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[ 0 => '{{Short description|Overview of the history of atmospheric sciences}}', 1 => '{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2016}}', 2 => 'The '''timeline of meteorology''' contains events of scientific and technological advancements in the area of [[atmospheric sciences]]. The most notable advancements in observational [[meteorology]], [[weather forecasting]], [[climatology]], [[atmospheric chemistry]], and [[atmospheric physics]] are listed chronologically. Some historical weather events are included that mark time periods where advancements were made, or even that sparked policy change.', 3 => '', 4 => '==Antiquity==', 5 => '* 3000 BC – Meteorology in India can be traced back to around 3000&nbsp;BC, with writings such as the [[Upanishads]], containing discussions about the processes of cloud formation and rain and the seasonal cycles caused by the movement of earth round the sun.<ref name="IMD History">{{cite web|publisher=India Meteorological Department |url=https://mausam.imd.gov.in/imd_latest/contents/history.php |title=History of Meteorological Services in India |date=August 10, 2020 |access-date=August 10, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219093330/http://www.imd.gov.in/pages/about_history.php |archive-date=February 19, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>', 6 => '* 600 BC – [[Thales]] may qualify as the first Greek meteorologist. He reputedly issues the first seasonal crop forecast.', 7 => '* 400 BC – There is some evidence that [[Democritus]] predicted changes in the weather, and that he used this ability to convince people that he could predict other future events.<ref name="NOAA" />', 8 => '* 400 BC – [[Hippocrates]] writes a treatise called ''Airs, Waters and Places'', the earliest known work to include a discussion of weather. More generally, he wrote about common diseases that occur in particular locations, seasons, winds and air.<ref name="NOAA" />', 9 => '* 350 BC – The Greek philosopher [[Aristotle]] writes ''[[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]]'', a work which represents the sum of knowledge of the time about [[earth science]]s, including weather and climate. It is the first known work that attempts to treat a broad range of meteorological topics.<ref name="Ancient">{{cite web |editor1=Toth, Garry |editor2=Hillger, Don | title=Ancient and pre-Renaissance Contributors to Meteorology| year=2007 | url=http://rammb.cira.colostate.edu/dev/hillger/ancient.htm#biruni |publisher=Colorado State University| access-date=2014-11-30}}</ref> For the first time, precipitation and the clouds from which precipitation falls are called meteors, which originate from the Greek word ''meteoros'', meaning 'high in the sky'. From that word comes the modern term [[meteorology]], the study of clouds and weather. ', 10 => ':Although the term ''meteorology'' is used today to describe a subdiscipline of the atmospheric sciences, Aristotle's work is more general. Meteorologica is based on intuition and simple observation, but not on what is now considered the scientific method. In his own words:', 11 => '::''...all the affections we may call common to air and water, and the kinds and parts of the earth and the affections of its parts.''<ref name="Aristotle">{{cite book|last=Aristotle |title=Meteorology |url=http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/meteorology/ |year=2004 |publisher=eBooks@Adelaide |translator=E. W. Webster |orig-year=350 BCE |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070217110549/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/meteorology/ |archive-date=February 17, 2007 }}</ref>', 12 => '', 13 => '::The magazine ''[[De Mundo]]'' (attributed to [[Pseudo-Aristotle]]) notes:<ref name=1908DeMundo>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/demundoarisrich|title=De Mundo|year=1914|author=Aristotle |translator=Forster, E. S. |chapter=Chapter 4 |location=Oxford |publisher=The Clarendon Press}}</ref> ', 14 => '::''Cloud is a vaporous mass, concentrated and producing water. Rain is produced from the compression of a closely condensed cloud, varying according to the pressure exerted on the cloud; when the pressure is slight it scatters gentle drops; when it is great it produces a more violent fall, and we call this a shower, being heavier than ordinary rain, and forming continuous masses of water falling over earth. Snow is produced by the breaking up of condensed clouds, the cleavage taking place before the change into water; it is the process of cleavage which causes its resemblance to foam and its intense whiteness, while the cause of its coldness is the congelation of the moisture in it before it is dispersed or rarefied. When snow is violent and falls heavily we call it a blizzard. Hail is produced when snow becomes densified and acquires impetus for a swifter fall from its close mass; the weight becomes greater and the fall more violent in proportion to the size of the broken fragments of cloud. Such then are the phenomena which occur as the result of moist exhalation.''', 15 => ':One of the most impressive achievements in ''[[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]]'' is his description of what is now known as the [[hydrologic cycle]]:', 16 => '::''Now the sun, moving as it does, sets up processes of change and becoming and decay, and by its agency the finest and sweetest water is every day carried up and is dissolved into vapour and rises to the upper region, where it is condensed again by the cold and so returns to the earth.''<ref name="Aristotle" />', 17 => '', 18 => '[[Image:Bust of Aristotle.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Aristotle]]', 19 => '', 20 => '*Several years after Aristotle's book, his pupil [[Theophrastus]] puts together a book on [[weather forecasting]] called ''The Book of Signs''. Various indicators such as solar and lunar halos formed by high clouds are presented as ways to forecast the weather. The combined works of Aristotle and Theophrastus have such authority they become the main influence in the study of clouds, weather and weather forecasting for nearly 2000 years.<ref name="Ancient"/>', 21 => '* 250 BC – [[Archimedes]] studies the concepts of [[buoyancy]] and the hydrostatic principle. Positive buoyancy is necessary for the formation of convective clouds ([[cumulus cloud|cumulus]], [[cumulus congestus]] and [[cumulonimbus]]).<ref name="NOAA" />', 22 => '* 25 AD – [[Pomponius Mela]], a geographer for the [[Roman empire]], formalizes the climatic zone system.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.paleorama.com/timelines/geography.html| title = Timeline of geography, paleontology| publisher = Paleorama.com| quote = Following the path of Discovery}}</ref>', 23 => '* c. 80 AD – In his ''[[Lunheng]]'' (論衡; Critical Essays), the [[Han dynasty]] Chinese philosopher [[Wang Chong]] (27–97 AD) dispels the [[China|Chinese]] myth of rain coming from the heavens, and states that rain is evaporated from water on the earth into the air and forms clouds, stating that clouds condense into rain and also form dew, and says when the clothes of people in high mountains are moistened, this is because of the air-suspended rain water.<ref name="Needham">Needham, Joseph (1986). ''[[Science and Civilization in China]]: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.</ref> However, Wang Chong supports his theory by quoting a similar one of Gongyang Gao's,<ref name="Needham"/> the latter's commentary on the ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]'', the [[Gongyang Zhuan]], compiled in the 2nd century BC,<ref name="Needham"/> showing that the Chinese conception of rain evaporating and rising to form clouds goes back much farther than Wang Chong. Wang Chong wrote:', 24 => '::''As to this coming of rain from the mountains, some hold that the clouds carry the rain with them, dispersing as it is precipitated (and they are right). Clouds and rain are really the same thing. Water evaporating upwards becomes clouds, which condense into rain, or still further into dew.''<ref name="Needham"/>', 25 => '', 26 => '==Middle Ages==', 27 => '* 500 AD – In around 500&nbsp;AD, the Indian astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer: [[Varāhamihira]] published his work Brihat-Samhita's, which provides clear evidence that a deep knowledge of atmospheric processes existed in the Indian region.<ref name="IMD History"/>', 28 => '* 7th century – The poet [[Kalidasa]] in his epic [[Meghaduta]], mentions the date of onset of the south-west [[Monsoon]] over central India and traces the path of the monsoon clouds.<ref name="IMD History"/>', 29 => '* 7th century – [[St. Isidore of Seville]],in his work ''De Rerum Natura'', writes about astronomy, cosmology and meteorology. In the chapter dedicated to Meteorology, he discusses the [[thunder]], clouds, [[rainbows]] and wind.