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'{{Short description|Family of mites}} {{Automatic taxobox | image = Proprioseiopsis mexicanus 1.png | image_caption = ''Proprioseiopsis mexicanus'' | taxon = Phytoseiidae | authority = [[Antonio Berlese|Berlese]], 1916 | display_parents = 2 | diversity = About 90 genera, over 2,000 species | diversity_link = List of Phytoseiidae species | subdivision_ranks = [[Subfamily|Subfamilies]] | subdivision = [[Amblyseiinae]] <small>Muma, 1961</small><br /> [[Phytoseiinae]] <small>Berlese, 1916</small><br /> [[Typhlodrominae]] <small>Scheuten, 1857</small> }} The '''Phytoseiidae''' are a [[family (biology)|family]] of [[mite]]s which feed on [[thrips]] and other mite species. They are often used as a [[biological control agent]] for managing mite pests.<ref>{{cite journal | title= A revised catalog of the mite family Phytoseiidae |last1=de Moraes |first1=G.J. |last2=McMurtry |first2=J.A. |last3=Denmark |first3=H.A. |last4=Campos |first4=C.B. |journal=[[Zootaxa]] |volume=434 |pages=1–494 |year=2004 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.434.1.1 |url=http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2004f/z00434f.pdf }}</ref> Because of their usefulness as biological control agents, interest in Phytoseiidae has steadily increased over the past century. Public awareness of the biological control potential of invertebrates has been growing, though mainly in the US and Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wyckhuys|first1=K. A. G.|last2=Pozsgai|first2=G.|last3=Lovei|first3=G. L.|last4=Vasseur|first4=L.|last5=Wratten|first5=S. D.|last6=Gurr|first6=G. M.|last7=Reynolds|first7=O. L.|last8=Goettel|first8=M.|date=2019-04-10|title=Global disparity in public awareness of the biological control potential of invertebrates|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969719300841|journal=Science of the Total Environment|language=en|volume=660|pages=799–806|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.077|pmid=30743965 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.660..799W |s2cid=73444309 |issn=0048-9697}}</ref> In 1950, there were 34 known species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Çobanoğlu|first1=Sultan|last2=Kumral|first2=Nabi Alper|date=2016-06-02|title=The biodiversity, density and population trend of mites (Acari) on ''Capsicum annuum'' L. in temperate and semi-arid zones of Turkey|url=http://biotaxa.org/saa/article/view/saa.21.7.5|journal=Systematic and Applied Acarology|language=en|volume=21|issue=7|pages=907|doi=10.11158/saa.21.7.5|s2cid=89015442|issn=1362-1971}}</ref> Today, there are 2,731 documented species<ref>{{Cite web|title = .:: Phytoseiidae Database ::.|url = http://www.lea.esalq.usp.br/phytoseiidae|website = www.lea.esalq.usp.br|access-date = 2015-10-20}}</ref> organized in 90 genera and three subfamilies.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title=Untitled Document|url=https://www1.montpellier.inra.fr/CBGP/phytoseiidae/presentationofthefamily.htm|access-date=2021-12-06|website=www1.montpellier.inra.fr}}</ref> ==Subfamilies== The family Phytoseiidae contains these subfamilies:<ref>{{harv|Zicha|2004}}</ref> * [[Amblyseiinae]] <small>Muma, 1961</small> * [[Phytoseiinae]] <small>Berlese, 1916</small> * [[Typhlodrominae]] <small>Scheuten, 1857</small> == Anatomy and Life Cycle == Predatory mite eggs can be found along the vein of the bottom side of a [[Leaf anatomy|leaf]]; They are oblong and translucent white.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|title=Predatory Mites {{!}} University of Maryland Extension|url=https://extension.umd.edu/resource/predatory-mites|access-date=2021-12-07|website=extension.umd.edu}}</ref> The larvae of predatory mites coloring ranges from translucent white to tan. They are tiny and oval in shape and size, have six legs, and are wingless. Predatory mite nymphs look similar to larvae, with the exception of being slightly larger and having eight legs.<ref name=":8" /> Adult predatory mites are less than 0.5mm in size, pear-shaped, wingless, and have eight legs. They are translucent white, but turn a pale tan, orange/red, or green after feeding.<ref name=":8" /> Developmental rate is species specific, ranging from less than a week to four weeks, with temperature and alimentation being environmental factors.<ref name=":7" /> The body of Phytoseiidae is divided into two parts: the [[gnathosoma]] (anterior) and idiosoma (posterior). The gnathosoma includes [[chelicerae]], sensorial palps, and a stylophore. Males have an added feature- a spermatodactyl to transfer [[spermatophore]] to females.<ref name=":7" /> == Lifestyles == Phytoseiid mites are best known as predators of small arthropods and nematodes, but many species are also known to feed on fungi, plant exudates, and pollen.<ref name=":0" /> Scientists have proposed classifications of the Phytoseiidae based on their food sources. In the most current version, developed in 2013, phytoseiids are grouped into four types.