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'Below article is fake and misinfo about islam it does not exist.{{Short description|Social system in South Asia}} [[Muslim]] communities in [[South Asia]] apply a system of [[religious stratification]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Caste Among Indian Muslims Is a Real Issue. So Why Deny Them Reservation?|url=https://thewire.in/caste/caste-among-indian-muslims-real-why-deny-reservation|access-date=2020-12-03|website=The Wire}}</ref> It developed as a result of [[Racial segregation|ethnic segregation]] between the foreign conquerors/ Upper caste Hindus who converted to Islam (''[[Ashraf#Usage in South Asia|Ashraf]]'') (also known as ''tabqa-i ashrafiyya''<ref>{{cite journal | title = Debates on Muslim Caste in North India and Pakistan | first = Julien | last = Levesque | year = 2020 | publisher = HAL | page = 4}}</ref>) and the local converts (''Ajlaf'') as well as the continuation of the [[Indian caste system]] among local converts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gautier|first1=Laurence|last2=Levesque|first2=Julien|date=July 2020|title=Introduction: Historicizing Sayyid-ness: Social Status and Muslim Identity in South Asia|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society|language=en|volume=30|issue=3|pages=383–393|doi=10.1017/S1356186320000139|issn=1356-1863|doi-access=free}}</ref> Non-Ashrafs are converts from Hinduism, usually from the lower castes.<ref>{{cite web | title = Ashraf: Islamic Caste Group | publisher = Britannica | year = 2021 | url = https://www.britannica.com/topic/ashraf-Islamic-caste-group}}</ref> Pasmandas include Ajlaf and Arzal Muslims, and Ajlafs' statuses are defined by them being descendants of converts to Islam and are also defined by their ''pesha'' (profession).<ref name = "y">{{cite journal | title = Muslim Castes in India | first = Remy | last = Delage | journal = Books & Ideas | date = 29 September 2014 | publisher = College De France| url = https://booksandideas.net/Muslim-Castes-in-India.html}}</ref> The [[Baradari (brotherhood)|Biradari]] System is how [[social stratification]] manifests itself in [[Pakistan]], and to an extent also [[India]].<ref name="nihcr.edu.pk">[http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/Latest_English_Journal/Local-Bodies.pdf Ahmed, M., 2009. Local-bodies or local biradari system: An analysis of the role of biradaries in the local bodies system of the Punjab. Pakistan Journal of History and Culture, 30(1), pp.81-92.]</ref> Ashrafism, Syedism, Zatism, Sharifism, Biradarism, and the Quom System are aspects of the caste system among Muslims in South Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-22|title=Sufi Woman Beaten by Inmate in Gharchak Prison|url=https://iranhumanrights.org/2019/04/sufi-woman-beaten-by-inmate-in-gharchak-prison/|access-date=2021-08-01|website=Center for Human Rights in Iran}}</ref> Concepts of "paak" (pure/clean) and "naapak" (religiously impure/unclean/polluted, which is also used to refer to infidels<ref>{{cite book | title = Politics, Landlords, and Islam in Pakistan | first = Nicolas | last = Martin | page = 13 | publisher = Routledge | year = 2016}}</ref>) are found in South Asian Muslims.<ref name = "Patel">{{cite web | title = It is time to talk about caste in Pakistan and Pakistani diaspora| first = Shaista Abdul | last = Aziz Patel | date = 15 December 2020 | publisher = Al Jazeera | url = https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/12/15/it-is-time-to-talk-about-caste-in-pakistan-and-pakistani-diaspora}}</ref> The South Asian Muslim caste system also includes hierarchical classifications of khandan (dynasty, family, or lineage descent) and nasab (a group based on blood ties/lineage).<ref name = "y"/> == Historical development == While [[Islam]] did not recognize any castes,{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=27}} when it came to [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Persia]] and India, the existing divisions in these regions were adopted among the local Muslim societies. Evidence of social stratification can be found in several later Persian works, such as ''[[Siyasatnama]]'' of [[Nizam al-Mulk]] (11th century), ''[[Akhlaq-i Nasiri]]'' of [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] (13th century), and ''Jam-i-Mufidi'' (17th century).{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=29}} After Muhammad died in the 7th century, there was the war of succession which had tribes and families fighting each other.<ref name = "y"/> After this, a determinant for social stratification in Arab society included being part of the close family of Muhammad (''ahl al-bayt'').<ref name = "y"/> This ''ahl al-bayt'' determinant had its presence in Ancient India among Muslims since the 8th century, and then this led to a further hierarchical determinant, which was Arabs versus non-Arabs.