<ref name="NOAA" />', 30 => '* 9th century – [[Al-Kindi]] (Alkindus), an [[Islamic geography|Arab naturalist]], writes a treatise on meteorology entitled ''Risala fi l-Illa al-Failali l-Madd wa l-Fazr'' (''Treatise on the Efficient Cause of the Flow and Ebb''), in which he presents an argument on [[tide]]s which "depends on the changes which take place in bodies owing to the rise and fall of temperature."<ref>Plinio Prioreschi, [http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/2/03.pdf "Al-Kindi, A Precursor Of The Scientific Revolution"], Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, 2002 (2): 17–19 [17].</ref>', 31 => '* 9th century – [[Al-Dinawari]], a [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] naturalist, writes the ''Kitab al-Nabat'' (''Book of Plants''), in which he deals with the application of meteorology to agriculture during the [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution]]. He describes the meteorological character of the sky, the planets and [[constellation]]s, the Sun and Moon, the [[lunar phase]]s indicating seasons and rain, the ''anwa'' ([[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]] of rain), and atmospheric phenomena such as winds, thunder, lightning, snow, floods, valleys, rivers, lakes, wells and other sources of water.<ref name=Fahd-815>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Fahd |first=Toufic |entry=Botany and agriculture |page=815 |editor-last1=Rashed |editor-first1=Roshdi |editor-last2=Morelon |editor-first2=Régis |year=1996 |title=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |volume=3 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-12410-2 |title-link=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science}}</ref>', 32 => '* 10th century – [[Ibn Wahshiyya]]'s ''[[Nabatean Agriculture]]'' discusses the [[weather forecasting]] of atmospheric changes and signs from the planetary astral alterations; signs of rain based on observation of the [[lunar phase]]s, nature of thunder and lightning, direction of sunrise, behaviour of certain plants and animals, and weather forecasts based on the movement of winds; [[pollen]]ized air and winds; and formation of winds and [[vapour]]s.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Fahd |first=Toufic |entry=Botany and agriculture |page=842 |editor-last1=Rashed |editor-first1=Roshdi |editor-last2=Morelon |editor-first2=Régis |year=1996 |title=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |volume=3 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-12410-2 |title-link=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science}}</ref>', 33 => '* 1021 – [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen) writes on the [[atmospheric refraction]] of light, the cause of morning and evening [[twilight]].<ref name=Deek>Mahmoud Al Deek (November–December 2004). "Ibn Al-Haitham: Master of Optics, Mathematics, Physics and Medicine, ''Al Shindagah''.</ref> He endeavored by use of [[hyperbola]] and geometric [[optics]] to chart and formulate basic laws on atmospheric refraction.<ref name=Hamarneh>Sami Hamarneh (March 1972). Review of Hakim Mohammed Said, ''Ibn al-Haitham'', ''[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]'' '''63''' (1), p. 119.</ref> He provides the first correct definition of the [[twilight]], discusses [[atmospheric refraction]], shows that the twilight is due to atmospheric refraction and only begins when the Sun is 19 degrees below the [[horizon]], and uses a complex geometric demonstration to measure the height of the [[Earth's atmosphere]] as 52,000 ''passuum'' (49 miles),<ref>{{Cite journal|first=H. Howard|last=Frisinger|title=Aristotle's Legacy in Meteorology|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society|volume=54|issue=3|date=March 1973|pages=198–204 [201]|doi=10.1175/1520-0477(1973)054<0198:ALIM>2.0.CO;2|bibcode = 1973BAMS...54..198F |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science'' ([[cf.]] Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html Quotations from Famous Historians of Science])</ref> which is very close to the modern measurement of 50 miles. ', 34 => '* 1020s – [[Ibn al-Haytham]] publishes his ''Risala fi l-Daw’'' (''Treatise on Light'') as a supplement to his ''Book of Optics''. He discusses the meteorology of the [[rainbow]], the [[density]] of the atmosphere, and various [[Sky|celestial]] phenomena, including the [[eclipse]], twilight and moonlight.<ref>Dr. Nader El-Bizri, "Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen", in Josef W. Meri (2006), ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia'', Vol. II, p. 343-345, [[Routledge]], New York, London.</ref>', 35 => '* 1027 – [[Avicenna]] publishes ''[[The Book of Healing]]'', in which Part 2, Section 5, contains his essay on [[mineralogy]] and meteorology in six chapters: formation of mountains; the advantages of mountains in the formation of clouds; sources of water; origin of [[earthquake]]s; formation of [[mineral]]s; and the diversity of earth's [[terrain]].<ref>Toulmin, S. and Goodfield, J. (1965), ''The Ancestry of science: The Discovery of Time'', Hutchinson & Co., London, p. 64</ref> He also describes the structure of a [[meteor]], and his theory on the formation of metals combined the [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|alchemical]] [[sulfur-mercury theory of metals]] (although he was critical of [[alchemy]]) with the mineralogical theories of [[Aristotle]] and [[Theophrastus]].<ref name=Nasr>{{Cite journal|last=Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]]|title=The achievements of IBN SINA in the field of science and his contributions to its philosophy|journal=Islam & Science|volume=1|date=December 2003}}</ref> His [[scientific method]]ology of [[Field experiment|field observation]] was also original in the Earth sciences.', 36 => '* Late 11th century – Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Ma'udh, who lived in [[Al-Andalus]], wrote a work on [[optics]] later translated into Latin as ''Liber de crepisculis'', which was mistakenly attributed to Alhazen. This was a short work containing an estimation of the angle of depression of the sun at the beginning of the morning [[twilight]] and at the end of the evening twilight, and an attempt to calculate on the basis of this and other data the height of the atmospheric moisture responsible for the refraction of the sun's rays. Through his experiments, he obtained the accurate value of 18°, which comes close to the modern value.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Authorship of the Liber de crepusculis, an Eleventh-Century Work on Atmospheric Refraction|author=A. I. Sabra|author-link=A. I. Sabra|journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]|volume=58|issue=1|date=Spring 1967|pages=77–85 [77]|doi=10.1086/350185|s2cid=144855447 }}</ref>', 37 => '* 1088 – In his ''[[Dream Pool Essays]]'' (夢溪筆談), the Chinese scientist [[Shen Kuo]] wrote vivid descriptions of [[tornadoes]], that [[rainbow]]s were formed by the shadow of the sun in rain, occurring when the sun would shine upon it, and the curious common phenomena of the effect of [[lightning]] that, when striking a house, would merely scorch the walls a bit but completely melt to liquid all metal objects inside.', 38 => '* 1121 – [[Al-Khazini]], a [[Islamic science|Muslim scientist]] of [[Byzantine Greeks|Byzantine Greek]] descent, publishes ''The Book of the Balance of Wisdom'', the first study on the [[Hydrostatic equilibrium|hydrostatic balance]].<ref>Robert E. Hall (1973). "Al-Biruni", ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'', Vol. VII, p. 336.</ref>', 39 => '*13th century-[[St. Albert the Great]] is the first to propose that each drop of falling rain had the form of a small sphere, and that this form meant that the rainbow was produced by light interacting with each raindrop.<ref name="NOAA">[http://rammb.cira.colostate.edu/dev/hillger/ancient.htm#magnus Ancient and pre-Renaissance Contributors to Meteorology] [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] (NOAA)</ref>', 40 => '* 1267 – [[Roger Bacon]] was the first to calculate the angular size of the rainbow. He stated that the rainbow summit can not appear higher than 42 degrees above the horizon.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Raymond L. Lee|author2=Alistair B. Fraser|title=The Rainbow Bridge: Rainbows in Art, Myth, and Science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&pg=PA156|year=2001|publisher=Penn State Press|isbn=978-0-271-01977-2|page=156}}</ref>', 41 => '* 1337 – William Merle, [[Rector (ecclesiastical)|rector]] of [[Driby]], starts recording his weather diary, the oldest existing in print. The endeavour ended 1344.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Earliest known Journal of the Weather |editor=[[The Bookman (London)|The Bookman]] |date=January 1892 |page=147}}</ref>', 42 => '* Late 13th century – [[Theodoric of Freiberg]] and [[Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī]] give the first accurate explanations of the primary [[rainbow]], simultaneously but independently. Theoderic also gives the explanation for the secondary rainbow.