Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{short description|Indigenous people originally from Lenapehoking, now the Mid-Atlantic United States}}
{{hatnote|"Delaware Indians" and "Delaware people" redirect here. For other Native American peoples from present-day Delaware, see [[:Category:Native American tribes in Delaware]]. For individual people from the state of Delaware, see [[List of people from Delaware]]. For other uses, see [[Lenape (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2011}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = Lenape<br />Delaware people
|native_name= Lënapeyok
|image = [[Image:Lenape Languages.png|250px]]
|caption = [[Lenapehoking]], the original Lenape territory.<ref name="n10"/> Munsee speakers in the north, Unalachtigo-speakers in the center, and Unami-speakers in the south.<ref>Fariello, Leonardo A. [http://www.whippanong.org/hanover.html "A Place Called Whippany"], ''Whippanong Library,'' 2000 (retrieved 19 July 2011)</ref><ref>Kraft, ''The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage,''{{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref> West/left side geographic limits correspond closely to ridgelines ([[drainage divide]]s) between the Susquehanna and Delaware river valleys.
|population = {{circa}} 16,000
| total_ref = <ref name=p422>Pritzker 422</ref>
|region1 = [[United States]] ([[Oklahoma]])
|pop1 = 11,195 (2010)
|ref1 = <ref>[http://www.ok.gov/oiac/Publications/ "Pocket Pictorial."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406044653/http://www.ok.gov/oiac/Publications/|date=2010-04-06}} ''Oklahoma Indian Affairs Commission.'' 2010: 13. Retrieved 10 June 2010.</ref>
|region2 = [[United States]] ([[Wisconsin]])
|pop2 = 1,565
|ref2 =
|region3 = [[Canada]] ([[Ontario]])
|pop3 = 2,300
|ref3 =
|languages = English, [[Munsee language|Munsee]], and formerly [[Unami language|Unami]]<ref name=p422/>
|religions = [[Christianity]], [[Native American Church]],<br />traditional tribal religion
|related = Other [[Algonquian peoples]]
|footnotes =
}}
[[File:Lenape01.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Jennie Bobb and her daughter, Nellie Longhat (both Delaware), Oklahoma, 1915<ref>[http://www.allaboutshoes.ca/en/paths_across/art_on_prairies/index_4.php "Art on the Prairies: Delaware"], ''All About the Shoes.'' Retrieved 19 July 2011.</ref>]]
The '''Lenape''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|l|ə|ˈ|n|ɑː|p|i}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɛ|n|ə|p|i}}, or Lenape {{IPA-all|ləˈnɑːpe}},<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of Lenape|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Lenape|website=Merriam Webster|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813041752/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Lenape|archive-date=August 13, 2019|access-date=July 6, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.talk-lenape.org/detail?id=3882 | title=The Lenape Talking Dictionary | Detailed Entry View - Delaware Indian; Lenape }}</ref> {{lang-del|'''Lënapeyok'''}}<ref>Online Lenape Talking Dictionary, "Delaware Indians", [https://www.talk-lenape.org/detail?id=3901 Link]</ref>) also called the '''Leni Lenape''',<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/amerbegin/power/text6/PennIndians.pdf|title=William Penn on the Leni Lenape (Delaware)|publisher=National Humanities Center|year=2006|pages=1–3}}</ref> '''Lenni Lenape''' and '''Delaware''' people,<ref name="AmHeritageBk">{{cite book|last=William|first=Brandon|url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage00bran|title=The American Heritage Book of Indians|publisher=American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc.|year=1961|editor=Alvin M.|editor-first=Josephy, Jr.|pages=[https://archive.org/details/americanheritage00bran/page/180 180–211]|lccn=61-14871|url-access=registration}}</ref> are an [[indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands]], who live in the United States and Canada.<ref name=p422/> Their historical territory included present-day northeastern [[Delaware]], [[New Jersey]] and eastern [[Pennsylvania]] along the [[Delaware River]] watershed, [[History of New York City (prehistory–1664)|New York City]], western [[Long Island]], and the lower [[Hudson Valley]].<ref name="description" group="notes" /> Today, Lenape people belong to the [[Delaware Nation]] and [[Delaware Tribe of Indians]] in [[Oklahoma]]; the [[Stockbridge–Munsee Community]] in [[Wisconsin]]; and the [[Munsee-Delaware Nation]], [[Delaware Nation at Moraviantown|Moravian of the Thames First Nation]], and [[Six Nations of the Grand River|Delaware of Six Nations]] in [[Ontario]].
The Lenape have a [[matrilineality|matrilineal]] clan system and historically were [[matrilocal residence|matrilocal]].
During the last decades of the 18th century, most Lenape were [[Indian removal|removed from their homeland]] by expanding European colonies.<ref name=josephy/> The divisions and troubles of the [[American Revolutionary War]] and United States' independence pushed them farther west. In the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the [[eastern United States]] to the [[Indian Territory]] (present-day Oklahoma and surrounding territory) under the [[Indian removal]] policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in [[Oklahoma]], with some other communities in [[Wisconsin]] and [[Ontario]].
==Name==
The name ''Lenni Lenape'', also ''Leni Lenape'' and ''Lenni Lenapi'', comes from their autonym, ''{{Lang|del|Lenni}}'', which may mean "genuine, pure, real, original", and ''{{Lang|one|Lenape}}'', meaning "real person" or "original person"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/Lenape#etymonline_v_6680 "Online Etymology Dictionary."] Retrieved 10 Oct 2019.</ref> ([[cf.]] [[Anishinaabe]], in which ''{{Lang|del|-naabe}}'', cognate with ''{{Lang|del|Lenape}}'', means "man" or "male" {{Citation needed|reason=seems to contradict the etymology of Lenape on Online Etymology Dictionary|date=October 2019}}). Alternately, ''{{Lang|del|lënu}}'' may be translated as "man".<ref name=talking>[http://www.talk-lenape.org/search.php?q=man&ls=english&x=0&y=0 "Lenape Talking Dictionary."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203010003/http://www.talk-lenape.org/search.php?q=man&ls=english&x=0&y=0 |date=2013-12-03 }} ''[[Delaware Tribe of Indians]].'' Retrieved 2 Dec 2013.</ref>
The Lenape, when first encountered by Europeans, were a loose association of related peoples who spoke similar languages and shared familial bonds in an area known as [[Lenapehoking]],<ref name=n10>Newman 10</ref> the Lenape traditional territory, which spanned what is now eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Lower New York, and eastern Delaware.
The tribe's common name ''Delaware'' is not of Native American origin. English colonists named the [[Delaware River]] for the first governor of the [[Province of Virginia]], [[Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr]], whose title was ultimately derived from [[French language|French]]. (For etymology of the surname, see [[Earl De La Warr#Etymology|Earl De La Warr§Etymology]].) The English colonists then began to call the Lenape the "Delaware Indians" because of where they lived. Swedish colonists also settled in the area, and Swedish-language sources listed the Lenape as the ''Renappi''.<ref>Goddard 235</ref>
==Territory==
{{Main|Lenapehoking}}
[[File:Lenapehoking.png|thumb|upright|Traditional Confederations of Lenape lands, the [[Lenapehoking]], not showing any of the several divisions governed by matriarchies]]
Traditional Lenape lands, the [[Lenapehoking]], was a large territory that encompassed the [[Delaware Valley]] of eastern Pennsylvania and [[New Jersey]] from the north bank of the [[Lehigh River]] along the west bank of the Delaware then south into [[Delaware]] and the [[Delaware Bay]]. Their lands also extended west from western [[Long Island]] and [[New York Bay]], across the [[Lower Hudson Valley]] in New York into the lower [[Catskills]] and a sliver of the upper edge of the [[North Branch Susquehanna River]]. On the west side, the Lenape lived in numerous small towns along the rivers and streams that fed the waterways, and likely shared the hunting territory of the [[Schuylkill River]] [[Drainage basin|watershed]] with the rival [[Iroquoian Peoples|Iroquoian]] [[Susquehannock]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
==Languages==
The [[Unami language|Unami]] and [[Munsee language]]s belong to the Eastern [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian language group]] and are largely [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]]. Although the Unami and Munsee speakers people are related, they consider themselves as distinct, as they used different words and lived on opposite sides of the [[Kittatinny Mountain|Kitatinny Mountains]] of modern New Jersey.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}}{{original research inline|date=February 2018}} The German and English-speaking Moravian missionary [[John Heckewelder]] wrote: <blockquote>"The {{Not a typo|Monsey}} {{Sic|tong}} is quite different even though {{Bracket|it and Unami}} came out of one parent language."<ref>Heckewelder ''The History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and Neighboring States'', 52</ref></blockquote> Today, most who continue to speak the language are tribal elders, although some young Lenape youth and adults learn their language.
[[William Penn]], who first met the Lenape in 1682, stated that the Unami used the following words: "mother" was ''{{Lang|unm|anna}}'', "brother" was ''{{Lang|unm|isseemus}}'', "friend" was ''{{Lang|unm|netap}}''. Penn instructed his fellow English colonists: "If one asks them for anything they have not, they will answer, ''{{Lang|unm|mattá ne hattá}}'', which to translate is, 'not I have,' instead of 'I have not'."<ref>Myers, ''William Penn's Own Account of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians'', 23–24</ref>
The Lenape language used to be exclusively a spoken language. However, in 2002, the Lenape Nation received grant money to fund The Lenape Talking Dictionary, preserving and digitizing the Southern Unami dialect. This language is currently recognized by both the Oklahoma Lenape and the Delaware Valley Lenape.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021|title=About Us|url=https://www.talk-lenape.org/about-us|url-status=live|access-date=25 October 2021|website=LENAPE TALKING DICTIONARY By English WORD or PHRASE}}</ref>
The nation, led by Professor Shelly DePaul of [[Swarthmore College]], is researching and revamping the Lenape language for future generations to more easily learn. Depaul collaborated with elders and transcribed decades worth of documents to teach a Lenape class at Swathmore College starting in 2009.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harrison|first=David|title=The Last Speakers: The Quest to Save the World's Most Endangered Languages|publisher=National Geographic|year=2010|isbn=978-1426204616|pages=256–260}}</ref> Research shows that voluntary, locally based language practice and learning is key to restoring and maintaining a fading language.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hornberger|first1=Nancy|last2=De Korne|first2=Haley|title=Ways of Talking (and Acting) About Language Reclamation: An Ethnographic Perspective on Learning Lenape in Pennsylvania|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15348458.2016.1113135?scroll=top&needAccess=true|journal=Journal of Language, Identity & Education|year=2016|volume=15|pages=44–58|doi=10.1080/15348458.2016.1113135|s2cid=146277852}}</ref> There is some disagreement within the Lenape Nation on whether the language should be taught as adapted to the times or taught as historically accurate. DePaul's approach is focused on a "living language" philosophy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoffmann|first=Maureen|date=May 2009|title=Endangered Languages, Linguistics, and Culture: Researching and Reviving the Unami Language of the Lenape|url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.499.8475&rep=rep1&type=pdf|url-status=live|access-date=2021-11-14|website=citeseerx.ist.psu.edu|citeseerx=10.1.1.499.8475}}</ref>
==Society==
{{see also|Lenape mythology}}
=== Clans and kinship systems===
At the time of first European contact, a Lenape person would have identified primarily with his or her immediate family and clan, friends, and/or village unit; then with surrounding and familiar village units. Next with more distant neighbors who spoke the same dialect; and ultimately, with all those in the surrounding area who spoke mutually comprehensible languages, including the [[Nanticoke people]], who lived to their south and west in present western Delaware and eastern Maryland, and the Munsee, who lived to their north.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} Among many [[Algonquian peoples]] along the East Coast, the Lenape were considered the "grandfathers" from whom other Algonquian-speaking peoples originated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nanticoke-lenape.info/history.htm|title=Our Tribal History...|website=www.nanticoke-lenape.info|access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref>
The Lenape have three clans at the end of the 17th century, each of which historically had twelve sub-clans:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Carman |first1=Alan E. |title=Footprints in Time: A History and Ethnology of The Lenape-Delaware Indian Culture |date=September 16, 2013 |publisher=Trafford |isbn=978-1466907423 |pages=88–90}}</ref>
* Wolf, ''Tùkwsit<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.talk-lenape.org/results?query=wolf+clan |title = The Lenape Talking Dictionary {{pipe}} Search Results of "wolf clan" English to Lenape}}</ref>''
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
:* Big Feet, ''Mä an'greet''
:* Yellow Tree, ''Wisawhìtkuk<ref>{{cite web | url=http://talk-lenape.org/detail?id=11280 |title = The Lenape Talking Dictionary {{pipe}} Detailed Entry View – alternate name or group in the Tùkwsit (Wolf) clan (Lit. – Yellow Trees)}}</ref>''
:* Pulling Corn, ''Pä-sakun'a'-mon''
:* Care Enterer, ''We-yar-nih'kä-to''
:* Across the River, ''Toosh-war-ka'ma''
:* Vermillion, ''O-lum'-a-ne''
:* Dog standing by fireside, ''Pun-ar'-you''
:* Long Body, ''Kwin-eek'cha''
:* Digging, ''Moon-har-tar'ne''
:* Pulling up Stream, ''Non-har'-min''
:* Brush Log, ''Long-ush-har-kar'-to''
:* Bringing Along, ''Maw-soo-toh''
{{div col end}}
* Turtle, ''Pùkuwànku<ref>{{cite web | url=http://talk-lenape.org/detail?id=8924 |title = The Lenape Talking Dictionary {{pipe}} Detailed Entry View – turtle clan}}</ref>''
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
:* Ruler, ''O-ka-ho'-ki''
:* High Bank Shore, ''Ta-ko-ong'-o-to''
:* Drawing Down Hill, ''See-har-ong'-o-to''
:* Elector, ''Ole-har-kar-me'kar-to''
:* Brave, ''Ma-har-o-luk'-ti''
:* Green Leaves, ''Toosh-ki-pa-kwis-i''
:* Smallest Turtle, ''Tung-ul-ung'-si''
:* Little Turtle, ''We-lung-ung-sil''
:* Snapping Turtle, ''Lee-kwin-a-i'''
:* Deer, ''Kwis-aese-kees'to''
{{div col end}}
* Turkey, ''Pële<ref>{{cite web | url=http://talk-lenape.org/detail?id=8399 |title = The Lenape Talking Dictionary {{pipe}} Detailed Entry View – Fowl (Turkey) clan of the Lenape}}</ref>''
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
:* Big Bird, ''Mor-har-ä-lä''
:* Bird's Cry, ''Le-le-wa'-you''
:* Eye Pain, ''Moo-kwung-wa-ho'ki''
:* Scratch the Path, ''Moo-har-mo-wi-kar'-nu''
:* Opossum Ground, ''O-ping-ho'-ki''
:* Old Shin, ''Muh-ho-we-kä'-ken''
:* Drift Log, ''Tong-o-nä-o-to''
:* Living in Water, ''Nool-a-mar-lar'-mo''
:* Root Digger, ''Muh-krent-har'-ne''
:* Red Face, ''Mur-karm-huk-se''
:* Pine Region, ''Koo-wä-ho'ke''
:* Ground Scratcher, ''Oo-ckuk'-ham''
{{div col end}}
Lenape [[kinship]] system has [[matrilineal]] clans, that is, children belong to their mother's clan, from which they gain social status and identity. The mother's eldest brother was more significant as a mentor to the male children than was their father, who was generally of another clan. Hereditary leadership passed through the maternal line,<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> and women elders could remove leaders of whom they disapproved. Agricultural land was managed by women and allotted according to the subsistence needs of their extended families. Families were [[matrilocal]]; newlywed couples would live with the bride's family, where her mother and sisters could also assist her with her growing family.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/>
By 1682, when William Penn arrived to his American commonwealth, the Lenape had been so reduced by disease, famine, and war that the sub-clan mothers had reluctantly resolved to consolidate their families into the main clan family.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> This is why William Penn and all those after him believed that the Lenape clans had always only had three divisions (Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf) when, in fact, they had over thirty on the eve of European contact.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/>
[[File:Susie Elkhair-Deleware Tribe of Indians-(Lenape).jpg|thumb|upright|Susie Elkhair (died 1926) of the [[Delaware Tribe of Indians]], wearing [[ribbonwork]] shawl]]
Members of each clan were found throughout Lenape territory and clan lineage was traced through the mother. While clan mothers controlled the land, the houses, and the families, the clan fathers provided the meat, cleared the fields, built the houses, and protected the clan.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> Upon reaching adulthood, a Lenape male would [[exogamy|marry outside of his clan]].<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> The practice effectively prevented inbreeding, even among individuals whose kinship was obscure or unknown.{{clarify|date=August 2021}} This means that a male from the Turkey Clan was expected to marry a female from either the Turtle or Wolf clans. His children, however, would not belong to the Turkey Clan, but to the mother's clan. As such, a person's mother's brothers (the person's matrilineal uncles) played a large role in his or her life as they shared the same clan lineage.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> Within a marriage itself, men and women had relatively separate and equal rights, each controlling their own property and debts, showing further signs of a woman's power in the hierarchical structure.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Caffrey|first=Margaret M.|date=2000|title=Complementary Power: Men and Women of the Lenni Lenape|journal=American Indian Quarterly|volume=24|issue=1|pages=44–63|jstor=1185990|issn=0095-182X}}</ref>
As in the case of the [[Iroquois]] and [[Susquehannock]]s, the animosity of differences and competitions spanned many generations, and in general tribes with each of the different language groups became traditional enemies in the areas they'd meet.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} On the other hand, The New American Book of Indians points out that competition, trade, and wary relations were far more common than outright warfare—but both larger societies had traditions of 'proving' (blooding) new (or young) warriors by'' '[[counting coup]]' on raids'' into another tribes territories.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/>{{efn |One big cultural change occurred during the [[Beaver Wars]]—instead of honor raids for bragging rights by stealing cattle, food stocks, weapons, or women, the Iroquois (probably having heard of European wars of conquest) began slash and burn campaigns, often raiding in mid-winter to drive out targeted populations and despoiling their productive lands and food stocks.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} The Iroquois steamrolled{{weasel inline|date=April 2017}} a large variety of tribes of both Algonkian and Iroquoian language groups as they established dominance over a large range, and became the major political factor any English and French decision makers had to consider in making any policy for over a hundred years.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> Iroquois delegations were hosted and honored in London and Paris.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/>}} [[Ethnicity]] seems to have mattered little to the Lenape and many other "tribes". [[Archaeological]] excavations have found Lenape burials that included identifiably ethnic Iroquois remains interred along with those of Lenape.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} The two groups were sometimes bitter enemies since before recorded history, but intermarriage occurred — and both groups have an oral history suggesting they jointly came east together and displaced the [[mound builders]] culture. In addition, both tribes practiced adopting young captives from warfare into their tribes and assimilating them as full tribal members.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> Iroquoians adopting Lenape (or other peoples) were known to be part of their religious beliefs, the adopted one taking the place in the clan of one killed in warfare.
Early European observers may have misinterpreted matrilineal Lenape cultural practices. For example, a man's maternal uncle (his mother's brother), and not his father, was usually considered to be his closest male relative, since his uncle belonged to his mother's clan and his father belonged to a different one. The maternal uncle played a more prominent role in the lives of his sister's children than did the father—for example likely being the one responsible for educating a young man in weapons craft, martial arts, hunting, and other life skills.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> Early European chroniclers did not understand this concept.{{clarify|date=August 2021}}
=== Hunting, fishing, and farming ===
Lenape practiced [[companion planting]], in which women cultivated many varieties of the "[[Three Sisters (agriculture)|Three Sisters]]": maize, beans, and squash. Men also practiced [[hunting]] and the harvesting of [[seafood]]. By the time of the arrival of Europeans, the Lenape were cultivating fields of vegetation through the [[slash and burn]] technique.<ref>Stevenson W. Fletcher, ''Pennsylvania Agriculture and Country Life of a suss man 1640–1845'' (Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1950), 2, 35–38, 62–65, 124.</ref><ref>Day, Gordon M. "The Indian as an Ecological Factor in the Northeastern Forests." ''Ecology'', Vol. 34, #2 (April): 329–346. ''New England and New York Areas 1580–1800''. Notes that the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) tribe in New Jersey and the Massachuset tribe in Massachusetts used fire in ecosystems.1953</ref><ref>Russell, Emily W.B. ''Vegetational Change in Northern New Jersey Since 1500 A.D.: A Palynological, Vegetational and Historical Synthesis'' Ph.D. dissertation. New Brunswick, PA: Rutgers University. Author notes on page 8 that Indians often augmented lightning fires. 1979</ref><ref>Russell, Emily W.B. "Indian Set Fires in the Forests of the Northeastern United States." ''Ecology'', Vol. 64, #1 (jan): 78 88. 1983a Author found no strong evidence that Indians purposely burned large areas, but they did burn small areas near their habitation sites. Noted that the Lenna Lenape Tribe used fire.</ref><ref>''A Brief Description of New York, Formerly Called New Netherlands with the Places Thereunto Adjoining, Likewise a Brief Relation of the Customs of the Indians There,'' New York, NY: William Gowans. 1670. Reprinted in 1937 by the Facsimile Text Society, Columbia University Press, New York. Notes that the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) tribe in New Jersey used fire in ecosystems.</ref><ref>Smithsonian Institution—Handbook of North American Indians series: ''Handbook of North American Indians,'' Volume 15—Northeast. Bruce G. Trigger (volume editor). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. 1978 References to Indian burning for the Eastern Algonquians, Virginia Algonquians, Northern Iroquois, Huron, Mahican, and Delaware Tribes and peoples.</ref> This extended the productive life of planted fields. According to Dutch settler [[Isaac de Rasieres]], who observed the Lenape in 1628, the Lenape's primary crop was [[maize]], which they planted in March. They quickly adopted European metal tools for this task.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
The men limited their agricultural labor to clearing the field and breaking the dirt. They primarily hunted and fished during the rest of the year: from September to January and from June to July, they mainly hunted deer, but from the months of January to the spring planting in May, they hunted anything from bears and beavers to raccoons and foxes.<ref name=":0" /> Dutch settler [[David Pietersz. de Vries|David de Vries]], who stayed in the area from 1634 to 1644, described a Lenape hunt in the valley of the ''Achinigeu-hach'' (or "Ackingsah-sack", the [[Hackensack River]]), in which one hundred or more men stood in a line many paces from each other, beating thigh bones on their palms to drive animals to the river, where they could be killed easily.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}} Other methods of hunting included [[lasso]]ing and drowning deer, as well as forming a circle around prey and setting the brush on fire. They also harvested vast quantities of fish and shellfish from the bays of the area,<ref>Mark Kurlansky, 2006 {{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref> and, in southern New Jersey, harvested clams year-round.<ref>Dreibelbis, 1978 , page 33</ref> One technique used while fishing was to add ground [[chestnuts]] to stream water to make fish dizzy and easier to catch.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Keoke |first1=Emory Dean |title=Food, Farming and Hunting |page=103}}</ref>
The success of these methods allowed the tribe to maintain a larger population than other, [[nomadic]] [[hunter-gatherer]] peoples in North America at the time, could support. Scholars have estimated that at the time of European settlement, around much of the current [[New York City]] area alone, there may have been about 15,000 Lenape in approximately 80 settlement sites.<ref>Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, 1999, p.5</ref> In 1524, Lenape in canoes met [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]], the first European explorer to enter [[New York Harbor]].