<ref name = "y"/> Later on, among non-Arabs, further divisions took place, between Muslims who were converted in early Islamization campaigns (khadim-al islam) and Muslims who converted more recently (jadid-al islam).<ref name = "y"/> Today, South Asian Muslims are divided by the aforementioned classifications that have resulted in Arab-origin higher castes (''unch zat'') and those that are descendants of converts (lower castes/''nich zat'').<ref name = "y"/> The Sultans during the Mughal Empire were all high caste.<ref name = "y"/> The Muslims who came to the subcontinent during the 12th century [[Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent]] were already divided into social classes, including priests, nobles and others. Further, a racial segregation demarcated the local Muslim converts from foreign origin Muslims. The foreigners claimed a superior status as they were associated with the conquerors and categorized themselves as [[Ashraf]] ("noble").{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=30}} Over time, the Indian Muslim society also split on the basis of the existing [[Hindu caste system]].{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=30}} According to [[M. N. Srinivas]] (1986) and R.K. Bhattacharya, Indian Hindu converts to Islam brought their original caste system to the Muslim society in the region.{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=116}} On the other hand, [[Louis Dumont]] (1957) believes that the Islamic conquerors consciously adopted the Hindu caste system "as a compromise which they had to make in a predominantly Hindu environment."{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=115-116}} [[Ziauddin Barani]], a 14th century political thinker of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], recommended that the "sons of Mohamed" (i.e. Ashrafs) be given a higher social status than the low-born (i.e. Ajlaf). His most significant contribution in the [[fatwa]] was his analysis of the castes with respect to Islam. His assertion was that castes would be mandated through state laws or "Zawabi" and would carry precedence over [[Sharia]] law whenever they were in conflict. According to Barani, every act which is "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominity, comes elegantly [from the Ajlaf]". Barani also developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of Imperial officers ("[[Vizier|Wazirs]]") that was primarily based on their caste.<ref name="Das">Das, Arbind, Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatwa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barrani: an analysis, Pratibha Publications, Delhi 1996, {{ISBN|81-85268-45-2}} pp. 124-143</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Sikand |first=Yoginder |title=Sacred Spaces: Exploring Traditions of Shared Faith in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RBkwnoDPKgUC&pg=PA7 |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-302931-1 |pages=7–}}</ref> Historically, many Muslims from the julaha or weaver caste began to identify as "Ansaris", the butchers as "Quereshis", and the sanitation and ''bishti'' caste Muslims as "Sheikh".<ref name="Sanober"/> The Muslim concept of ''kafa'a/kufu/kafa'ah'', which ulama use to support endogamy, provides a justification for South Asian Muslim caste practices.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Debates on Muslim Caste in North India and Pakistan | first = Julien | last = Levesque | year = 2020 | publisher = HAL | page = 14}}</ref> Kafa'ah is hereditary.<ref name = "y"/> === Ashrafization and Syedization === Ashrafization includes adopting upper caste Muslims' practices to achieve social climbing.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Collective and Elective Identity: Caste among Urban Muslims in India | first = Syed | last= Ali | date = December 2002 | volume = 17 | number = 4 | publisher = Springer | page = 602}}</ref> ==== Caste Associations ==== Another type of Ashrafization is the establishment of caste associations.<ref name = "y"/> The Khoja caste, who are Ismaili Shias found particularly in Karachi and Sindh are prominent in this regard.<ref name = "y"/> Prominent Muslim caste associations are ones for Memons and Bohras in Sindh and Gujarat.<ref name = "y"/> The term "jama'at" is commonly used in place of "zat".<ref name = "y"/> === History of research === There are various definitions of the term "caste", and therefore, various opinions on whether this term can be used to denote social stratification among non-Hindu communities. Ghaus Ansari (1960) uses the term "caste" to describe the Muslim social groups with following characteristics:[[endogamy]] within a given social group, hierarchical gradation of social groups, determination of the group membership by birth, and, in some cases, association of an occupation with the social group.