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}', 43 => '* 1441 – [[Sejong the Great of Joseon|King Sejongs]] son, Prince Munjong, invented the first standardized [[rain gauge]]. These were sent throughout the [[Joseon Dynasty]] of [[Korea]] as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmer's potential harvest.', 44 => '[[Image:Anemometers.png|thumb|100px|Anemometers]]', 45 => '* 1450 – [[Leone Battista Alberti]] developed a '''swinging-plate [[anemometer]]''', and is known as the first ''anemometer''.<ref name="Jacobson">{{cite book |last=Jacobson |first=Mark Z. |title=Fundamentals of Atmospheric Modeling |edition=2nd |date=June 2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-54865-6 |page=828}}</ref>', 46 => ':: – Nicolas Cryfts, ([[Nicolas of Cusa]]), described the first '''hair [[hygrometer]]''' to measure humidity. The design was drawn by [[Leonardo da Vinci]], referencing Cryfts design in ''da Vinci's [[Codex Atlanticus]]''.<ref name="Jacobson" />', 47 => '* 1483 − [[Yuriy Drohobych]] publishes ''Prognostic Estimation of the year 1483'' in [[Rome]], where he reflects upon weather forecasting and that climatic conditions depended on the latitude.<ref>Довідник з історії України. За ред. І.Підкови та Р.Шуста. — К.: Генеза, 1993</ref>', 48 => '* 1488 – [[Johannes Lichtenberger]] publishes the first version of his ''Prognosticatio'' linking weather forecasting with [[astrology]]. The paradigm was only challenged centuries later.<ref>[http://www.dmg-ev.de/fachausschuesse/fagem/neueSeite/Hellmann.htm Hellmann's Repertorium of German Meteorology, page 963]. Dmg-ev.de. Retrieved on November 6, 2013.</ref>', 49 => '* 1494 – During his second voyage [[Christopher Columbus]] experiences a tropical cyclone in the Atlantic Ocean, which leads to the first written European account of a hurricane.<ref>{{cite book|author=Morison, Samuel Eliot|title=Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Cristopher Columbus|page=617|year=1942}}</ref><ref name="HRD J6">{{cite book|author=Dorst, Neal |title=Tropical Cyclone Frequently Asked Questions |date=May 5, 2014 |publisher=United States Hurricane Research Division |chapter-url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/J6.html |access-date=March 19, 2016 |ref=HRD J6 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6g7zFcu2b?url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/J6.html |archive-date=March 19, 2016 |chapter=Subject: J6) What are some important dates in the history of hurricanes and hurricane research? |url-status=dead }}</ref>', 50 => '* 1510 – Leonhard Reynmann, astronomer of [[Nuremberg]], publishes ″Wetterbüchlein Von warer erkanntnus des wetters″, a collection of [[weather lore]].<ref>[http://data.onb.ac.at/rec/AC10245631 Austria National Library]</ref><ref>[http://www.naa.net/ain/personen/show.asp?ID=225 Leonhard Reynmann, Astrologe und Meteorologe]</ref>', 51 => '* 1547 − [[Antonio Mizauld]] publishes "Le miroueer du temps, autrement dit, éphémérides perpétuelles de l'air par lesquelles sont tous les jours donez vrais signes de touts changements de temps, seulement par choses qui à tous apparoissent au cien, en l'air, sur terre & en l'eau. Le tout par petits aphorismes, & breves sentences diligemment compris" in [[Paris]], with detail on forecasting weather, comets and earthquakes.<ref>[https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8626183k Gallica]</ref>', 52 => '', 53 => '==17th century==', 54 => '[[File:Galileo Galilei by Ottavio Leoni Marucelliana (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|100px|Galileo.]]', 55 => '* 1607 – [[Galileo Galilei]] constructs a [[thermoscope]]. Not only did this device measure temperature, but it represented a [[paradigm shift]]. Up to this point, heat and cold were believed to be qualities of Aristotle's elements (fire, water, air, and earth). ''Note: There is some controversy about who actually built this first thermoscope. There is some evidence for this device being independently built at several different times.'' This is the era of the first recorded meteorological observations. As there was no standard measurement, they were of little use until the work of [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]] and [[Anders Celsius]] in the 18th century.', 56 => '[[Image:Francis Bacon.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sir Francis Bacon]]', 57 => '* 1611 – [[Johannes Kepler]] writes the first scientific treatise on snow crystals: "Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow)".<ref>[http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/earlyobs/earlyobs.htm Highlights in the study of snowflakes and snow crystals]. Its.caltech.edu (February 1, 1999). Retrieved on 2013-11-06.</ref>', 58 => '* 1620 – [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)]] analyzes the [[scientific method]] in his philosophical work; [[Novum Organum]].<ref>[[s:Novum Organum|New Organon]] (English translations)</ref>', 59 => '* 1643 – [[Evangelista Torricelli]] invents the '''mercury [[barometer]]'''.<ref name="Jacobson" />', 60 => '[[Image:Blaise pascal.jpg|thumb|left|100px|Blaise Pascal.]]', 61 => '* 1648 – [[Blaise Pascal]] rediscovers that [[atmospheric pressure]] decreases with height, and deduces that there is a vacuum above the atmosphere.<ref>Florin to Pascal, September 1647,''Œuves completes de Pascal'', 2:682.</ref>', 62 => '* 1654 – [[Ferdinando II de Medici]] sponsors the first ''weather observing'' network, that consisted of meteorological stations in [[Florence]], [[Cutigliano]], [[Vallombrosa]], [[Bologna]], [[Parma]], [[Milan]], [[Innsbruck]], [[Osnabrück]], Paris and [[Warsaw]]. Collected data was centrally sent to [[Accademia del Cimento]] in Florence at regular time intervals.<ref>Raymond S. Bradley, Philip D. Jones (1992) ''Climate Since A.D. 1500'', Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-07593-9}}, p.144</ref>', 63 => '* 1662 – Sir [[Christopher Wren]] invented the mechanical, self-emptying, '''tipping bucket [[rain gauge]]'''.<ref>[[Thomas Birch]]'s ''History of the Royal Society'' is one of the most important sources of our knowledge not only of the origins of the Society, but also the day to day running of the Society. It is in these records that the majority of '''Wren's''' scientific works are recorded.</ref>', 64 => '* 1667 – [[Robert Hooke]] builds another type of [[anemometer]], called a '''pressure-plate anemometer'''.<ref name="Jacobson" />', 65 => '* 1686 – [[Edmund Halley]] presents a systematic study of the [[trade wind]]s and [[monsoon]]s and identifies solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions.', 66 => ':: – Edmund Halley establishes the relationship between barometric pressure and height above sea level.<ref>Cook, Alan H. (1998) ''Edmond Halley: Charting the Heavens and the Seas'', Oxford: Clarendon Press, {{ISBN|0198500319}}.</ref>', 67 => '', 68 => '==18th century==', 69 => '* 1716 – Edmund Halley suggests that [[Aurora (astronomy)|aurora]]e are caused by "magnetic effluvia" moving along the [[Earth's magnetic field]] lines.', 70 => '[[Image:AtmosphCirc2.png|right|thumb|120px|Global circulation as described by Hadley.]]', 71 => '* 1724 – [[Gabriel Fahrenheit]] creates reliable scale for measuring temperature with a mercury-type [[thermometer]].<ref>Grigull, U., [http://www.td.mw.tum.de/tum-td/de/forschung/pub/CD_Grigull/127.pdf Fahrenheit, a Pioneer of Exact Thermometry] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050125063120/http://www.td.mw.tum.de/tum-td/de/forschung/pub/CD_Grigull/127.pdf |date=January 25, 2005 }}. Heat Transfer, 1966, The Proceedings of the 8th International Heat Transfer Conference, San Francisco, 1966, Vol. 1.</ref>', 72 => '* 1735 – The first ''ideal'' explanation of [[Atmospheric circulation|global circulation]] was the study of the [[Trade winds]] by [[George Hadley]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=George Hadley|s2cid=186209280|jstor=103976|url=https://archive.org/details/philtrans03179785|title=Concerning the cause of the general trade winds|doi=10.1098/rstl.1735.0014|year=1735|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London|volume=39|issue=436–444|pages=58–62}}</ref>', 73 => '* 1738 – [[Daniel Bernoulli]] publishes ''Hydrodynamics'', initiating the [[kinetic theory of gases]]. He gave a poorly detailed [[equation of state]], but also the basic laws for the theory of gases.<ref>{{MacTutor Biography|id=Bernoulli_Daniel}}</ref>', 74 => '* 1742 – [[Anders Celsius]], a Swedish astronomer, proposed the Celsius temperature scale which led to the current [[Celsius]] scale.<ref>Olof Beckman (2001) [http://www.astro.uu.se/history/Celsius_scale.html History of the Celsius temperature scale.], ''translated'', Anders Celsius (Elementa, 84:4).</ref>', 75 => '* 1743 – [[Benjamin Franklin]] is prevented from seeing a lunar eclipse by a hurricane; he decides that cyclones move in a contrary manner to the winds at their periphery.