovations" title="List of Dutch inventions and innovations">Inventions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Dutch_discoveries" title="List of Dutch discoveries">discoveries</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Dutch_explorations" title="List of Dutch explorations">explorations</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Pakistani_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries">Pakistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Filipino_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Filipino inventions and discoveries">Philippines</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology" title="Timeline of Polish science and technology">Poland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Portuguese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Portuguese inventions and discoveries">Portugal</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portuguese_inventions" title="Portuguese inventions">inventions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portuguese_discoveries" title="Portuguese discoveries">discoveries</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Serbian inventions and discoveries">Serbia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_South_African_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of South African inventions and discoveries">South Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Spanish inventions and discoveries">Spain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Swiss inventions and discoveries">Switzerland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Taiwanese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Taiwanese inventions and discoveries">Taiwan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Thai_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Thai inventions and discoveries">Thailand</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Vietnamese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Vietnamese inventions and discoveries">Vietnam</a></li>
<li>United States
<ul><li>inventions
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(before_1890)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)">before 1890</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)">1890–1945</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1946%E2%80%931991)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (1946–1991)">1946–1991</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(after_1991)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (after 1991)">after 1991</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">discoveries</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">by topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">cosmology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries" title="List of multiple discoveries">multiple discoveries</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" title="Timeline of scientific discoveries">science</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Historic inventions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Analog-to-digital_timeline" title="Analog-to-digital timeline">Analog-to-digital</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_military_inventions" title="List of military inventions">Military</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_innovations_of_indigenous_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="List of inventions and innovations of indigenous Americans">Native American</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Inventors_by_nationality" title="Category:Inventors by nationality">Lists of inventors or discoverers</a><br />by country/region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_inventors" title="List of inventors">Worldwide</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_African_scientists,_inventors,_and_scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African scientists, inventors, and scholars">African</a></li>
<li>American
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">African-American</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors" title="List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors">Puerto Rican</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Armenian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Armenian inventors and discoverers">Armenian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Austrian inventors and discoverers">Austrian</a></li>
<li>British
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_English_inventors_and_designers" title="List of English inventors and designers">English</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors" title="List of Welsh inventors">Welsh</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Bulgarian inventors and discoverers">Bulgarian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of German inventors and discoverers">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventors" title="List of Italian inventors">Italian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_inventors" title="List of New Zealand inventors">New Zealand</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Polish inventors and discoverers">Polish</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Romanian inventors and discoverers">Romanian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Russian_inventors" title="List of Russian inventors">Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Serbian inventors and discoverers">Serbian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Spanish inventors and discoverers">Spanish</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors" title="List of Swedish inventors">Swedish</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Swiss inventors and discoverers">Swiss</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Science_and_technology_studies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Template:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Template talk:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Science_and_technology_studies&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Science_and_technology_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economics_of_science" title="Economics of science">Economics of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economics_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Economics of scientific knowledge">Economics of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">and technology</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li>
<li>Social
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">construction of technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology" title="Social shaping of technology">shaping of technology</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">Strong programme</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li>
<li>Science
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">wars</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Scientific
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_of_team_science" title="Science of team science">Team science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">STEM</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a><br />studies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Co-production_(society)" title="Co-production (society)">Co-production</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_adopter" title="Early adopter">Early adopter</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Innovation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/User_innovation" title="User innovation">user</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technical_change" title="Technical change">Technical change</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Technological
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">change</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">convergence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">transitions</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Technology