{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=22}} Beginning in the 19th century, [[Western world|Western]] [[Indology|Indologists]] first catalogued the various Muslim castes:{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=22}} * [[Henry Miers Elliot]]'s ''Supplement to the glossary of Indian terms'' (1844), later amplied into ''Memoirs on the history, folk-lore, and distribution of the Races of the North Western Provinces of India'' * John Charles Williams's ''The Report on the Census of Oudh'' (1869) * [[Denzil Ibbetson]]'s Census Report of Punjab (1883), later adapted into ''[[Panjab Castes]]'' * [[John Nesfield]]'s ''Brief View of the Caste System of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh'' (1885) * [[Herbert Hope Risley]]'s ''Tribes and castes of Bengal'' (1893) * [[William Crooke]]'s ''The tribes and castes of the North-western Provinces and Oudh'' (1896) Nelson's book, in particular, included a whole chapter dedicated to the Muslim castes. In the 20th century British India, a number of works included the Muslim social groups in their descriptions of the Indian castes. These included [[H. A. Rose]]'s ''[[A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province]]'' (1911).{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=2}} In independent India, Ghaus Ansari (1960) initiated academic discussion over the Muslim caste system. Subsequently, Imtiaz Ahmed elaborated the topic in his ''Caste and Social Stratification among the Muslims'' (1973).{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|p=115}} About 1915, Mirza Muhammad Hassan Qatil wrote about the four ''firqa'' (classes) of the Ashraf.<ref name = "v">{{cite journal | page = 3 | first = David | last = Lelyveld | title = Article on "Ashraf" in "Keywords in South Asian Studies" | editor = Rachel Dwyer | publisher = School of Oriental and African Studies | year = 2005 | url = https://www.soas.ac.uk/south-asia-institute/keywords/file24799.pdf}}</ref> He describes how people are considered to be ''paji'' (contemptible) in the following occupations: elephant caretaking, bread business, perfume business, and businesses in bazaars.<ref name = "v"></ref> == Syedism, Ashrafism, Biradarism, Zatism, Sharifism, Arab Supremacy, and Divisions == Syedism (or Sayedism) is considered to be a system of social inequality among South Asian Muslims.<ref name = "ThePrint"/> Syedism involves the belief that Syeds (or Saiads/Sayyads/Saiyeds) have a more authentic grasp on Islam and all social and political matters.<ref name = "Patel"></ref> Zat is sometimes considered a broader category than Biradari. In Pakistani Punjab, being relatives is the main criterion to comprise a Biradari. The ranking, from highest to lowest, of Ashraf castes is the following:Pathans, Syeds, Abbasi, and Mughals. {{see also|List of Muslim Other Backward Classes communities in India}} Ghaus Ansari (1960) named the following four broad categories of Muslim social divisions in India:{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=32-35}} *''Ashraf'', who claim foreign-origin descent. **e.g. [[Sayyid]], [[Mughal tribe|Mughal]], [[Abbasi (surname)|Abbasi]] *Converts from [[Forward caste|upper castes]] **e.g. [[Muslim Rajputs]], [[Muslim Jats]], [[Bhat|Butt]] *Converts from other Indian [[Tribes]] **e.g. [[Darzi]], [[Muslim Dhobi|Dhobi]], Mansoori, [[Muslim Gaddi|Gaddi]], [[Faqir (clan)|Faqir]], [[Hajjam]] (Nai), [[Julaha]], [[Kabaria]], [[Kumhar]], [[Kunjra]], [[Mirasi]], and [[Muslim Teli|Teli]] *Converts from [[untouchability|untouchable]] castes **e.g. [[Mochi (Muslim)|Muslim Mochi]], [[Bhangi]], There is a hierarchy among Ashrafs that is determined by the degree of nearness to Muhammad and which country they originate from; accordingly the Syeds (who trace descent from Fatima, Muhammad's daughter) have the highest status<ref>{{cite journal | title = Ashraf and Ajlaf Categories in Indo-Muslim Society | first = Imtiaz | last = Ahmed | date = May 13, 1967 | publisher = Economic and Political Weekly | page = 887}}</ref> The non-Ashrafs are categorized as ''Ajlaf''. The untouchable Hindu converts are also categorized as ''Arzal'' ("degraded").