<ref name="Dorst">Dorst, Neal, [http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/J6.html FAQ: Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Tropical Cyclones: Hurricane Timeline], [http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/ Hurricane Research Division, Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, NOAA], ''January 2006''.</ref>', 76 => '* 1761 – [[Joseph Black]] discovers that ice absorbs heat without changing its [[temperature]] when melting.', 77 => '* 1772 – Black's student [[Daniel Rutherford]] discovers [[nitrogen]], which he calls ''phlogisticated air'', and together they explain the results in terms of the [[phlogiston theory]].<ref>[http://www.londonmet.ac.uk/genesis/search/$-search-results.cfm?CCODE=2476 Biographical note at “Lectures and Papers of Professor Daniel Rutherford (1749–1819), and Diary of Mrs Harriet Rutherford”]. londonmet.ac.uk</ref>', 78 => '* 1774 – [[Louis Cotte]] is put in charge of a "medico-meteorological" network of French veterinarians and country doctors to investigate the relationship between plague and weather. The project continued until 1794.<ref>[http://www.sartonchair.ugent.be/index.php?id=75&type=file Gaston R. Demarée: The Ancien Régime instrumental meteorological observations in Belgium or the physician with lancet and thermometer in the wake of Hippocrates]. Ghent University.</ref>', 79 => '::- [[Royal Society]] begins twice daily observations compiled by [[Samuel Horsley]] testing for the influence of winds and of the moon on the barometer readings.<ref name=Heilbron>[http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft6d5nb455&chunk.id=d0e7006&toc.id=&brand=eschol J.L. Heilbron et al.: "The Quantifying Spirit in the 18th Century"]. Publishing.cdlib.org. Retrieved on November 6, 2013.</ref>', 80 => '* 1777 – [[Antoine Lavoisier]] discovers [[oxygen]] and develops an explanation for combustion.<ref>"Sur la combustion en général" ("On Combustion in general", 1777) and "Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides" ("General Considerations on the Nature of Acids", 1778).</ref>', 81 => '* 1780 – [[Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria|Charles Theodor]] charters the first international network of meteorological observers known as "Societas Meteorologica Palatina". The project collapses in 1795.<ref name=Heilbron />', 82 => '* 1780 – [[James Six]] invents the [[Six's thermometer]], a thermometer that records minimum and maximum temperatures. See ([[Six's thermometer]])', 83 => '* 1783 – In [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier]]'s article "Reflexions sur le phlogistique", he deprecates the phlogiston theory<ref>Nicholas W. Best, "[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10698-015-9220-5 Lavoisier's 'Reflections on Phlogiston' I: Against Phlogiston Theory"], ''[[Foundations of Chemistry]]'', 2015, '''17''', 137–151.</ref> and proposes a [[caloric theory]] of heat.<ref>Nicholas W. Best, [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10698-015-9236-x Lavoisier's 'Reflections on Phlogiston' II: On the Nature of Heat], ''[[Foundations of Chemistry]]'', 2016, '''18''', 3–13. In this early work, Lavoisier calls it "igneous fluid".</ref><ref>The 1880 edition of [[A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar#Caloric theory|A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar]], a 19th-century educational science book, explained heat transfer in terms of the flow of caloric.</ref>', 84 => ':: – First hair [[hygrometer]] demonstrated. The inventor was [[Horace-Bénédict de Saussure]].', 85 => '', 86 => '==19th century==', 87 => '[[File:Woodbridge isothermal chart3.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Isothermal chart of the world created 1823 by [[William Channing Woodbridge]] using the work of [[Alexander von Humboldt]].]]', 88 => '* 1800 – The [[Voltaic pile]] was the first modern electric battery, invented by [[Alessandro Volta]], which led to later inventions like the telegraph.', 89 => '* 1802–1803 – [[Luke Howard]] writes ''On the Modification of Clouds'' in which he assigns [[List of cloud types|cloud types]] [[Latin]] names. Howard's system establishes three physical categories or ''forms'' based on appearance and process of formation: ''cirriform'' (mainly detached and wispy), ''cumuliform'' or [[atmospheric convection|convective]] (mostly detached and heaped, rolled, or rippled), and non-convective ''stratiform'' (mainly continuous layers in sheets). These are cross-classified into ''lower'' and ''upper'' levels or étages. Cumuliform clouds forming in the lower level are given the genus name [[cumulus cloud|cumulus]] from the Latin word for ''heap'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/cumulus|title=Cumulus |work=The Free Dictionary |publisher=Farlex |access-date=2014-12-13}}</ref> while low stratiform clouds are given the genus name [[stratus cloud|stratus]] from the Latin word for a flattened or spread out ''sheet''. Cirriform clouds are identified as always upper level and given the genus name [[cirrus cloud|cirrus]] from the Latin for ''hair''. From this genus name, the prefix ''cirro-'' is derived and attached to the names of upper level cumulus and stratus, yielding the names [[cirrocumulus cloud|cirrocumulus]], and [[cirrostratus cloud|cirrostratus]].<ref name="Clouds">{{cite web | url =http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/media/pdf/8/6/No._01_-_Clouds.pdf| title=Fact sheet No. 1 – Clouds | year=2013 | access-date=21 November 2013 | publisher = Met Office (U.K.)}}</ref> In addition to these individual cloud types; Howard adds two names to designate cloud systems consisting of more than one form joined together or located in very close proximity. Cumulostratus describes large cumulus clouds blended with stratiform layers in the lower or upper levels.<ref name="Cumulostratus">{{cite web |editor=Royal Meteorological Society |title= Luke Howard and Cloud Names |year= 2015 |url=http://www.rmets.org/weather-and-climate/observing/luke-howard-and-cloud-names |access-date=10 October 2015}}</ref> The term [[nimbus cloud|nimbus]], taken from the Latin word for ''rain cloud'',<ref name="Clouds"/> is given to complex systems of cirriform, cumuliform, and stratiform clouds with sufficient vertical development to produce significant precipitation,<ref name="Preface">{{cite book |editor=World Meteorological Organization |title=International Cloud Atlas, preface to the 1939 edition. |volume=I |year=1975 |url=https://archive.org/details/manualonobservat00worl/page/ |pages=[https://archive.org/details/manualonobservat00worl/page/ IX–XIII] |isbn=978-92-63-10407-6 |access-date=6 December 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Cloud-art">{{cite web |editor=Colorado State University Dept. of Atmospheric Science |title= Cloud Art: Cloud Classification |year=2014 |url=http://cloudsat.atmos.colostate.edu/cloud_art/cloud_classification |access-date=13 December 2014}}</ref> and it comes to be identified as a distinct ''nimbiform'' physical category.<ref>{{cite book | editor=[[Henry Glassford Bell]] | title=Constable's miscellany of original and selected publications|volume=XII| year=1827 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LXZVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA320|page=320}}</ref>', 90 => '', 91 => '{| class="wikitable"', 92 => '!Classification of major types: 1803 !! Stratiform !! Cirriform !! Cumulostratiform !! Cumuliform !! Nimbiform', 93 => '|-', 94 => '', 95 => '!Upper-level', 96 => '| Cirrostratus ||Cirrus || || Cirrocumulus ||', 97 => '|-', 98 => '!Lower-level', 99 => '| Stratus || || || Cumulus ||', 100 => '|-', 101 => '!Multi-level/vertical', 102 => '| || || Cumulostratus || || Nimbus', 103 => '|}', 104 => '', 105 => '* 1804 – Sir [[John Leslie (physicist)|John Leslie]] observes that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of [[black-body radiation]].', 106 => '* 1806 – [[Francis Beaufort]] introduces his [[Beaufort scale|system for classifying wind speeds]].', 107 => '* 1808 – [[John Dalton]] defends caloric theory in ''A New System of Chemistry'' and describes how it combines with matter, especially [[gas]]es; he proposes that the [[heat capacity]] of gases varies inversely with [[atomic weight]].', 108 => '* 1810 – Sir John Leslie [[freezing|freeze]]s water to ice artificially.', 109 => '* 1817 – [[Alexander von Humboldt]] publishes a global map of average temperature, the first global climate analysis.', 110 => '* 1819 – [[Pierre Louis Dulong]] and [[Alexis Thérèse Petit]] give the [[Dulong-Petit law]] for the [[specific heat capacity]] of a [[crystal]].', 111 => '* 1820 – [[Heinrich Wilhelm Brandes]] publishes the first synoptic weather maps.', 112 => ':: – [[John Herapath]] develops some ideas in the kinetic theory of gases but mistakenly associates temperature with [[molecule|molecular]] [[momentum]] rather than [[kinetic energy]]; his work receives little attention other than from Joule.', 113 => '* 1822 – [[Joseph Fourier]] formally introduces the use of [[dimension]]s for physical quantities in his ''Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur''.', 114 => '* 1824 – [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] analyzes the efficiency of [[steam engine]]s using caloric theory; he develops the notion of a [[reversible process (thermodynamics)|reversible process]] and, in postulating that no such thing exists in nature, lays the foundation for the [[second law of thermodynamics]].', 115 => '* 1827 – [[Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)|Robert Brown]] discovers the [[Brownian motion]] of [[pollen]] and dye particles in water.', 116 => '* 1832 – An electromagnetic telegraph was created by [[Baron Schilling]].', 117 => '* 1834 – [[Émile Clapeyron]] popularises Carnot's work through a graphical and analytic formulation.', 118 => '* 1835 – [[Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis]] publishes theoretical discussions of machines with revolving parts and their efficiency, for example the efficiency of waterwheels.