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">and society</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">criticism of</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">dynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">theories of</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">transfer</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">Engineering studies</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Women in engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Financial_technology" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">Academic freedom</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">Evidence-based policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Factor_10" title="Factor 10">Factor 10</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_science_policy" title="History of science policy">history of</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_of_science_policy" title="Science of science policy">science of</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Regulation_of_science" title="Regulation of science">Regulation of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Research_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Research ethics">Research ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Right_to_science_and_culture" title="Right to science and culture">Right to science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socio-scientific_issues" title="Socio-scientific issues">Socio-scientific issues</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technology_policy" title="Technology policy">Technology policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transition_management_(governance)" title="Transition management (governance)">Transition management</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="image" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> Portals
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Technology</a></li></ul></li>
<li><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Category:Science and technology studies">Category</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_associations" title="Category:Science and technology studies associations">Associations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_journals" title="Category:Science and technology studies journals">Journals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_scholars" title="Category:Science and technology studies scholars">Scholars</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_industries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Industries" title="Template:Industries"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Industries" title="Template talk:Industries"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Industries&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_industries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industry_(economics)" title="Industry (economics)">industries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Natural_sector" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Primary_sector_of_the_economy" title="Primary sector of the economy">Natural sector</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biotic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arable_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Arable farming">Arable farming</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cereal#Production" title="Cereal">Cereals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Legume#Uses" title="Legume">Legumes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vegetable_farming" title="Vegetable farming">Vegetables</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fiber_crop" title="Fiber crop">Fiber crops</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vegetable_oil" title="Vegetable oil">Oilseeds</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sugar_industry" title="Sugar industry">Sugar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tobacco_industry" title="Tobacco industry">Tobacco</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Permanent_crop" title="Permanent crop">Permanent crops</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pome" title="Pome">Apples et al.</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berry#Commercial_production" title="Berry">Berries</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Citrus_production" title="Citrus production">Citrus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Drupe" title="Drupe">Stone fruits</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_culinary_fruits#Tropical_and_tropical-like_fruit" title="List of culinary fruits">Tropical fruit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viticulture" title="Viticulture">Viticulture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cocoa_bean#Cultivation" title="Cocoa bean">Cocoa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Coffee industry">Coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tea#Production" title="Tea">Tea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nut_(fruit)#Production" title="Nut (fruit)">Nuts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">Olives</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medicinal_plants" title="Medicinal plants">Medicinal plants</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">Spices</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horticulture_industry" title="Horticulture industry">Horticulture</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Floral_industry" title="Floral industry">Flowers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seed_company" title="Seed company">Seeds</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">Animal husbandry</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beef_cattle" title="Beef cattle">Beef cattle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dairy_farming#Market" title="Dairy farming">Dairy farming</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fur_farming" title="Fur farming">Fur farming</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horse_industry" title="Horse industry">Horses</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">Other livestock</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pig_farming" title="Pig farming">Pig</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wool#Production" title="Wool">Wool</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poultry_farming" title="Poultry farming">Poultry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beekeeping" title="Beekeeping">Beekeeping</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cochineal#Farming" title="Cochineal">Cochineal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lac" title="Lac">Lac</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Silk#Production_process" title="Silk">Silk</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trapping" title="Trapping">Fur trapping</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">Silviculture</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bamboo_cultivation" title="Bamboo cultivation">Bamboo</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">Logging</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Firewood" title="Firewood">Firewood</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rattan#Economic_and_environmental_issues" title="Rattan">Rattan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tree_tapping&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tree tapping (page does not exist)">Tree tapping</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frankincense#Production" title="Frankincense">Frankincense</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gum_arabic#Production" title="Gum arabic">Gum arabic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gutta-percha#Uses" title="Gutta-percha">Gutta-percha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maple_syrup#Production" title="Maple syrup">Maple syrup</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mastic_(plant_resin)#Cultivation" title="Mastic (plant resin)">Mastic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_rubber#Production" title="Natural rubber">Natural rubber</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Palm_sugar" title="Palm sugar">Palm sugar</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Palm_syrup" title="Palm syrup">syrup</a>, & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Palm_wine" title="Palm wine">wine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naval_stores_industry" title="Naval stores industry">Pine resin</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mushroom_hunting" title="Mushroom hunting">Wild mushrooms</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fungiculture" title="Fungiculture">Fungiculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Truffle" title="Truffle">Truffles</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aquatic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fishing_industry" title="Fishing industry">Fishing</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anchovy#Fisheries" title="Anchovy">Anchovies</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herring#Fisheries" title="Herring">Herring</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sardine#Fisheries" title="Sardine">Sardines</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cod_fisheries" title="Cod fisheries">Cod</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Haddock#Fisheries" title="Haddock">Haddock</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alaska_pollock#Fisheries" title="Alaska