European settlers and traders from the 17th-century colonies of [[New Netherland]] and [[New Sweden]] traded with the Lenape for agricultural products, mainly maize, in exchange for iron tools. The Lenape also arranged contacts between the ''Minquas'' or ''Susquehannocks'' and the [[Dutch West India Company]] and [[Swedish South Company]] to promote the [[North American fur trade|fur trade]]. The Lenape were major producers of labor intensive ''[[wampum]]'', or shell beads, which they traditionally used for ritual purposes and as ornaments. After the Dutch arrival, they began to exchange wampum for beaver furs provided by [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian]]-speaking [[Susquehannock]] and other Minquas. They exchanged these furs for Dutch and, from the late 1630s, also Swedish imports. Relations between some Lenape and Minqua polities briefly turned sour in the late 1620s and early 1630s, but were relatively peaceful most of the time.<ref>{{Cite thesis |degree=Ph.D. |title=Cultural exchange, imperialist violence, and pious missions: Local perspectives from Tanjavur and Lenape country, 1720–1760 |last=Utz |first=Axel |year=2011 |publisher=Pennsylvania State University |pages=140–147|id={{ProQuest|902171220}} }}</ref>
=== Clothing and adornment ===
The early European settlers, especially the Dutch and Swedes, were surprised at the Lenape's skill in fashioning clothing from natural materials. In hot weather men and women wore only loin cloth and skirt respectively, while they used beaver pelts or bear skins to serve as winter mantles. Additionally, both sexes might wear buckskin leggings and moccasins in cold weather.<ref>Weslager, '' The Delaware Indians: A History'', 54</ref> Women would wear their hair long, usually below the hip, while men kept only a small "round crest, of about 2 inches in diameter". Deer hair, dyed a deep scarlet, as well as plumes of feathers, were favorite components of headdresses and breast ornaments for males.<ref>Kraft, ''The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage,'' 237–240</ref><ref name=":0" /> The Lenape also adorned themselves with various ornaments made of stone, shell, animal teeth, and claws. The women often wore headbands of dyed deer hair or wampum. They painted their skin skirts or decorated them with porcupine quills. These skirts were so elaborately appointed that, when seen from a distance, they reminded Dutch settlers of fine European lace.<ref>Kraft, ''The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage,'' 239</ref> The winter cloaks of the women were striking, fashioned from the iridescent body feathers of wild turkeys.<ref>Weslager 54</ref>
=== Leisure ===
One of the more common activities of leisure for the Lenni Lenape would be the game of [[Pahsaheman]]: a football-like hybrid, split on gender lines. Over a hundred players were grouped into gendered teams (male and female), and would attempt to get a ball through the other team's goal post. However, men could not carry and pass the ball, only using their feet, while the women could carry, pass, or kick.<ref name=":0" /> If the ball was picked up by a woman, she could not be tackled by the men, although men could attempt to dislodge the ball. Women were free to tackle the men.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://delawaretribe.org/blog/2013/06/27/pahsahman-the-lenape-indian-football-game/|title=Official Site of the Delaware Tribe of Indians » Pahsahëman — The Lenape Indian Football Game|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-24}}</ref> These gender-split rules highlight how a woman's role in Lenape society was harmonious to a man's role, rather than acquiescent.
Another activity common was that of dance, and yet again, gender differences appear: men would dance and leap loudly, often with bear claw accessories, while women, wearing little thimbles or bells, would dance more modestly, stepping "one foot after the other slightly forwards then backwards, yet so as to advance gradually."<ref name=":0" />
=== Units of measure ===
There were a number of linear measures which were used. Small units of measure were the distance from the thumb and first finger, and the distance from first finger to pit of elbow. While travel distance was measured in the distance one could comfortably travel from sun-up to sun-down.<ref>Lenni Lenape Original Settlers, Matawan Journal, June 27, 1957, Page 12</ref>
===Ethnobotany===
The Lenape have a long history with the native fauna in the Northeastern area of the United States. Lenape herbalists, who have been primarily women, use their extensive knowledge of plant life to help heal their community's ailments, sometimes through ceremony. The Lenape found uses in cats like [[Juglans nigra|Black Walnut]] which were used to cure ringworm and with [[Persimmon]]s which were used to cure ear problems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hill|first=George|date=2015|title=DELAWARE ETHNOBOTANY|url=http://delawaretribe.org/wp-content/uploads/DEL-ETHNOBOTANY-Hill.pdf|website=Delawaretribe.org}}</ref>
The Lenape carry the nuts of [[Aesculus glabra]] in the pocket for [[rheumatism]], and an infusion of ground nuts mixed with sweet oil or mutton tallow for earaches. They also grind the nuts and use them to poison fish in streams.<ref>Tantaquidgeon, Gladys, 1972, Folk Medicine of the Delaware and Related Algonkian Indians, Harrisburg. Pennsylvania Historical Commission Anthropological Papers #3, page 30</ref> They also apply a poultice of pulverized nuts with sweet oil for earache.<ref>Tantaquidgeon, Gladys, 1942, A Study of Delaware Indian Medicine Practice and Folk Beliefs, Harrisburg. Pennsylvania Historical Commission, page 25, 74</ref>
==History==
===European contact===
The first recorded European contact with people presumed to have been the Lenape was in 1524. The [[Age of Discovery|explorer]] [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]] was greeted by local Lenape who came by canoe, after his ship entered what is now called [[Lower New York Bay]].
In the 17th century, Lenape primarily interacted with Dutch traders through the [[fur trade]]. The Lenape trapped and traded [[American Beaver|beaver]] pelts for European-made goods.
===Early colonial era===
At the time of [[European colonization of the Americas|sustained European contact]] in the 1600s and 1700s, the Lenape were a powerful Native American nation who inhabited a region on the mid-Atlantic coast spanning the latitudes of southern Massachusetts to the southern extent of Delaware in what anthropologists call the [[Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands|Northeastern Woodlands]].<ref name="Smithsonian">{{cite book |last=Trigger |first=Bruce C. |author-link=Bruce Trigger |title=Handbook of North American Indians |editor=Sturtevant, William C. |edition=general |year=1978 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |location=Washington, DC|title-link=Handbook of North American Indians }}</ref> Although never politically unified, the confederation of the Delaware roughly encompassed the area around and between the [[Delaware River|Delaware]] and lower [[Hudson River|Hudson]] rivers, and included the western part of [[Long Island]] in present-day New York.<ref name="ReferenceA">[[Paul Otto (historian)|Paul Otto]], 179 "Intercultural Relations Between Native Americans and Europeans in New Netherland and New York" in ''Four Centuries of Dutch-American Relations,''SUNY Press, 2009</ref> Some of their place names, such as Manhattan ("the island of many hills"<ref>see Mari Minato research on Lenape tribe http://www.mariminato.com/en/insitu/2016/lenapes_4.php#main-info</ref>), Raritan, and Tappan were adopted by Dutch and English colonists to identify the Lenape people that lived there.
===17th century===
[[Image:Treaty of Penn with Indians by Benjamin West.jpg|thumb|[[Benjamin West]]'s painting (in 1771) of [[William Penn]]'s 1682 treaty with the Lenape]]
The Lenape had a culture in which the clan and family controlled property. Europeans often tried to contract for land with the tribal chiefs, confusing their culture with that of neighboring tribes such as the Iroquois. On top of this kinship terms commonly used by European settlers had very different meanings to the Lenape: "fathers" did not have the same direct parental control as in Europe, "brothers" could be a symbol of equality but could also be interpreted as one's parallel cousins, "cousins" were interpreted as only cross-cousins, etc. All of these added complexities in kinship terms made agreements with Europeans all the more difficult.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carpenter|first=Roger M.|title=From Indian Women to English Children: The Lenni-Lenape and the Attempt to Create a New Diplomatic Identity|date=2007|journal=Pennsylvania History|volume=74|issue=1|pages=1–20|doi=10.2307/pennhistory.74.1.0001|jstor=27778759|s2cid=160131350|issn=0031-4528}}</ref> The Lenape would petition for grievances on the basis that not all their families had been recognized in the transaction (not that they wanted to "share" the land).<ref name="macleod">William Christie MacLeod. "[https://archive.org/stream/nsamericananthro24ameruoft#page/460/mode/2up The Family Hunting Territory and Lenape Political Organization]," ''[[American Anthropologist]]'' 24.</ref> After the Dutch arrival in the 1620s, the Lenape were successful in restricting Dutch settlement until the 1660s to [[Pavonia, New Netherland|Pavonia]] in present-day [[Jersey City, New Jersey|Jersey City]] along the Hudson. The Dutch finally established a garrison at [[Bergen, New Netherlands|Bergen]], which allowed settlement west of the Hudson within the province of [[New Netherland]]. This land was purchased from the Lenape after the fact.<ref name="macleod"/>
[[New Amsterdam]] was founded in 1624 by the Dutch in what would later become [[New York City]]. Dutch settlers also founded a colony at present-day [[Lewes, Delaware|Lewes]], [[Delaware]] on June 3, 1631 and named it ''[[Zwaanendael Colony|Zwaanendael]]'' (Swan Valley).<ref name="COLONIAL DELAWARE">Munroe, John A.: ''Colonial Delaware: A History'': [[Millwood, New York]]: KTO Press; 1978; pp. 9–12</ref> The colony had a short life, as in 1632 a local band of Lenape killed the 32 Dutch settlers after a misunderstanding escalated over Lenape defacement of the insignia of the Dutch West India Company.<ref>Cook, Albert Myers. ''Narratives of Early Pennsylvania, West New Jersey and Delaware 1630–1707''. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912, p. 9</ref> In 1634, the [[Iroquoian]]-speaking [[Susquehannock]] went to war with the Lenape over access to trade with the Dutch at New Amsterdam. They defeated the Lenape, and some scholars believe that the Lenape may have become [[Tributary state|tributaries]] to the Susquehannock.<ref>Jennings (2000), p. 117</ref> After the warfare, the Lenape referred to the Susquehannock as "uncles". The Iroquois added the Lenape to the [[Covenant Chain]] in 1676; the Lenape were tributary to the Five Nations (later Six) until 1753, shortly before the outbreak of the [[French and Indian War]] (a part of the [[Seven Years' War]] in Europe).
Based on the historical record of the mid-17th century, it has been estimated that most Lenape polities consisted of several hundred people<ref>Goddard 213–216</ref> but it is conceivable that some had been considerably larger prior to close contact, given the wars between the Susquehannocks and the Iroquois,<ref name=josephy>Josephy 188–189</ref> both of whom were armed by the Dutch fur traders, while the Lenape were at odds with the Dutch and so lost that particular arms race.<ref name=josephy/>
During the [[Beaver Wars]] in the first half of the 17th century, European colonists were careful to keep firearms from the coastally located Delaware,<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> while rival [[Iroquoian]] peoples such as the [[Susquehannock]]s and [[Iroquois|Confederation of the Iroquois]] became comparatively well armed.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/>{{efn|
Both the Iroquois and Susquehannocks had trade relations with Europeans and access to extensive river systems hosting beaver colonies—the most coveted furs for Europeans. This gave them access to firearms and made them militarily powerful. For example, over a decade, the Susquehannocks, who'd allied with [[New Sweden|Swedish Colonists]], fought a declared war with the [[Province of Maryland]]. By mid-century, they'd subjected the Delaware and so well armed they were much feared by surrounding tribes.}} Subsequently, the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks, then the Iroquois, even needing their rivals' (superiors') agreement to initiate treaties such as land sales.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> Like most tribes, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases originating in Europe, mainly [[smallpox]] but also cholera, influenza and dysentery, and recurrent violent conflict with Europeans. [[Iroquoian people]]s occasionally fought the Lenape. As the 18th century progressed, many surviving Lenape moved west—into the (relatively empty){{efn
|The European explorers, traders and missionary penetrating past the Alleghenies in the mid-17th century all report the [[Ohio Country]] to be uninhabited, perhaps shared hunting territories.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> As the Beaver Wars progressed, it is known that Iroquois war parties entered the area, and the confederation later claimed the lands as hunting territories.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> Why they were empty in the earlier days, if they were instead made empty by the wars or the degree of participation by the Erie Peoples and Susquehannocks (relatives of the Iroquois) is unknown but suspected.}} upper [[Ohio River]] basin.
Smallpox devastated Native American communities even located far from European settlements by the 1640s.<ref name="DeanSnow">{{cite journal |last1=Snow |first1=Dean R. |year=1996 |title=Mohawk demography and the effects of exogenous epidemics on American Indian populations |journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=160–182 |doi=10.1006/jaar.1996.0006}}</ref> The Lenape and Susquehannocks fought a war in the middle of the 17th century that left the Delaware a tributary state even as the Susquehannocks had defeated the Province of Maryland between 1642-50s.<ref name="AmHeritageBk2">
{{cite encyclopedia |year=1961 |title=The American Heritage Book of Indians
|author=Editor: Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., by The editors of American Heritage Magazine
|editor=pages 188–189, quote page 198|publisher=American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc.
|lccn=61014871|quote=The Principal avenue of the march of settlement was through the Delaware confederacy, cracked open by the Susquehanna wars of conquest in the mid-17th century.
}}</ref>
The Lenape's quick adoption of trade goods, and their desire to trap furs to meet high European demand, resulted in their disastrous over-harvesting of the beaver population in the lower Hudson Valley. With the fur sources exhausted, the Dutch shifted their operations to present-day [[upstate New York]]. The Lenape who produced [[wampum]] in the vicinity of Manhattan Island temporarily forestalled the negative effects of the decline in trade.<ref name=Otto>[[Paul Otto (historian)|Otto, Paul]], 91 ''The Dutch-Munsee Encounter in America: The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Hudson Valley''. New York: Berghahn Press, 2006.</ref> Lenape population fell sharply during this period, due to high fatalities from [[epidemics]] of [[infectious diseases]] carried by Europeans, such as [[measles]] and [[smallpox]], to which they had no natural [[immunity (medical)|immunity]].
In 1682, [[William Penn]] and [[Quaker]] colonists created the English [[Province of Pennsylvania|colony of Pennsylvania]] beginning at the lower Delaware River. A peace treaty was negotiated between the newly arriving colonists and Lenape at what is now known as [[Penn Treaty Park]]. In the decades immediately following, some 20,000 new colonists arrived in the region, putting pressure on Lenape settlements and hunting grounds. Penn expected his authority and that of the colonial government to take precedence. His new colony effectively displaced many Lenape and forced others to adapt to new cultural demands. Penn gained a reputation for benevolence and tolerance, but his efforts resulted in more effective colonization of the ancestral Lenape homeland than previous ones.<ref>Spady, "[https://www.academia.edu/479943/_Colonialism_and_the_Discursive_Antecedents_of_Penns_Treaty_with_the_Indians_in_William_A._Pencak_and_Daniel_K._Richter_eds._From_Native_America_to_Penns_Woods_Colonists_Indians_and_the_Racial_Construction_of_Pennsylvania_State_College_Pennsylvania_State_University_Press_2004_18-40 Colonialism and the Discursive Antecedents of Penn's Treaty with the Indians]," 18–40</ref>
===18th century===
{{Further|Lenape settlements}}
[[Image:Lapowinsa01.jpg|thumb|upright|''Lapowinsa, Chief of the Lenape'', [[Lappawinsoe]] painted by [[Gustavus Hesselius]] in 1735]]
[[William Penn]] died in 1718. His heirs, John and Thomas Penn, and their agents were running the colony, and had abandoned many of the elder Penn's practices. Trying to raise money, they contemplated ways to sell Lenape land to colonial settlers. The resulting scheme culminated in the so-called [[Walking Purchase]]. In the mid-1730s, colonial administrators produced a draft of a land deed dating to the 1680s. William Penn had approached several leaders of Lenape polities in the lower Delaware to discuss land sales further north. Since the land in question did not belong to their polities, the talks came to nothing. But colonial administrators had prepared the draft that resurfaced in the 1730s. The Penns and their supporters tried to present this draft as a legitimate deed. Lenape leaders in the lower Delaware refused to accept it.
According to historian [[Steven C. Harper|Steven Harper]], what followed was a "convoluted sequence of deception, fraud, and extortion orchestrated by the Pennsylvania government that is commonly known as the Walking Purchase."<ref name="Harper"/> In the end, all Lenape who still lived on the Delaware were driven off the remnants of their homeland under threats of violence. Some Lenape polities eventually retaliated by attacking Pennsylvania settlements. When they resisted European colonial expansion at the height of the [[French and Indian War]], the British colonial authorities investigated the causes of Lenape resentment. The British asked [[Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet|Sir William Johnson]], Superintendent of Indian Affairs, to lead the investigation. Johnson had become wealthy as a trader and acquired thousands of acres of land in the [[Mohawk River]] Valley from the Iroquois Mohawk of New York.<ref name="Harper">{{cite book |last1=Harper |first1=Steven Craig |title=Promised Land: Penn's Holy Experiment, the Walking Purchase, and the dispossession of Delawares, 1600–1763 |year=2006 |location=Bethlehem, PA}}</ref>
Beginning in the 18th century, the [[Moravian Church]] established missions among the Lenape.<ref>Gray, Elma. ''Wilderness Christians: Moravian Missions to the Delaware Indians''. Ithaca. 1956 {{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref> The Moravians required the Christian [[converts]] to share their [[pacifism]], as well as to live in a structured and European-style mission village.<ref>Olmstead, Earl P. ''Blackcoats among the Delaware: David Zeisberger on the Ohio frontier''. Kent, Ohio. 1991 {{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref> Moravian pacifism and unwillingness to take loyalty oaths caused conflicts with British colonial authorities, who were seeking aid against the French and their Native American allies during the [[Seven Years' War]]. The Moravians' insistence on Christian Lenapes' abandoning traditional warfare practices alienated mission populations from other Lenape and Native American groups, who revered warriors.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}} The Moravians accompanied Lenape relocations to Ohio and Canada, continuing their missionary work. The Moravian Lenape who settled permanently in Ontario after the [[American Revolutionary War]] were sometimes referred to as "[[Christian Munsee]]", as they mostly spoke the [[Munsee language|Munsee]] branch of the [[Delaware language]].
During the [[French and Indian War]], the Lenape initially sided with the French, as they hoped to prevent further European colonial encroachment in their territory. But, such leaders as [[Teedyuscung]] in the east and [[Tamaqua (Lenape chief)|Tamaqua]] in the vicinity of modern [[Pittsburgh]] shifted to building alliances with the British colonial authorities. After the end of the war, however, Anglo-American settlers continued to attack the Lenape, often to such an extent that the historian Amy Schutt writes the dead since the wars outnumbered those killed during the war.<ref name=s118>Schutt, (2007), p.118</ref>
In 1757, the "New Jersey Association for Helping the Indians" wrote a constitution to [[Forced displacement|expel]] native Munsee Lenape from their home in the [[Washington Valley Historic District|Washington Valley]] of [[Morris County, New Jersey]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Collection: New Jersey Association for helping the Indians records {{!}} Archives & Manuscripts |url=https://archives.tricolib.brynmawr.edu/resources/hcmc-975-09-019 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=archives.tricolib.brynmawr.edu}}</ref> Led by Reverend [[John Brainerd School|John Brainerd]], colonists [[Forced displacement|forcefully relocated]] 200 people to Indian Mills, then known as [[Indian Mills, New Jersey|Brotherton]].<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last1=Barbara |first1=Hoskins |title=Washington Valley, an informal history |last2=Foster |first2=Caroline |last3=Roberts |first3=Dorothea |last4=Foster |first4=Gladys |date=1960 |publisher=Edward Brothers |oclc=28817174}}</ref> It was then an industrial town, known for [[Gristmill|gristmills]] and [[Sawmill|sawmills]]. This was the first Native American reservation in New Jersey.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey, 1780 {{!}} Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/brotherton-indians-new-jersey-1780 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.gilderlehrman.org}}</ref> Reverend [[John Brainerd School|John Brainerd]] abandoned the reservation in 1777.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey, 1780 {{!}} Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/brotherton-indians-new-jersey-1780 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.gilderlehrman.org}}</ref>{{Clarify|date=April 2022}}
The [[Treaty of Easton]], signed in 1758 between the Lenape and the Anglo-American colonists, required the Lenape to move westward, out of present-day New York and New Jersey and into Pennsylvania, then Ohio and beyond. Sporadically they continued to raid European-American settlers from far outside the area.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
In 1763, Bill Hickman, Lenape, warned Anglo-American colonists in the [[Juniata River]] region of an impending attack. Many Lenape joined in [[Pontiac's War]], and were numerous among those Native Americans who besieged Pittsburgh.<ref name=s118/>
In April 1763, ''Teedyuscung'' was killed when his home was burned. His son Captain Bull responded by attacking settlers from New England who had migrated to the [[Wyoming Valley]] of Pennsylvania. The settlers had been sponsored by the [[Susquehanna Company]].<ref>Schutt, (2007), p. 119</ref>
==== American Revolutionary War ====
{{anchor|Ohio: 1750s to 1812 (American Revolution and War of 1812)}}
{{main|Brodhead's Coshocton expedition}}
{{see also|Gnadenhutten massacre}}
After the signing of the [[Treaty of Easton]] in 1758, the Lenape were forced to move west out of their original lands into what is today known as [[Ohio country|Ohio]].<ref>Keenan, ''Encyclopedia of American Indian Wars, 1492–1890,'' 1999, p. 234; Moore, ''The Northwest Under Three Flags, 1635–1796,'' 1900, p. 151.</ref>
During the [[French and Indian War]], Killbuck had assisted the British against the French and their Indian allies. In 1761, Killbuck led a British supply train from [[Fort Pitt (Pennsylvania)|Fort Pitt]] to [[Fort Sandusky]]. During the early 1770s, missionaries, including [[David Zeisberger]] and [[John Heckewelder]], arrived in the Ohio Country near the Delaware villages. The Moravian Church sent these men to convert the [[Native Americans in the United States|Indigenous peoples]] to Christianity. The missionaries established several missions, including ''Gnadenhutten'', ''Lichtenau'', and ''Schoenbrunn''. The missionaries pressured Indigenous people to abandon their traditional customs, beliefs, and ways of life, and to replace them with European and Christian ways. Many Lenape did adopt Christianity, but others refused to do so. The Lenape became a divided people during the 1770s, including in [[Bemino|Killbuck's]] family. Killbuck resented his grandfather for allowing the Moravians to remain in the Ohio country. The Moravians believed in pacifism, and Killbuck believed that every convert to the Moravians deprived the Lenape of a warrior to stop further white settlement of their land.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
When the American Revolutionary War began, Killbuck found the Lenape caught between the British and their Indian allies in the West and the Americans in the East. At the war's beginning, Killbuck and many Lenape claimed to be neutral. In 1778, Killbuck permitted American soldiers to traverse Lenape territory so that the soldiers could attack British-held [[Fort Detroit]]. In return, Killbuck requested that the Americans build a fort near the major village of Coshocton, to provide the Lenape with protection from potential attacks by British-allied Indians and [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]]. The Americans agreed and built [[Fort Laurens]], which they garrisoned.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
At the time of the Revolutionary War, the Lenape in Ohio were deeply divided over which side, if any, to take in the war. During this time, the Lenape bands were living in numerous villages around their main village of ''[[Coshocton, Ohio|Coshocton]]'',<ref>{{ws|[[William Dean Howells]], "[[s:Three Villages/3 Gnadenhütten|Gnadenhütten]]," ''[[s:Three Villages|Three Villages]]'', Boston: James R. Osgood and Co., 1884}}, accessed 19 Mar 2010</ref> between the western frontier strongholds of the British and the Patriots. The American colonists had [[Fort Pitt (Pennsylvania)|Fort Pitt]] (present-day Pittsburgh) and the British, along with Indian allies, controlled the area of [[Fort Detroit]] (in present-day [[Michigan]]).{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
Other Indian communities, particularly the [[Wyandotte people|Wyandot]], the [[Mingo]], the [[Shawnee]], and the [[Munsee|Wolf Clan of the Lenape]], favored the British. They believed that by their proclamation of 1763, restricting Anglo-American settlement to east of the Appalachian Mountains, that the British would help them preserve a [[Indian barrier state|Native American territory]]. The British made plans to attack [[Fort Laurens]] in early 1779 and demanded that the neutral Lenape formally side with the British. Killbuck warned the Americans of the planned attack. His actions helped save the fort, but the Americans abandoned it in August 1779. The Lenape had lost their protectors and found themselves without solid allies in the conflict, which compounded their dispossession at the hand of encroaching [[American pioneers]] during and after the war.{{fact|date=March 2022}}
Some Lenape decided to take up arms against the American settlers and moved to the west, closer to Detroit, where they settled on the [[Scioto River|Scioto]] and [[Sandusky River|Sandusky]] rivers. Those Lenape sympathetic to the United States remained at Coshocton, and Lenape leaders signed the [[Treaty of Fort Pitt (1778)]] with the American colonists. Through this treaty, the Lenape hoped to establish the Ohio country as a state inhabited exclusively by Native Americans, as a subset of the new United States. A third group of Lenape, many of them [[Religious conversion|converted]] [[Christian Munsee]]s, lived in several mission villages run by [[Moravian Church|Moravian]]s. Like the other bands, they also spoke the [[Munsee]] branch of Lenape, an [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]] language.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
[[White Eyes]], the Lenape [[tribal chief|chief]] who had negotiated the treaty, died in 1778. Subsequently many Lenape at Coshocton eventually joined the war against the Americans. In response, American military officer [[Daniel Brodhead]] led an expedition out of Fort Pitt and on 19 April 1781, and destroyed Coshocton. Surviving residents fled to the north. Colonel Brodhead convinced the militia to leave the Lenape at the Moravian mission villages unmolested, since they were unarmed non-combatants.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
==== Treaties of the late 18th century ====
The Lenape were the first Indian tribe to enter into a treaty with the [[Articles of Confederation|new United States government]], with the [[Treaty of Fort Pitt (1778)|Treaty of Fort Pitt]] signed in 1778 during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. By then living mostly in the [[Ohio Country]],{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} the Lenape supplied the [[Continental Army]] with warriors and scouts in exchange for food supplies and security.
