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'''Charles Darwin's education''' gave him a foundation in the [[history of creationism|doctrine of Creation]] prevalent throughout the West at the time, as well as knowledge of medicine and theology. More significantly, it led to his interest in [[natural history]], which culminated in his taking part in [[Second voyage of HMS Beagle|the second voyage of the ''Beagle'']] and the eventual [[inception of Darwin's theory|inception of his theory]] of [[natural selection]]. Although [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] changed his field of interest several times in these formative years, many of his later discoveries and beliefs were foreshadowed by the influences he had as a youth.
==Background and influences==
[[File:Darwin cutout.png|thumb|[[Erasmus Darwin]], Charles Darwin's paternal grandfather, helped influence Darwin's later [[Charles Darwin's views on religion|religious views]].]]
A child of the early 19th century, [[Charles Darwin|Charles Robert Darwin]] grew up in a conservative era when repression of revolutionary [[Radicalism (historical)|Radicalism]] had displaced the 18th century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. The [[Church of England]] dominated the English scientific establishment. The Church saw natural history as revealing God's underlying plan and as supporting the existing social hierarchy. It rejected Enlightenment philosophers such as [[David Hume]] who had argued for [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]] and against [[theism|belief in God]].
The discovery of [[fossil]]s of [[extinction|extinct]] species was explained by theories such as [[catastrophism]]. Catastrophism claimed that animals and plants were periodically annihilated as a result of natural catastrophes and then replaced by new species [[creatio ex nihilo|created ''ex nihilo'']] (out of nothing). The extinct organisms could then be observed in the fossil record, and their replacements were considered to be immutable.
Darwin's [[Darwin–Wedgwood family|extended family of Darwins and Wedgwoods]] was strongly [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]]. One of Darwin’s grandfathers, [[Erasmus Darwin]], was a successful physician, and was followed in this by his sons [[Charles Darwin (medical student)|Charles Darwin]], who died in 1778 while still a promising medical student at the [[University of Edinburgh]], and Doctor [[Robert Darwin|Robert Waring Darwin]], Darwin's father, who named his son Charles Robert Darwin, honouring his deceased brother.
Erasmus was a [[freethought|freethinker]] who hypothesized that all warm-blooded animals sprang from a single living "filament" long, long ago. He further proposed evolution by acquired characteristics, anticipating the theory later developed by [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]]. Although Charles was born after his grandfather Erasmus died, his father Robert found the texts an invaluable medical guide and Charles read them as a student. Doctor Robert also followed Erasmus in being a freethinker, but as a wealthy society physician was more discreet and attended the [[Church of England]] patronised by his clients.
==Childhood==
[[File:Charles Darwin 1816.jpg|thumb|190px|left|The seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816, a year before the sudden loss of his mother.]]
Charles Robert Darwin was born in [[Shrewsbury]], Shropshire, England on 12 February 1809 at his family home, [[The Mount, Shrewsbury|the Mount]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|title=The Mount House, Shrewsbury, England (Charles Darwin)|author=John H. Wahlert|date=11 June 2001|work=Darwin and Darwinism|publisher=[[Baruch College]]|access-date=26 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206010149/http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|archive-date=6 December 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier [[Robert Darwin|Robert Waring Darwin]] , and [[Susannah Darwin]] (''née'' Wedgwood). Both families were largely [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]], though the Wedgwoods were adopting [[Anglicanism]]. Robert Waring Darwin, himself quietly a [[Freethought#England and France|freethinker]], had baby Charles [[baptism|baptised]] on 15 November 1809 in the Anglican [[St Chad's Church, Shrewsbury]], but Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarian chapel with their mother.<ref name=skool>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 12–15}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=21 21–25]}}</ref><ref>From [http://darwin-online.org.uk/life1b.html Charles Darwin: a life in pictures] at Darwin Online, the parish register of St. Chad's gives Darwin's date of baptism as 15 November 1809, a date supported by "England, Births and Christenings, 1538–1975," index, FamilySearch, accessed 18 July 2012), [https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.1.1/J362-MP8 Charles Robt. Darwin], 1809. The date is given as 17 November in Freeman (2007) [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A27b&viewtype=text&pageseq=113 p. 106], and {{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=12}}.</ref>
As a young child at The Mount, Darwin avidly collected [[animal shell]]s, [[Philately|postal frank]]s, [[Egg (biology)|bird's egg]]s, pebbles and minerals. He was very fond of gardening, an interest his father shared and encouraged, and would follow the family gardener around. Early in 1817, soon after becoming eight years old, he started at the small local school run by a Unitarian minister, the Reverend George Case. At home, Charles learned to ride ponies, shoot and fish. Influenced by his father's fashionable interest in [[natural history]], he tried to make out the names of plants, and was given by his father two elementary natural history books. Childhood games included inventing and writing out complex secret codes. Charles would tell elaborate stories to his family and friends "for the pure pleasure of attracting attention & surprise", including hoaxes such as pretending to find apples he'd hidden earlier, and what he later called the "monstrous fable" which persuaded his schoolfriend that the colour of [[primula]] flowers could be changed by dosing them with special water. However, his father benignly ignored these passing games, and Charles later recounted that he stopped them because no-one paid any attention.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=10–16}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=22 22–24].}}</ref>
In July 1817 his mother died after the sudden onset of violent stomach pains and amidst the grief his older sisters had to take charge, with their father continuing to dominate the household whenever he returned from his doctor's rounds. To the {{frac|8|1|2}}-year-old Charles this situation was not a great change, as his mother had frequently been ill and her available time taken up by social duties, so his upbringing had largely been in the hands of his three older sisters who were nearly adults by then. In later years he had difficulty in remembering his mother, and his only memory of her death and funeral was of the children being sent for and going into her room, and his "Father meeting us crying afterwards".<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=18–20}}</ref>
As had been planned previously, in September 1818 Charles joined his older brother [[Erasmus Alvey Darwin]] (nicknamed "Eras") in staying as a boarder at the [[Shrewsbury School]], where he loathed the required [[rote learning]], and would try to visit home when he could, but also made many friends and developed interests.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=23–27}} Years later, he recalled being "very fond of playing at [[bandy|Hocky on the ice]] in skates" in the winter time.<ref>Chris Middlebrook: ”It's True - Charles Darwin Actually Played Bandy!”, worldbandy.com, [http://www.worldbandy.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Did-Charles-Darwin-play-bandy2.pdf], read 23 October 2022</ref> He continued collecting minerals and insects, and family holidays in [[Wales]] brought Charles new opportunities, but an older sister ruled that "it was not right to kill insects" for his collections, and he had to find dead ones. He read [[Gilbert White]]'s ''The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne'' and took up [[birdwatching]]. Eras took an interest in [[chemistry]] and Charles became his assistant, with the two using a garden shed at their home fitted out as a laboratory and extending their interests to [[crystallography]]. When Eras went on to a medical course at the [[University of Cambridge]], Charles continued to rush home to the shed on weekends, and for this received the nickname "Gas". The headmaster was not amused at this diversion from studying the classics, calling him a ''[[wikt:pococurante|poco curante]]'' (trifler) in front of the boys. At fifteen, his interest shifted to hunting and bird-shooting at local estates, particularly at [[Maer, Staffordshire|Maer]] in Staffordshire, the home of his relatives, the [[Wedgwood]]s.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=28–34}}<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=46 44–46].}}</ref> His exasperated father once told him off, saying "You care for nothing but shooting, dogs, and rat-catching, and you will be a disgrace to yourself and all your family."<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=28 28].}}</ref>
His father decided that he should leave school earlier than usual, and in 1825 at the age of sixteen Charles was to go along with his brother who was to attend the [[University of Edinburgh]] for a year to obtain medical qualifications.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=34–35}}</ref> Charles spent the summer as an apprentice doctor, helping his father with treating the poor of [[Shropshire]]. He had half a dozen patients of his own, and would note their symptoms for his father to make up the prescriptions.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=48 46–47].}}</ref>
==University of Edinburgh==
[[File:Edinburgh University 1827.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Darwin attended the [[University of Edinburgh]] to study medicine, at a time when [[Old College, University of Edinburgh|its new buildings]] (shown here) were still under construction. View along [[South Bridge, Edinburgh|South Bridge Street]], towards the bridge crossing high above the [[Cowgate]]. On the left, South College Street leads up to Lothian Street.]]
[[File:Charles Darwin plaque, Lothian Street, Edinburgh.JPG|thumb|140px|Plaque in Lothian Street, indicating where Darwin lived while studying at Edinburgh]]
In October 1825, Darwin went to [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh University]] to study medicine, accompanied by Eras doing his external hospital study. For a few days, while looking for rooms to rent, the brothers stayed at the Star Hotel in Princes Street.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=22}} They took up an introduction to a friend of their father, Dr. Hawley, who led them on a walk around the town. They admired it immensely; Darwin thought Bridge Street "most extraordinary" as, on looking over the sides, "instead of a fine river we saw a stream of people".<ref name="letter 16">{{Cite web | title = Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 16 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, R. W., (23 Oct 1825) | url = http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-16 | access-date = 12 April 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=46–47}}. Town plans of the time show [[South Bridge, Edinburgh|South Bridge Street]] crossing above the [[Cowgate]], a main thoroughfare, and [[North Bridge, Edinburgh|North Bridge Street]] with views west down to the green market and [[:wiktionary:shambles|Shambles]], and east to [[Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh#History|"Old Physick Garden"]] – see [https://maps.nls.uk/towns/rec/7594 Lothian's plan of the city of Edinburgh and its vicinity] (1825) and {{cite web |url=https://maps.nls.uk/geo/explore/side-by-side/#zoom=15&lat=55.95040&lon=-3.18822&layers=126&right=BingHyb |title=Old and New Town of Edinburgh and Leith with the proposed docks. |author= John Ainslie|author-link= John Ainslie |date=1804 |work=Town Plans / Views, 1580-1919 |publisher= National Library of Scotland |access-date=6 March 2021}}</ref> They found comfortable lodgings near the University at 11 Lothian Street,{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=22}}<ref name=rough>{{cite web |url=http://roughguidetoevolution.blogspot.com/2008/09/evolutionary-tourist-in-edinburgh.html |title=The Rough Guide to Evolution: The evolutionary tourist in Edinburgh |author= Mark Pallen. |date= 27 September 2008 |access-date=17 July 2011}}</ref> on 22 October Charles signed the [[matriculation]] book, and enrolled in courses.<ref name="Ashworth" /> That evening, they moved in.<ref name="letter 16" />
Darwin attended classes from their start on 26 October.<ref name="Ashworth" /> By early January he had formed opinions on the lecturers, and complained that most were boring.<ref name=Letter20>{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-20.xml |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 20 – Darwin, C. R. to Caroline Darwin, 6 January 1826 |access-date=8 March 2021 }}</ref>
[[Andrew Duncan (physician, born 1773)|Andrew Duncan, the younger]], taught [[Dietitian|dietetics]], [[pharmacy]], and [[materia medica]]. Darwin thought the latter stupid, and said Duncan was "so very learned that his wisdom has left no room for his sense".<ref name=Letter20 /> His lectures began at 8{{nbsp}}a.m. – years later Darwin recalled "a whole, cold, breakfastless hour on the properties of rhubarb!",<ref name="Letter 1082">{{cite web | title=Letter no. 1082 – Darwin, C. R. to J. D. Hooker [18 April 1847] | website=Darwin Correspondence Project | url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter | access-date=17 April 2021}}</ref> but they usefully introduced him to the ''natural system'' of classification of [[Augustin de Candolle]], who emphasised the "war" between competing species.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=27, 43}}
From 10{{nbsp}}a.m., the brothers greatly enjoyed the spectacular chemistry lectures of [[Thomas Charles Hope]], but they did not join a student society giving hands-on experience. Anatomy and surgery classes began at noon, Darwin was disgusted by the dull and outdated anatomy lectures of professor [[Alexander Monro (tertius)|Alexander Monro ''tertius'']], many students went instead to private independent schools, with new ideas of teaching by dissecting corpses (giving clandestine trade to [[Body-snatching|bodysnatchers]]) – his brother went to a "charming Lecturer", the surgeon [[John Lizars]]. Darwin later regretted his own failure to persevere and learn dissection.The city was in an uproar over political and religious controversies, and the competitive system where professors were dependent on attracting student fees for income meant that the university was riven with argumentative feuds and conflicts. Monro's lectures included vehement opposition to [[George Combe]]'s daringly [[materialism|materialist]] ideas of [[phrenology]],<ref name="Ashworth" /><ref name=B45-62 /> but Darwin found "his lectures on human anatomy as dull, as he was himself, and the subject disgusted me." Eventually, to Darwin's mind there were "no advantages and many disadvantages in lectures compared with reading."<ref name=auto46 />
Darwin regularly attended clinical wards in the hospital despite his great distress about some of the cases, but could only bear to attend surgical operations twice, rushing away before they were completed due to his distress at the brutality of surgery before [[anaesthetic]]s. He was long haunted by the memory, particularly of an operation on a child.<ref name=B45-62>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=45–62}}</ref><ref name=auto46>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=48 46–48].}}</ref>
At the end of January, Darwin wrote home that they had "been very dissipated", having dined with Dr. Hawley then gone to the theatre with a relative of the botanist [[Robert Kaye Greville]]. They also visited [[Andrew Duncan (physician, born 1744)|"the old Dr. Duncan"]],{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=47}}<ref name=Letter22>{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-22.xml |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 22 – Darwin, C. R. to Susan Darwin, 29 January (1826) |access-date=13 March 2021 }}</ref> who spoke with the warmest affection about his student and friend [[Charles Darwin (medical student)|Charles Darwin]] (Darwin's uncle) who had died in 1778.<ref name="Woodall">Woodall, Edward (1884) "[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=30&itemID=A317&viewtype=text Charles Darwin. A paper contributed to the Transactions of the Shropshire Archæological Society]. London: Trubner. p. 18.</ref><ref name="Krause1879">{{cite book|author=Ernst Krause|title=Erasmus Darwin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vle1nNTRWWwC&pg=PA82|year=1879|publisher=J. Murray|page=82}}</ref> Darwin wrote "What an extraordinary old man he is, now being past 80, & continuing to lecture", though Dr. Hawley thought Duncan was now failing. Darwin added that "I am going to learn to stuff birds, from a [[Wiktionary:blackamoor|blackamoor]]... he only charges one guinea, for an hour every day for two months".<ref name=Letter22 /> These lessons in [[taxidermy]] were with the freed black slave [[John Edmonstone]], who also lived in Lothian Street. Darwin often sat with him to hear tales of the South American rain-forest of [[Guyana]], and later remembered him as "a very pleasant and intelligent man."<ref name=rough /><ref name="B45-62"/><ref name=auto51>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=53 51].}}</ref>
The brothers kept each other company, and made extensive use of the library. Darwin's reading included novels and [[James Boswell|Boswell]]'s ''[[Life of Samuel Johnson|Life of Johnson]]''. He had brought [[natural history]] books with him, including a copy of ''A Naturalist's Companion'' by [[George Graves (biologist)|George Graves]], bought in August in anticipation of seeing the seaside. He borrowed similar books from the library,{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=46, 49}} and also read [[John Fleming (naturalist)|Fleming]]'s ''Philosophy of Zoology''.{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=25–26}}
The brothers went for regular Sunday walks to the seaport of [[Leith]] and the shores of the [[Firth of Forth]]. Darwin kept a diary recording bird observations, and their seashore finds which began with a sea mouse (''[[Aphrodita aculeata]])'' he caught on 2 February and identified from his copy of [[William Turton]]'s ''British fauna''.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=65–67}}<ref name="red diary">Darwin, C. R. [Edinburgh diary for 1826]. [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=57&itemID=CUL-DAR129.-&viewtype=side CUL-DAR129].- Transcribed and edited by John van Wyhe (Darwin Online)</ref> A few days later Darwin noted "Erasmus caught a Cuttle fish", wondering if it was "Sepia Loligo",<ref name="red diary" /> then from his textbooks identified it as ''[[European flying squid|Loligo sagittata]]'' (a squid).{{sfn|Stott|2004|p=26}}<ref>[[John Fleming (naturalist)|Fleming, John]]. 1822. ''The Philosophy of Zoology''. Edinburgh: Constable. Volume 2. [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=433&itemID=A773.02&viewtype=text pp. 431, 435], the Order Sepiacea includes ''Loligo Sagittata''.</ref> A few days later, Darwin returned with a basin and caught a globular orange zoophyte, then after storms at the start of March saw the shore "literally covered with Cuttle fish". He touched them so they emitted ink and swam away, and also found a damaged starfish beginning to regrow its arms. Eras completed his external hospital study, and returned to Shrewsbury, Darwin found other zoophytes and, on the shore "between Leith & Portobello", caught more sea mice which "when thrown into the sea rolled themselves up like hedgehogs."{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=26–28}}<ref name="letter 28">{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-58.xml |title=Letter 28 – Caroline Darwin to Darwin, C. R., [22 March 1826] |publisher= Darwin Correspondence Project| access-date=19 April 2021 }}</ref>
On 27 March, Susan Darwin wrote to pass on their father's disapproval of Darwin's "plan of picking & chusing what lectures you like to attend", as "you cannot have enough information to know what may be of use to you". His son's "present indulgent way" would make studies "utterly useless", and he wanted Darwin to complete the course.<ref name="letter 29">{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-58.xml |title=Letter 29 – Susan Darwin to Darwin, C. R., [27 March 1826] |publisher= Darwin Correspondence Project| access-date=16 April 2021 }}</ref> Darwin wrote home apologetically on 8 April with the news that "Dr. Hope has been giving some very good Lectures on Electricity &c. and I am very glad I stayed for them", requesting money to fund staying on another 9 to 14 days.<ref name="letter 30">{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-58.xml |title=Letter 30 – Darwin, C. R., to Caroline Darwin, 8 April [1826] |publisher= Darwin Correspondence Project| access-date=19 April 2021 }}</ref>
During his summer holiday Charles read ''[[Zoönomia]]'' by his grandfather [[Erasmus Darwin]], which his father valued for medical guidance but which also proposed evolution by acquired characteristics. In June he went on a walking tour in North Wales.