<ref name=corps>{{cite journal |author=G-G Coriolis |title=Sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps |journal= J. De l'École Royale Polytechnique |volume=15 |pages= 144–154 |year=1835 }}</ref> At the end of the 19th century, meteorologists recognized that the way the Earth's [[rotation]] is taken into account in meteorology is analogous to what Coriolis discussed: an example of [[Coriolis Effect]].', 119 => '* 1836 – An American scientist, Dr. [[David Alter]], invented the first known American electric telegraph in Elderton, Pennsylvania, one year before the much more popular [[Morse taper|Morse]] telegraph was invented.', 120 => '* 1837 – [[Samuel Morse]] independently developed an [[electrical telegraph]], an alternative design that was capable of transmitting over long distances using poor quality wire. His assistant, [[Alfred Vail]], developed the [[Morse code]] signaling alphabet with Morse. The first electric telegram using this device was sent by Morse on May 24, 1844, from the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. to the B&O Railroad "outer depot" in [[Baltimore]] and sent the message:', 121 => '::''[[Samuel Morse#Federal support|What hath God wrought]]''<ref>[[Library of Congress]]. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/sfbmhtml/sfbmtelessay.html The Invention of the Telegraph.] Retrieved on January 1, 2009.</ref>', 122 => '* 1839 – The ''first commercial'' [[electrical telegraph]] was constructed by Sir [[William Fothergill Cooke]] and entered use on the [[Great Western Railway]]. Cooke and Wheatstone patented it in May 1837 as an alarm system.', 123 => '* 1840 – [[Elias Loomis]] becomes the first person known to attempt to devise a theory on frontal zones. The idea of fronts do not catch on until expanded upon by the Norwegians in the years following World War I.<ref>David M. Schultz. ''[http://www.cimms.ou.edu/~schultz/sanders/sanders.pdf Perspectives on Fred Sanders's Research on Cold Fronts]'', 2003, revised, 2004, 2006, p. 5. Retrieved on July 14, 2006.</ref>', 124 => ':: – German meteorologist Ludwig Kaemtz adds [[stratocumulus cloud|stratocumulus]] to Howard's canon as a mostly detached low-étage genus of ''limited'' [[Atmospheric convection|convection]].<ref name="Multi-regime convection">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF00712679|bibcode=1995BoLMe..73..373L| title = A theoretical model of multi-regime convection in a stratocumulus-topped boundary layer| journal = Boundary-Layer Meteorology| volume = 73| issue = 4| pages = 373–409| year = 1995| last1 = Laufersweiler | first1 = M. J. | last2 = Shirer | first2 = H. N. |s2cid=123031505}}</ref> It is defined as having cumuliform and stratiform characteristics integrated into a single layer (in contrast to cumulostratus which is deemed to be composite in nature and can be structured into more than one layer).<ref name="Preface"/> This eventually leads to the formal recognition of a ''stratocumuliform''<ref name="LANDSAT identification">{{cite web | url =https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19760014556| title=The identification of cloud types in LANDSAT MSS images |author1=E.C. Barrett |author2=C.K. Grant | year=1976 | access-date=22 August 2012 | publisher = [[NASA]]}}</ref> physical category that includes rolled and rippled clouds classified separately from the more freely convective heaped cumuliform clouds.', 125 => '* 1843 – [[John James Waterston]] fully expounds the kinetic theory of gases, but is ridiculed and ignored.', 126 => ':: – [[James Prescott Joule]] experimentally finds the mechanical equivalent of heat.', 127 => '* 1844 – [[Lucien Vidi]] invented the aneroid, from Greek meaning ''without liquid'', [[barometer]].<ref name=r1>{{cite book|author1=Louis Figuier|author2=Émile Gautier|title=L'Année scientifique et industrielle|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Cus0AAAAMAAJ|year=1867|publisher=L. Hachette et cie.|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Cus0AAAAMAAJ/page/n495 485]–486}}</ref>', 128 => '* 1845 – [[Francis Ronalds]] invented the first successful camera for [[Photography#Science and forensics|continuous recording]] of the variations in meteorological parameters over time<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph|last=Ronalds|first=B.F.|publisher=Imperial College Press|year=2016|isbn=978-1-78326-917-4|location=London}}</ref>', 129 => '* 1845 – Francis Ronalds invented and named the storm clock, used to monitor rapid changes in meteorological parameters during extreme events<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ronalds|first=B.F.|date=June 2016|title=Sir Francis Ronalds and the Early Years of the Kew Observatory|journal=Weather|volume=71|issue=6|pages=131–134|doi=10.1002/wea.2739|bibcode=2016Wthr...71..131R|s2cid=123788388 }}</ref>', 130 => '* 1846 – Cup anemometer invented by Dr. [[John Thomas Romney Robinson]].', 131 => '* 1847 – [[Francis Ronalds]] and [[William Radcliffe Birt]] described a stable [[Kite#Science and meteorology|kite]] to make observations at altitude using self-recording instruments', 132 => '* 1847 – [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] publishes a definitive statement of the conservation of energy, the [[first law of thermodynamics]].', 133 => ':: – The [[Manchester Examiner]] newspaper organises the first weather reports collected by electrical means.<ref>[http://distantwriting.co.uk/companiesandweather.aspx A History of the Telegraph Companies in Britain between 1838 and 1868]. Distantwriting.co.uk. Retrieved on November 6, 2013.</ref>', 134 => '* 1848 – [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]] extends the concept of absolute zero from gases to all substances.', 135 => '* 1849 – [[Smithsonian Institution]] begins to establish an observation network across the United States, with 150 observers via telegraph, under the leadership of [[Joseph Henry]].<ref>Millikan, Frank Rives, [http://www.si.edu/archives/ihd/jhp/joseph03.htm JOSEPH HENRY: Father of Weather Service] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061020020548/http://www.si.edu/archives/ihd/jhp/joseph03.htm |date=October 20, 2006 }}, 1997, Smithsonian Institution</ref>', 136 => ':: – [[William John Macquorn Rankine]] calculates the correct relationship between [[saturation vapor pressure|saturated vapour pressure]] and [[temperature]] using his ''hypothesis of molecular vortices''.', 137 => '* 1850 – Rankine uses his ''vortex'' theory to establish accurate relationships between the temperature, [[pressure]], and [[density]] of gases, and expressions for the [[latent heat]] of [[evaporation]] of a liquid; he accurately predicts the surprising fact that the apparent [[specific heat]] of [[saturated steam]] will be negative.', 138 => ':: – [[Rudolf Clausius]] gives the first clear joint statement of the [[First Law of Thermodynamics|first]] and [[Second Law of Thermodynamics|second law]] of thermodynamics, abandoning the caloric theory, but preserving Carnot's principle.', 139 => '* 1852 – Joule and Thomson demonstrate that a rapidly expanding gas cools, later named the [[Joule-Thomson effect]].', 140 => '* 1853 – The first International Meteorological Conference was held in Brussels at the initiative of [[Matthew Fontaine Maury]], U.S. Navy, recommending standard observing times, methods of observation and logging format for weather reports from ships at sea.<ref>[http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=154 Anne E. Egger and Anthony Carpi: "Data collection, analysis, and interpretation: Weather and climate"]. Visionlearning.com (January 2, 2008). Retrieved on 2013-11-06.