In 1780, [[Munsee language|Munsee-speaking]] Lenape [[Community leader|community leaders]] native to the [[Washington Valley Historic District|Washington Valley]] that had been [[Forced displacement|forcibly displaced]] to [[Indian Mills, New Jersey|Brotherton]], wrote a [[Indian country|community]] [[treaty]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Micty |first=Joseph |date=6 January 1780 |title=Statement opposing white settlement on Indian land in Brotherton, New Jersey |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/sites/default/files/inline-pdfs/T-00540.01.pdf |website=The Gilder Lehrman Collection}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey, 1780 {{!}} Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/brotherton-indians-new-jersey-1780 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.gilderlehrman.org}}</ref><ref>The Brotherton Indians’ agreement to oppose white settlement, January 6, 1780. (Gilder Lehrman Collection)https://www.gilderlehrman.org/sites/default/files/content-images/00540.01p1.web_.jpg</ref> to oppose selling any more land to white settlers:{{Blockquote|text=Be it known by this, that it has been in our consideration of late about settling of [[settler colonialism|White People]] on the Indian Lands, And we have concluded that it is a thing which ought not to be, & a thing that will not be allowed by us, that of [[Renting]] or giving [[land lease|Leases]] for said Lands, hereafter, no, not by the proprietors themselves without the consent of the rest much more by those who has no Claim or Rite here ...
We have come upon those resolutions we hope for our better living in friendship among one another, it may be that there is some which does not like white people for their Neighbours, for fear of their not agreeing as they ought to do. it might be about there children or about something they have about them we know not what, Again it may be the white Man may do something either upon Land, Timber or something else which some one of the proprietors would not like & from thence would come great deal of Disquietness, & many other ways which may plainly be seen into, by those that have any sense or reason—
We are exceeding glad when we see we are like to live in Quietness among one another without giving any offence to one another, & this of keeping white people from among us will be a great step towards it, & for this reason we intend to stand by or rather stand Hand in hand against any coming on the [[Indian country|Indian Lands]].|author=Joseph Micty, Bartholomew Calvin, Jacob Skekit, Robert Skikkit, Derrick Quaquiuse, Benjamin Nicholus, Mary Calvin, Hezekiah Calvin}}In 1796, the [[Oneida people|Oneidas]] of [[Stockbridge, New York|New Stockbridge]] invited the Munsee Lenape to their [[Indian reservation|reservation]]. The initial Lenape response was negative; in 1798, Lenape community leaders Bartholomew Calvin, Jason Skekit, and 18 others signed a public statement of refusal to leave "our fine place in [[New Jersey|Jersey]]."<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |title=The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey, 1780 {{!}} Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/brotherton-indians-new-jersey-1780 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.gilderlehrman.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=[Brotherton statement of refusal to leave New Jersey] {{!}} Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/collection/glc0054002 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.gilderlehrman.org}}</ref> However, the tribe later agreed to relocate to New Stockbridge to join the Oneidas.<ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last1=Barbara |first1=Hoskins |title=Washington Valley, an informal history |last2=Foster |first2=Caroline |last3=Roberts |first3=Dorothea |last4=Foster |first4=Gladys |date=1960 |publisher=Edward Brothers |oclc=28817174}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=New Stockbridge Tribe |url=https://collections.dartmouth.edu/occom/html/ctx/orgography/org0139.ocp.html |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=collections.dartmouth.edu}}</ref> A few Lenape households stayed behind to assimilate in New Jersey.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |title=The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey, 1780 {{!}} Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/brotherton-indians-new-jersey-1780 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.gilderlehrman.org}}</ref>
===19th century===
In the early 19th century the amateur [[anthropologist]] [[Silas Wood]] published a book claiming that there were several American Indian tribes that were distinct to [[Long Island]], New York. He collectively called them the [[Metoac]]. Modern scientific scholarship has shown that in fact two linguistic groups representing two distinct [[Algonquian peoples|Algonquian]] cultural identities lived on the island, not "13 individual tribes" as asserted by Wood. The bands to the west were Lenape. Those to the east were more related culturally to the Algonquian tribes of [[New England]] across Long Island Sound, such as the [[Pequot]].<ref>Strong, John A. ''Algonquian Peoples of Long Island'' Heart of the Lakes Publishing (March 1997). {{ISBN|978-1-55787-148-0}}</ref><ref>Bragdon, Kathleen. ''The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the Northeast,''Columbia University Press (2002). {{ISBN|978-0-231-11452-3}}.</ref> Wood (and earlier settlers) often misinterpreted the Indian use of place names for [[Autonym (onomastics)|autonyms]].
Over a period of 176 years, European settlers pushed the Lenape out of the East Coast, through to Ohio and eventually further west. Most members of the [[Munsee]]-language branch of the Lenape left the United States after the British were defeated in the American Revolutionary War. Their descendants live on three [[Indian reserve]]s in [[Western Ontario]], Canada. They are descendants of those Lenape of Ohio Country who sided with the British during the Revolutionary War. The largest reserve is at [[Moravian 47, Ontario|Moraviantown, Ontario]], where the Turtle [[Phratry]] settled in 1792 following the war.
Two groups migrated to [[Oneida County, New York]], by 1802, the Brotherton Indians of New Jersey and the Stockbridge-Munsee. In 1822, the Munsee Lenape of [[Washington Valley Historic District|Washington Valley]] who had moved to [[Stockbridge, New York|Stockbridge]] were [[Forced displacement|forcefully displaced]] by [[Settler colonialism|white colonists]] again, over 900 miles' travel away,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Green Bay to Stockbridge |url=https://www.google.com/maps/dir/Green+Bay,+Wisconsin/Stockbridge,+New+York+13409/@43.3606129,-90.8071141,5z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m14!4m13!1m5!1m1!1s0x8802e2e809b380f3:0x6370045214dcf571!2m2!1d-88.0132958!2d44.5133188!1m5!1m1!1s0x89d97bcac1f887a9:0x2d831a6e0698039!2m2!1d-75.5993462!2d42.9911796!3e0 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=Green Bay to Stockbridge |language=en}}</ref> to [[Green Bay, Wisconsin]].<ref name=":04" />
==== Indiana to Missouri ====
By the ''[[Treaty of St. Mary's]]'', signed October 3, 1818, in [[St. Mary's, Ohio]], the Lenape ceded their lands in Indiana for lands west of the Mississippi and an annuity of $4,000. Over the next few years, the Lenape settled on the [[James River (Missouri)|James River]] in Missouri near its confluence with [[Wilsons Creek (Missouri)|Wilsons Creek]], occupying eventually about {{convert|40000|acre|km2}} of the approximately {{convert|2000000|acre|km2}} allotted to them.<ref>[http://delawaretown.missouristate.edu/removal.html "Removal Era"], accessed September 8, 2010</ref> [[Anderson, Indiana]], is named after [[Chief William Anderson]], whose father was Swedish. The Delaware Village in Indiana was called Anderson's Town, while the Delaware Village in Missouri on the James River was often called Anderson's Village. The tribes' cabins and cornfields were spread out along the James River and Wilsons Creek.<ref>[http://delawaretown.missouristate.edu/delaware.html "Delaware Town"], Missouri State University, accessed September 8, 2010</ref>
====Role in western history====
Many Delaware participated in the exploration of the western United States, working as trappers with the [[Mountain man|mountain men]], and as guides and hunters for wagon trains. They served as [[U.S. Army Indian Scouts|army guides and scouts]] in events such as the [[Second Seminole War]], [[John C. Frémont|Frémont's]] expeditions, and the [[conquest of California]] during the [[Mexican–American War]].<ref>Weslager, ''The Delaware Indians'', pp. 375, 378–380</ref><ref>Sides, Hampton, ''Blood and Thunder: An Epic of the American West'', Doubleday (2006), pp. 77–80, 94, 101, hardcover, 462 pages, {{ISBN|978-0-385-50777-6}}</ref><ref>Page lv of the introduction by Frank McNitt, [[James H. Simpson|Simpson, James H]], edited and annotated by Frank McNitt, foreword by Durwood Ball, ''Navaho Expedition: Journal of a Military Reconnaissance from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to the Navaho Country, Made in 1849'', University of Oklahoma Press (1964), trade paperback (2003), 296 pages, {{ISBN|0-8061-3570-0}}</ref> Occasionally, they played surprising roles as Indian allies.<ref>Sides, ''Blood and Thunder'', p. 181</ref>
[[Sagundai]] accompanied one of Frémont's expeditions as one of his Delaware guides. From California, Fremont needed to communicate with Senator Benton. Sagundai volunteered to carry the message through some 2,200 kilometres of hostile territory. He took many scalps in this adventure, including that of a [[Comanche]] with a particularly fine horse, who had outrun both Sagundai and the other Comanche. Sagundai was thrown when his horse stepped into a prairie-dog hole, but avoided the Comanche's lance, shot the warrior dead, and caught his horse and escaped the other Comanche. When Sagundai returned to his own people in present-day Kansas, they celebrated his exploits with the last war and scalp dances of their history, which were held at [[Edwardsville, Kansas]].<ref>William E. Connelley. ''[https://archive.org/stream/standardhistoryo00conn#page/250/mode/2up/search/scalp+dances A Standard History of Kansas and Kansans]'', Vol. I. Chicago: Lewis Publishing Co., 1918, p. 250.</ref>
====Kansas reservation====
[[File:DelawareFarmKansas.jpg|thumb|right|Lenape farm on the Delaware Indian Reservation in Kansas in 1867]]By the terms of the "Treaty of the James Fork" that was signed on September 24, 1829, and ratified by the U.S. Senate in 1830, the Delaware were forced to move further west. They were granted lands in [[Indian Territory]] in exchange for lands on the James Fork of the [[White River (Arkansas)|White River]] in Missouri. These lands, in what is now Kansas, were west of the Missouri and north of the [[Kansas River]]. The main reserve consisted of about {{convert|1000000|acre|km2}} with an additional "outlet" strip {{convert|10|mi|km}} wide extending to the west.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/icc/v09/iccv09p346.pdf|title=9 Indian Claims Commission 346|website=okstate.edu|access-date=14 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234553/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/icc/v09/iccv09p346.pdf|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/icc/v12/iccv12ap404.pdf|title=12 Indian Claims Commission 404|website=okstate.edu|access-date=14 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303233428/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/icc/v12/iccv12ap404.pdf|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In 1854, Congress passed the [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]], which created the Territory of Kansas and opened the area for white settlement. It also authorized negotiation with Indian tribes regarding [[Indian removal|removal]]. The Delaware were reluctant to negotiate for yet another relocation, but they feared serious trouble with white settlers, and conflict developed.
As the Delaware were not considered United States citizens, they had no access to the courts and no way to enforce their property rights. The United States Army was to enforce their rights to reservation land after the Indian Agent had both posted a public notice warning trespassers and served written notice on them, a process generally considered onerous. Major B.F. Robinson, the Indian Agent appointed in 1855, did his best, but could not control the hundreds of white trespassers who stole stock, cut timber, and built houses and squatted on Delaware lands. By 1860, the Delaware had reached consensus to leave Kansas, which was in accord with the government's Indian removal policy.<ref>Pages 401 to 409. Weslager, ''The Delaware Indians''</ref>
====Oklahoma====
The main body of Lenape arrived in [[Indian Territory]] in the 1860s.<ref name=east>Helen M. Stiefmiller, [http://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entryname=DELAWARE%E2%80%93EASTERN "Delaware, Eastern."], Oklahoma Historical Society, accessed May 6, 2017</ref> The two [[federally recognized tribes]] of Lenape in Oklahoma are the [[Delaware Nation]], headquartered in [[Anadarko, Oklahoma]], and the [[Delaware Tribe of Indians]], headquartered in [[Bartlesville, Oklahoma]].<ref name=ok>[http://www.newsok.com/delaware-tribe-regains-federal-recognition/article/3390312 "Delaware Tribe regains federal recognition"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319160656/http://www.newsok.com/delaware-tribe-regains-federal-recognition/article/3390312 |date=March 19, 2016 }} ''NewsOk.'' 4 Aug 2009. Retrieved 5 August 2009.</ref>
The Delaware Tribe of Indians were required to purchase land from the reservation of the [[Cherokee Nation]]; they made two payments totaling $438,000. A court dispute followed over whether the sale included rights for the Delaware as citizens within the Cherokee Nation. While the dispute was unsettled, the [[Curtis Act of 1898]] dissolved tribal governments and ordered the allotment of communal tribal lands to individual households of members of tribes. <!-- The Lenape fought the act in the courts but lost, and in 18?? (date? if this is in response to Curtis Act, it can't be 1867) the courts ruled that the Delaware had only purchased rights to the land in Oklahoma for the lifetimes of the owners. --> After the lands were allotted in 160-acre (650,000 m<sup>2</sup>) lots to tribal members in 1907, the government sold "surplus" land to non-Indians.
====Texas====
* [[Spanish Texas]]
:The Delaware migrated into Texas in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Elements of the Delaware migrated from Missouri into Texas around 1820, settling around the [[Red River of the South|Red River]] and [[Sabine River (Texas–Louisiana)|Sabine River]]. The Delaware were peaceful and shared their territory in Spanish Texas with the [[Caddo]] and other immigrating bands, as well as with the Spanish and ever-increasing American population. This peaceful trend continued after Mexico won their independence from Spain in 1821.<ref name="Lipscomb">Carol A. Lipscomb, "DELAWARE INDIANS," '''[[Handbook of Texas Online]]'' [https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/bmd08], accessed July 8, 2012. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.</ref>
* [[Mexican Texas]]
:In 1828, Mexican General [[Manuel de Mier y Terán]] made an inspection of eastern Mexican Texas and estimated that the region housed between 150 and 200 Delaware families. The Delaware requested Mier y Terán to issue them land grants and send teachers, so they might learn to read and write the Spanish language. The general, impressed with how well they had [[Acculturation|adapted to the Mexican culture]], sent their request to [[Mexico City]], but the authorities never granted the Delaware any legal titles.
:The situation changed when the [[Texas Revolution]] began in 1835. Texas officials were eager to gain the support of the Texas tribes to their side and offered to recognize their land claims by sending three commissioners to negotiate a treaty. A treaty was agreed upon in February 1836 that mapped the boundaries of Indian lands, but this agreement was never officially ratified by the Texas government.<ref name="Lipscomb"/>
* Texas Republic
The Delaware remained friendly after Texas won its independence. [[Republic of Texas]] President [[Sam Houston]] favored a policy of peaceful relations with all tribes. He sought the services of the friendly Delaware and, in 1837, enlisted several Delaware to protect the frontier from hostile western tribes. Delaware scouts joined with Texas Rangers as they patrolled the western frontier. Houston also tried to get the Delaware land claims recognized, but his efforts were met only by opposition.
The next Texan President, Mirabeau B. Lamar, completely opposed all Indians. He considered them illegal intruders who threatened the settlers' safety and lands and issued an order for their removal from Texas. The Delaware were sent north of the Red River into Indian Territory, although a few scattered Delawares remained in Texas.
In 1841, Houston was reelected to a second term as president and his peaceful Indian policy was then reinstated. A [[Treaty of Bird's Fort|treaty]] with the remaining Delaware and a few other tribes was negotiated in 1843 at [[Bird's Fort, Texas|Fort Bird]] and the Delaware were enlisted to help him make peace with the [[Comanche]]. Delaware scouts and their families were allowed to settle along the Brazos and Bosque rivers in order to influence the Comanche to come to the Texas government for a peace conference. The plan was successful and the Delaware helped bring the Comanches to a treaty council in 1844.<ref name="Lipscomb"/>
* State of Texas
In 1845, the Republic of [[Texas]] agreed to annexation by the US to become an American state. The Delaware continued their peaceful policy with the Americans and served as interpreters, scouts, and diplomats for the US Army and the [[Indian Bureau]]. In 1847, [[John Meusebach]] was assisted by Jim Shaw (a Delaware), in settling the German communities in the [[Texas Hill Country]]. For the remainder of his life, Shaw worked as a military scout in West Texas. In 1848, John Conner (Delaware) guided the [[Chihuahua-El Paso Expedition]] and was granted a league of land by a special act of the Texas legislature in 1853. The expeditions of the map maker Randolph B. Marcy through West Texas in 1849, 1852, and 1854 were guided by [[Black Beaver]] (Delaware).
In 1854, despite the history of peaceful relations, the last of the Texas Delaware were moved by the American government to the [[Brazos Indian Reservation]] near [[Graham, Texas]]. In 1859 the US forced the remaining Delaware to remove from Texas to a location on the [[Washita River]] in the vicinity of present [[Anadarko, Oklahoma]].<ref name="Lipscomb"/>
===20th century===
In 1979, the United States [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]] revoked the tribal status of the Delaware living among Cherokee in Oklahoma. They began to count the Delaware as Cherokee. The Delaware had this decision overturned in 1996, when they were recognized by the federal government as a separate tribal nation.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}
===21st century===
The Cherokee Nation filed suit to overturn the independent federal recognition of the Delaware. The tribe lost federal recognition in a 2004 court ruling in favor of the Cherokee Nation, but regained it on July 28, 2009.<ref>[http://www.indiancountrytoday.com/national/plains/52660432.html "Delaware Tribe of Indians' federal recognition restored"], ''Indian Country Today.'' 7 Aug 2009 (retrieved 11 August 2009)</ref> After recognition, the tribe reorganized under the [[Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act]]. Members approved a constitution and by laws in a May 26, 2009, vote. Jerry Douglas was elected as tribal chief.<ref name=ok/>
In September 2000, the Delaware Nation of Oklahoma received {{Convert|11.5|acre}} of land in [[Thornbury Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1129&dat=20000919&id=tNtRAAAAIBAJ&pg=4789,6286829&hl=en|title=Delaware Indians may use land donated by couple as burial ground|newspaper=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |agency=Associated Press |date=September 19, 2000 |page=B-10 |access-date=April 14, 2018}}</ref>
In 2004, the [[Delaware Nation]] filed suit against Pennsylvania in the [[United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania]], seeking to reclaim {{convert|315|acre|km2}} included in the 1737 [[Walking Purchase]] to build a casino. In the suit titled ''The Delaware Nation v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania'', the plaintiffs, acting as the successor in interest and political continuation of the Lenni Lenape and of Lenape Chief [[Moses Tunda Tatamy]], claimed aboriginal and fee title to the 315 acres of land located in [[Forks Township, Northampton County, Pennsylvania|Forks Township]] in [[Northampton County, Pennsylvania|Northampton County]], near the town of [[Tatamy, Pennsylvania]]. After the Walking Purchase, Chief Tatamy was granted legal permission for him and his family to remain on this parcel of land, known as "Tatamy's Place". In addition to suing the state, the tribe also sued the township, the county and elected officials, including Gov. Ed Rendell.