===Natural history in second year===
In October Charles returned on his own for his second year, and took smaller lodgings in a top flat at 21 Lothian Street. He joined the required classes of Practice of Physic and Midwifery, but by then realised he would inherit property and need not make "any strenuous effort to learn medicine". For his own interests, and to meet other students, he joined [[Robert Jameson]]'s [[natural history]] course which started on 8 November. It was unique in Britain, covering a wide range of topics including geology, zoology, mineralogy, meteorology and botany.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=68–69}}<ref name="Ashworth">Ashworth, J.H. (1935) ''[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 Charles Darwin as a student in Edinburgh], 1825-1827.'' Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 55: 97-113, pls. 1-2.</ref>
Jameson was a [[Neptunism|Neptunian]] geologist who taught [[Abraham Gottlob Werner|Werner]]'s view that all rock [[Stratum|strata]] had precipitated from a universal ocean, and founded the [[Wernerian Natural History Society]] to discuss and publish science. He encouraged debate, and in lectures pointedly disagreed with chemistry professor [[Thomas Charles Hope|Hope]] who held that granites had crystallised from molten crust, influenced by the [[Plutonism]] of [[James Hutton]] who had been Hope's friend. In 1827, Jameson told a [[royal commission|commission of inquiry]] into the curriculum that "It would be a misfortune if we all had the same way of thinking... Dr Hope is decidedly opposed to me, and I am opposed to Dr Hope, and between us we make the subject interesting."{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=69–71}}
Jameson edited the quarterly ''[[Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal]]'', with an international reputation for publishing science. It could touch on controversial subjects; in the April–October 1826 edition an anonymous paper proposed that geological study of fossils could "lift the veil that hangs over the origin and progress of the organic world". It praised [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck's]] [[transmutation of species]] concept that from "the simplest worms" arising by spontaneous generation and affected by external circumstances, all other animals "are evolved from these in a double series, and in a gradual manner."<ref>[[Robert Jameson|Jameson, Robert]] ed. (1826) ''[[Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal]]'', A. and C. Black, Edinburgh, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=zkoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA295 295–297]</ref> This was the first use of the word "evolved" in a modern sense,<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=40}}</ref> and the first significant statement to relate Lamarck's concepts to the geological fossil record.{{sfn|Browne|1995|p=81}} It seems likely that Jameson wrote it, but it could have been a former student of his, possibly [[Ami Boué]].<ref name="Jenkins Neptunism and Transformism">{{cite journal | last=Jenkins | first=Bill | title=Neptunism and Transformism: Robert Jameson and other Evolutionary Theorists in Early Nineteenth-Century Scotland | journal=Journal of the History of Biology | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=49 | issue=3 | date=24 October 2015 | issn=0022-5010 | doi=10.1007/s10739-015-9425-4 | pages=527–557| pmid=26498767 | doi-access=free }}</ref>
Through family connections, Darwin was introduced to the reforming educationalist [[Leonard Horner]] who took him to the opening of the 1826–1827 session of the [[Royal Society of Edinburgh]], presided over by [[Walter Scott|Sir Walter Scott]]. Darwin "looked at him and at the whole scene with some awe and reverence".{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=72–73}}
===Student societies===
To make friends, Darwin had [[visiting card]]s printed,{{sfn|Browne|1995|p=67}} and joined student societies. He attended the [[Royal Medical Society]] regularly though uninterested in its medical topics, and remembered [[James Kay-Shuttleworth]] as a good speaker.<ref name=auto51 />
On 21 November 1826 Darwin (17 years old) petitioned to join the [[Plinian Society]], student-run, with professors excluded.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=73–74}} At its Tuesday evening meetings, members read short papers, sometimes controversial, mostly on natural history topics or about their research excursions. The secretary minuted the titles, any publication was in other journals. Three of its five presidents proposed him for membership: [[William A. F. Browne]] (21), [[John Coldstream]] (19) and medical student George Fife (19).{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=6 102–103]}}{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=31–33}} A week later, Darwin was elected, as was [[William Rathbone Greg|William R. Greg]] (17) who offered a controversial talk to prove "the lower animals possess every faculty & propensity of the human mind", in a [[materialism|materialist]] view of nature as just physical forces. Darwin was elected to its Council on 5 December, at the same meeting Browne, a [[Radicalism (historical)|radical]] demagogue opposed to church doctrines, attacked [[Charles Bell]]'s ''Anatomy and Physiology of Expression'' (which in 1872 Darwin addressed in ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]''), flatly rejecting Bell's belief that the Creator had endowed humans with unique anatomical features. Greg and Browne were both avid proponents of [[phrenology]] to undermine aristocratic rule.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=31–33}} Darwin found the meetings stimulating and attended 17, missing only one.{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=6 102–103]}}
[[File:Samuel Bough - Newhaven harbour on the Firth of Forth.jpg|thumb|right|19th century; fishing boats at Newhaven, view over Firth of Forth to Fife.]]
Darwin became friends with Coldstream who was "prim, formal, highly religious and most kind-hearted".{{sfn|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=50&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text 48] }} Coldstream's interest in the skies and identifying sea creatures on the [[Firth of Forth]] shore went back to his childhood in [[Leith]]. He had joined the Plinian in 1823, his diary around then noted self-blame and torment, but he persisted and in 1824 became one of its presidents. He regularly published in the ''[[Edinburgh Philosophical Journal]]'', and also assisted the research of [[Robert Edmond Grant]], who had studied under Jameson before graduating in 1814, and was researching simple [[marine life]]forms for evidence of the transmutation conjectured in Erasmus Darwin's ''[[Zoonomia]]'' and Lamarck's writings. Grant was active in the Plinian and on the council of the Wernerian Society, where he took Darwin as a guest to meetings.{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=6–8, 29–30}}{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=75–}} The Wernerian was visited by [[John James Audubon]] three times that winter,{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=16 112]}}<ref name="Audubon1868">{{cite book|author=John James Audubon|title=The Life and Adventures of J. J. Audubon ... Edited, from Materials Supplied by His Widow, by Robert Buchanan. Second Edition. [With Portraits.]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aE5dnBtGyigC&pg=PA112|year=1868|publisher=Sampson Low, Son&Marston|pages=112–113, 117 |quote=December 16. [1826] went to the Wernerian Society ... [February 10, 1827] When I entered the rooms of the Wernerian Society, they were full as an egg, ..}}</ref> and Darwin saw his lectures on the habits of North American birds.<ref name=auto51/>
[[File:Inchkeith from Pettycur Bay, Fife.JPG|thumb|left|[[Inchkeith]], seen from Fife. The old lighthouse on the skyline, and modern fortifications.]]
With Coldstream, Darwin walked along the shore looking for animals in tidal pools, and became friends with oyster fishermen from nearby [[Newhaven, Edinburgh|Newhaven]] who took them along to pick specimens from the catches. He went long walks with Grant and others, frequently with [[William Francis Ainsworth|William Ainsworth]], one of the Presidents who became a Wernerian geologist. As well as the shores of the Forth, he and Ainsworth took boat trips to [[Fife]] and the islands. On the [[Isle of May]] with the botanist [[Robert Kaye Greville]], this "eminent [[cryptogam]]ist" laughed so much at screeching seabirds that he had to "lie down on the greensward to enjoy his prolonged [[wikt: cachinnation|cachinnation]]." On another trip, Darwin and Ainsworth got stuck overnight on [[Inchkeith]] and had to stay in the lighthouse.{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=32–34}}<ref name="Bettany">Bettany, G. T. (1887) ''Life of Charles Darwin''. London: Walter Scott, pp. [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=21&itemID=A75&viewtype=text 22–23], also {{cite book|title=[[The Athenaeum (British magazine)|The Athenaeum]]|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RhEMNedWZGoC&pg=PA604 604]|year=1882}}</ref>
Routes to the Firth soon became familiar, and after another student presented a paper to the Plinian in the common literary form of describing the sights from a journey, Darwin and William Kay (another president) drafted a parody, to be read taking turns, describing "a complete failure" of an excursion from the university via [[Holyrood Palace|Holyrood House]], where [[Holyrood Park#Salisbury Crags|Salisbury Craigs]], ruined by quarrying, were completely hidden by "[[Haar (fog)|dense & impenetrable mist]]", along a dirty track to [[Portobello, Edinburgh|Portobello shore]], where "Inch Keith, the [[Bass Rock|Bas-rock]], the distant hills in Fifeshire" were similarly hidden – the sole sight of interest, as [[Samuel Johnson|Dr Johnson]] had said, was the "high-road to England". High tide prevented any seashore finds so, rejecting "[[Haggis]] or [[Collops|Scotch Collops]]", they dined on (English) "Beef-steak".<ref>Darwin, C. R. c. 1827. [Notes on a zoological walk to Portobello]. CUL-DAR5.A49-A51 Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker and edited by John van Wyhe, discussion from Janet Browne.</ref>
===Geology and ''Origin of the Species''===
[[Robert Jameson|Jameson]]'s own main topic was [[mineralogy]], his [[natural history]] course covered zoology and geology, with instruction on [[meteorology]] and [[hydrography]], and some discussion on botany as it related to "the animal and mineral kingdoms." Lectures began on 9 November and were on five days a week for five months (ending a week into April). Zoology began with the natural history of man, followed by chief classes of vertebrates and invertebrates, then concluded with philosophy of zoology starting with "Origin of the Species of Animals". As well as field lectures, the course made full use of the [[National Museum of Scotland|Royal Museum of the University]] which Jameson had developed into one of the largest in Europe. Darwin's flat was near the entrance to the museum in the western part of the university,{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=3 99–102]}}<ref name="Chambers St museum">{{cite web | title=Natural History Collections: The Royal Museum of the University | website=University of Edinburgh | url=http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=4.7 | access-date=20 April 2021}}</ref> he assisted and made full use of the collections, spending hours studying, taking notes and stuffing specimens.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=41–43}} He "had much interesting natural-history talk" with the curator, [[William MacGillivray]], who later published a book on the birds of Scotland.{{sfn|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=55&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text 53]}}
The geology course gave Darwin a grounding in mineralogy and [[stratigraphy]] geology. He bought Jameson's 1821 ''Manual of Mineralogy'', its first part classifies minerals comprehensively on the system of [[Friedrich Mohs]], the second part includes concepts of field geology such as defining [[strike and dip]] of strata. Darwin heavily [[Text annotation|annotated]] his copy of the book, sometimes when in lectures (though not always paying attention), and noted where it related to museum exhibits.{{sfn|Herbert|2005|pp=32–36}} He also read Jameson's translation of [[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]]'s ''Essay on the Theory of the Earth '', covering fossils and extinctions in [[catastrophism|revolutions]] such as [[Flood geology|the Flood]].{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=71–72}} In the preface, Jameson said geology discloses "the history of the first origin of organic beings, and traces their gradual {{sic|devel|opement}} from the monade to man himself".<ref name="Secord Lamarckians">{{cite journal | title=Edinburgh Lamarckians: Robert Jameson and Robert E. Grant | journal=Journal of the History of Biology | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=24 | issue=1 | year=1991 | issn=0022-5010 | doi=10.1007/bf00130472 | pages=1–18| s2cid=189828273 }}</ref><ref name="Cuvier1827">{{cite book|editor=Robert Jameson|author=Georges baron Cuvier|title=Essay on the Theory of the Earth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e3IcAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR6|year=1827|publisher=W. Blackwood|page=vi}}</ref>
The lectures were heavy going for a young student,{{sfn|Herbert|2005|pp=32–36}} and Darwin remembered Jameson as an "old brown, dry stick",<ref name="letter 1575">{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-1575.xml |title=Letter 1575 – Darwin, C. R., to J. D. Hooker, 29 [May 1854] |publisher= Darwin Correspondence Project| access-date=19 April 2021 }}</ref> He recalled Jameson's lectures as "incredibly dull. The sole effect they produced on me was the determination never as long as I lived to read a book on Geology or in any way to study the science. Yet I feel sure that I was prepared for a philosophical treatment of the subject", and he had been delighted when he read an explanation for [[Glacial erratic|erratic boulder]]s.{{sfn|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=54&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text 52]}}
Jameson still held to Werner's [[Neptunism|Neptunist]] concept that phenomena such as [[Trap rock|trap]] [[Dike (geology)|dykes]] had precipitated from a universal ocean. By then, geologists increasingly accepted that trap rock had [[igneous rock|igneous]] origins, a [[Plutonism|Plutonist]] view promoted by [[Thomas Charles Hope|Hope]], who had been [[James Hutton]]'s friend. From hearing exponents of both sides, Darwin learned the range of current opinion.{{sfn|Herbert|2005|pp=32–36}} His grandfather Erasmus had favoured Plutonism, and Darwin later supported Huttonian ideas. Almost fifty years after the course, Darwin recalled Jameson giving a field lecture at [[Holyrood Park#Salisbury Crags|Salisbury Crags]], "discoursing on a trap-dyke" with "volcanic rocks all around us", saying it was "a fissure filled with sediment from above, adding with a sneer that there were men who maintained that it had been injected from beneath in a molten condition. When I think of this lecture, I do not wonder that I determined never to attend to Geology."{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=69–71}}{{sfn|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=55&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text 53]}}
===Sealife homologies and monads===
In his [[The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin|autobiography]], begun in 1876, Darwin remembered [[Robert Edmond Grant]] as "dry and formal in manner, but with much enthusiasm beneath this outer crust. He one day, when we were walking together burst forth in high admiration of Lamarck and his views on evolution. I listened in silent astonishment, and as far as I can judge, without any effect on my mind. I had previously read the Zoönomia of my grandfather, in which similar views are maintained, but without producing any effect on me."{{sfn|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=51&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text 49]}}
Grant's [[thesis|doctoral dissertation]], prepared in 1813, cited Erasmus Darwin's ''[[Zoönomia]]'' which suggested that over geological time all organic life could have gradually arisen from a kind of "living filament" capable of heritable self-improvement. He found in [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]]'s similar [[uniformitarianism|uniformitarian]] [[Lamarckism#Lamarck's evolutionary framework|theoretical framework]] a similar idea that [[spontaneous generation|spontaneously generated]] simple animal ''[[monad (biology)|monad]]s'' continually [[Orthogenesis|improved in complexity and perfection]], while use or disuse of features to adapt to environmental changes diversified species and genera.{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=6–10}}{{sfn | Ruse | 2009 | pp=46–47}}