<ref name="Ambedkar">{{cite book |last = Ambedkar |first = Bhimrao |author-link = B.R. Ambedkar |title = Pakistan or the Partition of India |publisher = Thackers Publishers }}</ref><ref name="Ambedkaronline">[http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_partition/410.html Web resource for ''Pakistan or the Partition of India'']</ref> They are relegated to menial professions such as scavenging and carrying [[night soil]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/dereserve-these-myths/12109/|title=Dereserve these myths - Indian Express|website=archive.indianexpress.com|language=en-gb|access-date=2017-09-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Falahi|first1=Masood|title=Caste and caste based discrimination s Among Indian Muslims'|url=http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/5664/1/AHRC_16,_Caste_and_Caste_Based_Discriminations_Among_Indian_Muslims.pdf|website=SAS|access-date=5 January 2015}}</ref> [[B.R. Ambedkar]], citing the Superintendent of the Census for 1901 for the Province of Bengal, mentions that the Ajlaf primarily include: * Cultivating Sheikhs, and others who were originally Hindus but who do not belong to any functional group, and have not gained admittance to the Ashraf Community, e.g. Pirali and Thakrai. * Darzi, Brahmin, Jolaha, Fakir, and Rangrez. * Barhi, Bhalhiara, Chik, Churihar, Dai, Dhawa, Dhunia, Gaddi, Kalal, Kasai, Kula Kunjara, Laheri, Mahifarosh, Mallah, Naliya, Nikari. * Abdal, Bako, Bediya, Bhal, Chamba, Dafali, Dhobi, Hajjam, Mucho, Nagarchi, Nal, Panwaria, Madaria, Tunlia. For the Arzal, the following castes are mentioned by the Superintendent of the Census: Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_partition/410.html#part_2|title=410}}</ref> In [[Pakistan]], various social groups (called {{transl|ur|quoms}}) display a social stratification comparable to the Indian caste system. The various {{transl|ur|quoms}} differ widely in power, privilege and wealth. Both ethnic affiliation (e.g. [[Pashtuns|Pathan]], [[Sindhis|Sindhi]], [[Baloch people|Baloch]], [[Punjabis|Punjabi]], etc.) and membership of specific [[biraderi]]s or {{transl|ur|zaat/quoms}} are additional integral components of social identity.<ref name="barth">{{cite book | last = Barth | first = Fredrik | editor = E. R. Leach | title = The System Of Social Stratification In Swat, North Pakistan (Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon, and North-West Pakistan) | url= https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=2995517 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | page = 113 | year = 1962 }}</ref> Within the bounds of endogamy defined by the above parameters, close [[cousin marriage|consanguineous unions]] are preferred due to a congruence of key features of group- and individual-level background factors as well as affinities. McKim Marriott adds that a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous, and hereditary is widely prevalent, particularly in western parts of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Ecologic Relationships of Ethnic Groups in Swat, North Pakistan|author=Fredrick Barth|journal=American Anthropologist|doi=10.1525/aa.1956.58.6.02a00080|volume=58|issue=6|pages=1079–1089|date=December 1956|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (Editor: Kenneth David)|author=Zeyauddin Ahmed|pages=337–354|isbn=978-90-279-7959-9|publisher=Aldine Publishing Company|year=1977}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Caste ranking and community structure in five regions of India and Pakistan|author=McKim Marriott|year=1960|publisher=Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute|oclc=186146571}}</ref> The numerically and socially influential tribes in Pakistani Punjab includes the agricultural tribes of [[Awan (tribe)|Awan]], [[Jat Muslim]] and [[Gujjar]] as well as Rajput.<ref name="nihcr.edu.pk"/> In [[Nepal]], the castes of Muslims rank differs according to the criteria applied.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of the World Muslims: Tribes, Castes and Communities, Volume 1|author=Nagendra Kr Singh, Abdul Mabud Khan|page=1124|publisher=Global Vision Pub House|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zzfs_G7QHoAC&pg=PA1124|isbn=9788187746072|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Islamic Culture - Volume 52|page=207|author=Marmaduke William Pickthall, Muhammad Asad|year=1978}}</ref> In India the Ajlaf comprise Qureshis, Ansaris, Saifis, and other groups of lower occupation. The majority of ulemas (theologians/doctors of the law) are part of the Syed caste, and many Ashrafs are businessmen, landowners, and traders.<ref name = "y"/> A "marriage circle" can be formed over an area, over which a zat panchayat (caste council) can have the authority, and where marriage alliances occur.<ref name = "y"/> A Syed's status is sometimes based more on male descendants and hypergamous marriage than bloodline purity.<ref name = "y"/> The early Turks had subdivisions.<ref name = "w">{{cite journal | title = Ashraf and Ajlaf Categories in Indo-Muslim Society | first = Imtiaz | last = Ahmed | date = May 13, 1967 | publisher = Economic and Political Weekly | page = 889}}</ref> In the ''Rasum-i Hind'', a textbook that was compiled by Master Pyare Lal in 1862, the four ''firqa'' (or subdivisions of the Ashraf) are explained, and ''nasl'' (lineage/pedigree) is elaborated:<ref name = "v"></ref> * The ancestors of the Mughal caste are said to be descended from the Biblical Noah.