Although the Walking Purchase forced the Lenape people to Oklahoma, not every Lenape lives in Oklahoma. Many Lenape continue to live in the Northeast. This community of people are the Munsee Lenape, and are currently in the process of applying for state recognition.<ref name=":02">{{cite web|last=Cooper|first=Kenny|date=30 July 2021|title='We Just Want to be Welcomed Back': The Lenape Seek a Return Home|url=https://whyy.org/articles/we-just-want-to-be-welcomed-back-the-lenape-seek-a-return-home/|url-status=live|access-date=30 October 2021}}</ref>
The court held that the justness of the extinguishment of [[aboriginal title]] is [[nonjusticiable]], including in the case of [[fraud]]. Because the extinguishment occurred prior to the passage of the first [[Indian Nonintercourse Act]] in 1790, that Act did not avail the Delaware. As a result, the court granted the Commonwealth's motion to dismiss. In its conclusion the court stated: "... we find that the Delaware Nation's aboriginal rights to Tatamy's Place were extinguished in 1737 and that, later, fee title to the land was granted to Chief Tatamy—not to the tribe as a collectivity."<ref>{{cite court |url=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-3rd-circuit/1177750.html|litigants=The Delaware Nation v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 250 |court=United States Court of Appeals, Third Circuit |website=Findlaw |access-date=April 14, 2018}}</ref>
Every four years, the Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania conducts the Rising Nation River Journey, during which the Nation paddles down the [[Delaware River]] from [[Hancock, New York]], to [[Cape May, New Jersey]]. Along the Journey, the Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania invites the public to sign the Treaty of Renewed Friendship, whose signees agree to recognize the Lenape as the indigenous inhabitants of the Lenapehoking and act as good stewards of the environment.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fulfilling a Prophecy: The Past and Present of the Lenape in Pennsylvania|url=https://www.penn.museum/sites/fap/sections.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania Cultural Center in [[Easton, Pennsylvania]], currently exhibits the University of Pennsylvania-hosted exhibit "The Past and Present of the Lenape in Pennsylvania" along with other exhibit items, educational materials, and Nation-made crafts.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cultural Center and Trading Post|url=https://www.lenape-nation.org/cultural-center|url-status=live|website=Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania}}</ref>
The Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania is not recognized by the federal or state authorities, but is currently applying for recognition at the [[State-recognized tribes in the United States|state level]].<ref name=":02"/>
==Contemporary tribes and organizations==
=== Federally recognized tribes ===
Three Lenape tribes are [[Federally recognized tribe|federally recognized]] in the United States. They are as follows:
* [[Delaware Nation]], [[Anadarko, Oklahoma]]<ref name="ncai_d">{{cite web|title=Tribal Directory: D|url=http://www.ncai.org/tribal-directory?letter=D|publisher=National Congress of American Indians|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
* [[Delaware Tribe of Indians]], [[Bartlesville, Oklahoma]]<ref name=ncai_d/>
* [[Stockbridge-Munsee Community]], [[Bowler, Wisconsin]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Tribal Directory|url=http://www.ncai.org/tribal-directory?utf8=%E2%9C%93&keyword=Stockbridge&submit=Search|publisher=National Congress of American Indians|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
===Canadian First Nations===
The Lenape who fled [[United States]] in the late 18th century settled in what is now [[Ontario]]. Canada recognizes three Lenape [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] with four [[Indian reserve]]s. They are all located in [[Southwestern Ontario]].
*[[Munsee-Delaware Nation]], Canadian reserve near [[St. Thomas, Ontario]].
*[[Moravian 47, Ontario|Moravian of the Thames First Nation]], Canadian reserve near [[Chatham-Kent]].
*[[Delaware of Six Nations]] (at [[Six Nations of the Grand River]]), two Canadian reserves near [[Brantford, Ontario]].<ref name="dtoi">{{cite web|title=Removal History of the Delaware Tribe|url=http://delawaretribe.org/services-and-programs/historic-preservation/removal-history-of-the-delaware-tribe/|website=Delaware Tribe of Indians|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
===State-recognized and unrecognized groups===
Three groups who claim descent from Lenape people are [[state-recognized tribe]]s.
* [[Lenape Indian Tribe of Delaware]], Delaware<ref name="ncai">{{cite web |title=Tribal Directory: Lenape |url=http://www.ncai.org/tribal-directory?utf8=%E2%9C%93&keyword=Lenape&submit=Search |website=National Congress of American Indians |access-date=14 July 2018}}</ref>
* [[Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape|Nanticoke-Lenni Lenape Tribal Nation]], New Jersey<ref name=ncai/>
* [[Ramapough Lenape Nation]], New Jersey<ref name=ncai/>
More than a dozen organizations in Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,<ref>{{cite web|title=Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania|url=https://www.lenape-nation.org/|access-date=2021-04-14|website=lenapenationofpa|language=en}}</ref> Virginia, and elsewhere claim descent from Lenape people and are [[unrecognized tribes]]. Unrecognized Lenape organizations in [[Idaho]] and [[Kansas]] have petitioned the United States federal government for recognition.<ref>[http://500nations.com/tribes/Tribes_Petitions.asp "Petitions for Federal Recognition."] ''500 Nations.'' Retrieved 22 Jan 2012.</ref>
==Notable historical Lenape people==
This includes only Lenape documented in history. Contemporary notable Lenape people are listed in the articles for the appropriate tribe.
<!-- Do not add living people to this list -->
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Richard C. Adams]] (1864–1921), Lenape author of collections of traditional narratives, legal advocate for Lenape in Washington, D.C.
* [[Black Beaver]] (1806–1880), trapper, trader and scout; first inductee into the American Indian Hall of Fame
* [[Buckongahelas]] (c. 1720–1805), Wolf clan war leader
* [[Nora Thompson Dean]] (1907–1984), Lenape linguist
* [[Indian Hannah]], aka Hannah Freeman (1730–1802); said to be the last of the Lenni-Lenape Indians in Chester County, Pennsylvania
* [[Charles Journeycake]] (1817–1894), chief of the Wolf clan from 1855 and principal chief from 1861; visited Washington, D.C., 24 times on his tribe's behalf<ref>S. H. Mitchell (1895) {{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref>
*Sachem [[Gelelemend|Killbuck (Gelelemend)]], Turtle clan leader<ref>[http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=226 Killbuck, Ohio History Central.] July 1, 2005</ref>
* [[Captain Jacobs]] (died 1756), war chief
* [[Neolin]] (18th century), Delaware prophet
* [[Chief Newcomer]] ([[Netawatwees]], c. 1686–1776), founder the village of Gekelmukpechunk ([[Newcomerstown]]), Ohio in the 1760s
* [[Oratam]] (16th century), sachem of the [[Hackensack (Native Americans)|Hackensack]]
* [[Captain Pipe]] (Hopocan), (c. 1725–c. 1818), 18th century chief and member of the Wolf Clan
* [[Pisquetomen]] (died 1762), chief who assisted [[Christian Frederick Post]] in negotiating the [[Treaty of Easton]] in 1758
* [[Sassoonan]] or Allumapees (c. 1675–1747), 18th century chief and member of the Turtle clan
* [[Shingas]] (fl. 1740–1763)), Turkey clan war leader
* [[Tamanend]] (c. 1625–c. 1701), leader reported to have negotiated treaty with [[William Penn]], and for whom [[Tammany Hall]] was named
* [[Tamaqua (Lenape chief)|Tamaqua]] (died c. 1770), chief who led peace negotiations following [[Pontiac's War]]
* [[Teedyuscung]] ((1700–1763), leader of the eastern Delawares
* [[Turtleheart]], chief and warrior who represented the Delaware Nation at the [[Treaty of Fort Stanwix]] in 1768
* [[White Eyes]] (c. 1730–1778), Turtle clan peace chief who negotiated the [[Treaty of Fort Pitt]]
{{div col end}}
==See also==
{{portal|Delaware}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Burial Ridge]]
* [[Esopus people]]
* [[Hell Town, Ohio]] (Lenape settlement in Ohio)
* [[Lenape settlements]]
* [[Mohicans]]
* [[Munsee]]
* [[Native American tribes in Maryland]]
* [[Okehocking people]]
* [[Ramapough Mountain Indians]]
* [[Shamokin (village)|Shamokin]]
* [[Unalachtigo Lenape]]
* [[Walking Purchase]]
* [[Wappinger]]
{{div col end}}
==Commentary==
{{more citations needed|section|date=March 2021}}
{{reflist|group=notes|refs=
<ref name="description" group="notes">Description of the Lenape peoples (Delaware nations) historic territories inside the [[divides]] of the frequently mountainous [[landforms]] flanking the [[Delaware River]]'s [[drainage basin]]. These terrains encompass from South to North and then counter-clockwise:
* the shores from the east-shore mouth of the river and the sea coast to Western Long Island (all of both colonial [[New Amsterdam|New York City]] and [[New Sweden|New Jersey]]), and
* portions of Western Connecticut up to the latitude of the Massachusetts corner of today's boundaries{{mdash }}making the eastern bounds of their influence, thence their region extended:
* westerly past the region around [[Albany, NY]] to the [[Susquehanna River]] side of the [[Catskills]], then
* southerly through the eastern [[Pocono Mountains|Poconos]] outside the rival [[Susquehannock]] lands past [[Province of Pennsylvania|Eastern Pennsylvania]] then southerly past the site of [[History of Philadelphia|Colonial Philadelphia]] past the west bank mouth of the Delaware and extending south from that point along a stretch of sea coast in northern colonial [[Delaware]].
The Susquehanna-Delaware watershed divides bound the frequently contested '''hunting grounds''' between the rival [[Susquehannock]] peoples and the Lenape peoples, whilst the Catskills and Berkshires played a similar boundary role in the northern regions of their original colonial era range.</ref>
}}
{{Notelist}}
==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==References==
* Aberg, Alf. ''The People of New Sweden: Our Colony on the Delaware River, 1638–1655.'' ([[Natur & Kultur]], 1988). {{ISBN|91-27-01909-8}}.
* Acrelius, Israel. (Translated from Swedish with an introduction and notes by W.M. Reynolds). ''A History of New Sweden; or, the Settlements on the River Delaware.'' Ulan Press, 2011. {{ASIN|B009SMVNPW}}.
* Bierhorst, John. ''Mythology of the Lenape: Guide and Texts''. University of Arizona Press, 1995. {{ISBN|978-0-8165-1573-8}}.
* Brinton, Daniel G., C.F. Denke, and Albert Anthony. ''A Lenâpé – English Dictionary''. Biblio Bazaar, 2009. {{ISBN|978-1-103-14922-3}}.
* Burrows, Edward G. and Mike. Wallace. ''Gotham: A History of New York City to 1989.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-19-514049-4}}.
* Carman, Alan, E. ''Footprints in Time: A History and Ethnology of The Lenape-Delaware Indian Culture.'' Trafford Publishing, 2013. {{ISBN|978-1-4669-0742-3}}.
* Dalton, Anne. ''The Lenape of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Delaware, Wisconsin, Oklahoma, and Ontario (The Library of Native Americans).'' Powerkids Publishing, 2005. {{ISBN|978-1-4042-2872-6}}.
* De Valinger, Leon, Jr. and C.A. Weslager. ''Indian Land Sales In Delaware: And A Discussion Of The Family Hunting Territory Question In Delaware''. Literary Licensing LLC, 2013. {{ISBN|978-1-258-62207-7}}.
* Donehoo, George P. ''A History of the Indian Villages and Place Names in Pennsylvania.'' Wennawoods Publishing, 1997. {{ISBN|978-1-889037-11-0}}.
* Dreibelbis, Dana E., "The Use of Microstructural Growth Patterns of Mercenaria Mercenaria to Determine the Prehistoric Seasons of Harvest at Tuckerton Midden, Tuckerton, New Jersey", pp. 33, thesis, Princeton University, 1978.
* Frantz, Donald G. and Norma Jean Russell. ''Blackfoot Dictionary of Stems, Roots, and Affixes''. University of Toronto Press, 1995. {{ISBN|978-0-8020-7136-1}}.
* Fur, Gunglong. ''A Nation of Women: Gender and Colonial Encounters Among the Delaware Indians'' (Early American Studies). University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012. {{ISBN|978-0-8122-2205-0}}.
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Goddard |first=Ives |editor-first=Bruce G. |editor-last=Trigger |encyclopedia=Handbook of North American Indians |volume=15: Northeast |title=Delaware |year=1978 |location=Washington |pages=213–239}}
* Grumet, Robert S. ''The Lenapes'' (Indians of North America). Chelsea House Publishing, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-7910-0385-5}}.
* Harrington, Mark. ''A Preliminary Sketch of Lenape Culture''. New Era Printing Company, 1913. {{ASIN|B0008C0OBU}}.
* Harrington, Mark. ''Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape.'' Forgotten Books, 2012. {{ASIN|B008J7N986}}.
* Harrington, Mark R. ''Vestiges of Material Culture Among the Canadian Delawares''. New Era Printing Company, 1908. {{ASIN|B0008AV2JU}}.
* Harrington, Mark R. ''The Indians of New Jersey: Dickon Among the Lenapes''. Rutgers University Press, 1963. {{ISBN|978-0-8135-0425-4}}.
* Heckewelder, John G.E. ''The History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and Neighboring States''. Uhlan Publishing, 2012. {{ASIN|B009UTU6LK}}.
* Heckewelder, John G.E. ''Names Which the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians Gave to Rivers, Streams, and Localities'' (Classic Reprint). Forgotten Books, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-4400-5862-2}}.
* Hoffecker, Carol E., Richard Waldron, Lorraine E. Williams, and Barbara E. Benson (editors). ''New Sweden in America''. University of Delaware Press, 1995.
* Jennings, Francis. ''Empire of Fortune.'' W. W. Norton and Company, 1990. {{ISBN|978-0-393-30640-8}}.
* Jennings, Francis. ''The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire.'' W. W. Norton and Company, 1990. {{ISBN|978-0-393-30302-5}}.
* Jennings, Francis. ''The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League.'' Syracuse University Press, 1995. {{ISBN|978-0-8156-2650-3}}.
* Johnson, Amandus. ''The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware: Their History and Relation to the Indians, Dutch and English, 1638–1664 : With an Account of the South, the New Sweden Company, and the American Companies, and the Efforts of Sweden to Regain the Colony.'' University of Pennsylvania, 1911. {{ASIN|B000KJFFCY}}.
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=1961 |title=The American Heritage Book of Indians
|author=Editor: Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., by The editors of American Heritage Magazine
|editor=pages 188–189|publisher=American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc.
|lccn=61014871
}}
* Kalter, Susan (editor). ''Benjamin Franklin, Pennsylvania, and the First Nations: The Treaties of 1736–62.'' University of Illinois Press, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-252-03035-2}}.
* Kraft, Herbert. ''The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage, 10,000 BC to AD 2000.'' Lenape Books, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-935137-03-3}}.
* Kurlansky, Mark. ''The Big Oyster: History on the Half Shell''. Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-345-47639-5}}.
* Lindestrom, Peter. (Transcribed and edited by Amandus Johnson of the Swedish Colonial Society, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania). ''Geographia Americae: With an Account of the Delaware Indians, Based on Surveys and Notes made in 1654–1656 by Peter Lindestrom''. Arno Press, 1979. {{ISBN|978-0-405-11648-3}}.
* Marsh, Dawn G. ''A Lenape Among the Quakers: The Life of Hannah Freeman.'' University of Nebraska Press, 2014. {{ISBN|978-0-8032-4840-3}}.
* Middleton, Sam (Chief Mountain, "Neen Ees To-ko). ''Blackfoot Confederacy, Ancient and Modern.'' Kainai Chieftainship, 1951.
* Mitchell, S. H. Internet Archive The Indian Chief, Journeycake. Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1895.
* Myers, Albert Cook. ''William Penn's Own Account of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians''. Middle Atlantic Press, 1981. {{ISBN|978-0-912608-13-6}}.
* Myers, Albert Cook (editor). ''Narratives of Early Pennsylvania, West New Jersey and Delaware, 1630–1707''. Nabu Press, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-279-95624-3}}.
* Newcomb, William W. ''The Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware Indians''. University of Michigan, 1956. {{ASIN|B0007EFEXW}}.
* Newman, Andrew. ''On Records: Delaware Indians, Colonists, and the Media of History and Memory.'' Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2012. {{ISBN|978-0-8032-3986-9}}.
* Olmstead, Earl P. ''Blackcoats Among the Delaware: David Zeisberger on the Ohio Frontier''. Kent State University Press, 1991. {{ISBN|978-0-87338-434-6}}.
* Pritzker, Barry M. ''A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-19-513877-1}}.
* Repsher, Donald R. "Indian Place Names in Bucks County". As cited in https://web.archive.org/web/20131203011343/http://www.lenapenation.org/main.html. Retrieved March 15, 2012.
* Rice, Phillip W. ''English-Lenape Dictionary''. N.P., N.D. See https://web.archive.org/web/20131203011343/http://www.lenapenation.org/main.html.
* Schutt, Amy C. ''Peoples of the River Valleys: The Odyssey of the Delaware Indians'' (Early American Studies). University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-8122-2024-7}}.
* Soderlund, Jean R. ''Lenape Country: Delaware Valley Society before William Penn.'' Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014.
* Spady, James. "[https://www.academia.edu/479943/_Colonialism_and_the_Discursive_Antecedents_of_Penns_Treaty_with_the_Indians_in_William_A._Pencak_and_Daniel_K._Richter_eds._From_Native_America_to_Penns_Woods_Colonists_Indians_and_the_Racial_Construction_of_Pennsylvania_State_College_Pennsylvania_State_University_Press_2004_18-40 Colonialism and the Discursive Antecedents of Penn's Treaty with the Indians]". Daniel K. Richter and William A. Pencak, eds. ''Friends and Enemies in Penn's Woods: Indians, Colonists, and the Racial Construction of Pennsylvania''. Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004: 18–40.
* Trowbridge, C.C. ''Delaware Indian Language of 1824'' (American Language Reprints Supplement Series; edited by James A. Rementer). Evolution Publications and Manufacturing, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1-935228-06-6}}.
* Van Doren, Carl, and Julian P. Boyd. ''Indian Treaties Printed by Benjamin Franklin, 1736–1762''. Nabu Press, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1-178-59363-1}}.
* Vansina, Jan. ''Oral Tradition as History.'' Oxford, 1985. {{ISBN|0-85255-007-3}}.
* Wallace, Paul, A.W. ''Indians in Pennsylvania'' (Revised Edition). Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-89271-017-1}}.
* Wallace, Paul, A.W. ''Indian Paths of Pennsylvania.'' Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1998. {{ISBN|978-0-89271-090-4}}.
* Weslager, Clinton, Alfred (C.A). ''A Brief Account of the Indians of Delaware.'' Literary Licensing, LLC, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-258-23895-7}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''A Man and His Ship: Peter Minuit and the Kalmar Nyckel''. Middle Atlantic Press, 1990. {{ISBN|978-0-9625563-1-9}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''Delaware's Buried Past: A Story of Archeological Adventure''. Rutgers University Press, 1968. {{ASIN|B000KN4Y3G}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''Delaware's Forgotten Folk: The Story of the Moors and Nanticokes''. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-8122-1983-8}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''Delaware's Forgotten River: The Story of the Christina''. Hambleton Company, 1947. {{ASIN|B0006D8AEO}}.
* Weslager, C.A., and A. R. Dunlap. ''Dutch Explorers, Traders And Settlers In The Delaware Valley, 1609–1664''. Literary Licensing, LLC, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1-258-17789-8}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''Magic Medicines of the Indians''. Signet, 1974. {{ASIN|B001VIUW08}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''New Sweden on the Delaware'' (Middle Atlantic Press, 1988). {{ISBN|0-912608-65-X}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''Red Men on the Brandywine'' (New and Enlarged Edition). Hambleton Company, 1953. {{ASIN|B00EHSFKEC}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''The Delaware Indians: A History.'' New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1972. {{ISBN|0-8135-0702-2}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''The Delaware Indian Westward Migration: With the Texts of Two Manuscripts, 1821–22, Responding to General Lewis Cass's Inquiries about Lenape Culture and Language''. Middle Atlantic Press, 1978. {{ISBN|978-0-912608-06-8}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''The English on the Delaware: 1610–1682''. Rutgers University Press, 1967. {{ISBN|978-0-8135-0548-0}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''The Nanticoke Indians: A Refugee Tribal Group of Pennsylvania.'' Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1948). {{ASIN|B0007ED7Z4}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''The Swedes and Dutch at New Castle.'' Middle Atlantic Press, 1990. {{ISBN|978-0-912608-50-1}}.
* Zeisberger, David. ''A Lenâpé-English Dictionary: From An Anonymous [Manuscript] In The Archives Of The Moravian Church At Bethlehem, [Pennsylvania].'' Nabu Press, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-278-79951-3}}.
* Zeisberger, David. ''David Zeisberger's History of Northern American Indians'' (Classic Reprint). Forgotten Books, 2012. {{ASIN|B008HTRBDK}}.
* Zeisberger, David. ''Grammar of the Language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians''. Forgotten Books, 2012. {{ASIN|B008LQRNGO}}.
* Zeisberger, David. ''The Diary of David Zeisberger: A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, Volume 1''. Ulan Press, 2012. {{ASIN|B00A6PBD82}}.
* Zeisberger, David. ''The Diary of David Zeisberger: A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, Volume 2''. Ulan Press, 2012. {{ASIN|B009L4SVN4}}.
* Zeisberger, David. ''Zeisberger's Indian Dictionary: English, German, Iroquois—The Onondaga and Algonquin—The Delaware''. Harvard University Press, 1887. {{ISBN|1-104-25351-8}}. "The Delaware" that Zeisberger translated was Munsee, and not Unami.
==Further reading==
* Adams, Richard Calmit, ''The Delaware Indians, a brief history'', Hope Farm Press (Saugerties, NY 1995) [originally published by Government Printing Office, (Washington, DC 1909)]
* Bierhorst, John. ''The White Deer and Other Stories Told by the Lenape''. New York: W. Morrow, 1995. {{ISBN|0-688-12900-5}}
* Brown, James W. and Rita T. Kohn, eds. [http://www.iupress.indiana.edu/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=57170 ''Long Journey Home''] {{ISBN|978-0-253-34968-2}}. Indiana University Press (2007).
* {{Cite book |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-8061-4062-9 |oclc=317361732 |volume=262 |last=Grumet |first=Robert Steven |title=The Munsee Indians: a history |location=Norman |series=Civilization of the American Indian |year=2009}}
* Kraft, Herbert: ''The Lenape: Archaeology, History, and Ethnography.'' New Jersey Historical Society, 1987. {{ISBN|978-0-911020-14-4}}.
* Kraft, Herbert. ''The Lenape or Delaware Indians: The Original People of New Jersey, Southeastern New York State, Eastern Pennsylvania, northern Delaware and parts of western Connecticut''. Lenape Books, 1996. {{ISBN|978-0-935137-01-9}}.
* O'Meara, John, ''Delaware-English / English-Delaware dictionary'', Toronto: University of Toronto Press (1996) {{ISBN|0-8020-0670-1}}.
* [[Paul Otto (historian)|Otto, Paul]], ''The Dutch-Munsee Encounter in America: The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Hudson Valley'' (New York: Berghahn Books, 2006). {{ISBN|1-57181-672-0}}
* Pritchard, Evan T., ''Native New Yorkers: The Legacy of the Algonquin People of New York.'' Council Oak Books: San Francisco, 2002, 2007. {{ISBN|1-57178-107-2}}.
* Richter, Conrad, ''The Light In The Forest.'' New York: 1953.