Funded by a small inheritance, Grant went to [[National Museum of Natural History, France|Paris University]] in 1815, to study with [[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]], the leading [[comparative anatomy|comparative anatomist]], and his rival [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|Geoffroy]]. Cuvier held that species were fixed, grouped into four entirely separate ''[[Le Règne Animal|embranchement]]s'', and any [[Homology (biology)|similarity of structures]] between species was merely due to functional needs. Grant favoured Geoffroy's view that similarities showed "unity of form", similar to Lamarck's ideas.{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=6–10}}
Like Lamarck, Grant investigated [[marine invertebrate]]s, particularly [[sponge]]s as naturalists disputed whether they were plants or animals. After specimen collecting and research in European universities, he returned to Edinburgh in 1820. Many species lived in the [[Firth of Forth]], and Grant got winter use of [[Walford, Prestonpans|Walford House]], [[Prestonpans]], with a garden gate in its high seawall leading to rock pools. He kept sponges alive in glass jars for long term observation, and at night used his microscope by candle light to dissect specimens in a [[watch glass]].{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=10–13}}
In spring 1825 at the ''Wernerian'', Grant dramatically dissected [[Mollusca|molluscs]] ([[European flying squid|squid]] and [[Platydoris argo|sea-slugs]]) showing they had a simple pancreas analogous to the complex pancreas in fish,<ref>{{cite book|title=The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iRgxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA197 |year=1825|publisher=[[Archibald Constable]]|pages=197–198}}</ref>{{sfn|Stott|2004|p=14}} controversially suggesting [[common descent|shared ancestry]] between molluscs and Cuvier's "higher" ''embranchement'' of [[vertebrate]]s.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=39}} In the ''[[Edinburgh Philosophical Journal]]'' Grant revealed that sponges had [[cilium|cilia]] to draw in water and expel waste, and their "ova" ([[larva]]e) were self-propelled by cilia in "spontaneous motion" like that seen by [[Filippo Cavolini|Cavolini]] in "ova" of the soft coral [[Eunicella cavolini|Gorgonia]].<ref>{{cite book|section=Observations and Experiments on the Structure and Functions of the Sponge by R. E. Grant|title=The Edinburgh philosophical journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iYxKAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA94|year=1825|pages=94–107}}</ref>{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=14–17}} In October he said simple freshwater ''[[Spongilla]]'' were ancient, ancestral to complex sponges that had adapted to sea changes,<ref>{{cite book|section=On the Structure and Nature of the Spongilla friabilis|title=The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal |year=1826|publisher=Archibald Constable|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4RuVB09bwv0C&pg=PA270 270–284], [https://books.google.com/books?id=ijE7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA381 381–383]}}</ref>{{sfn | Ruse | 2009 | p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o0jN9RdWz1MC&pg=PA100 100]}} as the earth cooled and changing conditions drove life towards higher, hotter blooded forms.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=39–41}}<ref name="Jenkins Neptunism and Transformism"/> In May 1826 he said that "future observations" would determine if self-propelling "ova" were "general with zoophytes",<ref>{{cite book|section=Observations on the spontaneous motions of the ova of zoophytes by R. E. Grant|title=The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal: Exhibiting a View of the Progressive Discoveries and Improvements in the Sciences and the Arts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zkoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA150|date=27 May 1826|publisher=A. and C. Black|pages=150–156}}</ref> his conclusions published in December included a detailed description of how sponge ova contain "monads-like bodies", and "swim about" by "the rapid vibration of ciliæ".<ref name="sponge cilia December 1826">{{cite book|section=Observations and Experiments on the Structure and Functions of the Sponge|title=The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t4xKAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA121 |date=December 1826|publisher=Adam Black.|pages=121–141}} – p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=t4xKAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA129 129] says sponge ova "swim about" by "the rapid vibration of ciliæ".</ref>
[[File:Flustra foliacea.jpg|thumb|Seaweed-like ''[[Flustra foliacea]]'' – ''Carbasea'' is similar.]]
Coldstream assisted Grant, and that winter Darwin joined the search, learning what to look for, and dissection techniques using a portable microscope. On 16 March 1827 he noted in a new notebook that he had "Procured from the black rocks at Leith" a [[Cyclopterus lumpus|lumpfish]], "Dissected it with Dr Grant". Two days later he recorded "ova from the Newhaven rocks" said to be of the [[Doris (gastropod)|Doris]] [sea slug] "in rapid motion, & continued so for 7 days", then on 19 March saw ova of the ''[[Flustra foliacea]]'' in motion.<ref>Darwin, C. R. [Edinburgh notebook] CUL-DAR118. (Darwin Online) [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR118.-&pageseq=2 16–19 March 1827].</ref> As recalled in his autobiography, he made "one interesting little discovery" that "the so-called ova of Flustra had the power of independent movement by means of cilia, and were in fact larvæ", and also that little black globular bodies found sticking to empty oyster shells, once thought to be the young of ''[[Himanthalia elongata|Fucus loreus]]'', were egg-cases (cocoons) of the ''[[Pontobdella muricata]]'' (skate leech). He believed "Dr. Grant noticed my small discovery in his excellent memoir on Flustra."{{sfn|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=52&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text 50–51]}}
[[File:Pontobdella muricata.JPG|thumb|''[[Pontobdella muricata]]'' (Skate leech).]]
The ''Wernerian'' society minutes for 24 March record that Grant read "a Memoir regarding the Anatomy and Mode of Generation of Flustræ , illustrated by preparations and drawings", also a notice on "the Mode of Generation" of the skate leech.<ref name="Wernerian 1832p564">{{cite book|author=Wernerian Natural History Society|title=Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6333DYOcBOYC&pg=PA564|year=1832|publisher=The Society|page=564}}</ref> Three days later, on 27 March, the Plinian Society minutes record that Darwin "communicated to the Society" two discoveries, that "the ova of the flustra possess organs of motion", and the small black "ovum" of the ''Pontobdella muricata''. "At the request of the Society he promised to draw up an account of the facts and to lay them it, together with specimens, before the Society next evening."<ref>''[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=EUL-%5B1%5D&viewtype=text Minutes of the Plinian Society recording Darwin's first scientific papers]'' (3.1827). Edinburgh University Library. [27 March 1827]</ref> This was Darwin's first public presentation.<ref name=Plin>{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1583a&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 |title=On the Ova of Flustra, or, Early Notebook, Containing Observations Made by C.D. When He Was at Edinburgh, March 1827 |editor-last=Barrett |editor-first=P. H. |year=1977 |work=The collected papers of Charles Darwin |publisher=Chicago: University Press |volume=2 |pages=285–291 }}</ref> In the next item, Browne argued that mind and consciousness were simply aspects of brain activity, not "souls" or spiritual entities separate from the body. Following a furious debate, the minute of this item was crossed out.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=38}}
After recording more finds in April, Darwin copied into his notebook under the heading "20th" his first scientific papers.{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=35–36}} Newhaven dredge boats had provided the ''[[Carbasea|Flustra carbasea]]'' specimens, when "highly magnified" the "ciliae of the ova" were "seen in rapid motion", and "That such ova had organs of motion does not appear to have been hitherto observed either by Lamarck Cuvier Lamouroux or any other author." He wrote "This & the following communication was read both before the Wernerian & Plinian Societies", and wrote up a detailed account of his ''Pontobdella'' findings.<ref name="1st paper">Darwin, C. R. [Edinburgh notebook] CUL-DAR118. (Darwin Online) [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR118.-&pageseq=2 16–18 March 1827].</ref> At the Plinian meeting, on 3 April, Darwin presented the Society with "A specimen of the ''Pontobdella muricata'', with its ova & young ones", but there is no record of the papers being presented or kept.{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=8 104]}}
Grant in his publication about the leech eggs in the ''Edinburgh Journal of Science'' for July 1827 acknowledged "The merit of having first ascertained them to belong to that animal is due to my zealous young friend Mr Charles Darwin of Shrewsbury", the first time Darwin's name appeared in print.<ref name=leech>{{cite journal |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A144&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 |title=Notice regarding the ova of the Pontobdella muricata, Lam. |access-date=3 March 2008 |author= Grant, R. E. |date= July 1827 |journal=Edinburgh Journal of Science |volume= 7 |issue=1 |pages= 160–161 }}</ref> Grant's lengthy memoir read before the Wernerian on 24 March was split between the April and October issues of the ''Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal'', with more detail than Darwin had given:{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=9 105–106]}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal|year=1827 |publisher=[[A & C Black]]|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hC0_AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA107 107–118], [https://books.google.com/books?id=3BoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA337 337–342]}}</ref> he had seen ova (larvae) of ''Flustra carbasea'' in February, after they swam about they stuck to the glass and began to form a new colony. He noted the similarity of the cilia in "other ova", with reference to his 1826 publication describing sponge ova.<ref>{{cite book|title=Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal|year=1827 |publisher=[[A & C Black]]|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hC0_AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA116 116–118]|quote= {{nbsp}}• See Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, December 1826, p. 129.}}</ref><ref name="sponge cilia December 1826" /> Darwin was not given credit for what he felt was his discovery,{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=86–87}} and in 1871, when he discussed "the paltry feeling" of [[scientific priority]] with his daughter [[Henrietta Litchfield|Henrietta]], she got him to repeat the story of "his first introduction to the jealousy of scientific men"; when he had seen the ova of ''Flustra'' move he "rushed instantly to Grant" who, rather than being "delighted with so curious a fact", told Darwin "it was very unfair of him to work at Prof G's subject & in fact that he shd take it ill if my Father published it."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=CUL-DAR262.23.3&viewtype=text |title=On plagiarism and scientific jealousy |access-date=4 March 2008 |author=Litchfield, Henrietta. nd. |author-link= Henrietta Litchfield |year=1871 }}</ref> In European university practice, team leaders reported research without naming assistants, and clearly the find was derivative from Grant's research programme: it seems likely he had already seen the ova, like the sponge ova, moving by cilia. Grant phased announcement of discoveries rather than publishing quickly, and was now looking for a professorship before he ran out of funds, but young Darwin was disappointed. As Jameson noted in October,{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=86–87}}{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=36–37}} back in 1823 [[John Graham Dalyell|Dalyell]] had observed the ''Pontobdella'' young leaving their cocoons.{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=9 105–106]}}
In notes dated 15 and 23 April, Darwin described specimens of the deep-water [[sea pen]]s (from fishing boats), and on 23 April, "with Mr Coldstream at the black rocks at Leith", he saw a [[common starfish|starfish]] doubled up, releasing its ova.{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=12 108–109]}}
===Summer 1827===
Darwin left Edinburgh in late April, just 18 years old.{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=12 108–109]}} In 1826 he had told his sister he would be "forced to go abroad for one year" of hospital studies, as he had to be 21 before taking his degree,<ref name=Letter20 /> but he was too upset by seeing blood or suffering, and had lost any ambition to be a doctor. He went a short tour, visiting [[Dundee]], [[St Andrews]], [[Stirling]], [[Glasgow]], [[Belfast]] and [[Dublin]],{{sfn|van Wyhe|2014|p=7}} then in May made his first trip to London to visit his sister Caroline. They joined his uncle [[Josiah Wedgwood II]] on a trip to France,{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=43–45}} and on 26 May arrived in Paris,<ref>Litchfield, H. E. ed. 1904. ''Emma Darwin, wife of Charles Darwin. A century of family letters''. Cambridge: University Press printed. Volume 1. [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=164&itemID=F1552.1&viewtype=text pp. 272 - 274]</ref> where Charles fended for himself for a few weeks: recently graduated Plinian society members, including Browne and Coldstream, were there for hospital studies. By July, Charles had returned to his home at [[The Mount, Shrewsbury]].{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=37–38}}{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=45–46}} While indulging his hobby of [[Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom|shooting]] with his family's friends at the nearby [[Woodhouse, Shropshire|Woodhouse estate]] of William Mostyn Owen, Darwin flirted with his second daughter, [[Frances Mostyn Owen]].{{sfn|van Wyhe|2014|p=7}}
Coldstream studied in Paris for a year, and visited places of interest. His diary notes religious thoughts,<ref name="Coldstream by Balfour">{{cite web | title=Biography of the late John Coldstream, M.D., F.R.C.P.E. / by John Hutton Balfour ; with an introduction by the Rev. James Lewis. [1865] | website=Wellcome Collection | date=19 December 2020 | url=https://wellcomecollection.org/works/k9mpnd94 | access-date=16 April 2021|pages=28–29, 38–40, 52}}</ref> and occasional anguished comments such as "the foul mass of corruption within my own bosom", "corroding desires" and "lustful imaginations".<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|p=87}} cites Balfour 1865, but does not give page numbers.</ref> A doctor who befriended him later said that though Coldstream had led "a blameless life", he was "more or less in the dark on the vital question of religion, and was troubled with doubts arising from certain Materialist views, which are, alas! too common among medical students."<ref name="Coldstream by Balfour" /> He left in June 1828 for a short tour on his way home, but fell ill in [[Westphalia]], suffered a [[mental breakdown]], and got back to Leith late in July. In early December Coldstream began medical practice and gave it priority over natural history.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=41}}<ref name="letter 58">{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-58.xml |title=Letter 58 – John Coldstream to Darwin, C. R., 28 February 1829 |publisher= Darwin Correspondence Project| access-date=16 April 2021 }}</ref>
==University of Cambridge==
[[File:Christs shield.png|thumb|right|175px|The coat of arms of [[Christ's College, Cambridge]], a college of the [[University of Cambridge]] where Darwin was enrolled to become a clergyman.]]