pollock">Pollock</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mackerel#Fisheries" title="Mackerel">Mackerel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shark#Fishery" title="Shark">Shark</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swordfish#Fisheries" title="Swordfish">Swordfish</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tuna#Fishing_industry" title="Tuna">Tuna</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crab_fisheries" title="Crab fisheries">Crabs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lobster_fishing" title="Lobster fishing">Lobsters</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sea_urchin#As_food" title="Sea urchin">Sea urchins</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Squid#Commercial_fishing" title="Squid">Squid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Whaling" title="Whaling">Whaling</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">Aquaculture</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carp#Aquaculture" title="Carp">Carp</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aquaculture_of_catfish" title="Aquaculture of catfish">Catfish</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aquaculture_of_tilapia" title="Aquaculture of tilapia">Tilapia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abalone#Farming" title="Abalone">Abalone</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mussel#Aquaculture" title="Mussel">Mussels</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oyster_farming" title="Oyster farming">Oysters</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultured_pearl" title="Cultured pearl">Pearls</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_microalgae_in_hatcheries" title="Culture of microalgae in hatcheries">Microalgae</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seaweed_farming" title="Seaweed farming">Seaweed</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Both
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Clam_digging" title="Clam digging">Clams</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sea_cucumber_as_food" title="Sea cucumber as food">Sea cucumbers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scallop#Seafood_industry" title="Scallop">Scallops</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salmon" title="Salmon">Salmon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shrimp#Human_uses" title="Shrimp">Shrimp</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fossil_fuel_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuel industry">Fossil fuels</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coal_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal industry">Coal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oil_shale_industry" title="Oil shale industry">Oil shale</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petroleum_industry" title="Petroleum industry">Petroleum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oil_sands" title="Oil sands">Tar sands</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ores</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aluminium#Production_and_refinement" title="Aluminium">Aluminum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Copper#Production" title="Copper">Copper</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iron_ore#Production_and_consumption" title="Iron ore">Iron</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">Gold</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Silver_mining" title="Silver mining">Silver</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Palladium</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Platinum#Production" title="Platinum">Platinum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithium#Production" title="Lithium">Lithium</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rare-earth_element#Global_rare-earth_production" title="Rare-earth element">Rare-earth metals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">Uranium</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Other <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">Gemstones</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phosphorus#Production" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Potash#Production" title="Potash">Potash</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salt#Production" title="Salt">Salt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sulfur#Production" title="Sulfur">Sulfur</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gravel_pit" title="Gravel pit">Gravel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">Sand</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chalk_mining" title="Chalk mining">Chalk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Clay_pit" title="Clay pit">Clay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gypsum#Mining" title="Gypsum">Gypsum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Limestone#Uses" title="Limestone">Limestone</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dimension_stone#Production" title="Dimension stone">Dimension stone</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Granite#Industry" title="Granite">Granite</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marble#Production" title="Marble">Marble</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Industrial_sector" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Secondary_sector_of_the_economy" title="Secondary sector of the economy">Industrial sector</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Light_industry" title="Light industry">Light industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_industry" title="Food industry">Food</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feed_manufacturing" title="Feed manufacturing">Animal feed</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baking#Commercial_baking" title="Baking">Baking</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canning" title="Canning">Canning</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dairy_product" title="Dairy product">Dairy products</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">Flour</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meat_industry" title="Meat industry">Meat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Convenience_food" title="Convenience food">Prepared</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_preservation" title="Food preservation">Preserved</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Candy_making" title="Candy making">Sweets</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vegetable_oil#Production" title="Vegetable oil">Vegetable oils</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Drink_industry" title="Drink industry">Beverages</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brewing_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Brewing industry">Beer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bottled_water" title="Bottled water">Bottled water</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liquor" title="Liquor">Liquor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soft_drink" title="Soft drink">Soft drinks</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">Wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Textile_industry" title="Textile industry">Textiles</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carding" title="Carding">Carding</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dyeing" title="Dyeing">Dyeing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Textile_printing" title="Textile printing">Prints</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)" title="Spinning (textiles)">Spinning</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">Weaving</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carpet" title="Carpet">Carpets</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lace" title="Lace">Lace</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Linens" title="Linens">Linens</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Clothing_industry" title="Clothing industry">Clothing</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fashion_accessory" title="Fashion accessory">Accessories</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dressmaker" title="Dressmaker">Dressmaking</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fur_clothing" title="Fur clothing">Furs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hatmaking" title="Hatmaking">Hatmaking</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sewing" title="Sewing">Sewing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shoemaking" title="Shoemaking">Shoemaking</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tailor" title="Tailor">Tailoring</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">Printing</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bookbinding" title="Bookbinding">Bookbinding</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paper_embossing" title="Paper embossing">Embossing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Engraving" title="Engraving">Engraving</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Security_printing" title="Security printing">Secure</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Typesetting" title="Typesetting">Typesetting</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Media reproduction