<ref name = "v"></ref> * The ancestors of the Pathans are said to be Israelites from when Solomon was alive.<ref name = "v"></ref> In the ruling class of the Mughal Empire, Muslims were classified as Hindustani, Afghan, Turani, and Irani.<ref name = "v"></ref> === Pakistani Punjab === ==== Zamindars, Kammis, and the Seyp System ==== Zamindars, which are landowning castes, and Kammis, which are service providing castes, are status groups that are caste based that are found in a hierarchical system in Pakistani Punjabi villages.<ref name = "one">{{cite journal | title = Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence | first = Ahmed | last = Usman | publisher = The University of Leeds | year = 2011 | page = ii}}</ref> Kammi Quoms and Zamindar Quoms are rigid birth-based groups that are based on parentage occupations.<ref name = "one"></ref> In the Seyp System, which is contractual labor, the Kammis provide labor and services, and they receive favors, food, money, crops, and grains.<ref name = "two">{{cite journal | title = Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence | first = Ahmed | last = Usman | publisher = The University of Leeds | year = 2011 | page = 5}}</ref> Zamindars are considered to be a dominant caste, and leaders in the village and people who dominate affairs of the village tend to be Zamindars.<ref name = "two"></ref> Social, political, and economic affairs of the village are dominated by Zamindar Quoms in Pakistan, and land is controlled by Zamindar Quoms,<ref name = "two"></ref> while Kammi Quoms are socially marginalized and discriminated.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence | first = Ahmed | last = Usman | publisher = The University of Leeds | year = 2011 | page = 8}}</ref> Inter-Quom endogamy is found between Kammi Quoms and Zamindar Quoms.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence | first = Ahmed | last = Usman | publisher = The University of Leeds | year = 2011 | page = 4}}</ref> Ancestral land ownership and a parentage job being cultivation are what Punjabi Pakistanis ascribe to the Zamindar status.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence | first = Ahmed | last = Usman | publisher = The University of Leeds | year = 2011 | page = 10}}</ref> "Zamindars", in modern-day Pakistani Punjabi villages, typically refer to a Quom that owns land and has an occupation of agriculture - Zamindari.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence | first = Ahmed | last = Usman | publisher = The University of Leeds | year = 2011 | page = 6}}</ref> There are some castes that are higher than the service providing castes and below the landowning castes.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence | first = Ahmed | last = Usman | publisher = The University of Leeds | year = 2011 | page = 74}}</ref> Caste endogamy is found in Pakistan, with members of a Quom tending to marry within the Quom.<ref name = "three">{{cite journal | title = Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence | first = Ahmed | last = Usman | publisher = The University of Leeds | year = 2011 | page = 17}}</ref> In the rural parts of Pakistani Punjab, the lack of marriages between Kammi and Zamindar Quoms is vital to the caste system.<ref name = "three"></ref> Kammis include artisan, laborer, and service providing Quoms (such as barbers, cobblers, and carpenters).<ref name = "four">{{cite journal | title = Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence | first = Ahmed | last = Usman | publisher = The University of Leeds | year = 2011 | page = 18}}</ref> A Kammi woman remarked how: {{quote|"Even if a Kammi acquires 100 acres of land, he remains Kammi and Zamindars will always consider him lower. A Zamindar who owns one acre of land would think "if a Kammi has bought 2 acres, so what after all he remains a Kammi". They do not accept us as equals."<ref>{{cite journal | title = Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence | first = Ahmed | last = Usman | publisher = The University of Leeds | year = 2011 | page = 136}}</ref>}} Quoms are highly influential in marriage practices.<ref name = "four"></ref> However, different Zamindar Quoms sometimes intermarry, and this may constitute a Biradari.<ref name = "five">{{cite journal | title = Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence | first = Ahmed | last = Usman | publisher = The University of Leeds | year = 2011 | page = 139}}</ref> A large majority of Kammis perform daily wage labour or low ranking tasks.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence | first = Ahmed | last = Usman | publisher = The University of Leeds | year = 2011 | page = 140}}</ref> A study in a Pakistani Punjabi village found that in the ''Seyp'' (contractual relationships) between a ''Zamindar'' (landholding) family and ''Kammi'' (artisan castes) families, Kammi families give goods and perform services to the Zamindars, which give the Kammis grain; the Kammi families also perform some customary and ritual tasks - for example, the barber cooks in the Zamindar's house on special events and does circumcision.