His father was unhappy that his younger son would not become a physician and "was very properly vehement against my turning into an idle sporting man, which then seemed my probable destination." He therefore enrolled Charles at [[Christ's College, Cambridge]] in 1827 for a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree as the qualification required before taking a specialised divinity course and becoming an Anglican [[parson]]. He enrolled for an ''[[British undergraduate degree classification|ordinary]]'' degree, as at that time only capable mathematicians would take the [[Tripos]].<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=89–91}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=58 56_57]}}</ref><ref name=JvW>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}}</ref> At that time the only way to get an honours degree was the mathematical Tripos examination, or the classical Tripos created in 1822, which was only open to those who already had high honours in mathematics, or those who were the sons of [[Peerage|peers]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Smith, Jonathan C. |title=Teaching and learning in nineteenth-century Cambridge |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Ipswich |year=2002 |page=207 |isbn=0-85115-783-1 }}</ref>
This was a respectable career for a gentleman at a time when most naturalists in England were clergymen in the tradition of [[Gilbert White]], who saw it as part of their duties to "explore the wonders of God's creation". Charles had concerns about being able to declare his belief in all the dogmas of the [[Church of England]], so as well as hunting and fishing, he studied [[divinity]] books. He was particularly convinced by the reasoning of the Revd. [[John Bird Sumner]]'s ''Evidences of Christianity''. John Bird Summer wrote that Jesus's religion was "wonderfully suitable... to our ideas of happiness in this & the next world" and there was "no other way... of explaining the series of evidence & probability." His Classics had lapsed since school, and he spent the autumn term at home studying Greek with a tutor. Darwin was accepted as a "pensioner", having paid his fees, on 15 October 1827, but did not attend Cambridge until the Lent Term which began on 13 January 1828. Eras returned from Edinburgh ready to sit his [[Bachelor of Medicine]] exam, and in the new year he and Charles set out together for Cambridge.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=47–49}}<br />{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Christs.html |title=Darwin Online: The Admissions books of Christ's College, Cambridge |access-date=20 December 2008}}<br />{{acad|id=DRWN827CR|name=Darwin, Charles Robert}}</ref> Darwin came into residence in Cambridge on 26 January 1828, and [[matriculation|matriculated]] at the University's Senate House on 26 February.<ref name=JvW/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/cambridgeshire/7958710.stm|title=Darwin's 'gentleman' student days|author=Anonymous|date=23 March 2009|publisher=[[BBC]]|access-date=2 April 2009}}</ref>
Around this time he wrote to [[John Coldstream]], asking after him, expressing "greif" about hearing that Coldstream had "entirely forsworn Natural History", and assuring him "that no pursuit is more becoming for a physician than Nat: Hist". Coldstream replied on 28 February that he was as much "inclined than ever, to look into the World of Nature", but had to focus first on medicine.<ref name="letter 58" />
His tutors at [[Christ's College, Cambridge]] were to include [[Joseph Shaw (Christ's College)|Joseph Shaw]] in 1828, [[John Graham (bishop)|John Graham]] (in 1829 – 1830) and [[Edward John Ash]] in 1830 – 1831. One of his university friends was [[Frederick Watkins (clergyman)|Frederick Watkins]], (1808–1888).<ref name=JvW2>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2014}}</ref>
===Beetle collecting===
Arriving at the [[University of Cambridge]] in January 1828, Darwin found this elite theological training institution governed by complex rules much more congenial than his experiences at Edinburgh. No rooms were available at [[Christ's College, Cambridge|Christ's College]], so he took lodgings above a [[tobacconists]] in Sidney Street, across the road. In April the older student [[Albert Way]] drew a comic coat of arms featuring tobacco pipes, cigars, wine barrel and tankards, with a Latin statement that they were best friends; at Edinburgh, Darwin had begun a life-long habit of taking [[Snuff (tobacco)|snuff]].<ref name="Van Wyhe 2014 p. 33">{{cite book | last=Van Wyhe | first=J. | title=Charles Darwin In Cambridge: The Most Joyful Years | publisher=World Scientific Publishing Company | year=2014 | isbn=978-981-4583-99-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQO3CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 | access-date=15 January 2022 | pages=28, 33–35}}</ref>{{sfn|Darwin|1887|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=139&itemID=F1452.1&viewtype=text 121–122]}} Extramural activities were important, and while Darwin did not take up sports or debating, his interests included music and his main passion was the current national craze for the (competitive) collecting of [[beetle]]s. Trainee clergymen scoured [[Cambridgeshire]] for specimens, referring to ''An Introduction to [[Entomology]]'' by [[William Kirby (entomologist)|William Kirby]] and [[William Spence (entomologist)|William Spence]]. Charles joined his older cousin [[William Darwin Fox]] who was already a skilled collector and like him got a small dog. The two and their dogs became inseparable. They explored the countryside as Darwin learnt about [[natural history]] from his cousin. Darwin became obsessed with winning the student accolade and collected avidly. Once he stripped bark from a dead tree and caught a [[ground beetle]] in each hand, then saw the rare Crucifix Ground Beetle, ''[[Panagaeus cruxmajor]]''. With the habits of an egg-collector, he popped one ground beetle in his mouth to free his hand, but it ejected some intensely acrid fluid which burnt his tongue and Darwin was forced to spit it out. He lost all three.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=59}} describes the incident and states that the insect Darwin popped into his mouth was a [[bombardier beetle]].<br />*They cite Darwin's correspondence and his ''Autobiography'' ({{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=64 62–63].}})<br />*{{cite web |url=http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/young/lifelong.php |title=Darwin: Young Naturalist |work=American Museum of Natural History |access-date=12 July 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221210143/http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/young/lifelong.php |archive-date=21 December 2010 }} quotes the ''Autobiography'', and while its illustration shows a bombardier beetle, it says "Many beetles, including the ''[[Brachinus crepitans]]'' and the ''[[Stenaptinus insignis]]'', release irritating chemicals as a defense."<br />*[http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-1009 Letter 1009 – Darwin, C. R. to Jenyns, Leonard, 17 Oct (1846)] describes the two beetles as unidentified ''carabi'', or [[ground beetle]]s.<br />*{{cite web |url=http://www.wicken.org.uk/wildlife_beetles_crucifixground.htm |title=Wicken Fen: Crucifix Ground Beetle |access-date=16 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618192901/http://www.wicken.org.uk/wildlife_beetles_crucifixground.htm |archive-date=18 June 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The specimens he did not lose had to be mounted and identified, and his knowledge from Edinburgh of Lamarck proved useful. Fox introduced him for advice on identification to the [[John Stevens Henslow|Revd. John Stevens Henslow]], professor of botany, and Darwin began attending his soirées, a club for budding naturalists. Here he could meet other professors including the geologist the [[Adam Sedgwick|Revd. Adam Sedgwick]] and the new [[mineralogy|mineralogist]] the [[William Whewell|Revd. William Whewell]].
In the summer Darwin paid visits to Squire Owen, and romance seemed to be blossoming with the squire's daughter [[Frances Mostyn Owen|Fanny]]. Darwin joined other Cambridge friends on a three-month "reading party" at [[Barmouth]] on the coast of [[Wales]] to revise their studies with private tutors. For Charles it was an "Entomo-Mathematical expedition". Though he badly needed to catch up with his mathematics, the insect collecting predominated along with pleasant diversions such as [[hillwalking]], boating and [[fly fishing]]. He went on daily walks with his close friend, the older student [[John Maurice Herbert]] who he dubbed "Cherbury" after [[Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury|Herbert of Cherbury]], the father of English [[Deism]]. Herbert assisted with the insect collecting, but the usual outcome was that Darwin would examine Herbert's collecting bottle and say "Well, old Cherbury, none of these will do."<ref name=francis166>{{harvnb|Darwin|1887|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.1&pageseq=184 176–171]}}</ref> In September Darwin wrote to tell "My dear old ''Cherbury''" that his own catches had included "some of the rarest of the British Insects, & their being found near Barmouth is quite unknown to the Entomological world: I think I shall write & inform some of the crack Entomologists." He described these ''"extremely rare"'' insects and asked Herbert to oblige him by collecting some more of them.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-47 |title=Letter 47 – Darwin, C. R. to Herbert, J. M., (13 Sept 1828) |publisher= Darwin Correspondence Project }}</ref>
===Second year doldrums===
<!-- This section is linked from [[A Devil's Chaplain]] -->
[[File:Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-(Christ's-College-Cambridge)-3.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Bronze statue of Darwin in 1830 clothes, seated on the arm of a wooden bench, behind him plants partly cover a stone wall, a window has white-painted wooden frames.|[[Commemoration of Charles Darwin#Darwin day, and 2009 commemorations|Bicentennial]] portrait by [[Anthony Smith (sculptor)|Anthony Smith]] of Darwin as a student, in the First Court at Christ's opposite Darwin's rooms.<ref name="Darwin statue 2009">{{cite web | title=Darwin statue unveiled at college | website=BBC News | date=12 February 2009 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cambridgeshire/7886278.stm | access-date=22 April 2022}}</ref>]]
On 31 October Charles returned to Cambridge for the [[Michaelmas term|Michaelmas Term]], and was allocated a set of rooms on the south side of First Court in Christ's College. Although several biographers since the 1980s have referred to these rooms as traditionally having been occupied by the theologian [[William Paley]], research by [[John van Wyhe]] found that historical documentation did not support this idea.{{sfn|van Wyhe|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cQO3CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 46–47]}}
Darwin now had breakfast every day with his older cousin [[William Darwin Fox]]. This was Fox's last term before his BA exam, and he now had to cram desperately to make up for lost time. At the Christmas holiday Charles visited London with Eras, toured the scientific institutions "where Naturalists are gregarious" and through his friend the Revd. [[Frederick William Hope]] met other insect collectors. These included [[James Francis Stephens|James Stephens]], author of ''Illustrations of British Entomology''.
The January term brought miserable weather and a struggle to keep up with his studies. Around this time, he had an earnest conversation with [[John Maurice Herbert|John Herbert]] about going into Holy Orders, and asked him whether he could answer yes to the question that the Bishop would put in the ordination service, "Do you trust that you are inwardly moved by the Holy Spirit". When Herbert said that he could not, Darwin replied "Neither can I, and therefore I cannot take orders" to become an ordained priest.<ref name=francis166/> Even his interest in insect collecting waned. He fell out with one of the two locals he employed to catch beetles when he found that the local was giving first choice to a rival collector. In the doldrums, he joined a crowd of drinking pals in a frequent "debauch". He put in some hard riding. On one night he and three friends saw the sky lit up and "rode like incarnate devils" eleven miles to see the blaze. They arrived back at two in the morning and violated curfew. He was risking "[[rustication (academia)|rustication]]", temporary expulsion. Such behaviour would be noticed by the [[Proctor]]s, university officials appointed from the colleges who patrolled the town in plain gowns to police the students.
Student resentment against two unpopular Proctors built up, and on 9 April 1829 a tumult broke out. Charles described how the Senior Proctor was "most gloriously hissed.. & pelted with mud", being "driven so furious" that his servant "dared not go near him for an hour."<ref name=Letter61>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-61 |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 61 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (10 Apr 1829) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> The Proctors had noted some faces in the mob, and four were rusticated and one fined for being out-of-gown and shouting abuse. Outraged by this leniency, the Proctors quit ''en masse'' and printed their resignation to post up around the colleges. Though the unpopular Proctors were gone, Charles was jolted into thinking of the consequences of [[Theory of criminal justice|law-breaking]].
In the Spring, Darwin enrolled for [[John Stevens Henslow]]'s lectures on [[botany]]. Professor Henslow's first "public herborizing expedition" of the year took place in May, an outing on which students assisted with collection of plants. However, Darwin made no mention of Henslow in his letters to Fox.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=70, 76}}</ref> On 18 May Darwin wrote to Fox enthusing about his success with beetle collecting, "I think I beat Jenyns in Colymbetes", contrasted with his lack of application to studies: "my time is solely occupied in riding & Entomologizing".<ref name="Letter 64">{{Cite web | title = Letter 64 — Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (18 May 1829) | url = http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-64 | publisher = Darwin Correspondence Project | access-date = 5 September 2011 }}</ref>
[[Cambridge]] was briefly visited on 21 May by the Radicals [[Richard Carlile]] and the [[Robert Taylor (Radical)|Revd. Robert Taylor]], both recently jailed for blasphemy, on an "infidel home missionary tour" which caused several days of controversy. Taylor was later nicknamed "[[A Devil's Chaplain|the Devil's Chaplain]]", a phrase remembered by Darwin.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=70–73}}<br />{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-1924 |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 1924 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., 13 July (1856) |quote=What a book a Devil's chaplain might write on the clumsy, wasteful, blundering low & horridly cruel works of nature! |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref>
Charles had been sending records of the insects he had caught to the entomologist [[James Francis Stephens]], and was thrilled when Stevens published about thirty of these records in ''Illustrations of British entomology; or, a synopsis of indigenous insects etc.'' which was printed in parts, with the first description under Darwin's name appearing in an appendix dated 15 June 1829.<ref name=Darwinsinsects>{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Stephens.html |title=Darwin Online: Darwin's insects in Stephens' Illustrations of British entomology (1829–32) }}</ref>
That summer, amongst horse riding and beetle collecting, Charles visited his cousin Fox, and this time Charles was teaching entomology to his older cousin. Home at [[Shrewsbury, Shropshire]], he saw his brother Erasmus whose "delicate frame" led to him now giving up medicine and retiring at the age of 26. The brothers visited the [[History of Birmingham|Birmingham]] Music Festival for what Charles described as the "most glorious" experience.