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|url = http://zoobank.org/References/9FF82B60-CFB0-4B48-AD09-316818CE06C8|title = Revision of the lifestyles of phytoseiid mites (Acari: Phytoseiidae) and implications for biological control strategies|last = McMurtry|first = James|date = December 24, 2013|journal = Systematic & Applied Acarology|volume = 18|issue = 4|pages = 297|doi = 10.11158/saa.18.4.1|s2cid = 55807023|access-date = October 20, 2015}}</ref> * Type I includes species that are specialized mite predators, with three subgroups determined by the type of prey.<ref name=":0" /> * Type II includes species that feed on [[Spider mite|tetranychid mites]], meaning mites that are capable of spinning webs.<ref name=":0" /> * Type III phytoseiids are classified as generalist predators. They can feed on mites of many families, as well as thrips, whiteflies, nematodes, and even pollen. Type III is further subdivided into five groups based on the habitat where the Phytoseiids can be found.<ref name=":0" /> * Type IV phytoseiids rely on pollen as their primary food source. These species can also act as generalist predators, but they are most successful when feeding on pollen.<ref name=":0" /> == Misconceptions == Mites are commonly associated as a whole with parasitic mites like [[Sarcoptes scabiei|scabies]], [[Trombicula|chiggers]], and [[Ornithonyssus|bird mites]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Parasitic Mites of Humans {{!}} Entomology|url=https://entomology.ca.uky.edu/ef637|access-date=2021-12-07|website=entomology.ca.uky.edu}}</ref> or common [[house dust mite]]s. Negative connotations arise, although this family provides benefits for agriculture by feeding on pests. [[Insecticide]]s are often used when handling agricultural pests, though to attract and conserve Phytoseiid mites, [[Broad-spectrum antibiotic|broad-spectrum]] insecticides are to be avoided.<ref name=":8" /> Phytoseiidae can be used as biological control agents in replace of many toxic materials. == Phytoseiidae as Biological Control Agents == Phytoseiids are an important natural predator of the [[spider mite]].<ref name=":3" /> When phytoseiid populations decline, spider mites can severely damage commercial crops. Since World War II, spider mite (tetranychid) populations have increased due to the use of synthetic pesticides.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|title = The Ecology of Tetranychid Mites and Their Natural Control|journal = Annual Review of Entomology|date = 1969-01-01|pages = 125–174|volume = 14|issue = 1|doi = 10.1146/annurev.en.14.010169.001013|first1 = C. B.|last1 = Huffaker|first2 = M. van de|last2 = Vrie|first3 = J. A.|last3 = McMurtry}}</ref> The reason pesticides have increased spider mite populations remains mysterious to scientists, but it has spurred an interest in phytoseiids as biological control agents.<ref name=":3" /> So far, research has shown that phytoseiids are effective control agents in both their native environments and open-field vegetable crops.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Management of insect and mite pests with predaceous mites in open-field vegetable crops|journal = [[Israel Journal of Entomology]]|date = 2018-06-28|pages = 83–111|volume = 48|issue = 2|doi = 10.5281/zenodo.1299520|first1 = Ph.A.|last1 = Stansly| first2 = J.A.|last2 = Castillo| first3 = J.A.|last3 = Tansey| first4 = B.C.|last4 = Kostyk}}</ref> Phytoseiid species that act as biological control agents are influenced by the availability of their prey.<ref name=":5" /> Phytoseiids can postpone or delay egg production during periods when prey are scarce.<ref name=":5" /> This allows them to have a longer lifespan and likely serves as an adaptation to environments where prey availability is variable.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|title = The profit of senescence in phytoseiid mites|journal = Oecologia|date = 1979-12-01|issn = 0029-8549|pages = 87–90|volume = 44|issue = 1|doi = 10.1007/BF00346403|pmid = 28310469|first1 = Leo H. M.|last1 = Blommers|first2 = Rolf C. M. van|last2 = Arendonk| bibcode=1979Oecol..44...87B |s2cid = 27696609}}</ref> In addition to being able to delay reproduction, phytoseiids are also capable of rapid reproduction when prey is readily available.<ref name=":5" /> They reproduce more when prey availability is high, which increases their effectiveness as biological control agents.<ref name=":5" /> When prey availability increases, females lay more eggs, and more healthy offspring are produced during reproductive periods.<ref name=":6" /> In addition, when prey availability increases, the Phytoseiidae kill more prey during reproductive cycles, and the ratio of prey killed to eggs laid increases.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|title = Influence of prey availability on reproduction and prey consumption of Phytoseiulus persimilis, Amblyseius californicus and Metaseiulus occidentalis (Acarina: Phytoseiidae)|journal = International Journal of Acarology|date = 1982-06-01|issn = 0164-7954|pages = 85–89|volume = 8|issue = 2|doi = 10.1080/01647958208683283|first1 = D. D.