</ref>', 141 => '* 1854 – The French astronomer [[Urbain Le Verrier|Leverrier]] showed that a storm in the [[Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)|Black Sea]] could be followed across Europe and would have been predictable if the telegraph had been used. A service of storm forecasts was established a year later by the [[Paris Observatory]].', 142 => ':: – Rankine introduces his ''thermodynamic function'', later identified as [[entropy]].', 143 => '* Mid 1850s – Emilien Renou, director of the Parc Saint-Maur and Montsouris observatories, begins work on an elaboration of Howard's classifications that would lead to the introduction during the 1870s of a newly defined ''middle'' étage .<ref name="Preface"/> Clouds in this altitude range are given the prefix ''alto-'' derived from the Latin word ''altum'' pertaining to height above the low-level clouds. This resultes in the genus name [[altocumulus cloud|altocumulus]] for mid-level cumuliform and stratocumuliform types and [[altostratus cloud|altostratus]] for stratiform types in the same altitude range.<ref name="Clouds"/>', 144 => '* 1856 – [[William Ferrel]] publishes his [[s:An essay on the winds and the currents of the ocean|essay on the winds and the currents of the oceans]].', 145 => '* 1859 – [[James Clerk Maxwell]] discovers the [[Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution|distribution law of molecular velocities]].', 146 => '* 1860 – [[Robert FitzRoy]] uses the new telegraph system to gather daily observations from across England and produces the first synoptic charts. He also coined the term "weather forecast" and his were the first ever daily weather forecasts to be published in this year.', 147 => ':: – After establishment in 1849, 500 U.S. telegraph stations are now making weather observations and submitting them back to the [[Smithsonian Institution]]. The observations are later interrupted by the [[American Civil War]].', 148 => '* 1865 – [[Josef Loschmidt]] applies Maxwell's theory to estimate the number-density of molecules in gases, given observed gas viscosities.', 149 => ':: – Manila Observatory founded in the Philippines.<ref name="Dorst" />', 150 => '* 1869 – [[Joseph Lockyer]] starts the [[scientific journal]] [[Nature (journal)|''Nature'']].', 151 => '* 1869 – The [[New York Meteorological Observatory]] opens, and begins to record wind, precipitation and temperature data.', 152 => '* 1870 – The [[National Weather Service|US Weather Bureau]] is founded. Data recorded in several Midwestern cities such as Chicago begins. ', 153 => '* 1870 – Benito Viñes becomes the head of the Meteorological Observatory at Belen in Havana, Cuba. He develops the first observing network in Cuba and creates some of the first hurricane-related forecasts.<ref name="Dorst" />', 154 => '* 1872 – The "Oficina Meteorológica Argentina" (today "Argentinean National Weather Service") is founded.', 155 => '* 1872 – [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] states the [[Boltzmann equation]] for the temporal development of [[Distribution function (physics)|distribution function]]s in [[phase space]], and publishes his [[H-theorem]].', 156 => '* 1873 – [[International Meteorological Organization]] formed in [[Vienna]].', 157 => ':: – United States Army Signal Corp, forerunner of the [[National Weather Service]], issues its first hurricane warning.<ref name="Dorst" />', 158 => '[[Image:Synoptic chart 1874.png|thumb|right|250px|Synoptic chart from 1874.]]', 159 => '* 1875 – The [[India Meteorological Department]] is established, after a tropical cyclone struck Calcutta in 1864 and monsoon failures during 1866 and 1871.<ref name="IMD History"/>', 160 => '* 1876 – [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]] publishes the first of two papers (the second appears in 1878) which discuss phase equilibria, [[statistical ensemble]]s, the [[Thermodynamic free energy|free energy]] as the driving force behind [[chemical reaction]]s, and [[chemical thermodynamics]] in general.', 161 => '* 1880 – [[Philip Weilbach]], secretary and librarian at the Art Academy in Copenhagen proposes and has accepted by the permanent committee of the [[International Meteorological Organization]] (IMO), a forerunner of the present-day [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO), the designation of a new free-convective vertical or multi-étage genus type, [[cumulonimbus cloud|cumulonimbus]] (heaped rain cloud). It would be distinct from cumulus and nimbus and identifiable by its often very complex structure (frequently including a cirriform top and what are now recognized as multiple accessory clouds), and its ability to produce thunder. With this addition, a canon of ten tropospheric cloud ''genera'' is established that comes to be officially and universally accepted.<ref name="Preface"/> Howard's cumulostratus is not included as a distinct type, having effectively been reclassified into its component cumuliform and stratiform genus types already included in the new canon.', 162 => '* 1881 – Finnish Meteorological Central Office was formed from part of Magnetic Observatory of [[Helsinki University]].', 163 => '* 1890 – US [[Weather Bureau]] is created as a civilian operation under the [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]].', 164 => ':: – Otto Jesse reveals the discovery and identification of the first clouds known to form above the [[troposphere]]. He proposes the name ''[[noctilucent]]'' which is Latin for ''night shining''. Because of the extremely high altitudes of these clouds in what is now known to be the [[mesosphere]], they can become illuminated by the sun's rays when the sky is nearly dark after sunset and before sunrise.<ref name="Noctilucent">{{cite book |editor=World Meteorological Organization |title=Noctilucent, International Cloud Atlas |volume=I |year=1975 |url=https://archive.org/details/manualonobservat00worl/page/66 |page=[https://archive.org/details/manualonobservat00worl/page/66 66] |isbn=978-92-63-10407-6 |access-date=26 August 2014 }}</ref>', 165 => '* 1892 – [[William Henry Dines]] invented another kind of [[anemometer]], called the '''pressure-tube (Dines) anemometer'''. His device measured the difference in pressure arising from wind blowing in a tube versus that blowing across the tube.<ref name="Jacobson" />', 166 => ':: – The first mention of the term "[[El Niño]]" to refer to climate occurs when Captain Camilo Carrilo told the Geographical society congress in [[Lima]] that Peruvian sailors named the warm northerly current "El Niño" because it was most noticeable around [[Christmas]].', 167 => '* 1893 – [[Henrik Mohn]] reveals a discovery of [[polar stratospheric cloud|nacreous]] clouds in what is now considered the stratosphere.<ref name="Nacreous">{{cite book |editor=World Meteorological Organization |title=Nacreous, International Cloud Atlas |volume=I |year=1975 |url=https://archive.org/details/manualonobservat00worl/page/65 |page=[https://archive.org/details/manualonobservat00worl/page/65 65] |isbn=978-92-63-10407-6 |access-date=26 August 2014 }}</ref>', 168 => '* 1896 – [[International Meteorological Organization|IMO]] publishes the first [[International cloud atlas]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080107030242/http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/weather/b4163665.html International Cloud-Atlas]. ucsd.edu</ref>', 169 => ':: – [[Svante Arrhenius]] proposes [[carbon dioxide]] as a key factor to explain the [[ice ages]].', 170 => ':: – H.H. Clayton proposes formalizing the division of clouds by their physical structures into cirriform, stratiform, "flocciform" (stratocumuliform)<ref name="flocciform">{{cite web |editor=Theodora |title=Cloud |year=1995 |url= http://www.theodora.com/encyclopedia/c2/cloud.html| access-date=28 July 2015}}</ref> and cumuliform. With the later addition of cumulonimbiform, the idea eventually finds favor as an aid in the analysis of satellite cloud images.<ref name="LANDSAT identification"/>', 171 => '* 1898 – US Weather Bureau established a [[hurricane]] warning network at Kingston, Jamaica.<ref name="Dorst" />', 172 => '', 173 => '==20th century==', 174 => '* 1902 – [[Richard Assmann]] and [[Léon Teisserenc de Bort]], two European scientists, independently discovered the [[stratosphere]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Ross |title=Guide to Weather |year=2005 |publisher=Firefly Books Ltd. |location=Buffalo, New York |isbn=978-1-55407-110-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781554071104/page/208 208] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781554071104/page/208 }}</ref>', 175 => '::- The [[Marconi Company]] issues the first routine weather forecast by means of radio to ships on sea. Weather reports from ships started 1905.<ref>[http://www.weather.gov/pa/history/timeline.php NOAA: "Evolution of the National Weather Service"]. Weather.gov. Retrieved on November 6, 2013.</ref>', 176 => '* 1903 – [[Max Margules]] publishes „Über die Energie der Stürme", an essay on the atmosphere as a three-dimensional thermodynamical machine.<ref>[http://austria-lexikon.at/af/Wissenssammlungen/Biographien/Margules%2C Max Austria-Forum on Max margules]. Austria-lexikon.at. Retrieved on November 6, 2013.