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cassette_tape" title="Cassette tape">Cassette tapes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Production_of_phonograph_records" title="Production of phonograph records">Phonographs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Compact_Disc_manufacturing" title="Compact Disc manufacturing">Optical discs</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Metal_fabrication" title="Metal fabrication">Metal fabrication</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boilermaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Boilermaking">Boilermaking</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Builders_hardware" title="Builders hardware">Builders'</a> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Household_hardware" title="Household hardware">household hardware</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cutlery" title="Cutlery">Cutlery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gunsmith" title="Gunsmith">Gunsmithing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Locksmithing" title="Locksmithing">Locksmithing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Machine_shop" title="Machine shop">Machining</a></li>
<li>Other <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Metalsmith" title="Metalsmith">smithing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Powder_metallurgy" title="Powder metallurgy">Powder metallurgy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prefabrication" title="Prefabrication">Prefabrication</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Surface_finishing" title="Surface finishing">Surface finishing</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Other fabrication
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D printing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blow_molding" title="Blow molding">Blow molding</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Drawing_(manufacturing)" title="Drawing (manufacturing)">Drawing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extrusion" title="Extrusion">Extrusion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glassblowing" title="Glassblowing">Glassblowing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Injection_moulding" title="Injection moulding">Injection moulding</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sintering" title="Sintering">Sintering</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stonemasonry" title="Stonemasonry">Stonemasonry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Woodworking" title="Woodworking">Woodworking</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Furniture" title="Furniture">Furniture</a></li>
<li>Other goods
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baggage" title="Baggage">Baggage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bicycle_industry" title="Bicycle industry">Bicycles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jewellery" title="Jewellery">Jewellery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medical_device" title="Medical device">Medical supplies</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">Musical instruments</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Office_supplies" title="Office supplies">Office supplies</a></li>
<li>Outdoors & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sports_equipment" title="Sports equipment">sports equipment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">Personal protective equipment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Toy#Economics" title="Toy">Toys</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electrical <br /> & optical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electronics_industry" title="Electronics industry">Electronics</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">Components</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Printed_circuit_board#Manufacturing" title="Printed circuit board">Circuit boards</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semiconductor_industry" title="Semiconductor industry">Semiconductors</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Computer_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer industry">Computers</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_computer_system_manufacturers" title="List of computer system manufacturers">Computer systems</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_computer_hardware_manufacturers" title="List of computer hardware manufacturers">Parts & peripherals</a></li>
<li>Blank <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Computer_data_storage#Storage_media" title="Computer data storage">storage media</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Communications equipment</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mobile_phone#Sales" title="Mobile phone">Mobile phones</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Network_equipment_provider" title="Network equipment provider">Network infrastructure</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Consumer_electronics#Products" title="Consumer electronics">Consumer electronics</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Television_set#Major_manufacturers" title="Television set">Televisions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Video_game_console#Market" title="Video game console">Video game consoles</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Instrumentation" title="Instrumentation">Instrumentation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Clockmaker" title="Clockmaker">Clocks</a> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Watchmaker" title="Watchmaker">watches</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satellite_navigation_device#Consumer_applications" title="Satellite navigation device">GPS devices</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_instrument#List_of_scientific_instruments_manufacturers" title="Scientific instrument">Scientific instruments</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medical_imaging#Industry" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging systems</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Optical_instrument" title="Optical instrument">Optical instruments</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">Cameras</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Telescopic_sight" title="Telescopic sight">Gun</a> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spotting_scope" title="Spotting scope">spotting scopes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laser_construction" title="Laser construction">Laser construction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Optical_manufacturing_and_testing" title="Optical manufacturing and testing">Lens grinding</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">Microscopes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">Telescopes</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electrical_device" title="Electrical device">Electrical equipment</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Batteries</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electrical_cable" title="Electrical cable">Electrical</a> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">fiber optic</a> cables</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electric_light" title="Electric light">Electric lighting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">Electric motors</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Home_appliance" title="Home appliance">Home appliances</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformers</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">Chemicals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Coal & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refining</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">Coke</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">Diesel fuel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">Fuel oil</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">Gasoline</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">Jet