===Third year, theology and natural history===
Back at Cambridge, Charles studied hard for his ''Little Go'' preliminary exam, as a fail would mean a re-sit the following year. He dropped his drinking companions and resumed attending [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]]'s Friday evening soirées. For the exam he slogged away at Greek and Latin, and studied [[William Paley]]'s ''Evidences of Christianity'', becoming so delighted with Paley's logic that he learnt it well. This was a text he also had to study for his finals, and he was "convinced that I could have written out the whole of the ''Evidences'' with perfect correctness, but not of course in the clear language of Paley." Later, on the [[second voyage of HMS Beagle|''Beagle'' expedition]], he saw evidence which challenged Paley's rose-tinted view, but at this time he was convinced that the Christian revelation established "a future state of reward and punishment" which "gives order for confusion: makes the moral world of a piece with the natural". As with Cambridge University, God gave authority and assigned stations in life, misconduct was penalised and excellence bountifully rewarded. Charles took the one-day verbal examination on 24 March 1830. There were three hours in the morning on the classics and three in the afternoon on the [[New Testament]] and Paley. The next day he was delighted to be informed that he had passed.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=76–79}}</ref><ref name=dar57>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=59 57–67]}}</ref>
Several of his friends celebrated their examination successes by dining in each other's rooms in rotation in a weekly club commonly known as the ''Glutton Club''. This name was proposed to ridicule another group whose Greek title meant "fond of dainties", but who dined out on "Mutton Chops, or Beans & Bacon". The ''Glutton Club'' attempted to live up to their title by experimentally dining on "birds and beasts which were before unknown to human palate" and tried hawk and [[bittern]], but gave up after eating an old brown owl, "which was indescribable". They had more amusement from concluding each meeting with "a game of mild [[Blackjack|vingt-et-un]]".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR112.B57-B76&pageseq=14 |title= (Recollections of Darwin at Cambridge) CUL-DAR112.B57-B76 |author=Herbert, John Maurice |date= 2 June 1882 |publisher=Darwin Online |pages=70–72 |access-date=28 April 2009}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1887|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.1&pageseq=187 169–170]}}<br />{{harvnb|Freeman|1978|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A27&pageseq=159 152]}}</ref>
Over Easter Charles stayed at Cambridge, mounting and cataloguing his beetle collection. He then became an enthusiastic member of the [[botany]] course which the "good natured & agreeable" professor Henslow taught five days a week in the Botanic Gardens and on field trips. Henslow's outings were attended by 78 men including professor Whewell. Charles became the "favourite pupil", known as "the man who walks with Henslow", helping to find specimens and to set up "practicals" dissecting plants. He became interested in pollen. One day he watched through a microscope and saw "transparent cones" emerge from the side of a [[geranium]] pollen grain. Then one burst spraying out "numberless granules". Henslow explained that the granules were indeed the constituent atoms of pollen, but they had no intrinsic vital power – life was endowed from outside and ultimately derived its power from God, whatever more "speculative" naturalists argued regarding self-activating power. Darwin had been taught otherwise by Grant, and reflected quietly on this, biding his time.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=80–82}}</ref>
For the summer holidays Darwin arranged to meet Fox at The Mount, but Darwin's father had been ill and family tensions led to a row. Charles went off with the Revd. Hope and other friends for three weeks "entomologizing" in North Wales, hunting for beetles and trout fishing. He went partridge shooting at Maer before returning home.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=82–83}}</ref>
===Fourth year finals and later attitude towards mathematics ===
Back at Cambridge, his final exams loomed. A "desperate" Charles focused on his studies and got private tuition from Henslow whose subjects were mathematics and theology. This term he had to study [[Euclid]] and learn Paley's ''Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy'', though this old text was becoming outdated. It opposed arguments for increased democracy, but saw no divine right of rule for the sovereign or the state, only "expediency". Government could be opposed if grievances outweighed the danger and expense to society. The judgement was "Every man for himself". These ideas had suited the conditions of reasonable rule prevailing when the text was published in 1785, but in 1830 they were dangerous ideas. At this time the French king was deposed by middle class republicans and given refuge in England by the [[Tory]] government. In response, radical street protests demanded [[suffrage]], [[Social equality|equality]] and [[freedom of religion]]. Then in November the Tory administration collapsed and the [[British Whig Party|Whigs]] took over. Paley's text even supported abolition of the ''[[Thirty-nine Articles]] of the [[Anglican]] faith'' which every student at Cambridge (and [[Oxford University]]) was required to sign. Henslow insisted that "he should be grieved if a single word... was altered" and emphasised the need to respect authority. This happened even as campaigns of civil disobedience spread to starving agricultural labourers and villages close to Cambridge suffered riots and arson attacks.
In the third week of January 1831 Charles sat his final exam. There were three days of written papers covering the Classics, the two Paley texts and [[John Locke]]'s ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'', then mathematics and physics. At the end of the week when the results were posted he was dazed and proud to have come 10th out of a pass list of 178 doing the ''ordinary'' degree. Charles shone in theology and scraped through in the other subjects. He was also exhausted and depressed, writing to Fox "I do not know why the degree should make one so miserable."<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=87–88}}</ref> In later life he recalled Paley and Euclid being the only part of the course which was useful to him, and "By answering well the examination questions in Paley, by doing Euclid well, and by not failing miserably in Classics, I gained a good place among the [[Hoi polloi#Appearances in the nineteenth century|οἱ πολλοί]], or crowd of men who do not go in for honours."<ref name=dar57 />
On the specific issue of his mathematical education, Darwin came to regret his lack of ability and application: "I attempted mathematics, and even went during the summer of 1828 with a private tutor (a very dull man) to Barmouth, but I got on very slowly. The work was repugnant to me, chiefly from my not being able to see any meaning in the early steps in algebra. This impatience was very foolish, and in after years I have deeply regretted that I did not proceed far enough at least to understand something of the great leading principles of mathematics, for men thus endowed seem to have an extra sense".<ref>[http://www.turtlereader.com/authors/charles-darwin/the-life-and-letters-of-charles-darwin-day-13-of-188/ Darwin Correspondence Cambridge 1828–1831]</ref>
===Natural theology and geology===
[[File:Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-(Christ's-College-Cambridge)-3.jpg|thumb|right|Statue of Darwin during his last months at Christ's College (age 22). Sculpted by [[Anthony Smith (sculptor)|Anthony Smith]], the statue features some of the books Darwin was reading at this time; [[Alexander von Humboldt|Humboldt's]] ''Personal Narrative'', [[William Paley|Paley's]] ''[[Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity|Natural Theology]]'', [[John Herschel|Herschel's]] ''Preliminary Discourse on Natural Philosophy'' and James Stephens' ''Illustrations of British Entomology''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Young Man! Darwin 200|url=http://darwin200.christs.cam.ac.uk/node/35|website=Darwin 200 website hosted by Christ's College Cambridge|access-date=30 October 2016}}</ref>]]
Residence requirements kept Darwin in Cambridge till June. He resumed his beetle collecting, took career advice from Henslow, and read [[William Paley]]'s ''[[Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity]]'' which set out to refute [[David Hume]]'s argument that [[Teleological argument|"design" by a Creator]] was merely a human projection onto the forces of nature. Paley saw a rational proof of God's existence in the complexity and perfect [[adaptation]] to needs of living beings exquisitely fitted to their places in a happy world, while attacking the evolutionary ideas of [[Erasmus Darwin]] as coinciding with atheistic schemes and lacking evidence.<ref>{{harvnb|Paley|1809|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A142&viewtype=text&pageseq=437 431–433], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A142&viewtype=text&pageseq=462 456].}}</ref> Paley's benevolent God acted in nature though uniform and universal laws, not arbitrary miracles or changes of laws, and this use of secondary laws provided a [[theodicy]] explaining the [[problem of evil]] by separating nature from direct divine action. This convinced Charles and encouraged his interest in science.<ref>{{Harvnb|von Sydow|2005}}</ref> He later wrote "I do not think I hardly ever admired a book more than Paley's ''Natural Theology'': I could almost formerly have said it by heart."<ref name=Letter2532>{{cite news |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-2532.|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 2532 – Darwin, C. R. to Lubbock, John, (22 Nov 1859) |newspaper=Darwin Correspondence Project |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref>
He read [[John Herschel]]'s new ''Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy'', learning that nature was governed by laws, and the highest aim of [[natural philosophy]] was to understand them through an orderly process of [[Inductive reasoning|induction]], balancing observation and theorising. This was part of the [[liberal Christianity]] of Darwin's tutors, who saw no disharmony between honest inductive science and religion. Such science was religion, and could not be heretical.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=128–129}},<br />{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-94 |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 94 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (15 Feb 1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> Darwin also read [[Alexander von Humboldt]]'s ''Personal Narrative'', and the two books were immensely influential, stirring up in him "a burning zeal to add even the most humble contribution to the noble structure of Natural Science."<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=69 67–68].}}</ref>
As a young graduate, Henslow had geologised on the [[Isle of Wight]] and the [[Isle of Man]], and he too had longed to visit Africa. Marriage and his position at the university now made the prospect remote, but he still had an unfulfilled ambition to "explore regions but little known, and enrich science with new species."<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=91}}.</ref>
At home for Easter in early April, Darwin told his cousin Fox of "a scheme I have almost hatched" to visit the [[Canary Islands]] and see [[Tenerife]] as recommended by Humboldt.<ref name=Letter96>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-96|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 96 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (7 Apr 1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> On returning to Cambridge, he wrote to his sister that "my head is running about the Tropics: in the morning I go and gaze at Palm trees in the hot-house and come home and read Humboldt: my enthusiasm is so great that I cannot hardly sit still on my chair. Henslow & other Dons give us great credit for our plan: Henslow promises to cram me in geology". He was studying Spanish language, and was in "a Tropical glow".<ref name="letter98">{{Cite web | title = Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 98 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., (28 Apr 1831) | url = http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-98 }}</ref>
Henslow introduced Darwin to the great geologist the [[Adam Sedgwick|Revd. Adam Sedgwick]] who had been his own tutor, and shared views on religion, politics and morals. Darwin was fired up by Sedgwick's Spring course of "equestrian outings" with its vistas of the grandeur of God's creation, so much of which was yet unexplored.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=136–138}}</ref> He exclaimed, "What a capital hand is Sedgewick for drawing large cheques upon the Bank of Time!".<ref name=Letter101>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-101 |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 101 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (9 July 1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> When Sedgwick mentioned the effects of a local spring from a chalk hill depositing lime on twigs, Charles rode out to find the spring and threw a bush in, then later brought back the white coated spray which Sedgwick exhibited in class, inspiring others to do the same.