|last1 = Friese|first2 = F. E.|last2 = Gilstrap}}</ref> == ''Wolbachia'' Infections == ''[[Wolbachia]]'', a parasitic bacterial genus that affects a vast array of arthropod species such as ''[[Drosophila simulans]]'', is common in the Phytoseiidae.<ref name=":1" /> It affects gender determination and reproduction of its hosts, making it a powerful agent of evolution.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|title = Evolutionary consequences of Wolbachia infections|journal = Trends in Genetics|date = 2003-04-01|issn = 0168-9525|pmid = 12683975|pages = 217–223|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0168-9525(03)00024-6|first1 = Sylvain|last1 = Charlat|first2 = Gregory D. D.|last2 = Hurst|first3 = Hervé|last3 = Merçot}}</ref> ''Wolbachia'' species have been detected in many species of the Phytoseiidae, both in the field and in the lab.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title = Wolbachia in a Predator–Prey System: 16S Ribosomal Dna Analysis of Two Phytoseiids (Acari: Phytoseiidae) and Their Prey (Acari: Tetranychidae)|journal = Annals of the Entomological Society of America|date = 1996-05-01|issn = 0013-8746|pages = 435–441|volume = 89|issue = 3|doi = 10.1093/aesa/89.3.435|first1 = Denise L.|last1 = Johanowicz|first2 = Marjorie A.|last2 = Hoy}}</ref> Although most research focuses on ''Wolbachia'' in germ line tissues, the bacteria can also be found in somatic tissues.<ref name=":4" /> ''Wolbachia's'' main method of spreading is to be passed down through the generations in germ line tissues, but it is also capable of being transferred horizontally.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|title = Wolbachia infections are distributed throughout insect somatic and germ line tissues|journal = Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|date = 1999-02-01|issn = 0965-1748|pmid = 10196738|pages = 153–160|volume = 29|issue = 2|first1 = S. L.|last1 = Dobson|first2 = K.|last2 = Bourtzis|first3 = H. R.|last3 = Braig|first4 = B. F.|last4 = Jones|first5 = W.|last5 = Zhou|first6 = F.|last6 = Rousset|first7 = S. L.|last7 = O'Neill|doi=10.1016/s0965-1748(98)00119-2}}</ref> Although ''Wolbachia'' bacteria do not benefit their hosts in any way, they are maintained in the population because infected mothers pass them to their offspring through the ovum. Over time, bacterial presence in a population can lead to complete reproductive isolation of that population from uninfected populations.<ref name=":2" /> ''Wolbachia'' causes speciation through reproductive isolation.<ref name=":2" /> Some hosts evolve with a dependency on ''Wolbachia'' for reproductive functions, so that individuals without ''Wolbachia'' infections have lower reproductive fitness.<ref name=":2" /> ''[[Wolbachia]]'' influences the gender determination of its hosts, making females more common than males.<ref name=":2" /> In populations affected by ''Wolbachia'', females commonly compete for the right to mate with males.<ref name=":2" /> This is one of the ways in which ''Wolbachia'' infections can lead to speciation, because females evolve traits that allow them to better compete for males.<ref name=":2" /> In extreme cases, the feminizing effect of ''Wolbachia'' can cause the host species to lose the chromosome responsible for female gender.<ref name=":2" /> ''Wolbachia'' infections are capable of causing the extinction of hosts by making females much more common than males.<ref name=":2" /> ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== * * {{citation | last = Zicha | first = Ondřej | editor1 = Ondřej Zicha | editor2 = Jaroslav Hrb | editor3 = Michal Maňas |display-editors = 3 | editor4 = Jiří Novák | title = Family Phytoseiidae. Taxon Profile | work = BioLib | year = 2004 | url = https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id19349/ | access-date = 26 August 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140912025406/http://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id19349/ | archive-date = 12 September 2014 }} ==External links== *[http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/beneficial/Neoseiulus_californicus.htm ''Neoseiulus californicus'', a predatory mite] on the [[University of Florida|UF]] / [[Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences|IFAS]] Featured Creatures Web site * {{cite web |title=Phytoseiidae Species Listing |url=http://bug.tamu.edu/research/collection/hallan/Acari/Family/Phytoseiidae.txt |access-date=13 August 2015 |last=de Moraes |first=G.J. |work=Biology Catalog |editor=Hallan, Joel |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141212081418/http://bug.tamu.edu/research/collection/hallan/Acari/Family/Phytoseiidae.txt |archive-date=12 December 2014}} {{Acari}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q136828}} [[Category:Phytoseiidae| ]] [[Category:Acari families]] [[Category:Biological pest control agents]]'