fuel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">Kerosene</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">Propane</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mineral_oil" title="Mineral oil">Mineral oil</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paraffin_wax" title="Paraffin wax">Paraffin wax</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">Petrochemicals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petroleum_jelly" title="Petroleum jelly">Petroleum jelly</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Synthetic_oil" title="Synthetic oil">Synthetic oil</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asphalt" title="Asphalt">Asphalt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tar" title="Tar">Tar</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commodity_chemicals" title="Commodity chemicals">Commodity chemicals</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fertilizer#Production" title="Fertilizer">Fertilizers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrial_gas" title="Industrial gas">Industrial gases</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">Pigments</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pure_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure element">Pure elements</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Speciality_chemicals" title="Speciality chemicals">Speciality chemicals</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adhesive" title="Adhesive">Adhesives</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agrochemical" title="Agrochemical">Agrochemicals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aroma_compound" title="Aroma compound">Aroma compounds</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cleaning_agent" title="Cleaning agent">Cleaning products</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cosmetics" title="Cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Explosive" title="Explosive">Explosives</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fireworks" title="Fireworks">Fireworks</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paints</a> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">inks</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Perfume" title="Perfume">Perfumes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">Soap</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Toiletries" class="mw-redirect" title="Toiletries">Toiletries</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fine_chemical" title="Fine chemical">Fine chemicals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">Pharmaceuticals</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Production_of_antibiotics" title="Production of antibiotics">Antibiotics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blood_product" title="Blood product">Blood products</a></li>
<li>Chemical & hormonal <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">contraceptives</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Generic_drug" title="Generic drug">Generic drugs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade" title="Illegal drug trade">Illegal drugs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">Supplements</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">Vaccines</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leather" title="Leather">Leather</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liming_(leather_processing)" title="Liming (leather processing)">Liming</a> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deliming" title="Deliming">deliming</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tanning_(leather)" title="Tanning (leather)">Tanning</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Currier" title="Currier">Currying</a> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oiling_(leather_processing)" title="Oiling (leather processing)">oiling</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wood_industry" title="Wood industry">Wood</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wood_drying" title="Wood drying">Drying</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">Sawmilling</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Engineered_wood" title="Engineered wood">Engineered</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">Lumber</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wood-plastic_composite" title="Wood-plastic composite">Composite</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry" title="Pulp and paper industry">Paper</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sizing#Papermaking" title="Sizing">Sizing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cardboard" title="Cardboard">Cardboard</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pulp_(paper)" title="Pulp (paper)">Pulp</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tissue_paper" title="Tissue paper">Tissue</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Synthetic_rubber" title="Synthetic rubber">Rubber</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tire_manufacturing" title="Tire manufacturing">Tires</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vulcanization" title="Vulcanization">Vulcanized rubber</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plastics_industry" title="Plastics industry">Plastics</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commodity_plastics" title="Commodity plastics">Commodity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Engineering_plastic" title="Engineering plastic">Engineered</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/High-performance_plastics" title="High-performance plastics">Specialty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pelletizing" title="Pelletizing">Pellets</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Synthetic_fiber" title="Synthetic fiber">Synthetic fibers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">Thermoplastics</a> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thermosetting_polymer" title="Thermosetting polymer">thermosets</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glass_production" title="Glass production">Glass</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">Borosilicate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fused_quartz" title="Fused quartz">Fused quartz</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass" title="Soda–lime glass">Soda-lime</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Float_glass" title="Float glass">Float glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glass_fiber" title="Glass fiber">Glass fiber</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glass_wool" title="Glass wool">Glass wool</a> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fiberglass" title="Fiberglass">fiberglass</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Safety_glass" title="Safety glass">Safety glass</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">Ceramics</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brickworks" title="Brickworks">Brick</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Earthenware" title="Earthenware">Earthenware</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Porcelain#Other_uses" title="Porcelain">Porcelain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Refractory" title="Refractory">Refractory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tile" title="Tile">Tile</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cement_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cement industry">Cement</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">Mortar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plaster" title="Plaster">Plaster</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ready-mix_concrete" title="Ready-mix concrete">Ready-mix concrete</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Other mineral