== External links ==
{{Commons category|Lenape}}
{{EB1911 poster|Delaware Indians|Lenape}}
* {{Official website|https://www.delawarenation-nsn.gov/}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111102124537/http://www.delawaretribeofindians.nsn.us/ Delaware Tribe of Indians], official website
* [https://mohican.com/ Stockbridge-Munsee Community], official website
* [https://www.thelenapecenter.com/ Lenape Center]
* [https://www.museumofindianculture.org/ Museum of Indian Culture]
* [http://www.gilwell.com/lenape/index.htm Lenape/English dictionary]
* [http://www.talk-lenape.org/ Lenape (Southern Unami) Talking Dictionary]
* {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Delaware (tribe)|display=Delaware. One of the most important tribes of Algonquian stock |short=x}}
{{Native Americans in Ohio}}
{{Native American Tribes in Oklahoma}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Lenape}}
[[Category:Lenape| ]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands]]
[[Category:Eastern Algonquian peoples]]
[[Category:Native American history of Delaware]]
[[Category:Native American history of Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Native American history of New Jersey]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Delaware]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in New Jersey]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in New York (state)]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:People of New Netherland]]
[[Category:First Nations in Ontario]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Indiana]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Ohio]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Algonquian ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Texas]]
[[Category:Native Americans in the American Revolution]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{short description|Indigenous people originally from Lenapehoking, now the Mid-Atlantic United States}}
{{hatnote|"Delaware Indians" and "Delaware people" redirect here. For other Native American peoples from present-day Delaware, see [[:Category:Native American tribes in Delaware]]. For individual people from the state of Delaware, see [[List of people from Delaware]]. For other uses, see [[Lenape (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2011}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = Lenape<br />Delaware people
|native_name= Lënapeyok
|image = [[Image:Lenape Languages.png|250px]]
|caption = [[Lenapehoking]], the original Lenape territory.<ref name="n10"/> Munsee speakers in the north, Unalachtigo-speakers in the center, and Unami-speakers in the south.<ref>Fariello, Leonardo A. [http://www.whippanong.org/hanover.html "A Place Called Whippany"], ''Whippanong Library,'' 2000 (retrieved 19 July 2011)</ref><ref>Kraft, ''The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage,''{{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref> West/left side geographic limits correspond closely to ridgelines ([[drainage divide]]s) between the Susquehanna and Delaware river valleys.
|population = {{circa}} 16,000
| total_ref = <ref name=p422>Pritzker 422</ref>
|region1 = [[United States]] ([[Oklahoma]])
|pop1 = 11,195 (2010)
|ref1 = <ref>[http://www.ok.gov/oiac/Publications/ "Pocket Pictorial."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406044653/http://www.ok.gov/oiac/Publications/|date=2010-04-06}} ''Oklahoma Indian Affairs Commission.'' 2010: 13. Retrieved 10 June 2010.</ref>
|region2 = [[United States]] ([[Wisconsin]])
|pop2 = 1,565
|ref2 =
|region3 = [[Canada]] ([[Ontario]])
|pop3 = 2,300
|ref3 =
|languages = English, [[Munsee language|Munsee]], and formerly [[Unami language|Unami]]<ref name=p422/>
|religions = [[Christianity]], [[Native American Church]],<br />traditional tribal religion
|related = Other [[Algonquian peoples]]
|footnotes =
}}
[[File:Lenape01.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Jennie Bobb and her daughter, Nellie Longhat (both Delaware), Oklahoma, 1915<ref>[http://www.allaboutshoes.ca/en/paths_across/art_on_prairies/index_4.php "Art on the Prairies: Delaware"], ''All About the Shoes.'' Retrieved 19 July 2011.</ref>]]
The '''Lenape''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|l|ə|ˈ|n|ɑː|p|i}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɛ|n|ə|p|i}}, or Lenape {{IPA-all|ləˈnɑːpe}},<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of Lenape|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Lenape|website=Merriam Webster|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813041752/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Lenape|archive-date=August 13, 2019|access-date=July 6, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.talk-lenape.org/detail?id=3882 | title=The Lenape Talking Dictionary | Detailed Entry View - Delaware Indian; Lenape }}</ref> {{lang-del|'''Lënapeyok'''}}<ref>Online Lenape Talking Dictionary, "Delaware Indians", [https://www.talk-lenape.org/detail?id=3901 Link]</ref>) also called the '''Leni Lenape''',<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/amerbegin/power/text6/PennIndians.pdf|title=William Penn on the Leni Lenape (Delaware)|publisher=National Humanities Center|year=2006|pages=1–3}}</ref> '''Lenni Lenape''' and '''Delaware''' people,<ref name="AmHeritageBk">{{cite book|last=William|first=Brandon|url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage00bran|title=The American Heritage Book of Indians|publisher=American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc.|year=1961|editor=Alvin M.|editor-first=Josephy, Jr.|pages=[https://archive.org/details/americanheritage00bran/page/180 180–211]|lccn=61-14871|url-access=registration}}</ref> are an [[indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands]], who live in the United States and Canada.<ref name=p422/> Their historical territory included present-day northeastern [[Delaware]], [[New Jersey]] and eastern [[Pennsylvania]] along the [[Delaware River]] watershed, [[History of New York City (prehistory–1664)|New York City]], western [[Long Island]], and the lower [[Hudson Valley]].<ref name="description" group="notes" /> Today, Lenape people belong to the [[Delaware Nation]] and [[Delaware Tribe of Indians]] in [[Oklahoma]]; the [[Stockbridge–Munsee Community]] in [[Wisconsin]]; and the [[Munsee-Delaware Nation]], [[Delaware Nation at Moraviantown|Moravian of the Thames First Nation]], and [[Six Nations of the Grand River|Delaware of Six Nations]] in [[Ontario]].
The Lenape have a [[matrilineality|matrilineal]] clan system and historically were [[matrilocal residence|matrilocal]].
During the last decades of the 18th century, most Lenape were [[Indian removal|removed from their homeland]] by expanding European colonies.<ref name=josephy/> The divisions and troubles of the [[American Revolutionary War]] and United States' independence pushed them farther west. In the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the [[eastern United States]] to the [[Indian Territory]] (present-day Oklahoma and surrounding territory) under the [[Indian removal]] policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in [[Oklahoma]], with some other communities in [[Wisconsin]] and [[Ontario]].
==sussy ==
The name ''Lenni Lenape'', also ''Leni Lenape'' and ''Lenni Lenapi'', comes from their autonym, ''{{Lang|del|Lenni}}'', which may mean "genuine, pure, real, original", and ''{{Lang|one|Lenape}}'', meaning "real person" or "original person"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/Lenape#etymonline_v_6680 "Online Etymology Dictionary."] Retrieved 10 Oct 2019.</ref> ([[cf.]] [[Anishinaabe]], in which ''{{Lang|del|-naabe}}'', cognate with ''{{Lang|del|Lenape}}'', means "man" or "male" {{Citation needed|reason=seems to contradict the etymology of Lenape on Online Etymology Dictionary|date=October 2019}}). Alternately, ''{{Lang|del|lënu}}'' may be translated as "man".<ref name=talking>[http://www.talk-lenape.org/search.php?q=man&ls=english&x=0&y=0 "Lenape Talking Dictionary."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203010003/http://www.talk-lenape.org/search.php?q=man&ls=english&x=0&y=0 |date=2013-12-03 }} ''[[Delaware Tribe of Indians]].'' Retrieved 2 Dec 2013.</ref>
The Lenape, when first encountered by Europeans, were a loose association of related peoples who spoke similar languages and shared familial bonds in an area known as [[Lenapehoking]],<ref name=n10>Newman 10</ref> the Lenape traditional territory, which spanned what is now eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Lower New York, and eastern Delaware.
The tribe's common name ''Delaware'' is not of Native American origin. English colonists named the [[Delaware River]] for the first governor of the [[Province of Virginia]], [[Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr]], whose title was ultimately derived from [[French language|French]]. (For etymology of the surname, see [[Earl De La Warr#Etymology|Earl De La Warr§Etymology]].) The English colonists then began to call the Lenape the "Delaware Indians" because of where they lived. Swedish colonists also settled in the area, and Swedish-language sources listed the Lenape as the ''Renappi''.<ref>Goddard 235</ref>
==Territory==
{{Main|Lenapehoking}}
[[File:Lenapehoking.png|thumb|upright|Traditional Confederations of Lenape lands, the [[Lenapehoking]], not showing any of the several divisions governed by matriarchies]]
Traditional Lenape lands, the [[Lenapehoking]], was a large territory that encompassed the [[Delaware Valley]] of eastern Pennsylvania and [[New Jersey]] from the north bank of the [[Lehigh River]] along the west bank of the Delaware then south into [[Delaware]] and the [[Delaware Bay]]. Their lands also extended west from western [[Long Island]] and [[New York Bay]], across the [[Lower Hudson Valley]] in New York into the lower [[Catskills]] and a sliver of the upper edge of the [[North Branch Susquehanna River]]. On the west side, the Lenape lived in numerous small towns along the rivers and streams that fed the waterways, and likely shared the hunting territory of the [[Schuylkill River]] [[Drainage basin|watershed]] with the rival [[Iroquoian Peoples|Iroquoian]] [[Susquehannock]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
==Languages==
The [[Unami language|Unami]] and [[Munsee language]]s belong to the Eastern [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian language group]] and are largely [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]]. Although the Unami and Munsee speakers people are related, they consider themselves as distinct, as they used different words and lived on opposite sides of the [[Kittatinny Mountain|Kitatinny Mountains]] of modern New Jersey.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}}{{original research inline|date=February 2018}} The German and English-speaking Moravian missionary [[John Heckewelder]] wrote: <blockquote>"The {{Not a typo|Monsey}} {{Sic|tong}} is quite different even though {{Bracket|it and Unami}} came out of one parent language."<ref>Heckewelder ''The History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and Neighboring States'', 52</ref></blockquote> Today, most who continue to speak the language are tribal elders, although some young Lenape youth and adults learn their language.
[[William Penn]], who first met the Lenape in 1682, stated that the Unami used the following words: "mother" was ''{{Lang|unm|anna}}'', "brother" was ''{{Lang|unm|isseemus}}'', "friend" was ''{{Lang|unm|netap}}''. Penn instructed his fellow English colonists: "If one asks them for anything they have not, they will answer, ''{{Lang|unm|mattá ne hattá}}'', which to translate is, 'not I have,' instead of 'I have not'."<ref>Myers, ''William Penn's Own Account of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians'', 23–24</ref>
The Lenape language used to be exclusively a spoken language. However, in 2002, the Lenape Nation received grant money to fund The Lenape Talking Dictionary, preserving and digitizing the Southern Unami dialect. This language is currently recognized by both the Oklahoma Lenape and the Delaware Valley Lenape.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021|title=About Us|url=https://www.talk-lenape.org/about-us|url-status=live|access-date=25 October 2021|website=LENAPE TALKING DICTIONARY By English WORD or PHRASE}}</ref>
The nation, led by Professor Shelly DePaul of [[Swarthmore College]], is researching and revamping the Lenape language for future generations to more easily learn. Depaul collaborated with elders and transcribed decades worth of documents to teach a Lenape class at Swathmore College starting in 2009.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harrison|first=David|title=The Last Speakers: The Quest to Save the World's Most Endangered Languages|publisher=National Geographic|year=2010|isbn=978-1426204616|pages=256–260}}</ref> Research shows that voluntary, locally based language practice and learning is key to restoring and maintaining a fading language.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hornberger|first1=Nancy|last2=De Korne|first2=Haley|title=Ways of Talking (and Acting) About Language Reclamation: An Ethnographic Perspective on Learning Lenape in Pennsylvania|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15348458.2016.1113135?scroll=top&needAccess=true|journal=Journal of Language, Identity & Education|year=2016|volume=15|pages=44–58|doi=10.1080/15348458.2016.1113135|s2cid=146277852}}</ref> There is some disagreement within the Lenape Nation on whether the language should be taught as adapted to the times or taught as historically accurate. DePaul's approach is focused on a "living language" philosophy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoffmann|first=Maureen|date=May 2009|title=Endangered Languages, Linguistics, and Culture: Researching and Reviving the Unami Language of the Lenape|url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.499.8475&rep=rep1&type=pdf|url-status=live|access-date=2021-11-14|website=citeseerx.ist.psu.edu|citeseerx=10.1.1.499.8475}}</ref>
==Society==
{{see also|Lenape mythology}}
=== Clans and kinship systems===
At the time of first European contact, a Lenape person would have identified primarily with his or her immediate family and clan, friends, and/or village unit; then with surrounding and familiar village units. Next with more distant neighbors who spoke the same dialect; and ultimately, with all those in the surrounding area who spoke mutually comprehensible languages, including the [[Nanticoke people]], who lived to their south and west in present western Delaware and eastern Maryland, and the Munsee, who lived to their north.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} Among many [[Algonquian peoples]] along the East Coast, the Lenape were considered the "grandfathers" from whom other Algonquian-speaking peoples originated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nanticoke-lenape.info/history.htm|title=Our Tribal History...|website=www.nanticoke-lenape.info|access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref>
The Lenape have three clans at the end of the 17th century, each of which historically had twelve sub-clans:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Carman |first1=Alan E. |title=Footprints in Time: A History and Ethnology of The Lenape-Delaware Indian Culture |date=September 16, 2013 |publisher=Trafford |isbn=978-1466907423 |pages=88–90}}</ref>
* Wolf, ''Tùkwsit<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.talk-lenape.org/results?query=wolf+clan |title = The Lenape Talking Dictionary {{pipe}} Search Results of "wolf clan" English to Lenape}}</ref>''
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
:* Big Feet, ''Mä an'greet''
:* Yellow Tree, ''Wisawhìtkuk<ref>{{cite web | url=http://talk-lenape.org/detail?id=11280 |title = The Lenape Talking Dictionary {{pipe}} Detailed Entry View – alternate name or group in the Tùkwsit (Wolf) clan (Lit. – Yellow Trees)}}</ref>''
:* Pulling Corn, ''Pä-sakun'a'-mon''
:* Care Enterer, ''We-yar-nih'kä-to''
:* Across the River, ''Toosh-war-ka'ma''
:* Vermillion, ''O-lum'-a-ne''
:* Dog standing by fireside, ''Pun-ar'-you''
:* Long Body, ''Kwin-eek'cha''
:* Digging, ''Moon-har-tar'ne''
:* Pulling up Stream, ''Non-har'-min''
:* Brush Log, ''Long-ush-har-kar'-to''
:* Bringing Along, ''Maw-soo-toh''
{{div col end}}
* Turtle, ''Pùkuwànku<ref>{{cite web | url=http://talk-lenape.org/detail?id=8924 |title = The Lenape Talking Dictionary {{pipe}} Detailed Entry View – turtle clan}}</ref>''
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
:* Ruler, ''O-ka-ho'-ki''
:* High Bank Shore, ''Ta-ko-ong'-o-to''
:* Drawing Down Hill, ''See-har-ong'-o-to''
:* Elector, ''Ole-har-kar-me'kar-to''
:* Brave, ''Ma-har-o-luk'-ti''
:* Green Leaves, ''Toosh-ki-pa-kwis-i''
:* Smallest Turtle, ''Tung-ul-ung'-si''
:* Little Turtle, ''We-lung-ung-sil''
:* Snapping Turtle, ''Lee-kwin-a-i'''
:* Deer, ''Kwis-aese-kees'to''
{{div col end}}
* Turkey, ''Pële<ref>{{cite web | url=http://talk-lenape.org/detail?id=8399 |title = The Lenape Talking Dictionary {{pipe}} Detailed Entry View – Fowl (Turkey) clan of the Lenape}}</ref>''
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
:* Big Bird, ''Mor-har-ä-lä''
:* Bird's Cry, ''Le-le-wa'-you''
:* Eye Pain, ''Moo-kwung-wa-ho'ki''
:* Scratch the Path, ''Moo-har-mo-wi-kar'-nu''
:* Opossum Ground, ''O-ping-ho'-ki''
:* Old Shin, ''Muh-ho-we-kä'-ken''
:* Drift Log, ''Tong-o-nä-o-to''
:* Living in Water, ''Nool-a-mar-lar'-mo''
:* Root Digger, ''Muh-krent-har'-ne''
:* Red Face, ''Mur-karm-huk-se''
:* Pine Region, ''Koo-wä-ho'ke''
:* Ground Scratcher, ''Oo-ckuk'-ham''
{{div col end}}
Lenape [[kinship]] system has [[matrilineal]] clans, that is, children belong to their mother's clan, from which they gain social status and identity. The mother's eldest brother was more significant as a mentor to the male children than was their father, who was generally of another clan. Hereditary leadership passed through the maternal line,<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> and women elders could remove leaders of whom they disapproved. Agricultural land was managed by women and allotted according to the subsistence needs of their extended families. Families were [[matrilocal]]; newlywed couples would live with the bride's family, where her mother and sisters could also assist her with her growing family.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/>
By 1682, when William Penn arrived to his American commonwealth, the Lenape had been so reduced by disease, famine, and war that the sub-clan mothers had reluctantly resolved to consolidate their families into the main clan family.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> This is why William Penn and all those after him believed that the Lenape clans had always only had three divisions (Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf) when, in fact, they had over thirty on the eve of European contact.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/>
[[File:Susie Elkhair-Deleware Tribe of Indians-(Lenape).jpg|thumb|upright|Susie Elkhair (died 1926) of the [[Delaware Tribe of Indians]], wearing [[ribbonwork]] shawl]]
Members of each clan were found throughout Lenape territory and clan lineage was traced through the mother. While clan mothers controlled the land, the houses, and the families, the clan fathers provided the meat, cleared the fields, built the houses, and protected the clan.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> Upon reaching adulthood, a Lenape male would [[exogamy|marry outside of his clan]].<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> The practice effectively prevented inbreeding, even among individuals whose kinship was obscure or unknown.{{clarify|date=August 2021}} This means that a male from the Turkey Clan was expected to marry a female from either the Turtle or Wolf clans. His children, however, would not belong to the Turkey Clan, but to the mother's clan. As such, a person's mother's brothers (the person's matrilineal uncles) played a large role in his or her life as they shared the same clan lineage.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> Within a marriage itself, men and women had relatively separate and equal rights, each controlling their own property and debts, showing further signs of a woman's power in the hierarchical structure.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Caffrey|first=Margaret M.|date=2000|title=Complementary Power: Men and Women of the Lenni Lenape|journal=American Indian Quarterly|volume=24|issue=1|pages=44–63|jstor=1185990|issn=0095-182X}}</ref>
As in the case of the [[Iroquois]] and [[Susquehannock]]s, the animosity of differences and competitions spanned many generations, and in general tribes with each of the different language groups became traditional enemies in the areas they'd meet.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} On the other hand, The New American Book of Indians points out that competition, trade, and wary relations were far more common than outright warfare—but both larger societies had traditions of 'proving' (blooding) new (or young) warriors by'' '[[counting coup]]' on raids'' into another tribes territories.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/>{{efn |One big cultural change occurred during the [[Beaver Wars]]—instead of honor raids for bragging rights by stealing cattle, food stocks, weapons, or women, the Iroquois (probably having heard of European wars of conquest) began slash and burn campaigns, often raiding in mid-winter to drive out targeted populations and despoiling their productive lands and food stocks.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} The Iroquois steamrolled{{weasel inline|date=April 2017}} a large variety of tribes of both Algonkian and Iroquoian language groups as they established dominance over a large range, and became the major political factor any English and French decision makers had to consider in making any policy for over a hundred years.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> Iroquois delegations were hosted and honored in London and Paris.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/>}} [[Ethnicity]] seems to have mattered little to the Lenape and many other "tribes". [[Archaeological]] excavations have found Lenape burials that included identifiably ethnic Iroquois remains interred along with those of Lenape.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} The two groups were sometimes bitter enemies since before recorded history, but intermarriage occurred — and both groups have an oral history suggesting they jointly came east together and displaced the [[mound builders]] culture. In addition, both tribes practiced adopting young captives from warfare into their tribes and assimilating them as full tribal members.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> Iroquoians adopting Lenape (or other peoples) were known to be part of their religious beliefs, the adopted one taking the place in the clan of one killed in warfare.
Early European observers may have misinterpreted matrilineal Lenape cultural practices. For example, a man's maternal uncle (his mother's brother), and not his father, was usually considered to be his closest male relative, since his uncle belonged to his mother's clan and his father belonged to a different one. The maternal uncle played a more prominent role in the lives of his sister's children than did the father—for example likely being the one responsible for educating a young man in weapons craft, martial arts, hunting, and other life skills.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> Early European chroniclers did not understand this concept.{{clarify|date=August 2021}}
=== Hunting, fishing, and farming ===
Lenape practiced [[companion planting]], in which women cultivated many varieties of the "[[Three Sisters (agriculture)|Three Sisters]]": maize, beans, and squash. Men also practiced [[hunting]] and the harvesting of [[seafood]]. By the time of the arrival of Europeans, the Lenape were cultivating fields of vegetation through the [[slash and burn]] technique.<ref>Stevenson W. Fletcher, ''Pennsylvania Agriculture and Country Life of a suss man 1640–1845'' (Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1950), 2, 35–38, 62–65, 124.</ref><ref>Day, Gordon M. "The Indian as an Ecological Factor in the Northeastern Forests." ''Ecology'', Vol. 34, #2 (April): 329–346. ''New England and New York Areas 1580–1800''. Notes that the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) tribe in New Jersey and the Massachuset tribe in Massachusetts used fire in ecosystems.1953</ref><ref>Russell, Emily W.B. ''Vegetational Change in Northern New Jersey Since 1500 A.D.: A Palynological, Vegetational and Historical Synthesis'' Ph.D. dissertation. New Brunswick, PA: Rutgers University. Author notes on page 8 that Indians often augmented lightning fires. 1979</ref><ref>Russell, Emily W.B. "Indian Set Fires in the Forests of the Northeastern United States." ''Ecology'', Vol. 64, #1 (jan): 78 88. 1983a Author found no strong evidence that Indians purposely burned large areas, but they did burn small areas near their habitation sites. Noted that the Lenna Lenape Tribe used fire.</ref><ref>''A Brief Description of New York, Formerly Called New Netherlands with the Places Thereunto Adjoining, Likewise a Brief Relation of the Customs of the Indians There,'' New York, NY: William Gowans. 1670. Reprinted in 1937 by the Facsimile Text Society, Columbia University Press, New York. Notes that the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) tribe in New Jersey used fire in ecosystems.</ref><ref>Smithsonian Institution—Handbook of North American Indians series: ''Handbook of North American Indians,'' Volume 15—Northeast. Bruce G. Trigger (volume editor). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. 1978 References to Indian burning for the Eastern Algonquians, Virginia Algonquians, Northern Iroquois, Huron, Mahican, and Delaware Tribes and peoples.</ref> This extended the productive life of planted fields. According to Dutch settler [[Isaac de Rasieres]], who observed the Lenape in 1628, the Lenape's primary crop was [[maize]], which they planted in March. They quickly adopted European metal tools for this task.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
The men limited their agricultural labor to clearing the field and breaking the dirt. They primarily hunted and fished during the rest of the year: from September to January and from June to July, they mainly hunted deer, but from the months of January to the spring planting in May, they hunted anything from bears and beavers to raccoons and foxes.<ref name=":0" /> Dutch settler [[David Pietersz. de Vries|David de Vries]], who stayed in the area from 1634 to 1644, described a Lenape hunt in the valley of the ''Achinigeu-hach'' (or "Ackingsah-sack", the [[Hackensack River]]), in which one hundred or more men stood in a line many paces from each other, beating thigh bones on their palms to drive animals to the river, where they could be killed easily.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}} Other methods of hunting included [[lasso]]ing and drowning deer, as well as forming a circle around prey and setting the brush on fire. They also harvested vast quantities of fish and shellfish from the bays of the area,<ref>Mark Kurlansky, 2006 {{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref> and, in southern New Jersey, harvested clams year-round.<ref>Dreibelbis, 1978 , page 33</ref> One technique used while fishing was to add ground [[chestnuts]] to stream water to make fish dizzy and easier to catch.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Keoke |first1=Emory Dean |title=Food, Farming and Hunting |page=103}}</ref>
The success of these methods allowed the tribe to maintain a larger population than other, [[nomadic]] [[hunter-gatherer]] peoples in North America at the time, could support. Scholars have estimated that at the time of European settlement, around much of the current [[New York City]] area alone, there may have been about 15,000 Lenape in approximately 80 settlement sites.<ref>Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, 1999, p.5</ref> In 1524, Lenape in canoes met [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]], the first European explorer to enter [[New York Harbor]].