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Debates on Muslim Caste in North India and Pakistan | first = Julien | last = Levesque | year = 2020 | publisher = HAL | page = 10}}</ref> ===== Elections ===== People also exhibit loyalty to their Quoms in elections.<ref name = "four"></ref> In Pakistani Punjab, Biradaris are the sole criteria in local bodies' elections.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence | first = Ahmed | last = Usman | publisher = The University of Leeds | year = 2011 | page = 160}}</ref> There are more Zamindars than Kammis in Pakistani Punjab.<ref name = "five"></ref> Including because of the high financial costs of running in an election, Kammis do not generally run in elections.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence | first = Ahmed | last = Usman | publisher = The University of Leeds | year = 2011 | page = 161}}</ref> === Bengal === There are around 35 Muslim castes in Bengal.<ref name="t">{{cite journal |last=Chowdhury |first=Iftekhar Uddin |date=November 7, 2009 |title=Caste-based Discrimination in South Asia: A Study of Bangladesh |publisher=Indian Institute of Dalit Studies |volume=III |page=8 |number=7}}</ref> Muslim society is historically divided into 3 large groupings in Bengal, with the Sharif/Ashraf at the top, followed by the ''Atraf'' (low-born), and with the Arzal or Ajlaf at the bottom.<ref name = "t"></ref> Other Muslim castes historically do not associate with Arzal castes.<ref name = "u">{{cite journal | title = Caste-based Discrimination in South Asia: A Study of Bangladesh | first = Iftekhar Uddin | last = Chowdhury | publisher = Indian Institute of Dalit Studies | volume = III | number = 7 | date = November 7, 2009 | page = 10}}</ref> Lower castes historically are not allowed to enter mosques or be buried in the public burial ground.<ref name = "u"></ref> === Marriage Practices === In 1902 in the "Imperial Gazetteer of India", the following was written: {{quote|"...a Sayyid will marry a Shaikh's daughter but will not give his daughter in return; and marriages between upper circle of soi-distant [sic] foreigners and the main body of Indian Muhammedans [sic] is generally reprobated..."<ref>{{cite journal | title = Ashraf and Ajlaf Categories in Indo-Muslim Society | first = Imtiaz | last = Ahmed | date = May 13, 1967 | publisher = Economic and Political Weekly | page = 890}}</ref>{{Ref|NoteA|A}}}} === Sharifism === Sharifism refers to the special status given to claimants of prophetic ''nasab'' (also ''qarabah''), which means "closeness", or being descended from Muhammad, Muhammad's Quraysh tribe, or Muhammad's family.<ref>{{cite book | title = Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies: Selected Writings | publisher = Ashgate Publisher, Ltd. | year = 2010 | page = 30}}</ref> == Discrimination == Many Ashrafs do not recognize Arzal Muslims as part of the Muslim South Asian community (''millat'') and think they should not be part of liberation processes.<ref name = "y"/> === Representation === Over the centuries, like other South Asian societies, the Muslim society in the region has evolved into the concept of caste purity and pollution.{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=120-121}}<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1O2kBgAAQBAJ&q=caste+purity+among+Muslims&pg=PT84 |title=The Migration Process: Capital, Gifts and Offerings among British Pakistanis |last1=Webner |first1=Pnina |date=2007 |access-date=30 October 2016|isbn=9781472518477 }}</ref> Hence, the low-class (''Ajlaf'') Muslims in the region have faced other kinds of discrimination. In 20th century India, the upper-class (''Ashraf'') Muslims dominated the government jobs and parliamentary representation. As a result, there have been campaigns to include lower social classes among the groups eligible for [[reservation in India|affirmative action in India]] under ''SC and STs provision act''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.milligazette.com/Archives/2004/01-15Sep04-Print-Edition/011509200449.htm |title=On reservation for Muslims |author=Asghar Ali Engineer |work=The Milli Gazette |publisher=Pharos |access-date=2004-09-01 }}</ref> An analysis of Muslim representation in India's Lok Sabha found that of the roughly 400 Muslim representatives from the 1st to the 14th Lok Sabha, 340 were Ashraf, while 60 were Pasmanda (meaning oppressed/marginalized); Pasmandas make up 85% of India's Muslim population and Ashrafs 15%.<ref name="ThePrint"/> Some scholars say that Ashraf Muslims are over-represented in government-run institutions for minorities (including Aligarh Muslim University).