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abrasive" title="Abrasive">Abrasives</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_fibers" title="Carbon fibers">Carbon fibers</a> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allotropes_of_carbon" title="Allotropes of carbon">advanced materials</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mineral_wool" title="Mineral wool">Mineral wool</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Synthetic_gem" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic gem">Synthetic gems</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">Metal refining</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ironworks" title="Ironworks">Iron</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aluminium_smelting" title="Aluminium smelting">Aluminum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Copper_extraction" title="Copper extraction">Copper</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">Alloys</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">Steel</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forming_(metalworking)" title="Forming (metalworking)">Formed metal</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rolling_(metalworking)" title="Rolling (metalworking)">Rolled</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forging" title="Forging">Forged</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foundry" title="Foundry">Cast metal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heavy_industry" title="Heavy industry">Heavy industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Machine_industry" title="Machine industry">Machinery</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conveyor_system" title="Conveyor system">Conveyors</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heavy_equipment" title="Heavy equipment">Heavy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hydraulic_machinery" title="Hydraulic machinery">Hydraulic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Machine_tool_builder" title="Machine tool builder">Machine tools</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turbo_generator" title="Turbo generator">Power</a> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">wind turbines</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Automotive_industry" title="Automotive industry">Automobiles</a></li>
<li>Other heavy <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vehicle" title="Vehicle">vehicles</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aerospace_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerospace industry">Aerospace</a> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Space_industry" title="Space industry">space</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rolling_stock" title="Rolling stock">Rail vehicles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Ships</a> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oil_platform" title="Oil platform">offshore platforms</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">Weapons</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Public_utility" title="Public utility">Utilities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Power
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electric_power_industry" title="Electric power industry">Electric</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_gas#Domestic_use" title="Natural gas">Gas distribution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_industry" title="Water industry">Water</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">Sewage</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Waste_management_industry" title="Waste management industry">Waste management</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Waste_collection" title="Waste collection">Collection</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Dumping</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_remediation" title="Environmental remediation">Remediation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Telecommunications_industry" title="Telecommunications industry">Telecom networks</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mobile_phone_operator" title="Mobile phone operator">Mobile</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Telephone_company" title="Telephone company">Telephone</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Building" title="Building">Buildings</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commercial_property" title="Commercial property">Commercial</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrial_architecture" title="Industrial architecture">Industrial</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Home_construction" title="Home construction">Residential</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bridge_building" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridge building">Bridges</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Railway_track" title="Railway track">Railways</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roadbuilding" class="mw-redirect" title="Roadbuilding">Roads</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tunnel#Construction" title="Tunnel">Tunnels</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canal#Construction" title="Canal">Canals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dams</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dredging#Major_dredging_companies" title="Dredging">Dredging</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harbor" title="Harbor">Harbors</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Specialty trades
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cabinetry" title="Cabinetry">Cabinetry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demolition" title="Demolition">Demolition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electrical_wiring" title="Electrical wiring">Electrical wiring</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elevator_mechanic" title="Elevator mechanic">Elevators</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heating,_ventilation,_and_air_conditioning#HVAC_industry_and_standards" title="Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning">HVAC</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/House_painter_and_decorator" title="House painter and decorator">Painting and decorating</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plumbing" title="Plumbing">Plumbing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">Site preparation</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Service_sector" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy" title="Tertiary sector of the economy">Service sector</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sales" title="Sales">Sales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Retail" title="Retail">Retail</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Car_dealership" title="Car dealership">Car dealership</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fast-moving_consumer_goods" title="Fast-moving consumer goods">Consumer goods</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_store" title="General store">General store</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grocery_store" title="Grocery store">Grocery store</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Department_store" title="Department store">Department store</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mail_order" title="Mail order">Mail order</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Online_shopping" title="Online shopping">Online shopping</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Specialty_store" title="Specialty store">Specialty store</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wholesaling" title="Wholesaling">Wholesale</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Auction" title="Auction">Auction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Broker" title="Broker">Brokerage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Distribution_(marketing)" title="Distribution (marketing)">Distribution</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">Transport</a> <br /> & Storage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cargo" title="Cargo">Cargo</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Air_cargo" title="Air cargo">Air cargo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intermodal_freight_transport" title="Intermodal freight transport">Intermodal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mail" title="Mail">Mail</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moving_company" title="Moving company">Moving company</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rail_freight_transport" title="Rail freight transport">Rail</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trucking" class="mw-redirect" title="Trucking">Trucking</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Passenger_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Passenger transport">Passenger transport</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Airline" title="Airline">Airlines</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Car_rental" title="Car rental">Car rentals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Passenger_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Passenger rail">Passenger rail</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ridesharing_company" title="Ridesharing company">Ridesharing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taxi" title="Taxi">Taxis</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warehouse" title="Warehouse">Warehousing</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Self_storage" title="Self storage">Self