European settlers and traders from the 17th-century colonies of [[New Netherland]] and [[New Sweden]] traded with the Lenape for agricultural products, mainly maize, in exchange for iron tools. The Lenape also arranged contacts between the ''Minquas'' or ''Susquehannocks'' and the [[Dutch West India Company]] and [[Swedish South Company]] to promote the [[North American fur trade|fur trade]]. The Lenape were major producers of labor intensive ''[[wampum]]'', or shell beads, which they traditionally used for ritual purposes and as ornaments. After the Dutch arrival, they began to exchange wampum for beaver furs provided by [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian]]-speaking [[Susquehannock]] and other Minquas. They exchanged these furs for Dutch and, from the late 1630s, also Swedish imports. Relations between some Lenape and Minqua polities briefly turned sour in the late 1620s and early 1630s, but were relatively peaceful most of the time.<ref>{{Cite thesis |degree=Ph.D. |title=Cultural exchange, imperialist violence, and pious missions: Local perspectives from Tanjavur and Lenape country, 1720–1760 |last=Utz |first=Axel |year=2011 |publisher=Pennsylvania State University |pages=140–147|id={{ProQuest|902171220}} }}</ref>
=== Clothing and adornment ===
The early European settlers, especially the Dutch and Swedes, were surprised at the Lenape's skill in fashioning clothing from natural materials. In hot weather men and women wore only loin cloth and skirt respectively, while they used beaver pelts or bear skins to serve as winter mantles. Additionally, both sexes might wear buckskin leggings and moccasins in cold weather.<ref>Weslager, '' The Delaware Indians: A History'', 54</ref> Women would wear their hair long, usually below the hip, while men kept only a small "round crest, of about 2 inches in diameter". Deer hair, dyed a deep scarlet, as well as plumes of feathers, were favorite components of headdresses and breast ornaments for males.<ref>Kraft, ''The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage,'' 237–240</ref><ref name=":0" /> The Lenape also adorned themselves with various ornaments made of stone, shell, animal teeth, and claws. The women often wore headbands of dyed deer hair or wampum. They painted their skin skirts or decorated them with porcupine quills. These skirts were so elaborately appointed that, when seen from a distance, they reminded Dutch settlers of fine European lace.<ref>Kraft, ''The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage,'' 239</ref> The winter cloaks of the women were striking, fashioned from the iridescent body feathers of wild turkeys.<ref>Weslager 54</ref>
=== Leisure ===
One of the more common activities of leisure for the Lenni Lenape would be the game of [[Pahsaheman]]: a football-like hybrid, split on gender lines. Over a hundred players were grouped into gendered teams (male and female), and would attempt to get a ball through the other team's goal post. However, men could not carry and pass the ball, only using their feet, while the women could carry, pass, or kick.<ref name=":0" /> If the ball was picked up by a woman, she could not be tackled by the men, although men could attempt to dislodge the ball. Women were free to tackle the men.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://delawaretribe.org/blog/2013/06/27/pahsahman-the-lenape-indian-football-game/|title=Official Site of the Delaware Tribe of Indians » Pahsahëman — The Lenape Indian Football Game|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-24}}</ref> These gender-split rules highlight how a woman's role in Lenape society was harmonious to a man's role, rather than acquiescent.
Another activity common was that of dance, and yet again, gender differences appear: men would dance and leap loudly, often with bear claw accessories, while women, wearing little thimbles or bells, would dance more modestly, stepping "one foot after the other slightly forwards then backwards, yet so as to advance gradually."<ref name=":0" />
=== Units of measure ===
There were a number of linear measures which were used. Small units of measure were the distance from the thumb and first finger, and the distance from first finger to pit of elbow. While travel distance was measured in the distance one could comfortably travel from sun-up to sun-down.<ref>Lenni Lenape Original Settlers, Matawan Journal, June 27, 1957, Page 12</ref>
===Ethnobotany===
The Lenape have a long history with the native fauna in the Northeastern area of the United States. Lenape herbalists, who have been primarily women, use their extensive knowledge of plant life to help heal their community's ailments, sometimes through ceremony. The Lenape found uses in cats like [[Juglans nigra|Black Walnut]] which were used to cure ringworm and with [[Persimmon]]s which were used to cure ear problems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hill|first=George|date=2015|title=DELAWARE ETHNOBOTANY|url=http://delawaretribe.org/wp-content/uploads/DEL-ETHNOBOTANY-Hill.pdf|website=Delawaretribe.org}}</ref>
The Lenape carry the nuts of [[Aesculus glabra]] in the pocket for [[rheumatism]], and an infusion of ground nuts mixed with sweet oil or mutton tallow for earaches. They also grind the nuts and use them to poison fish in streams.<ref>Tantaquidgeon, Gladys, 1972, Folk Medicine of the Delaware and Related Algonkian Indians, Harrisburg. Pennsylvania Historical Commission Anthropological Papers #3, page 30</ref> They also apply a poultice of pulverized nuts with sweet oil for earache.<ref>Tantaquidgeon, Gladys, 1942, A Study of Delaware Indian Medicine Practice and Folk Beliefs, Harrisburg. Pennsylvania Historical Commission, page 25, 74</ref>
==History==
===European contact===
The first recorded European contact with people presumed to have been the Lenape was in 1524. The [[Age of Discovery|explorer]] [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]] was greeted by local Lenape who came by canoe, after his ship entered what is now called [[Lower New York Bay]].
In the 17th century, Lenape primarily interacted with Dutch traders through the [[fur trade]]. The Lenape trapped and traded [[American Beaver|beaver]] pelts for European-made goods.
===Early colonial era===
At the time of [[European colonization of the Americas|sustained European contact]] in the 1600s and 1700s, the Lenape were a powerful Native American nation who inhabited a region on the mid-Atlantic coast spanning the latitudes of southern Massachusetts to the southern extent of Delaware in what anthropologists call the [[Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands|Northeastern Woodlands]].<ref name="Smithsonian">{{cite book |last=Trigger |first=Bruce C. |author-link=Bruce Trigger |title=Handbook of North American Indians |editor=Sturtevant, William C. |edition=general |year=1978 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |location=Washington, DC|title-link=Handbook of North American Indians }}</ref> Although never politically unified, the confederation of the Delaware roughly encompassed the area around and between the [[Delaware River|Delaware]] and lower [[Hudson River|Hudson]] rivers, and included the western part of [[Long Island]] in present-day New York.<ref name="ReferenceA">[[Paul Otto (historian)|Paul Otto]], 179 "Intercultural Relations Between Native Americans and Europeans in New Netherland and New York" in ''Four Centuries of Dutch-American Relations,''SUNY Press, 2009</ref> Some of their place names, such as Manhattan ("the island of many hills"<ref>see Mari Minato research on Lenape tribe http://www.mariminato.com/en/insitu/2016/lenapes_4.php#main-info</ref>), Raritan, and Tappan were adopted by Dutch and English colonists to identify the Lenape people that lived there.
===17th century===
[[Image:Treaty of Penn with Indians by Benjamin West.jpg|thumb|[[Benjamin West]]'s painting (in 1771) of [[William Penn]]'s 1682 treaty with the Lenape]]
The Lenape had a culture in which the clan and family controlled property. Europeans often tried to contract for land with the tribal chiefs, confusing their culture with that of neighboring tribes such as the Iroquois. On top of this kinship terms commonly used by European settlers had very different meanings to the Lenape: "fathers" did not have the same direct parental control as in Europe, "brothers" could be a symbol of equality but could also be interpreted as one's parallel cousins, "cousins" were interpreted as only cross-cousins, etc. All of these added complexities in kinship terms made agreements with Europeans all the more difficult.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carpenter|first=Roger M.|title=From Indian Women to English Children: The Lenni-Lenape and the Attempt to Create a New Diplomatic Identity|date=2007|journal=Pennsylvania History|volume=74|issue=1|pages=1–20|doi=10.2307/pennhistory.74.1.0001|jstor=27778759|s2cid=160131350|issn=0031-4528}}</ref> The Lenape would petition for grievances on the basis that not all their families had been recognized in the transaction (not that they wanted to "share" the land).<ref name="macleod">William Christie MacLeod. "[https://archive.org/stream/nsamericananthro24ameruoft#page/460/mode/2up The Family Hunting Territory and Lenape Political Organization]," ''[[American Anthropologist]]'' 24.</ref> After the Dutch arrival in the 1620s, the Lenape were successful in restricting Dutch settlement until the 1660s to [[Pavonia, New Netherland|Pavonia]] in present-day [[Jersey City, New Jersey|Jersey City]] along the Hudson. The Dutch finally established a garrison at [[Bergen, New Netherlands|Bergen]], which allowed settlement west of the Hudson within the province of [[New Netherland]]. This land was purchased from the Lenape after the fact.<ref name="macleod"/>
[[New Amsterdam]] was founded in 1624 by the Dutch in what would later become [[New York City]]. Dutch settlers also founded a colony at present-day [[Lewes, Delaware|Lewes]], [[Delaware]] on June 3, 1631 and named it ''[[Zwaanendael Colony|Zwaanendael]]'' (Swan Valley).<ref name="COLONIAL DELAWARE">Munroe, John A.: ''Colonial Delaware: A History'': [[Millwood, New York]]: KTO Press; 1978; pp. 9–12</ref> The colony had a short life, as in 1632 a local band of Lenape killed the 32 Dutch settlers after a misunderstanding escalated over Lenape defacement of the insignia of the Dutch West India Company.<ref>Cook, Albert Myers. ''Narratives of Early Pennsylvania, West New Jersey and Delaware 1630–1707''. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912, p. 9</ref> In 1634, the [[Iroquoian]]-speaking [[Susquehannock]] went to war with the Lenape over access to trade with the Dutch at New Amsterdam. They defeated the Lenape, and some scholars believe that the Lenape may have become [[Tributary state|tributaries]] to the Susquehannock.<ref>Jennings (2000), p. 117</ref> After the warfare, the Lenape referred to the Susquehannock as "uncles". The Iroquois added the Lenape to the [[Covenant Chain]] in 1676; the Lenape were tributary to the Five Nations (later Six) until 1753, shortly before the outbreak of the [[French and Indian War]] (a part of the [[Seven Years' War]] in Europe).
Based on the historical record of the mid-17th century, it has been estimated that most Lenape polities consisted of several hundred people<ref>Goddard 213–216</ref> but it is conceivable that some had been considerably larger prior to close contact, given the wars between the Susquehannocks and the Iroquois,<ref name=josephy>Josephy 188–189</ref> both of whom were armed by the Dutch fur traders, while the Lenape were at odds with the Dutch and so lost that particular arms race.<ref name=josephy/>
During the [[Beaver Wars]] in the first half of the 17th century, European colonists were careful to keep firearms from the coastally located Delaware,<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> while rival [[Iroquoian]] peoples such as the [[Susquehannock]]s and [[Iroquois|Confederation of the Iroquois]] became comparatively well armed.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/>{{efn|
Both the Iroquois and Susquehannocks had trade relations with Europeans and access to extensive river systems hosting beaver colonies—the most coveted furs for Europeans. This gave them access to firearms and made them militarily powerful. For example, over a decade, the Susquehannocks, who'd allied with [[New Sweden|Swedish Colonists]], fought a declared war with the [[Province of Maryland]]. By mid-century, they'd subjected the Delaware and so well armed they were much feared by surrounding tribes.}} Subsequently, the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks, then the Iroquois, even needing their rivals' (superiors') agreement to initiate treaties such as land sales.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> Like most tribes, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases originating in Europe, mainly [[smallpox]] but also cholera, influenza and dysentery, and recurrent violent conflict with Europeans. [[Iroquoian people]]s occasionally fought the Lenape. As the 18th century progressed, many surviving Lenape moved west—into the (relatively empty){{efn
|The European explorers, traders and missionary penetrating past the Alleghenies in the mid-17th century all report the [[Ohio Country]] to be uninhabited, perhaps shared hunting territories.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> As the Beaver Wars progressed, it is known that Iroquois war parties entered the area, and the confederation later claimed the lands as hunting territories.<ref name="AmHeritageBk"/> Why they were empty in the earlier days, if they were instead made empty by the wars or the degree of participation by the Erie Peoples and Susquehannocks (relatives of the Iroquois) is unknown but suspected.}} upper [[Ohio River]] basin.
Smallpox devastated Native American communities even located far from European settlements by the 1640s.<ref name="DeanSnow">{{cite journal |last1=Snow |first1=Dean R. |year=1996 |title=Mohawk demography and the effects of exogenous epidemics on American Indian populations |journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=160–182 |doi=10.1006/jaar.1996.0006}}</ref> The Lenape and Susquehannocks fought a war in the middle of the 17th century that left the Delaware a tributary state even as the Susquehannocks had defeated the Province of Maryland between 1642-50s.<ref name="AmHeritageBk2">
{{cite encyclopedia |year=1961 |title=The American Heritage Book of Indians
|author=Editor: Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., by The editors of American Heritage Magazine
|editor=pages 188–189, quote page 198|publisher=American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc.
|lccn=61014871|quote=The Principal avenue of the march of settlement was through the Delaware confederacy, cracked open by the Susquehanna wars of conquest in the mid-17th century.
}}</ref>
The Lenape's quick adoption of trade goods, and their desire to trap furs to meet high European demand, resulted in their disastrous over-harvesting of the beaver population in the lower Hudson Valley. With the fur sources exhausted, the Dutch shifted their operations to present-day [[upstate New York]]. The Lenape who produced [[wampum]] in the vicinity of Manhattan Island temporarily forestalled the negative effects of the decline in trade.<ref name=Otto>[[Paul Otto (historian)|Otto, Paul]], 91 ''The Dutch-Munsee Encounter in America: The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Hudson Valley''. New York: Berghahn Press, 2006.</ref> Lenape population fell sharply during this period, due to high fatalities from [[epidemics]] of [[infectious diseases]] carried by Europeans, such as [[measles]] and [[smallpox]], to which they had no natural [[immunity (medical)|immunity]].
In 1682, [[William Penn]] and [[Quaker]] colonists created the English [[Province of Pennsylvania|colony of Pennsylvania]] beginning at the lower Delaware River. A peace treaty was negotiated between the newly arriving colonists and Lenape at what is now known as [[Penn Treaty Park]]. In the decades immediately following, some 20,000 new colonists arrived in the region, putting pressure on Lenape settlements and hunting grounds. Penn expected his authority and that of the colonial government to take precedence. His new colony effectively displaced many Lenape and forced others to adapt to new cultural demands. Penn gained a reputation for benevolence and tolerance, but his efforts resulted in more effective colonization of the ancestral Lenape homeland than previous ones.<ref>Spady, "[https://www.academia.edu/479943/_Colonialism_and_the_Discursive_Antecedents_of_Penns_Treaty_with_the_Indians_in_William_A._Pencak_and_Daniel_K._Richter_eds._From_Native_America_to_Penns_Woods_Colonists_Indians_and_the_Racial_Construction_of_Pennsylvania_State_College_Pennsylvania_State_University_Press_2004_18-40 Colonialism and the Discursive Antecedents of Penn's Treaty with the Indians]," 18–40</ref>
===18th century===
{{Further|Lenape settlements}}
[[Image:Lapowinsa01.jpg|thumb|upright|''Lapowinsa, Chief of the Lenape'', [[Lappawinsoe]] painted by [[Gustavus Hesselius]] in 1735]]
[[William Penn]] died in 1718. His heirs, John and Thomas Penn, and their agents were running the colony, and had abandoned many of the elder Penn's practices. Trying to raise money, they contemplated ways to sell Lenape land to colonial settlers. The resulting scheme culminated in the so-called [[Walking Purchase]]. In the mid-1730s, colonial administrators produced a draft of a land deed dating to the 1680s. William Penn had approached several leaders of Lenape polities in the lower Delaware to discuss land sales further north. Since the land in question did not belong to their polities, the talks came to nothing. But colonial administrators had prepared the draft that resurfaced in the 1730s. The Penns and their supporters tried to present this draft as a legitimate deed. Lenape leaders in the lower Delaware refused to accept it.
According to historian [[Steven C. Harper|Steven Harper]], what followed was a "convoluted sequence of deception, fraud, and extortion orchestrated by the Pennsylvania government that is commonly known as the Walking Purchase."<ref name="Harper"/> In the end, all Lenape who still lived on the Delaware were driven off the remnants of their homeland under threats of violence. Some Lenape polities eventually retaliated by attacking Pennsylvania settlements. When they resisted European colonial expansion at the height of the [[French and Indian War]], the British colonial authorities investigated the causes of Lenape resentment. The British asked [[Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet|Sir William Johnson]], Superintendent of Indian Affairs, to lead the investigation. Johnson had become wealthy as a trader and acquired thousands of acres of land in the [[Mohawk River]] Valley from the Iroquois Mohawk of New York.<ref name="Harper">{{cite book |last1=Harper |first1=Steven Craig |title=Promised Land: Penn's Holy Experiment, the Walking Purchase, and the dispossession of Delawares, 1600–1763 |year=2006 |location=Bethlehem, PA}}</ref>
Beginning in the 18th century, the [[Moravian Church]] established missions among the Lenape.<ref>Gray, Elma. ''Wilderness Christians: Moravian Missions to the Delaware Indians''. Ithaca. 1956 {{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref> The Moravians required the Christian [[converts]] to share their [[pacifism]], as well as to live in a structured and European-style mission village.<ref>Olmstead, Earl P. ''Blackcoats among the Delaware: David Zeisberger on the Ohio frontier''. Kent, Ohio. 1991 {{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref> Moravian pacifism and unwillingness to take loyalty oaths caused conflicts with British colonial authorities, who were seeking aid against the French and their Native American allies during the [[Seven Years' War]]. The Moravians' insistence on Christian Lenapes' abandoning traditional warfare practices alienated mission populations from other Lenape and Native American groups, who revered warriors.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}} The Moravians accompanied Lenape relocations to Ohio and Canada, continuing their missionary work. The Moravian Lenape who settled permanently in Ontario after the [[American Revolutionary War]] were sometimes referred to as "[[Christian Munsee]]", as they mostly spoke the [[Munsee language|Munsee]] branch of the [[Delaware language]].
During the [[French and Indian War]], the Lenape initially sided with the French, as they hoped to prevent further European colonial encroachment in their territory. But, such leaders as [[Teedyuscung]] in the east and [[Tamaqua (Lenape chief)|Tamaqua]] in the vicinity of modern [[Pittsburgh]] shifted to building alliances with the British colonial authorities. After the end of the war, however, Anglo-American settlers continued to attack the Lenape, often to such an extent that the historian Amy Schutt writes the dead since the wars outnumbered those killed during the war.<ref name=s118>Schutt, (2007), p.118</ref>
In 1757, the "New Jersey Association for Helping the Indians" wrote a constitution to [[Forced displacement|expel]] native Munsee Lenape from their home in the [[Washington Valley Historic District|Washington Valley]] of [[Morris County, New Jersey]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Collection: New Jersey Association for helping the Indians records {{!}} Archives & Manuscripts |url=https://archives.tricolib.brynmawr.edu/resources/hcmc-975-09-019 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=archives.tricolib.brynmawr.edu}}</ref> Led by Reverend [[John Brainerd School|John Brainerd]], colonists [[Forced displacement|forcefully relocated]] 200 people to Indian Mills, then known as [[Indian Mills, New Jersey|Brotherton]].<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last1=Barbara |first1=Hoskins |title=Washington Valley, an informal history |last2=Foster |first2=Caroline |last3=Roberts |first3=Dorothea |last4=Foster |first4=Gladys |date=1960 |publisher=Edward Brothers |oclc=28817174}}</ref> It was then an industrial town, known for [[Gristmill|gristmills]] and [[Sawmill|sawmills]]. This was the first Native American reservation in New Jersey.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey, 1780 {{!}} Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/brotherton-indians-new-jersey-1780 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.gilderlehrman.org}}</ref> Reverend [[John Brainerd School|John Brainerd]] abandoned the reservation in 1777.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey, 1780 {{!}} Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/brotherton-indians-new-jersey-1780 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.gilderlehrman.org}}</ref>{{Clarify|date=April 2022}}
The [[Treaty of Easton]], signed in 1758 between the Lenape and the Anglo-American colonists, required the Lenape to move westward, out of present-day New York and New Jersey and into Pennsylvania, then Ohio and beyond. Sporadically they continued to raid European-American settlers from far outside the area.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
In 1763, Bill Hickman, Lenape, warned Anglo-American colonists in the [[Juniata River]] region of an impending attack. Many Lenape joined in [[Pontiac's War]], and were numerous among those Native Americans who besieged Pittsburgh.<ref name=s118/>
In April 1763, ''Teedyuscung'' was killed when his home was burned. His son Captain Bull responded by attacking settlers from New England who had migrated to the [[Wyoming Valley]] of Pennsylvania. The settlers had been sponsored by the [[Susquehanna Company]].<ref>Schutt, (2007), p. 119</ref>
==== American Revolutionary War ====
{{anchor|Ohio: 1750s to 1812 (American Revolution and War of 1812)}}
{{main|Brodhead's Coshocton expedition}}
{{see also|Gnadenhutten massacre}}
After the signing of the [[Treaty of Easton]] in 1758, the Lenape were forced to move west out of their original lands into what is today known as [[Ohio country|Ohio]].<ref>Keenan, ''Encyclopedia of American Indian Wars, 1492–1890,'' 1999, p. 234; Moore, ''The Northwest Under Three Flags, 1635–1796,'' 1900, p. 151.</ref>
During the [[French and Indian War]], Killbuck had assisted the British against the French and their Indian allies. In 1761, Killbuck led a British supply train from [[Fort Pitt (Pennsylvania)|Fort Pitt]] to [[Fort Sandusky]]. During the early 1770s, missionaries, including [[David Zeisberger]] and [[John Heckewelder]], arrived in the Ohio Country near the Delaware villages. The Moravian Church sent these men to convert the [[Native Americans in the United States|Indigenous peoples]] to Christianity. The missionaries established several missions, including ''Gnadenhutten'', ''Lichtenau'', and ''Schoenbrunn''. The missionaries pressured Indigenous people to abandon their traditional customs, beliefs, and ways of life, and to replace them with European and Christian ways. Many Lenape did adopt Christianity, but others refused to do so. The Lenape became a divided people during the 1770s, including in [[Bemino|Killbuck's]] family. Killbuck resented his grandfather for allowing the Moravians to remain in the Ohio country. The Moravians believed in pacifism, and Killbuck believed that every convert to the Moravians deprived the Lenape of a warrior to stop further white settlement of their land.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
When the American Revolutionary War began, Killbuck found the Lenape caught between the British and their Indian allies in the West and the Americans in the East. At the war's beginning, Killbuck and many Lenape claimed to be neutral. In 1778, Killbuck permitted American soldiers to traverse Lenape territory so that the soldiers could attack British-held [[Fort Detroit]]. In return, Killbuck requested that the Americans build a fort near the major village of Coshocton, to provide the Lenape with protection from potential attacks by British-allied Indians and [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]]. The Americans agreed and built [[Fort Laurens]], which they garrisoned.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
At the time of the Revolutionary War, the Lenape in Ohio were deeply divided over which side, if any, to take in the war. During this time, the Lenape bands were living in numerous villages around their main village of ''[[Coshocton, Ohio|Coshocton]]'',<ref>{{ws|[[William Dean Howells]], "[[s:Three Villages/3 Gnadenhütten|Gnadenhütten]]," ''[[s:Three Villages|Three Villages]]'', Boston: James R. Osgood and Co., 1884}}, accessed 19 Mar 2010</ref> between the western frontier strongholds of the British and the Patriots. The American colonists had [[Fort Pitt (Pennsylvania)|Fort Pitt]] (present-day Pittsburgh) and the British, along with Indian allies, controlled the area of [[Fort Detroit]] (in present-day [[Michigan]]).{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
Other Indian communities, particularly the [[Wyandotte people|Wyandot]], the [[Mingo]], the [[Shawnee]], and the [[Munsee|Wolf Clan of the Lenape]], favored the British. They believed that by their proclamation of 1763, restricting Anglo-American settlement to east of the Appalachian Mountains, that the British would help them preserve a [[Indian barrier state|Native American territory]]. The British made plans to attack [[Fort Laurens]] in early 1779 and demanded that the neutral Lenape formally side with the British. Killbuck warned the Americans of the planned attack. His actions helped save the fort, but the Americans abandoned it in August 1779. The Lenape had lost their protectors and found themselves without solid allies in the conflict, which compounded their dispossession at the hand of encroaching [[American pioneers]] during and after the war.{{fact|date=March 2022}}
Some Lenape decided to take up arms against the American settlers and moved to the west, closer to Detroit, where they settled on the [[Scioto River|Scioto]] and [[Sandusky River|Sandusky]] rivers. Those Lenape sympathetic to the United States remained at Coshocton, and Lenape leaders signed the [[Treaty of Fort Pitt (1778)]] with the American colonists. Through this treaty, the Lenape hoped to establish the Ohio country as a state inhabited exclusively by Native Americans, as a subset of the new United States. A third group of Lenape, many of them [[Religious conversion|converted]] [[Christian Munsee]]s, lived in several mission villages run by [[Moravian Church|Moravian]]s. Like the other bands, they also spoke the [[Munsee]] branch of Lenape, an [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]] language.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
[[White Eyes]], the Lenape [[tribal chief|chief]] who had negotiated the treaty, died in 1778. Subsequently many Lenape at Coshocton eventually joined the war against the Americans. In response, American military officer [[Daniel Brodhead]] led an expedition out of Fort Pitt and on 19 April 1781, and destroyed Coshocton. Surviving residents fled to the north. Colonel Brodhead convinced the militia to leave the Lenape at the Moravian mission villages unmolested, since they were unarmed non-combatants.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}
==== Treaties of the late 18th century ====
The Lenape were the first Indian tribe to enter into a treaty with the [[Articles of Confederation|new United States government]], with the [[Treaty of Fort Pitt (1778)|Treaty of Fort Pitt]] signed in 1778 during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. By then living mostly in the [[Ohio Country]],{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} the Lenape supplied the [[Continental Army]] with warriors and scouts in exchange for food supplies and security.