Darwin continued plotting his "Canary scheme", and on 11 May he told Fox "My other friends most sincerely wish me there I plague them so with talking about tropical scenery &c &c.". His father gave him "a 200£ note" to pay his college debts. In addition, "Some goodnatured Cambridge man has made me a most magnificent anonymous present of a Microscope: did ever hear of such a delightful piece of luck? one would like to know who it was, just to feel obliged to him."<ref name=Letter100>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-100|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 100 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (11 May 1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> Darwin later found that the gift was from his friend John Herbert.<ref name="letter99">{{Cite web | title = Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 99 – Herbert, J. M. to Darwin, C. R., (early May 1831) | url = http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-99 | access-date = 22 February 2013 }}</ref>
In mid June Darwin returned home to Shrewsbury, and continued "working like a tiger" for the Canary scheme, "at present Spanish & Geology, the former I find as intensely stupid, as the latter most interesting". By then his most likely companion on the trip was the tutor Marmaduke Ramsay. Darwin was "trying to make a map" of [[Shropshire]], "but dont find it so easy as I expected."<ref name=Letter101/> He ordered a [[Inclinometer|clinometer]], and on 11 July wrote to tell Henslow that it had arrived and he had tried it out in his bedroom. "As yet I have only indulged in hypotheses; but they are such powerful ones, that I suppose, if they were put into action but for one day, the world would come to an end."<ref name=Letter102>{{cite web |url= http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-102|title= Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 102 – Darwin, C. R. to Henslow, J. S., (11 July 1831) |access-date= 12 April 2019 }}</ref> In efforts to learn the basics of geology he extended his mapping of [[Stratum|strata]] as far away as [[Llanymynech]], some {{convert|16|miles|km}} from Shrewsbury, using the terminology he had learnt in Edinburgh from [[Robert Jameson]].<ref>{{harvnb|Herbert|2005|pp=38–39}}</ref> Already he was anxious that he had not heard from Sedgwick, and when he investigated ship sailings he found that they were only available in certain months.<ref name=Letter102 /> For this reason, the trip to Teneriffe had to be postponed to the following June, and it looked increasingly unlikely that Henslow would come on the trip.<ref name=Letter103>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-103|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 103 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., 1 Aug (1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> Darwin wrote to one of his student friends that he was "at present mad about Geology" and had plans to ride through Wales then meet with other students at [[Barmouth]].<ref name="letter102A">{{Cite web | title = Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 102a – Darwin, C. R. to Whitley, C. T., (19 July 1831) | url = http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-102a }}</ref>
On 4 August 1831 Sedgwick arrived in his gig at [[The Mount, Shrewsbury]], to take Charles as his assistant on a short geological expedition mapping strata in [[Wales]]. That evening Charles told of a tropical shell found in a nearby gravel pit and was impressed when Sedgwick responded that it must have been thrown away there, as it contradicted the known geology of the area. This made him realise "that science consists in grouping facts so that general laws or conclusions may be drawn from them." Sedgwick aimed to investigate and correct possible errors in [[George Bellas Greenough|George Greenough]]'s geological map of 1820, and to trace the fossil record to the earliest times to rebut the [[uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarian]] ideas just published by [[Charles Lyell]].<ref name=wales/>
On the morning of 5 August they went from Shrewsbury to [[Llangollen]], and on 11 August reached [[Penrhyn Quarry]].<ref name=lucas/> After less than a week of doing hard practical work Charles had learnt how to identify specimens, interpret strata and generalise from his observations. Then he went off on his own to collect samples and investigate the [[Vale of Clwyd]], looking in vain for the [[Old Red Sandstone]] shown by Greenough. They met up in [[Colwyn]], and Sedgwick's pleasure at the confirmation that the map was incorrect made Darwin "exceedingly proud". They went on to [[Capel Curig]] where Charles struck out on his own across 30 miles (50 km) of "some strange wild places" to Barmouth.<ref name=wales>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=70 68–72].}}<br />{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=139–143}}</ref> He had parted from Sedgwick by 20 August, and travelled via [[Ffestiniog]].<ref name=lucas>{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Lucas_Lowe_Journal.html |title=The recovery of time past: Darwin at Barmouth on the eve of the Beagle |author=Peter Lucas |date=1 January 2010 |publisher=Darwin Online |access-date=21 January 2010}}</ref>
==Voyage on the Beagle==
Arriving at [[Barmouth]] on the evening of 23 August, Charles met up with a "reading party" of Cambridge friends for a time before he left on the morning of 29 August,<ref name=lucas/> to go back to Shrewsbury and on to partridge shooting with his Wedgwood relatives at [[Maer Hall]].<ref name=wales/> He was grieved to have received a message that Ramsay had died. This upset Darwin's plans for a visit in the following year to Tenerife. He arrived home at [[The Mount, Shrewsbury]], on 29 August, and found a letter from John Stevens Henslow.<ref name=Letter107>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-107|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 107 – Darwin, C. R. to Henslow, J. S., 30 (Aug 1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> The Cambridge Fellow [[George Peacock (mathematician)|George Peacock]] had heard from [[Francis Beaufort]] of plans for the [[Second voyage of HMS Beagle|second survey voyage of]] [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']], and had written to Henslow proposing [[Leonard Jenyns]] as "a proper person to go out as a naturalist with this expedition", or if he was unavailable seeking recommendations for an alternative to take up this "glorious opportunity". When Jenyns decided not to leave his parish, he and Henslow thought of Darwin.<ref name=Letter104>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-104|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 104 – Peacock, George to Henslow, J. S., (6 or 13 Aug 1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> Henslow's letter, read by Peacock and forwarded to Darwin, expected him to eagerly catch at the likely offer of a two-year trip to [[Tierra del Fuego|Terra del Fuego]] & home by the [[Indies|East Indies]], not as "a ''finished'' Naturalist", but as a ''[[gentleman]]'' "amply qualified for collecting, observing, & noting any thing worthy to be noted in Natural History". The appointment was more as a companion to Captain [[Robert FitzRoy]], than as a mere collector. Henslow wrote "I assure you I think you are the very man they are in search of".<ref name=Letter105>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-105|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 105 – Henslow, J. S. to Darwin, C. R., 24 Aug 1831 }}</ref>
His father thought the voyage a waste of his son's time and strongly objected. Dejected, Charles declined the offer,<ref name=Letter107/> and went to Maer for the partridge shooting with a note from his father to [[Josiah Wedgwood II|"Uncle Jos" Wedgwood]]. This contained a prescription for a bowel ailment and a note saying that Charles had quite given up the proposed "voyage of discovery", but "if you think differently from me I shall wish him to follow your advice."<ref name=Letter108>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-108|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 108 – Darwin, R. W. to Wedgwood, Josiah, II, 30–1 Aug (1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> Charles' hopes were revived by this unexpected news, and his relatives came out in favour of the voyage. He outlined his father's objections, and sat up that night drafting a reply with his uncle. Jos wrote suggesting that Charles would be likely to "acquire and strengthen, habits of application", and "Natural History... is very suitable to a Clergyman." Though "useless as regards his profession", for "a man of enlarged curiosity, it affords him such an opportunity of seeing men and things as happens to few". The Admiralty would look after him well, but "you & Charles... must decide."<ref name=Letter110>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-110|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 110 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, R. W., 31 Aug (1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> Charles begged "one favour... a decided answer, yes or no."<ref name=Letter109>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-109|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 109 – Wedgwood, Josiah, II to Darwin, R. W., 31 Aug 1831 |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> This reply was sent post-haste early on the morning of 1 September and Charles went shooting. About 10 o'clock he received word from his uncle that they should go to The Mount at once.<ref name=Letter110/> When they arrived a few hours later, Charles' father had decided that he would give "all the assistance in my power".<ref name=Letter111>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-111|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 111 – Darwin, R. W. to Wedgwood, Josiah, II, 1 Sept 1831 |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref>
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==References==
*{{cite journal
|last=Ashworth|first= J.H. |year=1935 |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 |title=Charles Darwin as a student in Edinburgh], 1825-1827.|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 55: 97-113, PLS. 1-2.}}
*{{cite book
|last=Darwin
|first=Charles
|author-link=Charles Darwin
|editor-last=Darwin
|editor-first=Francis
|title=The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin: Including an Autobiographical Chapter
|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.1&pageseq=184
|volume=1
|year=1887
|publisher=John Murray
|location=London
|oclc=271440007}}
*{{Cite book
| last= Darwin
| first= Charles
| author-link=Charles Darwin
| publication-date=1958
| editor-last= Barlow
| editor-first= Nora
| editor-link= Nora Barlow
| title=The autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809–1882. With the original omissions restored. Edited and with appendix and notes by his granddaughter
| location= London
| publisher=Collins
| year=1958
}}.
*{{Cite book
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| first = E. Janet
| author-link = Janet Browne
| year = 1995
| title = Charles Darwin: vol. 1 Voyaging
| location = London
| publisher = Jonathan Cape
| isbn = 1-84413-314-1
}}
* {{cite book
| last=Desmond
| first=Adrian
| author-link = Adrian Desmond
| title=The politics of evolution : morphology, medicine, and reform in radical London
| publisher=University of Chicago Press
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| year=1989
| isbn=978-0-226-14374-3
| oclc=709606191}}
*{{Cite book
| last1 = Desmond
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| last2 = Moore
| first2 = James
| author2-link =James Moore (biographer)
| year = 1991
| title = Darwin
| location = London
| publisher =Michael Joseph, Penguin Group
| isbn =0-7181-3430-3
}}
* {{cite book |last1=Freeman |first1=Richard Broke |title=Charles Darwin, a Companion |date=1978 |publisher=Dawson |isbn=978-0-7129-0901-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htILAQAAIAAJ |language=en}}
*{{citation
|last= Herbert
|first= Sandra
|title=Charles Darwin, Geologist
|year= 2005
|publisher=Cornell University Press
|location=Ithaca, N.Y
|isbn=0-8014-4348-2 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Paley |first1=William |title=Natural Theology: Or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity |date=1809 |publisher=J. Faulder |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2GZRAAAAYAAJ |language=en}}
* {{cite book | last=Ruse | first=Michael |author-link=Michael Ruse| title=Monad to man : the concept of progress in evolutionary biology | publisher=Harvard University Press | publication-place=Cambridge, Mass. London | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-674-58220-0 | oclc=436302097}}
* {{cite book
| last=Stott
| first=Rebecca
| author-link = Rebecca Stott
| title=Darwin and the barnacle : the story of one tiny creature and history's most spectacular scientific breakthrough
| publisher=Faber
| publication-place=London
| year=2004
| isbn=978-0-571-21609-3
| oclc=53821905}}
* {{cite book
| last=Stott
| first=Rebecca
| title=Darwin's ghosts : in search of the first evolutionists
| publisher=Bloomsbury
| publication-place=London, New York
| year=2012
| isbn=978-1-4088-3101-4
| oclc=774638991}}
*{{Cite web
| last =van Wyhe
| first = John
| author-link = John van Wyhe
| year = 2008
| title =Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch
| publisher =Darwin Online
| url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html
| access-date =17 November 2008
}}
*{{cite book|first=John|last=van Wyhe|title=Charles Darwin In Cambridge: The Most Joyful Years|date=27 May 2014|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=978-981-4583-99-2}}
* {{cite book
| last =von Sydow
| first =Momme
| year =2005
| contribution =Darwin – A Christian Undermining Christianity? On Self-Undermining Dynamics of Ideas Between Belief and Science
| contribution-url =http://www.psych.uni-goettingen.de/abt/1/sydow/von_Sydow_(2005)_Darwin_A_Christian_Undermining_Christianity.pdf
| editor-last =Knight
| editor-first =David M.
| editor2-last =Eddy
| editor2-first =Matthew D.
| title =Science and Beliefs: From Natural Philosophy to Natural Science, 1700–1900
| location =Burlington
| publisher =Ashgate
| pages =141–156
| isbn =0-7546-3996-7
| access-date =24 April 2014
| archive-date =26 March 2009
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20090326070105/http://www.psych.uni-goettingen.de/abt/1/sydow/von_Sydow_(2005)_Darwin_A_Christian_Undermining_Christianity.pdf
| url-status =bot: unknown
}}
==External links==
*[[The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online]] – [http://darwin-online.org.uk/ Darwin Online]; Darwin's publications, private papers and bibliography, supplementary works including biographies, obituaries and reviews. Free to use, includes items not in public domain.
*{{gutenberg author| id=Charles+Darwin | name=Charles Darwin}}; public domain
*[http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/ Darwin Correspondence Project] Text and notes for most of his letters
{{Darwin}}
[[Category:Charles Darwin|Education]]
[[Category:History of evolutionary biology]]
[[Category:Early lives by individual|Darwin]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{more citations needed|date=July 2019}}
'''Charles Darwin's education''' gave him a foundation in the [[history of creationism|doctrine of Creation]] prevalent throughout the West at the time, as well as knowledge of medicine and theology. More significantly, it led to his interest in [[natural history]], which culminated in his taking part in [[Second voyage of HMS Beagle|the second voyage of the ''Beagle'']] and the eventual [[inception of Darwin's theory|inception of his theory]] of [[natural selection]]. Although [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] changed his field of interest several times in these formative years, many of his later discoveries and beliefs were foreshadowed by the influences he had as a youth.
==Background and influences==
[[File:Darwin cutout.png|thumb|[[Erasmus Darwin]], Charles Darwin's paternal grandfather, helped influence Darwin's later [[Charles Darwin's views on religion|religious views]].]]
A child of the early 19th century, [[Charles Darwin|Charles Robert Darwin]] grew up in a conservative era when repression of revolutionary [[Radicalism (historical)|Radicalism]] had displaced the 18th century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. The [[Church of England]] dominated the English scientific establishment. The Church saw natural history as revealing God's underlying plan and as supporting the existing social hierarchy. It rejected Enlightenment philosophers such as [[David Hume]] who had argued for [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]] and against [[theism|belief in God]].
The discovery of [[fossil]]s of [[extinction|extinct]] species was explained by theories such as [[catastrophism]]. Catastrophism claimed that animals and plants were periodically annihilated as a result of natural catastrophes and then replaced by new species [[creatio ex nihilo|created ''ex nihilo'']] (out of nothing). The extinct organisms could then be observed in the fossil record, and their replacements were considered to be immutable.
Darwin's [[Darwin–Wedgwood family|extended family of Darwins and Wedgwoods]] was strongly [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]]. One of Darwin’s grandfathers, [[Erasmus Darwin]], was a successful physician, and was followed in this by his sons [[Charles Darwin (medical student)|Charles Darwin]], who died in 1778 while still a promising medical student at the [[University of Edinburgh]], and Doctor [[Robert Darwin|Robert Waring Darwin]], Darwin's father, who named his son Charles Robert Darwin, honouring his deceased brother.
Erasmus was a [[freethought|freethinker]] who hypothesized that all warm-blooded animals sprang from a single living "filament" long, long ago. He further proposed evolution by acquired characteristics, anticipating the theory later developed by [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]]. Although Charles was born after his grandfather Erasmus died, his father Robert found the texts an invaluable medical guide and Charles read them as a student. Doctor Robert also followed Erasmus in being a freethinker, but as a wealthy society physician was more discreet and attended the [[Church of England]] patronised by his clients.
==Childhood==
[[File:Charles Darwin 18888816.jpg|thumb|190px|left|The seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816, a year before the sudden loss of his mother.]]