storage</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hospitality_industry" title="Hospitality industry">Hospitality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foodservice" title="Foodservice">Foodservice</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Drinking_establishment" title="Drinking establishment">Drink service</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffeehouse" title="Coffeehouse">Cafés</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catering" title="Catering">Catering</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fast_food" title="Fast food">Fast food</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_delivery" title="Food delivery">Food delivery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Restaurant" title="Restaurant">Restaurants</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Teahouse" title="Teahouse">Teahouses</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hotel" title="Hotel">Hotels</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asset_management" title="Asset management">Asset management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Financial_services" title="Financial services">Financial services</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bank" title="Bank">Banking</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Credit" title="Credit">Credit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Financial_adviser" title="Financial adviser">Financial advice</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holding_company" title="Holding company">Holding company</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electronic_funds_transfer" title="Electronic funds transfer">Money transfer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Payment_card_industry" title="Payment card industry">Payment cards</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk management</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Security_(finance)" title="Security (finance)">Securities</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Insurance" title="Insurance">Insurance</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Health_insurance" title="Health insurance">Health</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Life_insurance" title="Life insurance">Life</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pension_fund" title="Pension fund">Pension funding</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Property_insurance" title="Property insurance">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reinsurance" title="Reinsurance">Reinsurance</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Real_estate_economics" title="Real estate economics">Real estate</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Real_estate_agent" title="Real estate agent">Brokerage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Property_management" title="Property management">Property management</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Professional_services" title="Professional services">Professional</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Accounting_network" title="Accounting network">Accounting</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assurance_services" title="Assurance services">Assurance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Audit" title="Audit">Audit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bookkeeping" title="Bookkeeping">Bookkeeping</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tax_advisor" title="Tax advisor">Tax advice</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Architectural_firm" title="Architectural firm">Architecture</a> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inspection" title="Inspection">Inspection</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Physical_test" title="Physical test">Physical</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Product_testing" title="Product testing">product</a>, & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/System_testing" title="System testing">system testing</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Design" title="Design">Design</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fashion_design" title="Fashion design">Fashion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Interior_design" title="Interior design">Interior</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrial_design" title="Industrial design">Product</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Legal services</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Consulting_firm" title="Consulting firm">Consulting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">Marketing</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Advertising_industry" title="Advertising industry">Advertising</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Healthcare_industry" title="Healthcare industry">Healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Medicine
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dentist_office" class="mw-redirect" title="Dentist office">Dentist offices</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospitals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nursing" title="Nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Residential_care" title="Residential care">Residential care</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Entertainment#Industry" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a><br /> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leisure_industry" title="Leisure industry">leisure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Casino" title="Casino">Gambling</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Online_gambling" title="Online gambling">Online</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sport_industry" title="Sport industry">Sport</a></li>
<li>Venues
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amusement_arcade" title="Amusement arcade">Arcades</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amusement_park" title="Amusement park">Amusement parks</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fair" title="Fair">Fairgrounds</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nightclub" title="Nightclub">Nightclubs</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Administrative
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Customer_service" title="Customer service">Customer service</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lease" title="Lease">Leasing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renting" title="Renting">Renting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Employment_agency" title="Employment agency">Staffing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Private_investigator" title="Private investigator">Private investigation</a> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Security_company" title="Security company">security</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Maintenance
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Janitor" title="Janitor">Janitors</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Landscape_maintenance" title="Landscape maintenance">Landscaping</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maintenance_(technical)" title="Maintenance (technical)">Repairs</a></li>
<li>Personal services
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beauty_salon" title="Beauty salon">Beauty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dry_cleaning" title="Dry cleaning">Dry cleaning</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Funeral_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Funeral industry">Funeral</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maid_service" title="Maid service">Maid service</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pet_industry" title="Pet industry">Pet care</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sex_industry" title="Sex industry">Sex</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_industry" title="Poverty industry">Poverty</a></li>
<li>Travel
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Business_travel" title="Business travel">Business travel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cruise_line" title="Cruise line">Cruise lines</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">Tourism</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Information_sector" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quaternary_sector_of_the_economy" title="Quaternary sector of the economy">Information sector</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">Publishing</a> <br /> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Written