In 1780, [[Munsee language|Munsee-speaking]] Lenape [[Community leader|community leaders]] native to the [[Washington Valley Historic District|Washington Valley]] that had been [[Forced displacement|forcibly displaced]] to [[Indian Mills, New Jersey|Brotherton]], wrote a [[Indian country|community]] [[treaty]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Micty |first=Joseph |date=6 January 1780 |title=Statement opposing white settlement on Indian land in Brotherton, New Jersey |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/sites/default/files/inline-pdfs/T-00540.01.pdf |website=The Gilder Lehrman Collection}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey, 1780 {{!}} Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/brotherton-indians-new-jersey-1780 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.gilderlehrman.org}}</ref><ref>The Brotherton Indians’ agreement to oppose white settlement, January 6, 1780. (Gilder Lehrman Collection)https://www.gilderlehrman.org/sites/default/files/content-images/00540.01p1.web_.jpg</ref> to oppose selling any more land to white settlers:{{Blockquote|text=Be it known by this, that it has been in our consideration of late about settling of [[settler colonialism|White People]] on the Indian Lands, And we have concluded that it is a thing which ought not to be, & a thing that will not be allowed by us, that of [[Renting]] or giving [[land lease|Leases]] for said Lands, hereafter, no, not by the proprietors themselves without the consent of the rest much more by those who has no Claim or Rite here ...
We have come upon those resolutions we hope for our better living in friendship among one another, it may be that there is some which does not like white people for their Neighbours, for fear of their not agreeing as they ought to do. it might be about there children or about something they have about them we know not what, Again it may be the white Man may do something either upon Land, Timber or something else which some one of the proprietors would not like & from thence would come great deal of Disquietness, & many other ways which may plainly be seen into, by those that have any sense or reason—
We are exceeding glad when we see we are like to live in Quietness among one another without giving any offence to one another, & this of keeping white people from among us will be a great step towards it, & for this reason we intend to stand by or rather stand Hand in hand against any coming on the [[Indian country|Indian Lands]].|author=Joseph Micty, Bartholomew Calvin, Jacob Skekit, Robert Skikkit, Derrick Quaquiuse, Benjamin Nicholus, Mary Calvin, Hezekiah Calvin}}In 1796, the [[Oneida people|Oneidas]] of [[Stockbridge, New York|New Stockbridge]] invited the Munsee Lenape to their [[Indian reservation|reservation]]. The initial Lenape response was negative; in 1798, Lenape community leaders Bartholomew Calvin, Jason Skekit, and 18 others signed a public statement of refusal to leave "our fine place in [[New Jersey|Jersey]]."<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |title=The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey, 1780 {{!}} Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/brotherton-indians-new-jersey-1780 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.gilderlehrman.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=[Brotherton statement of refusal to leave New Jersey] {{!}} Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/collection/glc0054002 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.gilderlehrman.org}}</ref> However, the tribe later agreed to relocate to New Stockbridge to join the Oneidas.<ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last1=Barbara |first1=Hoskins |title=Washington Valley, an informal history |last2=Foster |first2=Caroline |last3=Roberts |first3=Dorothea |last4=Foster |first4=Gladys |date=1960 |publisher=Edward Brothers |oclc=28817174}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=New Stockbridge Tribe |url=https://collections.dartmouth.edu/occom/html/ctx/orgography/org0139.ocp.html |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=collections.dartmouth.edu}}</ref> A few Lenape households stayed behind to assimilate in New Jersey.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |title=The Brotherton Indians of New Jersey, 1780 {{!}} Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/brotherton-indians-new-jersey-1780 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.gilderlehrman.org}}</ref>
===19th century===
In the early 19th century the amateur [[anthropologist]] [[Silas Wood]] published a book claiming that there were several American Indian tribes that were distinct to [[Long Island]], New York. He collectively called them the [[Metoac]]. Modern scientific scholarship has shown that in fact two linguistic groups representing two distinct [[Algonquian peoples|Algonquian]] cultural identities lived on the island, not "13 individual tribes" as asserted by Wood. The bands to the west were Lenape. Those to the east were more related culturally to the Algonquian tribes of [[New England]] across Long Island Sound, such as the [[Pequot]].<ref>Strong, John A. ''Algonquian Peoples of Long Island'' Heart of the Lakes Publishing (March 1997). {{ISBN|978-1-55787-148-0}}</ref><ref>Bragdon, Kathleen. ''The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the Northeast,''Columbia University Press (2002). {{ISBN|978-0-231-11452-3}}.</ref> Wood (and earlier settlers) often misinterpreted the Indian use of place names for [[Autonym (onomastics)|autonyms]].
Over a period of 176 years, European settlers pushed the Lenape out of the East Coast, through to Ohio and eventually further west. Most members of the [[Munsee]]-language branch of the Lenape left the United States after the British were defeated in the American Revolutionary War. Their descendants live on three [[Indian reserve]]s in [[Western Ontario]], Canada. They are descendants of those Lenape of Ohio Country who sided with the British during the Revolutionary War. The largest reserve is at [[Moravian 47, Ontario|Moraviantown, Ontario]], where the Turtle [[Phratry]] settled in 1792 following the war.
Two groups migrated to [[Oneida County, New York]], by 1802, the Brotherton Indians of New Jersey and the Stockbridge-Munsee. In 1822, the Munsee Lenape of [[Washington Valley Historic District|Washington Valley]] who had moved to [[Stockbridge, New York|Stockbridge]] were [[Forced displacement|forcefully displaced]] by [[Settler colonialism|white colonists]] again, over 900 miles' travel away,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Green Bay to Stockbridge |url=https://www.google.com/maps/dir/Green+Bay,+Wisconsin/Stockbridge,+New+York+13409/@43.3606129,-90.8071141,5z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m14!4m13!1m5!1m1!1s0x8802e2e809b380f3:0x6370045214dcf571!2m2!1d-88.0132958!2d44.5133188!1m5!1m1!1s0x89d97bcac1f887a9:0x2d831a6e0698039!2m2!1d-75.5993462!2d42.9911796!3e0 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=Green Bay to Stockbridge |language=en}}</ref> to [[Green Bay, Wisconsin]].<ref name=":04" />
==== Indiana to Missouri ====
By the ''[[Treaty of St. Mary's]]'', signed October 3, 1818, in [[St. Mary's, Ohio]], the Lenape ceded their lands in Indiana for lands west of the Mississippi and an annuity of $4,000. Over the next few years, the Lenape settled on the [[James River (Missouri)|James River]] in Missouri near its confluence with [[Wilsons Creek (Missouri)|Wilsons Creek]], occupying eventually about {{convert|40000|acre|km2}} of the approximately {{convert|2000000|acre|km2}} allotted to them.<ref>[http://delawaretown.missouristate.edu/removal.html "Removal Era"], accessed September 8, 2010</ref> [[Anderson, Indiana]], is named after [[Chief William Anderson]], whose father was Swedish. The Delaware Village in Indiana was called Anderson's Town, while the Delaware Village in Missouri on the James River was often called Anderson's Village. The tribes' cabins and cornfields were spread out along the James River and Wilsons Creek.<ref>[http://delawaretown.missouristate.edu/delaware.html "Delaware Town"], Missouri State University, accessed September 8, 2010</ref>
====Role in western history====
Many Delaware participated in the exploration of the western United States, working as trappers with the [[Mountain man|mountain men]], and as guides and hunters for wagon trains. They served as [[U.S. Army Indian Scouts|army guides and scouts]] in events such as the [[Second Seminole War]], [[John C. Frémont|Frémont's]] expeditions, and the [[conquest of California]] during the [[Mexican–American War]].<ref>Weslager, ''The Delaware Indians'', pp. 375, 378–380</ref><ref>Sides, Hampton, ''Blood and Thunder: An Epic of the American West'', Doubleday (2006), pp. 77–80, 94, 101, hardcover, 462 pages, {{ISBN|978-0-385-50777-6}}</ref><ref>Page lv of the introduction by Frank McNitt, [[James H. Simpson|Simpson, James H]], edited and annotated by Frank McNitt, foreword by Durwood Ball, ''Navaho Expedition: Journal of a Military Reconnaissance from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to the Navaho Country, Made in 1849'', University of Oklahoma Press (1964), trade paperback (2003), 296 pages, {{ISBN|0-8061-3570-0}}</ref> Occasionally, they played surprising roles as Indian allies.<ref>Sides, ''Blood and Thunder'', p. 181</ref>
[[Sagundai]] accompanied one of Frémont's expeditions as one of his Delaware guides. From California, Fremont needed to communicate with Senator Benton. Sagundai volunteered to carry the message through some 2,200 kilometres of hostile territory. He took many scalps in this adventure, including that of a [[Comanche]] with a particularly fine horse, who had outrun both Sagundai and the other Comanche. Sagundai was thrown when his horse stepped into a prairie-dog hole, but avoided the Comanche's lance, shot the warrior dead, and caught his horse and escaped the other Comanche. When Sagundai returned to his own people in present-day Kansas, they celebrated his exploits with the last war and scalp dances of their history, which were held at [[Edwardsville, Kansas]].<ref>William E. Connelley. ''[https://archive.org/stream/standardhistoryo00conn#page/250/mode/2up/search/scalp+dances A Standard History of Kansas and Kansans]'', Vol. I. Chicago: Lewis Publishing Co., 1918, p. 250.</ref>
====Kansas reservation====
[[File:DelawareFarmKansas.jpg|thumb|right|Lenape farm on the Delaware Indian Reservation in Kansas in 1867]]By the terms of the "Treaty of the James Fork" that was signed on September 24, 1829, and ratified by the U.S. Senate in 1830, the Delaware were forced to move further west. They were granted lands in [[Indian Territory]] in exchange for lands on the James Fork of the [[White River (Arkansas)|White River]] in Missouri. These lands, in what is now Kansas, were west of the Missouri and north of the [[Kansas River]]. The main reserve consisted of about {{convert|1000000|acre|km2}} with an additional "outlet" strip {{convert|10|mi|km}} wide extending to the west.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/icc/v09/iccv09p346.pdf|title=9 Indian Claims Commission 346|website=okstate.edu|access-date=14 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234553/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/icc/v09/iccv09p346.pdf|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/icc/v12/iccv12ap404.pdf|title=12 Indian Claims Commission 404|website=okstate.edu|access-date=14 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303233428/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/icc/v12/iccv12ap404.pdf|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In 1854, Congress passed the [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]], which created the Territory of Kansas and opened the area for white settlement. It also authorized negotiation with Indian tribes regarding [[Indian removal|removal]]. The Delaware were reluctant to negotiate for yet another relocation, but they feared serious trouble with white settlers, and conflict developed.
As the Delaware were not considered United States citizens, they had no access to the courts and no way to enforce their property rights. The United States Army was to enforce their rights to reservation land after the Indian Agent had both posted a public notice warning trespassers and served written notice on them, a process generally considered onerous. Major B.F. Robinson, the Indian Agent appointed in 1855, did his best, but could not control the hundreds of white trespassers who stole stock, cut timber, and built houses and squatted on Delaware lands. By 1860, the Delaware had reached consensus to leave Kansas, which was in accord with the government's Indian removal policy.<ref>Pages 401 to 409. Weslager, ''The Delaware Indians''</ref>
====Oklahoma====
The main body of Lenape arrived in [[Indian Territory]] in the 1860s.<ref name=east>Helen M. Stiefmiller, [http://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entryname=DELAWARE%E2%80%93EASTERN "Delaware, Eastern."], Oklahoma Historical Society, accessed May 6, 2017</ref> The two [[federally recognized tribes]] of Lenape in Oklahoma are the [[Delaware Nation]], headquartered in [[Anadarko, Oklahoma]], and the [[Delaware Tribe of Indians]], headquartered in [[Bartlesville, Oklahoma]].<ref name=ok>[http://www.newsok.com/delaware-tribe-regains-federal-recognition/article/3390312 "Delaware Tribe regains federal recognition"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319160656/http://www.newsok.com/delaware-tribe-regains-federal-recognition/article/3390312 |date=March 19, 2016 }} ''NewsOk.'' 4 Aug 2009. Retrieved 5 August 2009.</ref>
The Delaware Tribe of Indians were required to purchase land from the reservation of the [[Cherokee Nation]]; they made two payments totaling $438,000. A court dispute followed over whether the sale included rights for the Delaware as citizens within the Cherokee Nation. While the dispute was unsettled, the [[Curtis Act of 1898]] dissolved tribal governments and ordered the allotment of communal tribal lands to individual households of members of tribes. <!-- The Lenape fought the act in the courts but lost, and in 18?? (date? if this is in response to Curtis Act, it can't be 1867) the courts ruled that the Delaware had only purchased rights to the land in Oklahoma for the lifetimes of the owners. --> After the lands were allotted in 160-acre (650,000 m<sup>2</sup>) lots to tribal members in 1907, the government sold "surplus" land to non-Indians.
====Texas====
* [[Spanish Texas]]
:The Delaware migrated into Texas in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Elements of the Delaware migrated from Missouri into Texas around 1820, settling around the [[Red River of the South|Red River]] and [[Sabine River (Texas–Louisiana)|Sabine River]]. The Delaware were peaceful and shared their territory in Spanish Texas with the [[Caddo]] and other immigrating bands, as well as with the Spanish and ever-increasing American population. This peaceful trend continued after Mexico won their independence from Spain in 1821.<ref name="Lipscomb">Carol A. Lipscomb, "DELAWARE INDIANS," '''[[Handbook of Texas Online]]'' [https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/bmd08], accessed July 8, 2012. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.</ref>
* [[Mexican Texas]]
:In 1828, Mexican General [[Manuel de Mier y Terán]] made an inspection of eastern Mexican Texas and estimated that the region housed between 150 and 200 Delaware families. The Delaware requested Mier y Terán to issue them land grants and send teachers, so they might learn to read and write the Spanish language. The general, impressed with how well they had [[Acculturation|adapted to the Mexican culture]], sent their request to [[Mexico City]], but the authorities never granted the Delaware any legal titles.
:The situation changed when the [[Texas Revolution]] began in 1835. Texas officials were eager to gain the support of the Texas tribes to their side and offered to recognize their land claims by sending three commissioners to negotiate a treaty. A treaty was agreed upon in February 1836 that mapped the boundaries of Indian lands, but this agreement was never officially ratified by the Texas government.<ref name="Lipscomb"/>
* Texas Republic
The Delaware remained friendly after Texas won its independence. [[Republic of Texas]] President [[Sam Houston]] favored a policy of peaceful relations with all tribes. He sought the services of the friendly Delaware and, in 1837, enlisted several Delaware to protect the frontier from hostile western tribes. Delaware scouts joined with Texas Rangers as they patrolled the western frontier. Houston also tried to get the Delaware land claims recognized, but his efforts were met only by opposition.
The next Texan President, Mirabeau B. Lamar, completely opposed all Indians. He considered them illegal intruders who threatened the settlers' safety and lands and issued an order for their removal from Texas. The Delaware were sent north of the Red River into Indian Territory, although a few scattered Delawares remained in Texas.
In 1841, Houston was reelected to a second term as president and his peaceful Indian policy was then reinstated. A [[Treaty of Bird's Fort|treaty]] with the remaining Delaware and a few other tribes was negotiated in 1843 at [[Bird's Fort, Texas|Fort Bird]] and the Delaware were enlisted to help him make peace with the [[Comanche]]. Delaware scouts and their families were allowed to settle along the Brazos and Bosque rivers in order to influence the Comanche to come to the Texas government for a peace conference. The plan was successful and the Delaware helped bring the Comanches to a treaty council in 1844.<ref name="Lipscomb"/>
* State of Texas
In 1845, the Republic of [[Texas]] agreed to annexation by the US to become an American state. The Delaware continued their peaceful policy with the Americans and served as interpreters, scouts, and diplomats for the US Army and the [[Indian Bureau]]. In 1847, [[John Meusebach]] was assisted by Jim Shaw (a Delaware), in settling the German communities in the [[Texas Hill Country]]. For the remainder of his life, Shaw worked as a military scout in West Texas. In 1848, John Conner (Delaware) guided the [[Chihuahua-El Paso Expedition]] and was granted a league of land by a special act of the Texas legislature in 1853. The expeditions of the map maker Randolph B. Marcy through West Texas in 1849, 1852, and 1854 were guided by [[Black Beaver]] (Delaware).
In 1854, despite the history of peaceful relations, the last of the Texas Delaware were moved by the American government to the [[Brazos Indian Reservation]] near [[Graham, Texas]]. In 1859 the US forced the remaining Delaware to remove from Texas to a location on the [[Washita River]] in the vicinity of present [[Anadarko, Oklahoma]].<ref name="Lipscomb"/>
===20th century===
In 1979, the United States [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]] revoked the tribal status of the Delaware living among Cherokee in Oklahoma. They began to count the Delaware as Cherokee. The Delaware had this decision overturned in 1996, when they were recognized by the federal government as a separate tribal nation.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}
===21st century===
The Cherokee Nation filed suit to overturn the independent federal recognition of the Delaware. The tribe lost federal recognition in a 2004 court ruling in favor of the Cherokee Nation, but regained it on July 28, 2009.<ref>[http://www.indiancountrytoday.com/national/plains/52660432.html "Delaware Tribe of Indians' federal recognition restored"], ''Indian Country Today.'' 7 Aug 2009 (retrieved 11 August 2009)</ref> After recognition, the tribe reorganized under the [[Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act]]. Members approved a constitution and by laws in a May 26, 2009, vote. Jerry Douglas was elected as tribal chief.<ref name=ok/>
In September 2000, the Delaware Nation of Oklahoma received {{Convert|11.5|acre}} of land in [[Thornbury Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1129&dat=20000919&id=tNtRAAAAIBAJ&pg=4789,6286829&hl=en|title=Delaware Indians may use land donated by couple as burial ground|newspaper=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |agency=Associated Press |date=September 19, 2000 |page=B-10 |access-date=April 14, 2018}}</ref>
In 2004, the [[Delaware Nation]] filed suit against Pennsylvania in the [[United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania]], seeking to reclaim {{convert|315|acre|km2}} included in the 1737 [[Walking Purchase]] to build a casino. In the suit titled ''The Delaware Nation v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania'', the plaintiffs, acting as the successor in interest and political continuation of the Lenni Lenape and of Lenape Chief [[Moses Tunda Tatamy]], claimed aboriginal and fee title to the 315 acres of land located in [[Forks Township, Northampton County, Pennsylvania|Forks Township]] in [[Northampton County, Pennsylvania|Northampton County]], near the town of [[Tatamy, Pennsylvania]]. After the Walking Purchase, Chief Tatamy was granted legal permission for him and his family to remain on this parcel of land, known as "Tatamy's Place". In addition to suing the state, the tribe also sued the township, the county and elected officials, including Gov. Ed Rendell.