<ref name = "ThePrint">{{ cite web | url = https://theprint.in/opinion/indias-muslim-community-under-a-churn-85-backward-pasmandas-up-against-15-ashrafs/ | title = India's Muslim community under a churn: 85% backward Pasmandas up against 15% Ashrafs | publisher = Times of India | first = Khalid | last = Anis Ansari | date = 13 May 2019}}</ref> === Burial === In India's [[Bihar]] state, higher caste Muslims have opposed lower caste Muslims being buried in the same graveyard.<ref name="rediff_burial">{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/mar/06bihar.htm |title=Backward Muslims protest denial of burial |author=Anand Mohan Sahay |work=[[Rediff.com]] |access-date=2003-03-06 }}</ref><ref>Ahmad, I., 2010. "Can There Be a Category Called Dalit Muslims?". ''Studies in Inequality and Social Justice'', p.79</ref> Another practice that has been noted includes the existence of separate burial grounds.<ref name="ThePrint" /> === Cooking === A study in a Pakistani village found that a caste-like hierarchy exists in the Muslim community of the village. The sweeper group is ranked the lowest. The other Muslim communities do not allow the sweepers to touch the cooking vessels of the upper ranking groups of Muslims.<ref name="Donnan1988">{{cite book|author=Hastings Donnan|title=Marriage Among Muslims: Preference and Choice in Northern Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PL_ACoFwJ2gC&pg=PR9|year=1988|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-08416-2|pages=51–56}}</ref> === Racial and Historical === Medieval Ashraf scholars mentioned that Muslims of Afghan, Iranian, Arab, and Central Asian origin were superior while local converts were inferior.<ref name = "Kanmony">{{cite book | title = Dalits and Tribes of India | page = 200 | year = 2010 | publisher = Mittal Publications | first = J. Cyril | last = Kanmony}}</ref> This was due not only to racial differences with local concerts generally being dark skinned and Ashrafs being lighter skinned, but also due to Ashraf being the dominant political elite, while the majority of Ajlaf were associated with ancestral professions as peasants and artisans which were looked down upon as inferior and demeaning.<ref name = "Kanmony"/> Based on classical literature, particularly the ''Fatawa-i-Jahandari'' written by Turkish scholar Ziauddin Barani, a leading courtier of Muhammad bin Tughlaq (Sultan of Delhi), caste divisions were recommended among Indian Muslims. Barani warned the Sultan not to educate the lowborn and that they are not allowed to mingle with the superior race.<ref name = "Kanmony"/> Barani also explained at one point how Turkish sultans discriminated against Muslims of local descent.<ref name = "w"></ref> He explains how Iltutmish discriminated against low birth Muslims by letting go 33 of them from the government.<ref name = "w"/> Additionally, Iltutmish appointed Jamal Marzuq to the post of Mutassarif of Kanauj; Aziz Bahruz disagreed due to low birth status, which resulted in Marzuq no longer being the Mutassarif.<ref name = "w"></ref> Low born people were not allowed to be in the post of mudabbiri or khwajgi, and they also could not be eligible for an iqta recommendation.<ref name = "w"/> Balban prevented low-birth people from being in important offices, and he also criticized how Kamal Mohiyar was selected for mutassarif of Amroaha.<ref name = "w"/> A letter by Sayyid Ashraf Jahangiri explains how Balban thoroughly researched the ancestry of every single one of his government servants and officers; he had genealogists meet in Delhi to ascertain these ancestries.<ref name = "w"/> Tughlaq had a policy of giving "preference to foreign born Muslims in administration and government" and "systematically ignored the claims of Indian Muslims".<ref name = "w"/> Sayyid Ashraf Jahangiri explains how: {{quote|"The Sultan went to the extent of offering the most responsible and distinguished offices of the kingdom — for instance those of a Wazir, a Dabir, a military commander, a judge, a professor of theology, or a Shaikhul-Islam — to almost any foreigner of some learning. Foreigners coming to India were collectively known as 'the Honourables' (A'izza)"<ref name = "w"/>}} Historians and Urdu writers (including Masood Alam Falahi) have explained how discrimination of Ashraf Muslims towards lower caste Muslims and Dalit Muslims was often disguised under claims of class and "''khandaani''" (family line) values among Uttar Pradesh Muslims.