Charles Robert Darwin was born in [[Shrewsbury]], Shropshire, England on 12 February 1809 at his family home, [[The Mount, Shrewsbury|the Mount]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|title=The Mount House, Shrewsbury, England (Charles Darwin)|author=John H. Wahlert|date=11 June 2001|work=Darwin and Darwinism|publisher=[[Baruch College]]|access-date=26 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206010149/http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|archive-date=6 December 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier [[Robert Darwin|Robert Waring Darwin]] , and [[Susannah Darwin]] (''née'' Wedgwood). Both families were largely [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]], though the Wedgwoods were adopting [[Anglicanism]]. Robert Waring Darwin, himself quietly a [[Freethought#England and France|freethinker]], had baby Charles [[baptism|baptised]] on 15 November 1809 in the Anglican [[St Chad's Church, Shrewsbury]], but Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarian chapel with their mother.<ref name=skool>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 12–15}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=21 21–25]}}</ref><ref>From [http://darwin-online.org.uk/life1b.html Charles Darwin: a life in pictures] at Darwin Online, the parish register of St. Chad's gives Darwin's date of baptism as 15 November 1809, a date supported by "England, Births and Christenings, 1538–1975," index, FamilySearch, accessed 18 July 2012), [https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.1.1/J362-MP8 Charles Robt. Darwin], 1809. The date is given as 17 November in Freeman (2007) [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A27b&viewtype=text&pageseq=113 p. 106], and {{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=12}}.</ref>
As a young child at The Mount, Darwin avidly collected [[animal shell]]s, [[Philately|postal frank]]s, [[Egg (biology)|bird's egg]]s, pebbles and minerals. He was very fond of gardening, an interest his father shared and encouraged, and would follow the family gardener around. Early in 1817, soon after becoming eight years old, he started at the small local school run by a Unitarian minister, the Reverend George Case. At home, Charles learned to ride ponies, shoot and fish. Influenced by his father's fashionable interest in [[natural history]], he tried to make out the names of plants, and was given by his father two elementary natural history books. Childhood games included inventing and writing out complex secret codes. Charles would tell elaborate stories to his family and friends "for the pure pleasure of attracting attention & surprise", including hoaxes such as pretending to find apples he'd hidden earlier, and what he later called the "monstrous fable" which persuaded his schoolfriend that the colour of [[primula]] flowers could be changed by dosing them with special water. However, his father benignly ignored these passing games, and Charles later recounted that he stopped them because no-one paid any attention.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=10–16}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=22 22–24].}}</ref>
In July 1817 his mother died after the sudden onset of violent stomach pains and amidst the grief his older sisters had to take charge, with their father continuing to dominate the household whenever he returned from his doctor's rounds. To the {{frac|8|1|2}}-year-old Charles this situation was not a great change, as his mother had frequently been ill and her available time taken up by social duties, so his upbringing had largely been in the hands of his three older sisters who were nearly adults by then. In later years he had difficulty in remembering his mother, and his only memory of her death and funeral was of the children being sent for and going into her room, and his "Father meeting us crying afterwards".<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=18–20}}</ref>
As had been planned previously, in September 1818 Charles joined his older brother [[Erasmus Alvey Darwin]] (nicknamed "Eras") in staying as a boarder at the [[Shrewsbury School]], where he loathed the required [[rote learning]], and would try to visit home when he could, but also made many friends and developed interests.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=23–27}} Years later, he recalled being "very fond of playing at [[bandy|Hocky on the ice]] in skates" in the winter time.<ref>Chris Middlebrook: ”It's True - Charles Darwin Actually Played Bandy!”, worldbandy.com, [http://www.worldbandy.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Did-Charles-Darwin-play-bandy2.pdf], read 23 October 2022</ref> He continued collecting minerals and insects, and family holidays in [[Wales]] brought Charles new opportunities, but an older sister ruled that "it was not right to kill insects" for his collections, and he had to find dead ones. He read [[Gilbert White]]'s ''The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne'' and took up [[birdwatching]]. Eras took an interest in [[chemistry]] and Charles became his assistant, with the two using a garden shed at their home fitted out as a laboratory and extending their interests to [[crystallography]]. When Eras went on to a medical course at the [[University of Cambridge]], Charles continued to rush home to the shed on weekends, and for this received the nickname "Gas". The headmaster was not amused at this diversion from studying the classics, calling him a ''[[wikt:pococurante|poco curante]]'' (trifler) in front of the boys. At fifteen, his interest shifted to hunting and bird-shooting at local estates, particularly at [[Maer, Staffordshire|Maer]] in Staffordshire, the home of his relatives, the [[Wedgwood]]s.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=28–34}}<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=46 44–46].}}</ref> His exasperated father once told him off, saying "You care for nothing but shooting, dogs, and rat-catching, and you will be a disgrace to yourself and all your family."<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=28 28].}}</ref>
His father decided that he should leave school earlier than usual, and in 1825 at the age of sixteen Charles was to go along with his brother who was to attend the [[University of Edinburgh]] for a year to obtain medical qualifications.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=34–35}}</ref> Charles spent the summer as an apprentice doctor, helping his father with treating the poor of [[Shropshire]]. He had half a dozen patients of his own, and would note their symptoms for his father to make up the prescriptions.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=48 46–47].}}</ref>
==University of Edinburgh==
[[File:Edinburgh University 1827.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Darwin attended the [[University of Edinburgh]] to study medicine, at a time when [[Old College, University of Edinburgh|its new buildings]] (shown here) were still under construction. View along [[South Bridge, Edinburgh|South Bridge Street]], towards the bridge crossing high above the [[Cowgate]]. On the left, South College Street leads up to Lothian Street.]]
[[File:Charles Darwin plaque, Lothian Street, Edinburgh.JPG|thumb|140px|Plaque in Lothian Street, indicating where Darwin lived while studying at Edinburgh]]
In October 1825, Darwin went to [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh University]] to study medicine, accompanied by Eras doing his external hospital study. For a few days, while looking for rooms to rent, the brothers stayed at the Star Hotel in Princes Street.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=22}} They took up an introduction to a friend of their father, Dr. Hawley, who led them on a walk around the town. They admired it immensely; Darwin thought Bridge Street "most extraordinary" as, on looking over the sides, "instead of a fine river we saw a stream of people".<ref name="letter 16">{{Cite web | title = Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 16 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, R. W., (23 Oct 1825) | url = http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-16 | access-date = 12 April 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=46–47}}. Town plans of the time show [[South Bridge, Edinburgh|South Bridge Street]] crossing above the [[Cowgate]], a main thoroughfare, and [[North Bridge, Edinburgh|North Bridge Street]] with views west down to the green market and [[:wiktionary:shambles|Shambles]], and east to [[Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh#History|"Old Physick Garden"]] – see [https://maps.nls.uk/towns/rec/7594 Lothian's plan of the city of Edinburgh and its vicinity] (1825) and {{cite web |url=https://maps.nls.uk/geo/explore/side-by-side/#zoom=15&lat=55.95040&lon=-3.18822&layers=126&right=BingHyb |title=Old and New Town of Edinburgh and Leith with the proposed docks. |author= John Ainslie|author-link= John Ainslie |date=1804 |work=Town Plans / Views, 1580-1919 |publisher= National Library of Scotland |access-date=6 March 2021}}</ref> They found comfortable lodgings near the University at 11 Lothian Street,{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=22}}<ref name=rough>{{cite web |url=http://roughguidetoevolution.blogspot.com/2008/09/evolutionary-tourist-in-edinburgh.html |title=The Rough Guide to Evolution: The evolutionary tourist in Edinburgh |author= Mark Pallen. |date= 27 September 2008 |access-date=17 July 2011}}</ref> on 22 October Charles signed the [[matriculation]] book, and enrolled in courses.<ref name="Ashworth" /> That evening, they moved in.<ref name="letter 16" />
Darwin attended classes from their start on 26 October.<ref name="Ashworth" /> By early January he had formed opinions on the lecturers, and complained that most were boring.<ref name=Letter20>{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-20.xml |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 20 – Darwin, C. R. to Caroline Darwin, 6 January 1826 |access-date=8 March 2021 }}</ref>
[[Andrew Duncan (physician, born 1773)|Andrew Duncan, the younger]], taught [[Dietitian|dietetics]], [[pharmacy]], and [[materia medica]]. Darwin thought the latter stupid, and said Duncan was "so very learned that his wisdom has left no room for his sense".<ref name=Letter20 /> His lectures began at 8{{nbsp}}a.m. – years later Darwin recalled "a whole, cold, breakfastless hour on the properties of rhubarb!",<ref name="Letter 1082">{{cite web | title=Letter no. 1082 – Darwin, C. R. to J. D. Hooker [18 April 1847] | website=Darwin Correspondence Project | url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter | access-date=17 April 2021}}</ref> but they usefully introduced him to the ''natural system'' of classification of [[Augustin de Candolle]], who emphasised the "war" between competing species.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=27, 43}}
From 10{{nbsp}}a.m., the brothers greatly enjoyed the spectacular chemistry lectures of [[Thomas Charles Hope]], but they did not join a student society giving hands-on experience. Anatomy and surgery classes began at noon, Darwin was disgusted by the dull and outdated anatomy lectures of professor [[Alexander Monro (tertius)|Alexander Monro ''tertius'']], many students went instead to private independent schools, with new ideas of teaching by dissecting corpses (giving clandestine trade to [[Body-snatching|bodysnatchers]]) – his brother went to a "charming Lecturer", the surgeon [[John Lizars]]. Darwin later regretted his own failure to persevere and learn dissection.The city was in an uproar over political and religious controversies, and the competitive system where professors were dependent on attracting student fees for income meant that the university was riven with argumentative feuds and conflicts. Monro's lectures included vehement opposition to [[George Combe]]'s daringly [[materialism|materialist]] ideas of [[phrenology]],<ref name="Ashworth" /><ref name=B45-62 /> but Darwin found "his lectures on human anatomy as dull, as he was himself, and the subject disgusted me." Eventually, to Darwin's mind there were "no advantages and many disadvantages in lectures compared with reading."<ref name=auto46 />
Darwin regularly attended clinical wards in the hospital despite his great distress about some of the cases, but could only bear to attend surgical operations twice, rushing away before they were completed due to his distress at the brutality of surgery before [[anaesthetic]]s. He was long haunted by the memory, particularly of an operation on a child.<ref name=B45-62>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=45–62}}</ref><ref name=auto46>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=48 46–48].}}</ref>
At the end of January, Darwin wrote home that they had "been very dissipated", having dined with Dr. Hawley then gone to the theatre with a relative of the botanist [[Robert Kaye Greville]]. They also visited [[Andrew Duncan (physician, born 1744)|"the old Dr. Duncan"]],{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=47}}<ref name=Letter22>{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-22.xml |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 22 – Darwin, C. R. to Susan Darwin, 29 January (1826) |access-date=13 March 2021 }}</ref> who spoke with the warmest affection about his student and friend [[Charles Darwin (medical student)|Charles Darwin]] (Darwin's uncle) who had died in 1778.<ref name="Woodall">Woodall, Edward (1884) "[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=30&itemID=A317&viewtype=text Charles Darwin. A paper contributed to the Transactions of the Shropshire Archæological Society]. London: Trubner. p. 18.</ref><ref name="Krause1879">{{cite book|author=Ernst Krause|title=Erasmus Darwin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vle1nNTRWWwC&pg=PA82|year=1879|publisher=J. Murray|page=82}}</ref> Darwin wrote "What an extraordinary old man he is, now being past 80, & continuing to lecture", though Dr. Hawley thought Duncan was now failing. Darwin added that "I am going to learn to stuff birds, from a [[Wiktionary:blackamoor|blackamoor]]... he only charges one guinea, for an hour every day for two months".<ref name=Letter22 /> These lessons in [[taxidermy]] were with the freed black slave [[John Edmonstone]], who also lived in Lothian Street. Darwin often sat with him to hear tales of the South American rain-forest of [[Guyana]], and later remembered him as "a very pleasant and intelligent man."<ref name=rough /><ref name="B45-62"/><ref name=auto51>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=53 51].}}</ref>
The brothers kept each other company, and made extensive use of the library. Darwin's reading included novels and [[James Boswell|Boswell]]'s ''[[Life of Samuel Johnson|Life of Johnson]]''. He had brought [[natural history]] books with him, including a copy of ''A Naturalist's Companion'' by [[George Graves (biologist)|George Graves]], bought in August in anticipation of seeing the seaside. He borrowed similar books from the library,{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=46, 49}} and also read [[John Fleming (naturalist)|Fleming]]'s ''Philosophy of Zoology''.{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=25–26}}
The brothers went for regular Sunday walks to the seaport of [[Leith]] and the shores of the [[Firth of Forth]]. Darwin kept a diary recording bird observations, and their seashore finds which began with a sea mouse (''[[Aphrodita aculeata]])'' he caught on 2 February and identified from his copy of [[William Turton]]'s ''British fauna''.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=65–67}}<ref name="red diary">Darwin, C. R. [Edinburgh diary for 1826]. [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=57&itemID=CUL-DAR129.-&viewtype=side CUL-DAR129].- Transcribed and edited by John van Wyhe (Darwin Online)</ref> A few days later Darwin noted "Erasmus caught a Cuttle fish", wondering if it was "Sepia Loligo",<ref name="red diary" /> then from his textbooks identified it as ''[[European flying squid|Loligo sagittata]]'' (a squid).{{sfn|Stott|2004|p=26}}<ref>[[John Fleming (naturalist)|Fleming, John]]. 1822. ''The Philosophy of Zoology''. Edinburgh: Constable. Volume 2. [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=433&itemID=A773.02&viewtype=text pp. 431, 435], the Order Sepiacea includes ''Loligo Sagittata''.</ref> A few days later, Darwin returned with a basin and caught a globular orange zoophyte, then after storms at the start of March saw the shore "literally covered with Cuttle fish". He touched them so they emitted ink and swam away, and also found a damaged starfish beginning to regrow its arms. Eras completed his external hospital study, and returned to Shrewsbury, Darwin found other zoophytes and, on the shore "between Leith & Portobello", caught more sea mice which "when thrown into the sea rolled themselves up like hedgehogs."{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=26–28}}<ref name="letter 28">{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-58.xml |title=Letter 28 – Caroline Darwin to Darwin, C. R., [22 March 1826] |publisher= Darwin Correspondence Project| access-date=19 April 2021 }}</ref>
On 27 March, Susan Darwin wrote to pass on their father's disapproval of Darwin's "plan of picking & chusing what lectures you like to attend", as "you cannot have enough information to know what may be of use to you". His son's "present indulgent way" would make studies "utterly useless", and he wanted Darwin to complete the course.<ref name="letter 29">{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-58.xml |title=Letter 29 – Susan Darwin to Darwin, C. R., [27 March 1826] |publisher= Darwin Correspondence Project| access-date=16 April 2021 }}</ref> Darwin wrote home apologetically on 8 April with the news that "Dr. Hope has been giving some very good Lectures on Electricity &c. and I am very glad I stayed for them", requesting money to fund staying on another 9 to 14 days.<ref name="letter 30">{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-58.xml |title=Letter 30 – Darwin, C. R., to Caroline Darwin, 8 April [1826] |publisher= Darwin Correspondence Project| access-date=19 April 2021 }}</ref>
During his summer holiday Charles read ''[[Zoönomia]]'' by his grandfather [[Erasmus Darwin]], which his father valued for medical guidance but which also proposed evolution by acquired characteristics. In June he went on a walking tour in North Wales.