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Book" title="Book">Books</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Periodical_literature" title="Periodical literature">Periodicals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Software_industry" title="Software industry">Software</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Audio-visual
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Film_industry" title="Film industry">Film</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Music_industry" title="Music industry">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Video_game_industry" title="Video game industry">Video games</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/News_agency" title="News agency">News</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radio_industry" title="Radio industry">Radio</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Television#Content" title="Television">Television</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Web_hosting_service" title="Web hosting service">Hosting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_networking_service" title="Social networking service">Social networks</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">Streaming</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Website" title="Website">Websites</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">Primary</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">Secondary</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tertiary_education" title="Tertiary education">Tertiary</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vocational_school" title="Vocational school">Vocational school</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/University" title="University">University</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">Testing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tutoring" title="Tutoring">Tutoring</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Creative_industries" title="Creative industries">Creative</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Language_industry" title="Language industry">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">Research and development</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Basic research</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industry_classification" title="Industry classification">Classification <br /> standards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Production-based
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Australian_and_New_Zealand_Standard_Industrial_Classification" title="Australian and New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification">ANZSIC</a></li>
<li><i><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Standard_Industrial_Classification" title="International Standard Industrial Classification">ISIC</a></b></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statistical_Classification_of_Economic_Activities_in_the_European_Community" title="Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community">NACE</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_American_Industry_Classification_System" title="North American Industry Classification System">NAICS</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Standard_Industrial_Classification" title="Standard Industrial Classification">SIC</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Kingdom_Standard_Industrial_Classification_of_Economic_Activities" title="United Kingdom Standard Industrial Classification of Economic Activities">UKSIC</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Market-based
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_Industry_Classification_Standard" title="Global Industry Classification Standard">GICS</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industry_Classification_Benchmark" title="Industry Classification Benchmark">ICB</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Refinitiv_Business_Classification" title="The Refinitiv Business Classification">TRBC</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Factors_of_production" title="Factors of production">Inputs</a> <br /> & <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Output_(economics)" title="Output (economics)">outputs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externalities</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Community" title="Community">Community</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">Well-being</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Funding" title="Funding">Funding</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Goods" title="Goods">Goods</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodities</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Final_good" title="Final good">Final</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intermediate_good" title="Intermediate good">Intermediate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Raw_material" title="Raw material">Raw material</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Innovation</a></li>
<li>Primary inputs
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Work_(human_activity)" title="Work (human activity)">Labor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Physical_capital" title="Physical capital">Physical capital</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">Services</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">Organization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Centralization" class="mw-redirect" title="Centralization">Centralization</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cartel" title="Cartel">Cartel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conglomerate_(company)" title="Conglomerate (company)">Conglomerate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horizontal_integration" title="Horizontal integration">Horizontal integration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions" title="Mergers and acquisitions">Mergers and acquisitions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monopsony" title="Monopsony">Monopsony</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vertical_integration" title="Vertical integration">Vertical integration</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Enforced breakup</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Freelancer" title="Freelancer">Freelancing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Homesteading" title="Homesteading">Homesteading</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outsourcing" title="Outsourcing">Outsourcing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Putting-out_system" title="Putting-out system">Putting-out system</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corporate_spin-off" title="Corporate spin-off">Spinning-off</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Temporary_work" title="Temporary work">Temporary work</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joint-stock_company" title="Joint-stock company">Joint-stock company</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nonprofit_organization" title="Nonprofit organization">Nonprofit organization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partnership" title="Partnership">Partnership</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sole_proprietorship" title="Sole proprietorship">Sole proprietorship</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">State-owned enterprise</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist hlist-separated">
<ul><li><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Industry_(economics)" title="Category:Industry (economics)"><b>Category</b></a></li>
<li><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Commons page" width="12" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Industries" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Industries"><b>Commons</b></a></li>
<li><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Outline" width="10" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outline_of_industry" title="Outline of industry"><b>Outline</b></a></li></ul>
</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control:_National_libraries_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q174165#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th id="Authority_control:_National_libraries_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q174165#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control: National libraries</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q174165#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" style="vertical-align: text-top" class="noprint" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=12321">Ukraine</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4027089-0">Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562508">Japan</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | 1651785550 |