</ref>', 177 => '* 1904 – [[Vilhelm Bjerknes]] presents the vision that forecasting the weather is feasible based on mathematical methods.', 178 => '* 1905 – [[Bureau of Meteorology (Australia)|Australian Bureau of Meteorology]] established by a Meteorology Act to unify existing state meteorological services.', 179 => '* 1919 – [[Norwegian cyclone model]] introduced for the first time in meteorological literature. Marks a revolution in the way the atmosphere is conceived and immediately starts leading to improved forecasts.<ref>[http://www.srh.weather.gov/srh/jetstream/synoptic/cyclone.htm Norwegian Cyclone Model] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104214105/http://www.srh.weather.gov/srh/jetstream/synoptic/cyclone.htm |date=January 4, 2016 }}, webpage from [[NOAA]] Jetstream online school for weather.</ref>', 180 => '::- [[Sakuhei Fujiwhara]] is the first to note that hurricanes move with the larger scale flow, and later publishes a paper on the [[Fujiwhara effect]] in 1921.<ref name="Dorst" />', 181 => '* 1920 – [[Milutin Milanković]] proposes that long term climatic [[Milankovitch cycles|cycles]] may be due to changes in the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit and changes in the Earth's obliquity.', 182 => '* 1922 – [[Lewis Fry Richardson]] organises the first numerical weather prediction experiment.', 183 => '* 1923 – The oscillation effects of [[ENSO]] were first ''erroneously'' described by [[Gilbert Walker (physicist)|Sir Gilbert Thomas Walker]] from whom the [[Walker circulation]] takes its name; now an important aspect of the ''Pacific ENSO'' phenomenon.', 184 => '* 1924 – [[Gilbert Walker (physicist)|Gilbert Walker]] first coined the term "[[Southern Oscillation]]".', 185 => '* 1930, January 30 – [[Pavel Molchanov]] invents and launches the first [[radiosonde]]. Named "271120", it was released 13:44 [[Moscow Time]] in [[Pavlovsk, Saint Petersburg|Pavlovsk]], [[Soviet Union|USSR]] from the Main Geophysical Observatory, reached a height of 7.8 kilometers measuring temperature there (−40.7&nbsp;°C) and sent the first aerological message to the Leningrad Weather Bureau and Moscow Central Forecast Institute.<ref>{{cite web|work=EpizodSpace |title=75th anniversary of starting aerological observations in Russia |language=ru |url=http://epizodsspace.testpilot.ru/bibl/stati/molchanov.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070211123403/http://epizodsspace.testpilot.ru/bibl/stati/molchanov.html |archive-date=February 11, 2007 }}</ref>', 186 => '* 1932 – A further modification of Luke Howard's cloud classification system comes when an IMC commission for the study of clouds puts forward a refined and more restricted definition of the genus nimbus which is effectively reclassified as a stratiform cloud type. It is renamed [[nimbostratus cloud|nimbostratus]] (flattened or spread out rain cloud) and published with the new name in the 1932 edition of the ''International Atlas of Clouds and of States of the Sky''.<ref name="Preface"/> This leaves cumulonimbus as the only nimbiform type as indicated by its root-name.', 187 => '* 1933 – [[Victor Schauberger]] publishes his theories on the carbon cycle and its relationship to the weather in ''Our Senseless Toil''', 188 => '* 1935 – [[International Meteorological Organization|IMO]] decides on the 30 years normal period (1900–1930) to describe the [[climate]].', 189 => '* 1937 – The U.S. Army Air Forces Weather Service was established (redesignated in 1946 as '''AWS'''-Air Weather Service).', 190 => '* 1938 – [[Guy Stewart Callendar]] first to propose [[global warming]] from [[carbon dioxide]] emissions.', 191 => '* 1939 – [[Rossby wave]]s were first identified in the atmosphere by [[Carl-Gustaf Arvid Rossby]] who explained their motion. Rossby waves are a subset of [[inertial waves]].', 192 => '* 1941 – Pulsed [[radar]] network is implemented in England during World War II. Generally during the war, operators started noticing echoes from weather elements such as rain and snow.', 193 => '* 1943 – 10 years after flying into the [[Washington Hoover Airport]] on mainly instruments during the August 1933 Chesapeake-Potomac hurricane,<ref>Roth, David, and Hugh Cobb, [http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/roth/vaerly20hur.htm Virginia Hurricane History: Early Twentieth Century], ''July 16, 2001''.</ref> J. B. Duckworth flies his airplane into a Gulf hurricane off the coast of Texas, proving to the military and meteorological community the utility of weather reconnaissance.<ref name="Dorst" />', 194 => '* 1944 – The [[Great Atlantic Hurricane]] is caught on radar near the Mid-Atlantic coast, the first such picture noted from the United States.<ref name="Dorst" />', 195 => '* 1947 – The Soviet Union launched its first Long Range Ballistic Rocket October 18, based on the German rocket A4 (V-2). The photographs demonstrated the immense potential of observing weather from space.<ref>[http://www.eoportal.org/documents/kramer/History.pdf Earth Observation History on Technology Introduction.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070728201749/http://www.eoportal.org/documents/kramer/History.pdf |date=July 28, 2007 }}. eoportal.org.</ref>', 196 => '* 1948 – First correct tornado prediction by [[Robert C. Miller]] and E. J. Fawbush for tornado in Oklahoma.', 197 => ':: – [[Erik Palmén]] publishes his findings that hurricanes require surface water temperatures of at least 26°C (80°F) in order to form.', 198 => '* 1950 – First successful numerical weather prediction experiment. [[Princeton University]], group of [[Jule Gregory Charney]] on [[ENIAC]].', 199 => ':: – Hurricanes begin to be named alphabetically with the [[radio alphabet]].', 200 => ':: – '''[[WMO]]''' World Meteorological Organization replaces [[International Meteorological Organization|IMO]] under the auspice of the [[United Nations]].', 201 => '* 1953 – [[National Hurricane Center (NOAA)]] creates a system for naming hurricanes using alphabetical lists of women's names.', 202 => '* 1954 – First routine real-time numerical weather forecasting. The [[Royal Swedish Air Force]] Weather Service.', 203 => ':: – A United States Navy rocket captures a picture of an inland tropical depression near the Texas/Mexico border, which leads to a surprise flood event in New Mexico. This convinces the government to set up a weather satellite program.<ref name="Dorst" />', 204 => '* 1955 – [[Norman A. Phillips|Norman Phillips]] at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in Princeton, New Jersey, runs first Atmospheric General Circulation Model.', 205 => ':: – '''NSSP''' National Severe Storms Project and '''NHRP''' National Hurricane Research Projects established. The Miami office of the United States Weather Bureau is designated the main hurricane warning center for the Atlantic Basin.<ref name="Dorst" />', 206 => '* 1957–1958 – [[International Geophysical Year]] coordinated research efforts in eleven sciences, focused on polar areas during the [[solar maximum]].', 207 => '[[Image:TIROS-1-Earth.png|left|200px|thumb|The first television image of Earth from space from the TIROS-1 weather satellite.]]', 208 => '* 1959 – The first weather satellite, [[Vanguard 2]], was launched on February 17. It was designed to measure cloud cover, but a poor axis of rotation kept it from collecting a notable amount of useful data.', 209 => '* 1960 – The first successful weather satellite, [[TIROS-1]] (Television Infrared Observation Satellite), is launched on April 1 from Cape Canaveral, Florida by the [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA) with the participation of The US Army Signal Research and Development Lab, [[RCA]], the US Weather Bureau, and the US Naval Photographic Center. During its 78-day mission, it relays thousands of pictures showing the structure of large-scale cloud regimes, and proves that satellites can provide useful surveillance of global weather conditions from space.<ref name="TIROS">{{cite web| publisher=[[NASA]]| title=TIROS| year=2014| url=http://science1.nasa.gov/missions/tiros/| access-date=5 December 2014| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141209032810/http://science1.nasa.gov/missions/tiros/| archive-date=December 9, 2014| df=mdy-all}}</ref> TIROS paves the way for the [[Nimbus program]], whose technology and findings are the heritage of most of the Earth-observing satellites [[NASA]] and [[NOAA]] have launched since then.<ref name="Dorst" />', 210 => '* 1961 – [[Edward Lorenz]] accidentally discovers [[Chaos theory]] when working on [[numerical weather prediction]].', 211 => '* 1962 – [[Keith Browning]] and [[Frank Ludlam]] publish first detailed study of a ''supercell'' storm (over Wokingham, UK). Project STORMFURY begins its 10-year project of seeding hurricanes with silver iodide, attempting to weaken the cyclones.<ref name="Dorst" />', 212 => '* 1968 – A hurricane database for Atlantic hurricanes is created for NASA by Charlie Newmann and [[John Hope (meteorologist)|John Hope]], named HURDAT.