<ref name = "Sanober">{{cite journal |title= The Identity of Language and the Language of Erasure: Urdu and the Racialized-Decastification of the "Backward Musalmaan" in India | first = Sanober | last = Umar | publisher = [[Brandeis University]] | page = 187}}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|Islam}} *[[Caste system among South Asian Christians]] *[[Caste system in India]] *[[Islam in India]] *[[Pasmanda Muslim Mahaz]] *[[Social class in the United Kingdom]] *[[Social class in the United States]] == References == === Citations === {{reflist|30em}} === Bibliography === {{ref begin}} * {{cite book |author=Azra Khanam |title=Muslim Backward Classes: A Sociological Perspective |publisher=SAGE |year=2013 |isbn=9788132116509 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sdz9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 }} * {{cite book |author=Fredrik Barth |author-link=Fredrik Barth |editor=Edmund Leach |title=Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon and North-West Pakistan |publisher=CUP Archive |year=1960 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OlU7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA113 |isbn=9780521096645 }} * {{cite book |author=Ghaus Ansari |title=Muslim Caste in Uttar Pradesh: A Study of Culture Contact |publisher=Ethnographic and Folk Culture Society |year=1960 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0HRAAAAMAAJ |oclc=1104993 }} *{{cite journal | title = Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence | first = Ahmed | last = Usman | publisher = The University of Leeds | year = 2011}} *{{cite journal | title = Debates on Muslim Caste in North India and Pakistan | first = Julien | last = Levesque | year = 2020 | publisher = HAL}}</ref> *{{cite journal | title = Muslim Castes in India | first = Remy | last = Delage | journal = Books & Ideas | date = 29 September 2014 | publisher = College De France| url = https://booksandideas.net/Muslim-Castes-in-India.html}}</ref> *{{cite journal | title = Ashraf and Ajlaf Categories in Indo-Muslim Society | first = Imtiaz | last = Ahmed | date = May 13, 1967 | publisher = Economic and Political Weekly}} *{{cite journal | first = David | last = Lelyveld | title = Article on "Ashraf" in "Keywords in South Asian Studies" | editor = Rachel Dwyer | publisher = School of Oriental and African Studies | year = 2005 | url = https://www.soas.ac.uk/south-asia-institute/keywords/file24799.pdf}} *{{cite journal | title = Caste-based Discrimination in South Asia: A Study of Bangladesh | first = Iftekhar Uddin | last = Chowdhury | publisher = Indian Institute of Dalit Studies | volume = III | number = 7 | date = November 7, 2009}} *{{cite book | title = Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies: Selected Writings | publisher = Ashgate Publisher, Ltd. | year = 2010}} {{ref end}} ==Notes== :A.{{Note|NoteA||This source used gets the quotation from the following source: E A Gait, 'Census of India' 1901: Bengal Report 6 (1), Bengal Secretariat Press. 1902, p 439; the description in 'Imperial Gazetteer of India', v. 2, pp 329}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book | last = Ahmad | first = Imtiaz | title = Caste and social stratification among Muslims in India | year = 1978 | publisher = Manohar | location = New Delhi | oclc = 5147249 }} * {{cite book | last = Ali | first = A.F. Imam | title = Changing Social Stratification in Rural Bangladesh |date=September 1993 | publisher = South Asia Books | isbn = 978-81-7169-267-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Sikand | first = Yoginder | title = Islam, Caste and Muslim Relations in India | year = 2004 | publisher = Global Media Publications | isbn = 978-81-88869-06-0 }} * {{cite journal | last = Ali | first = Syed |date=December 2002 | title = Collective and Elective Ethnicity: Caste Among Urban Muslims in India | journal = Sociological Forum | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 593–620 | issn = 0884-8971 | doi = 10.1023/A:1021077323866 | s2cid = 146701489 }} * {{cite journal | last = Ahmad | first = S. Shamim |author2=A. K. Chakravarti |date=January 1981 | title = Some regional characteristics of Muslim caste systems in India | journal = GeoJournal | volume =5 | issue = 1 | pages = 55–60 | issn = 0343-2521 | doi = 10.1007/BF00185243 | s2cid = 153606947 }} * {{cite journal | last = Berreman | first = Gerald D. |date=June 1972 | title = Social Categories and Social Interaction in Urban India | journal = American Anthropologist | volume =74 | issue = 3 | pages = 567–586 | issn = 0002-7294 | doi =10.1525/aa.1972.74.3.02a00220 | doi-access = free }} {{Segregation by type|state=collapsed}} {{Discrimination}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Caste System Among South Asian Muslims}} [[Category:Caste system in India|Muslims]] [[Category:Islam in India]] [[Category:Islam in Pakistan]] [[Category:Islam in South Asia]] [[Category:Islam in Nepal]] [[Category:Social class in India]] [[Category:Discrimination in India]] [[Category:Discrimination in Pakistan]] [[Category:Discrimination in Bangladesh]] [[Category:Discrimination in Nepal]] [[Category:Discrimination in Sri Lanka]] [[Category:Caste-related violence in India]] [[Category:Caste system in Nepal]] [[Category:Caste]]'