Although the Walking Purchase forced the Lenape people to Oklahoma, not every Lenape lives in Oklahoma. Many Lenape continue to live in the Northeast. This community of people are the Munsee Lenape, and are currently in the process of applying for state recognition.<ref name=":02">{{cite web|last=Cooper|first=Kenny|date=30 July 2021|title='We Just Want to be Welcomed Back': The Lenape Seek a Return Home|url=https://whyy.org/articles/we-just-want-to-be-welcomed-back-the-lenape-seek-a-return-home/|url-status=live|access-date=30 October 2021}}</ref>
The court held that the justness of the extinguishment of [[aboriginal title]] is [[nonjusticiable]], including in the case of [[fraud]]. Because the extinguishment occurred prior to the passage of the first [[Indian Nonintercourse Act]] in 1790, that Act did not avail the Delaware. As a result, the court granted the Commonwealth's motion to dismiss. In its conclusion the court stated: "... we find that the Delaware Nation's aboriginal rights to Tatamy's Place were extinguished in 1737 and that, later, fee title to the land was granted to Chief Tatamy—not to the tribe as a collectivity."<ref>{{cite court |url=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-3rd-circuit/1177750.html|litigants=The Delaware Nation v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 250 |court=United States Court of Appeals, Third Circuit |website=Findlaw |access-date=April 14, 2018}}</ref>
Every four years, the Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania conducts the Rising Nation River Journey, during which the Nation paddles down the [[Delaware River]] from [[Hancock, New York]], to [[Cape May, New Jersey]]. Along the Journey, the Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania invites the public to sign the Treaty of Renewed Friendship, whose signees agree to recognize the Lenape as the indigenous inhabitants of the Lenapehoking and act as good stewards of the environment.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fulfilling a Prophecy: The Past and Present of the Lenape in Pennsylvania|url=https://www.penn.museum/sites/fap/sections.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania Cultural Center in [[Easton, Pennsylvania]], currently exhibits the University of Pennsylvania-hosted exhibit "The Past and Present of the Lenape in Pennsylvania" along with other exhibit items, educational materials, and Nation-made crafts.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cultural Center and Trading Post|url=https://www.lenape-nation.org/cultural-center|url-status=live|website=Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania}}</ref>
The Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania is not recognized by the federal or state authorities, but is currently applying for recognition at the [[State-recognized tribes in the United States|state level]].<ref name=":02"/>
==Contemporary tribes and organizations==
=== Federally recognized tribes ===
Three Lenape tribes are [[Federally recognized tribe|federally recognized]] in the United States. They are as follows:
* [[Delaware Nation]], [[Anadarko, Oklahoma]]<ref name="ncai_d">{{cite web|title=Tribal Directory: D|url=http://www.ncai.org/tribal-directory?letter=D|publisher=National Congress of American Indians|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
* [[Delaware Tribe of Indians]], [[Bartlesville, Oklahoma]]<ref name=ncai_d/>
* [[Stockbridge-Munsee Community]], [[Bowler, Wisconsin]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Tribal Directory|url=http://www.ncai.org/tribal-directory?utf8=%E2%9C%93&keyword=Stockbridge&submit=Search|publisher=National Congress of American Indians|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
===Canadian First Nations===
The Lenape who fled [[United States]] in the late 18th century settled in what is now [[Ontario]]. Canada recognizes three Lenape [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] with four [[Indian reserve]]s. They are all located in [[Southwestern Ontario]].
*[[Munsee-Delaware Nation]], Canadian reserve near [[St. Thomas, Ontario]].
*[[Moravian 47, Ontario|Moravian of the Thames First Nation]], Canadian reserve near [[Chatham-Kent]].
*[[Delaware of Six Nations]] (at [[Six Nations of the Grand River]]), two Canadian reserves near [[Brantford, Ontario]].<ref name="dtoi">{{cite web|title=Removal History of the Delaware Tribe|url=http://delawaretribe.org/services-and-programs/historic-preservation/removal-history-of-the-delaware-tribe/|website=Delaware Tribe of Indians|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
===State-recognized and unrecognized groups===
Three groups who claim descent from Lenape people are [[state-recognized tribe]]s.
* [[Lenape Indian Tribe of Delaware]], Delaware<ref name="ncai">{{cite web |title=Tribal Directory: Lenape |url=http://www.ncai.org/tribal-directory?utf8=%E2%9C%93&keyword=Lenape&submit=Search |website=National Congress of American Indians |access-date=14 July 2018}}</ref>
* [[Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape|Nanticoke-Lenni Lenape Tribal Nation]], New Jersey<ref name=ncai/>
* [[Ramapough Lenape Nation]], New Jersey<ref name=ncai/>
More than a dozen organizations in Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,<ref>{{cite web|title=Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania|url=https://www.lenape-nation.org/|access-date=2021-04-14|website=lenapenationofpa|language=en}}</ref> Virginia, and elsewhere claim descent from Lenape people and are [[unrecognized tribes]]. Unrecognized Lenape organizations in [[Idaho]] and [[Kansas]] have petitioned the United States federal government for recognition.<ref>[http://500nations.com/tribes/Tribes_Petitions.asp "Petitions for Federal Recognition."] ''500 Nations.'' Retrieved 22 Jan 2012.</ref>
==Notable historical Lenape people==
This includes only Lenape documented in history. Contemporary notable Lenape people are listed in the articles for the appropriate tribe.
<!-- Do not add living people to this list -->
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Richard C. Adams]] (1864–1921), Lenape author of collections of traditional narratives, legal advocate for Lenape in Washington, D.C.
* [[Black Beaver]] (1806–1880), trapper, trader and scout; first inductee into the American Indian Hall of Fame
* [[Buckongahelas]] (c. 1720–1805), Wolf clan war leader
* [[Nora Thompson Dean]] (1907–1984), Lenape linguist
* [[Indian Hannah]], aka Hannah Freeman (1730–1802); said to be the last of the Lenni-Lenape Indians in Chester County, Pennsylvania
* [[Charles Journeycake]] (1817–1894), chief of the Wolf clan from 1855 and principal chief from 1861; visited Washington, D.C., 24 times on his tribe's behalf<ref>S. H. Mitchell (1895) {{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref>
*Sachem [[Gelelemend|Killbuck (Gelelemend)]], Turtle clan leader<ref>[http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=226 Killbuck, Ohio History Central.] July 1, 2005</ref>
* [[Captain Jacobs]] (died 1756), war chief
* [[Neolin]] (18th century), Delaware prophet
* [[Chief Newcomer]] ([[Netawatwees]], c. 1686–1776), founder the village of Gekelmukpechunk ([[Newcomerstown]]), Ohio in the 1760s
* [[Oratam]] (16th century), sachem of the [[Hackensack (Native Americans)|Hackensack]]
* [[Captain Pipe]] (Hopocan), (c. 1725–c. 1818), 18th century chief and member of the Wolf Clan
* [[Pisquetomen]] (died 1762), chief who assisted [[Christian Frederick Post]] in negotiating the [[Treaty of Easton]] in 1758
* [[Sassoonan]] or Allumapees (c. 1675–1747), 18th century chief and member of the Turtle clan
* [[Shingas]] (fl. 1740–1763)), Turkey clan war leader
* [[Tamanend]] (c. 1625–c. 1701), leader reported to have negotiated treaty with [[William Penn]], and for whom [[Tammany Hall]] was named
* [[Tamaqua (Lenape chief)|Tamaqua]] (died c. 1770), chief who led peace negotiations following [[Pontiac's War]]
* [[Teedyuscung]] ((1700–1763), leader of the eastern Delawares
* [[Turtleheart]], chief and warrior who represented the Delaware Nation at the [[Treaty of Fort Stanwix]] in 1768
* [[White Eyes]] (c. 1730–1778), Turtle clan peace chief who negotiated the [[Treaty of Fort Pitt]]
{{div col end}}
==See also==
{{portal|Delaware}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Burial Ridge]]
* [[Esopus people]]
* [[Hell Town, Ohio]] (Lenape settlement in Ohio)
* [[Lenape settlements]]
* [[Mohicans]]
* [[Munsee]]
* [[Native American tribes in Maryland]]
* [[Okehocking people]]
* [[Ramapough Mountain Indians]]
* [[Shamokin (village)|Shamokin]]
* [[Unalachtigo Lenape]]
* [[Walking Purchase]]
* [[Wappinger]]
{{div col end}}
==Commentary==
{{more citations needed|section|date=March 2021}}
{{reflist|group=notes|refs=
<ref name="description" group="notes">Description of the Lenape peoples (Delaware nations) historic territories inside the [[divides]] of the frequently mountainous [[landforms]] flanking the [[Delaware River]]'s [[drainage basin]]. These terrains encompass from South to North and then counter-clockwise:
* the shores from the east-shore mouth of the river and the sea coast to Western Long Island (all of both colonial [[New Amsterdam|New York City]] and [[New Sweden|New Jersey]]), and
* portions of Western Connecticut up to the latitude of the Massachusetts corner of today's boundaries{{mdash }}making the eastern bounds of their influence, thence their region extended:
* westerly past the region around [[Albany, NY]] to the [[Susquehanna River]] side of the [[Catskills]], then
* southerly through the eastern [[Pocono Mountains|Poconos]] outside the rival [[Susquehannock]] lands past [[Province of Pennsylvania|Eastern Pennsylvania]] then southerly past the site of [[History of Philadelphia|Colonial Philadelphia]] past the west bank mouth of the Delaware and extending south from that point along a stretch of sea coast in northern colonial [[Delaware]].
The Susquehanna-Delaware watershed divides bound the frequently contested '''hunting grounds''' between the rival [[Susquehannock]] peoples and the Lenape peoples, whilst the Catskills and Berkshires played a similar boundary role in the northern regions of their original colonial era range.</ref>
}}
{{Notelist}}
==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==References==
* Aberg, Alf. ''The People of New Sweden: Our Colony on the Delaware River, 1638–1655.'' ([[Natur & Kultur]], 1988). {{ISBN|91-27-01909-8}}.
* Acrelius, Israel. (Translated from Swedish with an introduction and notes by W.M. Reynolds). ''A History of New Sweden; or, the Settlements on the River Delaware.'' Ulan Press, 2011. {{ASIN|B009SMVNPW}}.
* Bierhorst, John. ''Mythology of the Lenape: Guide and Texts''. University of Arizona Press, 1995. {{ISBN|978-0-8165-1573-8}}.
* Brinton, Daniel G., C.F. Denke, and Albert Anthony. ''A Lenâpé – English Dictionary''. Biblio Bazaar, 2009. {{ISBN|978-1-103-14922-3}}.
* Burrows, Edward G. and Mike. Wallace. ''Gotham: A History of New York City to 1989.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-19-514049-4}}.
* Carman, Alan, E. ''Footprints in Time: A History and Ethnology of The Lenape-Delaware Indian Culture.'' Trafford Publishing, 2013. {{ISBN|978-1-4669-0742-3}}.
* Dalton, Anne. ''The Lenape of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Delaware, Wisconsin, Oklahoma, and Ontario (The Library of Native Americans).'' Powerkids Publishing, 2005. {{ISBN|978-1-4042-2872-6}}.
* De Valinger, Leon, Jr. and C.A. Weslager. ''Indian Land Sales In Delaware: And A Discussion Of The Family Hunting Territory Question In Delaware''. Literary Licensing LLC, 2013. {{ISBN|978-1-258-62207-7}}.
* Donehoo, George P. ''A History of the Indian Villages and Place Names in Pennsylvania.'' Wennawoods Publishing, 1997. {{ISBN|978-1-889037-11-0}}.
* Dreibelbis, Dana E., "The Use of Microstructural Growth Patterns of Mercenaria Mercenaria to Determine the Prehistoric Seasons of Harvest at Tuckerton Midden, Tuckerton, New Jersey", pp. 33, thesis, Princeton University, 1978.
* Frantz, Donald G. and Norma Jean Russell. ''Blackfoot Dictionary of Stems, Roots, and Affixes''. University of Toronto Press, 1995. {{ISBN|978-0-8020-7136-1}}.
* Fur, Gunglong. ''A Nation of Women: Gender and Colonial Encounters Among the Delaware Indians'' (Early American Studies). University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012. {{ISBN|978-0-8122-2205-0}}.
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Goddard |first=Ives |editor-first=Bruce G. |editor-last=Trigger |encyclopedia=Handbook of North American Indians |volume=15: Northeast |title=Delaware |year=1978 |location=Washington |pages=213–239}}
* Grumet, Robert S. ''The Lenapes'' (Indians of North America). Chelsea House Publishing, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-7910-0385-5}}.
* Harrington, Mark. ''A Preliminary Sketch of Lenape Culture''. New Era Printing Company, 1913. {{ASIN|B0008C0OBU}}.
* Harrington, Mark. ''Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape.'' Forgotten Books, 2012. {{ASIN|B008J7N986}}.
* Harrington, Mark R. ''Vestiges of Material Culture Among the Canadian Delawares''. New Era Printing Company, 1908. {{ASIN|B0008AV2JU}}.
* Harrington, Mark R. ''The Indians of New Jersey: Dickon Among the Lenapes''. Rutgers University Press, 1963. {{ISBN|978-0-8135-0425-4}}.
* Heckewelder, John G.E. ''The History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and Neighboring States''. Uhlan Publishing, 2012. {{ASIN|B009UTU6LK}}.
* Heckewelder, John G.E. ''Names Which the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians Gave to Rivers, Streams, and Localities'' (Classic Reprint). Forgotten Books, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-4400-5862-2}}.
* Hoffecker, Carol E., Richard Waldron, Lorraine E. Williams, and Barbara E. Benson (editors). ''New Sweden in America''. University of Delaware Press, 1995.
* Jennings, Francis. ''Empire of Fortune.'' W. W. Norton and Company, 1990. {{ISBN|978-0-393-30640-8}}.
* Jennings, Francis. ''The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire.'' W. W. Norton and Company, 1990. {{ISBN|978-0-393-30302-5}}.
* Jennings, Francis. ''The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League.'' Syracuse University Press, 1995. {{ISBN|978-0-8156-2650-3}}.
* Johnson, Amandus. ''The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware: Their History and Relation to the Indians, Dutch and English, 1638–1664 : With an Account of the South, the New Sweden Company, and the American Companies, and the Efforts of Sweden to Regain the Colony.'' University of Pennsylvania, 1911. {{ASIN|B000KJFFCY}}.
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=1961 |title=The American Heritage Book of Indians
|author=Editor: Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., by The editors of American Heritage Magazine
|editor=pages 188–189|publisher=American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc.
|lccn=61014871
}}
* Kalter, Susan (editor). ''Benjamin Franklin, Pennsylvania, and the First Nations: The Treaties of 1736–62.'' University of Illinois Press, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-252-03035-2}}.
* Kraft, Herbert. ''The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage, 10,000 BC to AD 2000.'' Lenape Books, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-935137-03-3}}.
* Kurlansky, Mark. ''The Big Oyster: History on the Half Shell''. Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-345-47639-5}}.
* Lindestrom, Peter. (Transcribed and edited by Amandus Johnson of the Swedish Colonial Society, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania). ''Geographia Americae: With an Account of the Delaware Indians, Based on Surveys and Notes made in 1654–1656 by Peter Lindestrom''. Arno Press, 1979. {{ISBN|978-0-405-11648-3}}.
* Marsh, Dawn G. ''A Lenape Among the Quakers: The Life of Hannah Freeman.'' University of Nebraska Press, 2014. {{ISBN|978-0-8032-4840-3}}.
* Middleton, Sam (Chief Mountain, "Neen Ees To-ko). ''Blackfoot Confederacy, Ancient and Modern.'' Kainai Chieftainship, 1951.
* Mitchell, S. H. Internet Archive The Indian Chief, Journeycake. Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1895.
* Myers, Albert Cook. ''William Penn's Own Account of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians''. Middle Atlantic Press, 1981. {{ISBN|978-0-912608-13-6}}.
* Myers, Albert Cook (editor). ''Narratives of Early Pennsylvania, West New Jersey and Delaware, 1630–1707''. Nabu Press, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-279-95624-3}}.
* Newcomb, William W. ''The Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware Indians''. University of Michigan, 1956. {{ASIN|B0007EFEXW}}.
* Newman, Andrew. ''On Records: Delaware Indians, Colonists, and the Media of History and Memory.'' Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2012. {{ISBN|978-0-8032-3986-9}}.
* Olmstead, Earl P. ''Blackcoats Among the Delaware: David Zeisberger on the Ohio Frontier''. Kent State University Press, 1991. {{ISBN|978-0-87338-434-6}}.
* Pritzker, Barry M. ''A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-19-513877-1}}.
* Repsher, Donald R. "Indian Place Names in Bucks County". As cited in https://web.archive.org/web/20131203011343/http://www.lenapenation.org/main.html. Retrieved March 15, 2012.
* Rice, Phillip W. ''English-Lenape Dictionary''. N.P., N.D. See https://web.archive.org/web/20131203011343/http://www.lenapenation.org/main.html.
* Schutt, Amy C. ''Peoples of the River Valleys: The Odyssey of the Delaware Indians'' (Early American Studies). University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-8122-2024-7}}.
* Soderlund, Jean R. ''Lenape Country: Delaware Valley Society before William Penn.'' Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014.
* Spady, James. "[https://www.academia.edu/479943/_Colonialism_and_the_Discursive_Antecedents_of_Penns_Treaty_with_the_Indians_in_William_A._Pencak_and_Daniel_K._Richter_eds._From_Native_America_to_Penns_Woods_Colonists_Indians_and_the_Racial_Construction_of_Pennsylvania_State_College_Pennsylvania_State_University_Press_2004_18-40 Colonialism and the Discursive Antecedents of Penn's Treaty with the Indians]". Daniel K. Richter and William A. Pencak, eds. ''Friends and Enemies in Penn's Woods: Indians, Colonists, and the Racial Construction of Pennsylvania''. Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004: 18–40.
* Trowbridge, C.C. ''Delaware Indian Language of 1824'' (American Language Reprints Supplement Series; edited by James A. Rementer). Evolution Publications and Manufacturing, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1-935228-06-6}}.
* Van Doren, Carl, and Julian P. Boyd. ''Indian Treaties Printed by Benjamin Franklin, 1736–1762''. Nabu Press, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1-178-59363-1}}.
* Vansina, Jan. ''Oral Tradition as History.'' Oxford, 1985. {{ISBN|0-85255-007-3}}.
* Wallace, Paul, A.W. ''Indians in Pennsylvania'' (Revised Edition). Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-89271-017-1}}.
* Wallace, Paul, A.W. ''Indian Paths of Pennsylvania.'' Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1998. {{ISBN|978-0-89271-090-4}}.
* Weslager, Clinton, Alfred (C.A). ''A Brief Account of the Indians of Delaware.'' Literary Licensing, LLC, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-258-23895-7}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''A Man and His Ship: Peter Minuit and the Kalmar Nyckel''. Middle Atlantic Press, 1990. {{ISBN|978-0-9625563-1-9}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''Delaware's Buried Past: A Story of Archeological Adventure''. Rutgers University Press, 1968. {{ASIN|B000KN4Y3G}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''Delaware's Forgotten Folk: The Story of the Moors and Nanticokes''. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-8122-1983-8}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''Delaware's Forgotten River: The Story of the Christina''. Hambleton Company, 1947. {{ASIN|B0006D8AEO}}.
* Weslager, C.A., and A. R. Dunlap. ''Dutch Explorers, Traders And Settlers In The Delaware Valley, 1609–1664''. Literary Licensing, LLC, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1-258-17789-8}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''Magic Medicines of the Indians''. Signet, 1974. {{ASIN|B001VIUW08}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''New Sweden on the Delaware'' (Middle Atlantic Press, 1988). {{ISBN|0-912608-65-X}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''Red Men on the Brandywine'' (New and Enlarged Edition). Hambleton Company, 1953. {{ASIN|B00EHSFKEC}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''The Delaware Indians: A History.'' New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1972. {{ISBN|0-8135-0702-2}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''The Delaware Indian Westward Migration: With the Texts of Two Manuscripts, 1821–22, Responding to General Lewis Cass's Inquiries about Lenape Culture and Language''. Middle Atlantic Press, 1978. {{ISBN|978-0-912608-06-8}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''The English on the Delaware: 1610–1682''. Rutgers University Press, 1967. {{ISBN|978-0-8135-0548-0}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''The Nanticoke Indians: A Refugee Tribal Group of Pennsylvania.'' Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1948). {{ASIN|B0007ED7Z4}}.
* Weslager, C.A. ''The Swedes and Dutch at New Castle.'' Middle Atlantic Press, 1990. {{ISBN|978-0-912608-50-1}}.
* Zeisberger, David. ''A Lenâpé-English Dictionary: From An Anonymous [Manuscript] In The Archives Of The Moravian Church At Bethlehem, [Pennsylvania].'' Nabu Press, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-278-79951-3}}.
* Zeisberger, David. ''David Zeisberger's History of Northern American Indians'' (Classic Reprint). Forgotten Books, 2012. {{ASIN|B008HTRBDK}}.
* Zeisberger, David. ''Grammar of the Language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians''. Forgotten Books, 2012. {{ASIN|B008LQRNGO}}.
* Zeisberger, David. ''The Diary of David Zeisberger: A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, Volume 1''. Ulan Press, 2012. {{ASIN|B00A6PBD82}}.
* Zeisberger, David. ''The Diary of David Zeisberger: A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, Volume 2''. Ulan Press, 2012. {{ASIN|B009L4SVN4}}.
* Zeisberger, David. ''Zeisberger's Indian Dictionary: English, German, Iroquois—The Onondaga and Algonquin—The Delaware''. Harvard University Press, 1887. {{ISBN|1-104-25351-8}}. "The Delaware" that Zeisberger translated was Munsee, and not Unami.
==Further reading==
* Adams, Richard Calmit, ''The Delaware Indians, a brief history'', Hope Farm Press (Saugerties, NY 1995) [originally published by Government Printing Office, (Washington, DC 1909)]
* Bierhorst, John. ''The White Deer and Other Stories Told by the Lenape''. New York: W. Morrow, 1995. {{ISBN|0-688-12900-5}}
* Brown, James W. and Rita T. Kohn, eds. [http://www.iupress.indiana.edu/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=57170 ''Long Journey Home''] {{ISBN|978-0-253-34968-2}}. Indiana University Press (2007).
* {{Cite book |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-8061-4062-9 |oclc=317361732 |volume=262 |last=Grumet |first=Robert Steven |title=The Munsee Indians: a history |location=Norman |series=Civilization of the American Indian |year=2009}}
* Kraft, Herbert: ''The Lenape: Archaeology, History, and Ethnography.'' New Jersey Historical Society, 1987. {{ISBN|978-0-911020-14-4}}.
* Kraft, Herbert. ''The Lenape or Delaware Indians: The Original People of New Jersey, Southeastern New York State, Eastern Pennsylvania, northern Delaware and parts of western Connecticut''. Lenape Books, 1996. {{ISBN|978-0-935137-01-9}}.
* O'Meara, John, ''Delaware-English / English-Delaware dictionary'', Toronto: University of Toronto Press (1996) {{ISBN|0-8020-0670-1}}.
* [[Paul Otto (historian)|Otto, Paul]], ''The Dutch-Munsee Encounter in America: The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Hudson Valley'' (New York: Berghahn Books, 2006). {{ISBN|1-57181-672-0}}
* Pritchard, Evan T., ''Native New Yorkers: The Legacy of the Algonquin People of New York.'' Council Oak Books: San Francisco, 2002, 2007. {{ISBN|1-57178-107-2}}.
* Richter, Conrad, ''The Light In The Forest.'' New York: 1953.
== External links ==
{{Commons category|Lenape}}
{{EB1911 poster|Delaware Indians|Lenape}}
* {{Official website|https://www.delawarenation-nsn.gov/}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111102124537/http://www.delawaretribeofindians.nsn.us/ Delaware Tribe of Indians], official website
* [https://mohican.com/ Stockbridge-Munsee Community], official website
* [https://www.thelenapecenter.com/ Lenape Center]
* [https://www.museumofindianculture.org/ Museum of Indian Culture]
* [http://www.gilwell.com/lenape/index.htm Lenape/English dictionary]
* [http://www.talk-lenape.org/ Lenape (Southern Unami) Talking Dictionary]
* {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Delaware (tribe)|display=Delaware. One of the most important tribes of Algonquian stock |short=x}}
{{Native Americans in Ohio}}
{{Native American Tribes in Oklahoma}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Lenape}}
[[Category:Lenape| ]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands]]
[[Category:Eastern Algonquian peoples]]
[[Category:Native American history of Delaware]]
[[Category:Native American history of Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Native American history of New Jersey]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Delaware]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in New Jersey]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in New York (state)]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:People of New Netherland]]
[[Category:First Nations in Ontario]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Indiana]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Ohio]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Algonquian ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Texas]]
[[Category:Native Americans in the American Revolution]]' |