<ref name="Dorst" />', 213 => '* 1969 – [[Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale]] created, used to describe hurricane strength on a category range of 1 to 5. Popularized during Hurricane Gloria of 1985 by media.', 214 => ':: – [[Jacob Bjerknes]] described [[ENSO]] by suggesting that an anomalously warm spot in the eastern Pacific can weaken the east-west temperature difference, causing weakening in the [[Walker circulation]] and trade wind flows, which push warm water to the west.', 215 => '* 1970s [[Weather radar]]s are becoming more standardized and organized into networks. The number of scanned angles was increased to get a three-dimensional view of the precipitation, which allowed studies of thunderstorms. Experiments with the [[Doppler effect]] begin.', 216 => '* 1970 – '''NOAA''' National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration established. Weather Bureau is renamed the [[NOAA National Weather Service|National Weather Service]].', 217 => '* 1971 – [[Tetsuya Theodore Fujita|Ted Fujita]] introduces the [[Fujita scale]] for rating tornadoes.', 218 => '* 1974 – '''[[AMeDAS]]''' network, developed by [[Japan Meteorological Agency]] used for gathering regional weather data and verifying forecast performance, begun operation on November 1, the system consists of about 1,300 stations with automatic observation equipment. These stations, of which more than 1,100 are unmanned, are located at an average interval of 17&nbsp;km throughout Japan.', 219 => '* 1975 – The first [[Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite]], '''GOES''', was launched into orbit. Their role and design is to aid in hurricane tracking. Also this year, Vern Dvorak develops a scheme to estimate tropical cyclone intensity from satellite imagery.<ref name="Dorst" />', 220 => ':: – The first use of a [[global climate model|General Circulation Model]] to study the effects of carbon dioxide doubling. [[Syukuro Manabe]] and [[Richard Wetherald]] at [[Princeton University]].', 221 => '* 1976 – The United Kingdom Department of Industry publishes a modification of the international cloud classification system adapted for satellite cloud observations. It is co-sponsored by NASA and showes a division of clouds into stratiform, cirriform, stratocumuliform, cumuliform, and cumulonimbiform.<ref name="LANDSAT identification"/> The last of these constitutes a change in name of the earlier nimbiform type, although this earlier name and original meaning pertaining to all rain clouds can still be found in some classifications.<ref name="Types of clouds">{{cite web |url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/yos/resource/JetStream/synoptic/clouds.htm|title=Cloud Classifications |editor=JetStream |publisher=[[National Weather Service]] |date=8 October 2008 |access-date=23 November 2014}}</ref>', 222 => '', 223 => '{| class="wikitable"', 224 => '!Major types: current !! Stratiform !! Cirriform !! Stratocumuliform !! Cumuliform !! Cumulonimbiform', 225 => '|-', 226 => '!Extreme level', 227 => '| [[Polar mesospheric cloud|PMC]]: [[Noctilucent cloud|Noctilucent]] veils || Noctilucent billows or whirls|| Noctilucent bands || || ', 228 => '|-', 229 => '!Very high level', 230 => '| [[Nitric acid]] & [[water]] [[Polar stratospheric cloud|PSC]]|| [[Cirrus cloud|Cirriform]] [[nacreous]] [[Polar stratospheric cloud|PSC]] || [[Lenticular cloud|Lenticular]] [[nacreous]] [[Polar stratospheric cloud|PSC]] || ||', 231 => '|-', 232 => '!High-level', 233 => '| [[Cirrostratus cloud|Cirrostratus]] ||[[Cirrus cloud|Cirrus]] || [[Cirrocumulus cloud|Cirrocumulus]] || ||', 234 => '|-', 235 => '!Mid-level', 236 => '| [[Altostratus cloud|Altostratus]] || || [[Altocumulus cloud|Altocumulus]] || ||', 237 => '|-', 238 => '!Low-level', 239 => '| [[Stratus cloud|Stratus]] || || [[Stratocumulus cloud|Stratocumulus]] || [[Cumulus cloud|Cumulus humilis]] or [[fractus]] ||', 240 => '|-', 241 => '!Multi-level or moderate vertical', 242 => '| [[Nimbostratus cloud|Nimbostratus]] || || || [[Cumulus mediocris]] ||', 243 => '|-', 244 => '!Towering vertical', 245 => '| || || || [[Cumulus congestus]] || [[Cumulonimbus cloud|Cumulonimbus]]', 246 => '|}', 247 => '', 248 => '''Major types shown here include the ten tropospheric genera that are detectable (but not always identifiable) by satellite, and several additional major types above the troposphere that were not included with the original modification. The cumulus genus includes four species that indicate vertical size and structure''.', 249 => '', 250 => '* 1980s onwards, networks of weather radars are further expanded in the [[developed nation|developed world]]. Doppler [[weather radar]] is becoming gradually more common, adds velocity information.', 251 => '* 1982 – The first Synoptic Flow experiment is flown around Hurricane Debby to help define the large scale atmospheric winds that steer the storm.', 252 => '* 1988 – WSR-88D type weather radar implemented in the United States. Weather surveillance radar that uses several modes to detect severe weather conditions.', 253 => '* 1992 – Computers first used in the United States to draw surface analyses.', 254 => '* 1997 – The [[Pacific Decadal Oscillation]] was discovered by a team studying [[salmon]] production patterns at the [[University of Washington]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Nathan J. Mantua |author2=Steven R. Hare |author3=Yuan Zhang |author4=John M. Wallace |author5=Robert C. Francis |name-list-style=amp |title=A Pacific interdecadal climate oscillation with impacts on salmon production |journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society |date=June 1997 |volume=78 |issue=6 |pages=1069–1079 |doi=10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<1069:APICOW>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=1997BAMS...78.1069M |df=mdy-all |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://sealevel.jpl.nasa.gov/science/elninopdo/pdo/ | title=Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)}}</ref>', 255 => '* 1998 – Improving technology and software finally allows for the digital underlying of satellite imagery, radar imagery, model data, and surface observations improving the quality of United States Surface Analyses.', 256 => ':: – CAMEX3, a NASA experiment run in conjunction with NOAA's Hurricane Field Program collects detailed data sets on Hurricanes Bonnie, Danielle, and Georges.', 257 => '* 1999 – Hurricane Floyd induces ''fright factor'' in some coastal States and causes a massive evacuation from coastal zones from northern Florida to the Carolinas. It comes ashore in North Carolina and results in nearly 80 dead and $4.5 billion in damages mostly due to extensive flooding.', 258 => '', 259 => '==21st century==', 260 => '* 2001 – [[National Weather Service]] begins to produce a Unified Surface Analysis, ending duplication of effort at the [[Tropical Prediction Center]], [[Ocean Prediction Center]], [[Hydrometeorological Prediction Center]], as well as the [[National Weather Service]] offices in Anchorage, AK and Honolulu, HI.<ref>[http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/sfc/UASfcManualVersion1.pdf Unified Surface Analysis Manual]. Weather Prediction Center. August 7, 2013</ref>', 261 => '* 2003 – NOAA hurricane experts issue first experimental Eastern Pacific Hurricane Outlook.', 262 => '* 2004 – A record number of hurricanes strike Florida in one year, [[Hurricane Charley|Charley]], [[Hurricane Frances|Frances]], [[Hurricane Ivan|Ivan]], and [[Hurricane Jeanne|Jeanne]].', 263 => '* 2005 – A record 27 named storms occur in the Atlantic. [[National Hurricane Center]] runs out of names from its standard list and uses Greek alphabet for the first time.', 264 => '* 2006 – Weather radar improved by adding common precipitation to it such as [[freezing rain]], [[rain and snow mixed]], and snow for the first time.', 265 => '* 2007 – The [[Fujita scale]] is replaced with the [[Enhanced Fujita Scale]] for National Weather Service [[tornado]] assessments.', 266 => '* 2010s – Weather radar dramatically advances with more detailed options.', 267 => '', 268 => '==See also==', 269 => '* [[Meteorology]]', 270 => '* [[Glossary of meteorology]]', 271 => '* [[Outline of meteorology]]', 272 => '* [[Atlantic hurricane season]]', 273 => '* [[North Indian Ocean tropical cyclone]]', 274 => '* [[Pacific hurricane]]', 275 => '* [[Pacific typhoon climatology]]', 276 => '* [[Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology]]', 277 => '', 278 => '==References and notes==', 279 => '{{Reflist|35em}}', 280 => '', 281 => '==External links==', 282 => '* Shaw, Napier. [https://archive.org/details/manualofmeteorol01shawuoft ''Manual of meteorology'', vol.&nbsp;1: "Meteorology in history"] (1926)', 283 => '* [http://www.shorstmeyer.com/msj/geo165/met_hist.pdf An Outline of the History of meteorology]', 284 => '', 285 => '{{DEFAULTSORT:Timeline Of Meteorology}}', 286 => '[[Category:Meteorology in history]]', 287 => '[[Category:Science timelines|Meteorology]]' ]