===Natural history in second year===
In October Charles returned on his own for his second year, and took smaller lodgings in a top flat at 21 Lothian Street. He joined the required classes of Practice of Physic and Midwifery, but by then realised he would inherit property and need not make "any strenuous effort to learn medicine". For his own interests, and to meet other students, he joined [[Robert Jameson]]'s [[natural history]] course which started on 8 November. It was unique in Britain, covering a wide range of topics including geology, zoology, mineralogy, meteorology and botany.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=68–69}}<ref name="Ashworth">Ashworth, J.H. (1935) ''[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 Charles Darwin as a student in Edinburgh], 1825-1827.'' Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 55: 97-113, pls. 1-2.</ref>
Jameson was a [[Neptunism|Neptunian]] geologist who taught [[Abraham Gottlob Werner|Werner]]'s view that all rock [[Stratum|strata]] had precipitated from a universal ocean, and founded the [[Wernerian Natural History Society]] to discuss and publish science. He encouraged debate, and in lectures pointedly disagreed with chemistry professor [[Thomas Charles Hope|Hope]] who held that granites had crystallised from molten crust, influenced by the [[Plutonism]] of [[James Hutton]] who had been Hope's friend. In 1827, Jameson told a [[royal commission|commission of inquiry]] into the curriculum that "It would be a misfortune if we all had the same way of thinking... Dr Hope is decidedly opposed to me, and I am opposed to Dr Hope, and between us we make the subject interesting."{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=69–71}}
Jameson edited the quarterly ''[[Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal]]'', with an international reputation for publishing science. It could touch on controversial subjects; in the April–October 1826 edition an anonymous paper proposed that geological study of fossils could "lift the veil that hangs over the origin and progress of the organic world". It praised [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck's]] [[transmutation of species]] concept that from "the simplest worms" arising by spontaneous generation and affected by external circumstances, all other animals "are evolved from these in a double series, and in a gradual manner."<ref>[[Robert Jameson|Jameson, Robert]] ed. (1826) ''[[Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal]]'', A. and C. Black, Edinburgh, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=zkoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA295 295–297]</ref> This was the first use of the word "evolved" in a modern sense,<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=40}}</ref> and the first significant statement to relate Lamarck's concepts to the geological fossil record.{{sfn|Browne|1995|p=81}} It seems likely that Jameson wrote it, but it could have been a former student of his, possibly [[Ami Boué]].<ref name="Jenkins Neptunism and Transformism">{{cite journal | last=Jenkins | first=Bill | title=Neptunism and Transformism: Robert Jameson and other Evolutionary Theorists in Early Nineteenth-Century Scotland | journal=Journal of the History of Biology | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=49 | issue=3 | date=24 October 2015 | issn=0022-5010 | doi=10.1007/s10739-015-9425-4 | pages=527–557| pmid=26498767 | doi-access=free }}</ref>
Through family connections, Darwin was introduced to the reforming educationalist [[Leonard Horner]] who took him to the opening of the 1826–1827 session of the [[Royal Society of Edinburgh]], presided over by [[Walter Scott|Sir Walter Scott]]. Darwin "looked at him and at the whole scene with some awe and reverence".{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=72–73}}
===Student societies===
To make friends, Darwin had [[visiting card]]s printed,{{sfn|Browne|1995|p=67}} and joined student societies. He attended the [[Royal Medical Society]] regularly though uninterested in its medical topics, and remembered [[James Kay-Shuttleworth]] as a good speaker.<ref name=auto51 />
On 21 November 1826 Darwin (17 years old) petitioned to join the [[Plinian Society]], student-run, with professors excluded.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=73–74}} At its Tuesday evening meetings, members read short papers, sometimes controversial, mostly on natural history topics or about their research excursions. The secretary minuted the titles, any publication was in other journals. Three of its five presidents proposed him for membership: [[William A. F. Browne]] (21), [[John Coldstream]] (19) and medical student George Fife (19).{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=6 102–103]}}{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=31–33}} A week later, Darwin was elected, as was [[William Rathbone Greg|William R. Greg]] (17) who offered a controversial talk to prove "the lower animals possess every faculty & propensity of the human mind", in a [[materialism|materialist]] view of nature as just physical forces. Darwin was elected to its Council on 5 December, at the same meeting Browne, a [[Radicalism (historical)|radical]] demagogue opposed to church doctrines, attacked [[Charles Bell]]'s ''Anatomy and Physiology of Expression'' (which in 1872 Darwin addressed in ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]''), flatly rejecting Bell's belief that the Creator had endowed humans with unique anatomical features. Greg and Browne were both avid proponents of [[phrenology]] to undermine aristocratic rule.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=31–33}} Darwin found the meetings stimulating and attended 17, missing only one.{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=6 102–103]}}
[[File:Samuel Bough - Newhaven harbour on the Firth of Forth.jpg|thumb|right|19th century; fishing boats at Newhaven, view over Firth of Forth to Fife.]]
Darwin became friends with Coldstream who was "prim, formal, highly religious and most kind-hearted".{{sfn|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=50&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text 48] }} Coldstream's interest in the skies and identifying sea creatures on the [[Firth of Forth]] shore went back to his childhood in [[Leith]]. He had joined the Plinian in 1823, his diary around then noted self-blame and torment, but he persisted and in 1824 became one of its presidents. He regularly published in the ''[[Edinburgh Philosophical Journal]]'', and also assisted the research of [[Robert Edmond Grant]], who had studied under Jameson before graduating in 1814, and was researching simple [[marine life]]forms for evidence of the transmutation conjectured in Erasmus Darwin's ''[[Zoonomia]]'' and Lamarck's writings. Grant was active in the Plinian and on the council of the Wernerian Society, where he took Darwin as a guest to meetings.{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=6–8, 29–30}}{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=75–}} The Wernerian was visited by [[John James Audubon]] three times that winter,{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=16 112]}}<ref name="Audubon1868">{{cite book|author=John James Audubon|title=The Life and Adventures of J. J. Audubon ... Edited, from Materials Supplied by His Widow, by Robert Buchanan. Second Edition. [With Portraits.]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aE5dnBtGyigC&pg=PA112|year=1868|publisher=Sampson Low, Son&Marston|pages=112–113, 117 |quote=December 16. [1826] went to the Wernerian Society ... [February 10, 1827] When I entered the rooms of the Wernerian Society, they were full as an egg, ..}}</ref> and Darwin saw his lectures on the habits of North American birds.<ref name=auto51/>
[[File:Inchkeith from Pettycur Bay, Fife.JPG|thumb|left|[[Inchkeith]], seen from Fife. The old lighthouse on the skyline, and modern fortifications.]]
With Coldstream, Darwin walked along the shore looking for animals in tidal pools, and became friends with oyster fishermen from nearby [[Newhaven, Edinburgh|Newhaven]] who took them along to pick specimens from the catches. He went long walks with Grant and others, frequently with [[William Francis Ainsworth|William Ainsworth]], one of the Presidents who became a Wernerian geologist. As well as the shores of the Forth, he and Ainsworth took boat trips to [[Fife]] and the islands. On the [[Isle of May]] with the botanist [[Robert Kaye Greville]], this "eminent [[cryptogam]]ist" laughed so much at screeching seabirds that he had to "lie down on the greensward to enjoy his prolonged [[wikt: cachinnation|cachinnation]]." On another trip, Darwin and Ainsworth got stuck overnight on [[Inchkeith]] and had to stay in the lighthouse.{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=32–34}}<ref name="Bettany">Bettany, G. T. (1887) ''Life of Charles Darwin''. London: Walter Scott, pp. [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=21&itemID=A75&viewtype=text 22–23], also {{cite book|title=[[The Athenaeum (British magazine)|The Athenaeum]]|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RhEMNedWZGoC&pg=PA604 604]|year=1882}}</ref>
Routes to the Firth soon became familiar, and after another student presented a paper to the Plinian in the common literary form of describing the sights from a journey, Darwin and William Kay (another president) drafted a parody, to be read taking turns, describing "a complete failure" of an excursion from the university via [[Holyrood Palace|Holyrood House]], where [[Holyrood Park#Salisbury Crags|Salisbury Craigs]], ruined by quarrying, were completely hidden by "[[Haar (fog)|dense & impenetrable mist]]", along a dirty track to [[Portobello, Edinburgh|Portobello shore]], where "Inch Keith, the [[Bass Rock|Bas-rock]], the distant hills in Fifeshire" were similarly hidden – the sole sight of interest, as [[Samuel Johnson|Dr Johnson]] had said, was the "high-road to England". High tide prevented any seashore finds so, rejecting "[[Haggis]] or [[Collops|Scotch Collops]]", they dined on (English) "Beef-steak".<ref>Darwin, C. R. c. 1827. [Notes on a zoological walk to Portobello]. CUL-DAR5.A49-A51 Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker and edited by John van Wyhe, discussion from Janet Browne.</ref>
===Geology and ''Origin of the Species''===
[[Robert Jameson|Jameson]]'s own main topic was [[mineralogy]], his [[natural history]] course covered zoology and geology, with instruction on [[meteorology]] and [[hydrography]], and some discussion on botany as it related to "the animal and mineral kingdoms." Lectures began on 9 November and were on five days a week for five months (ending a week into April). Zoology began with the natural history of man, followed by chief classes of vertebrates and invertebrates, then concluded with philosophy of zoology starting with "Origin of the Species of Animals". As well as field lectures, the course made full use of the [[National Museum of Scotland|Royal Museum of the University]] which Jameson had developed into one of the largest in Europe. Darwin's flat was near the entrance to the museum in the western part of the university,{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=3 99–102]}}<ref name="Chambers St museum">{{cite web | title=Natural History Collections: The Royal Museum of the University | website=University of Edinburgh | url=http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=4.7 | access-date=20 April 2021}}</ref> he assisted and made full use of the collections, spending hours studying, taking notes and stuffing specimens.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=41–43}} He "had much interesting natural-history talk" with the curator, [[William MacGillivray]], who later published a book on the birds of Scotland.{{sfn|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=55&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text 53]}}
The geology course gave Darwin a grounding in mineralogy and [[stratigraphy]] geology. He bought Jameson's 1821 ''Manual of Mineralogy'', its first part classifies minerals comprehensively on the system of [[Friedrich Mohs]], the second part includes concepts of field geology such as defining [[strike and dip]] of strata. Darwin heavily [[Text annotation|annotated]] his copy of the book, sometimes when in lectures (though not always paying attention), and noted where it related to museum exhibits.{{sfn|Herbert|2005|pp=32–36}} He also read Jameson's translation of [[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]]'s ''Essay on the Theory of the Earth '', covering fossils and extinctions in [[catastrophism|revolutions]] such as [[Flood geology|the Flood]].{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=71–72}} In the preface, Jameson said geology discloses "the history of the first origin of organic beings, and traces their gradual {{sic|devel|opement}} from the monade to man himself".<ref name="Secord Lamarckians">{{cite journal | title=Edinburgh Lamarckians: Robert Jameson and Robert E. Grant | journal=Journal of the History of Biology | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=24 | issue=1 | year=1991 | issn=0022-5010 | doi=10.1007/bf00130472 | pages=1–18| s2cid=189828273 }}</ref><ref name="Cuvier1827">{{cite book|editor=Robert Jameson|author=Georges baron Cuvier|title=Essay on the Theory of the Earth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e3IcAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR6|year=1827|publisher=W. Blackwood|page=vi}}</ref>
The lectures were heavy going for a young student,{{sfn|Herbert|2005|pp=32–36}} and Darwin remembered Jameson as an "old brown, dry stick",<ref name="letter 1575">{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-1575.xml |title=Letter 1575 – Darwin, C. R., to J. D. Hooker, 29 [May 1854] |publisher= Darwin Correspondence Project| access-date=19 April 2021 }}</ref> He recalled Jameson's lectures as "incredibly dull. The sole effect they produced on me was the determination never as long as I lived to read a book on Geology or in any way to study the science. Yet I feel sure that I was prepared for a philosophical treatment of the subject", and he had been delighted when he read an explanation for [[Glacial erratic|erratic boulder]]s.{{sfn|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=54&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text 52]}}
Jameson still held to Werner's [[Neptunism|Neptunist]] concept that phenomena such as [[Trap rock|trap]] [[Dike (geology)|dykes]] had precipitated from a universal ocean. By then, geologists increasingly accepted that trap rock had [[igneous rock|igneous]] origins, a [[Plutonism|Plutonist]] view promoted by [[Thomas Charles Hope|Hope]], who had been [[James Hutton]]'s friend. From hearing exponents of both sides, Darwin learned the range of current opinion.{{sfn|Herbert|2005|pp=32–36}} His grandfather Erasmus had favoured Plutonism, and Darwin later supported Huttonian ideas. Almost fifty years after the course, Darwin recalled Jameson giving a field lecture at [[Holyrood Park#Salisbury Crags|Salisbury Crags]], "discoursing on a trap-dyke" with "volcanic rocks all around us", saying it was "a fissure filled with sediment from above, adding with a sneer that there were men who maintained that it had been injected from beneath in a molten condition. When I think of this lecture, I do not wonder that I determined never to attend to Geology."{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=69–71}}{{sfn|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=55&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text 53]}}
===Sealife homologies and monads===
In his [[The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin|autobiography]], begun in 1876, Darwin remembered [[Robert Edmond Grant]] as "dry and formal in manner, but with much enthusiasm beneath this outer crust. He one day, when we were walking together burst forth in high admiration of Lamarck and his views on evolution. I listened in silent astonishment, and as far as I can judge, without any effect on my mind. I had previously read the Zoönomia of my grandfather, in which similar views are maintained, but without producing any effect on me."{{sfn|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=51&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text 49]}}
Grant's [[thesis|doctoral dissertation]], prepared in 1813, cited Erasmus Darwin's ''[[Zoönomia]]'' which suggested that over geological time all organic life could have gradually arisen from a kind of "living filament" capable of heritable self-improvement. He found in [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]]'s similar [[uniformitarianism|uniformitarian]] [[Lamarckism#Lamarck's evolutionary framework|theoretical framework]] a similar idea that [[spontaneous generation|spontaneously generated]] simple animal ''[[monad (biology)|monad]]s'' continually [[Orthogenesis|improved in complexity and perfection]], while use or disuse of features to adapt to environmental changes diversified species and genera.{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=6–10}}{{sfn | Ruse | 2009 | pp=46–47}}
Funded by a small inheritance, Grant went to [[National Museum of Natural History, France|Paris University]] in 1815, to study with [[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]], the leading [[comparative anatomy|comparative anatomist]], and his rival [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|Geoffroy]]. Cuvier held that species were fixed, grouped into four entirely separate ''[[Le Règne Animal|embranchement]]s'', and any [[Homology (biology)|similarity of structures]] between species was merely due to functional needs. Grant favoured Geoffroy's view that similarities showed "unity of form", similar to Lamarck's ideas.{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=6–10}}
Like Lamarck, Grant investigated [[marine invertebrate]]s, particularly [[sponge]]s as naturalists disputed whether they were plants or animals. After specimen collecting and research in European universities, he returned to Edinburgh in 1820. Many species lived in the [[Firth of Forth]], and Grant got winter use of [[Walford, Prestonpans|Walford House]], [[Prestonpans]], with a garden gate in its high seawall leading to rock pools. He kept sponges alive in glass jars for long term observation, and at night used his microscope by candle light to dissect specimens in a [[watch glass]].{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=10–13}}
In spring 1825 at the ''Wernerian'', Grant dramatically dissected [[Mollusca|molluscs]] ([[European flying squid|squid]] and [[Platydoris argo|sea-slugs]]) showing they had a simple pancreas analogous to the complex pancreas in fish,<ref>{{cite book|title=The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iRgxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA197 |year=1825|publisher=[[Archibald Constable]]|pages=197–198}}</ref>{{sfn|Stott|2004|p=14}} controversially suggesting [[common descent|shared ancestry]] between molluscs and Cuvier's "higher" ''embranchement'' of [[vertebrate]]s.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=39}} In the ''[[Edinburgh Philosophical Journal]]'' Grant revealed that sponges had [[cilium|cilia]] to draw in water and expel waste, and their "ova" ([[larva]]e) were self-propelled by cilia in "spontaneous motion" like that seen by [[Filippo Cavolini|Cavolini]] in "ova" of the soft coral [[Eunicella cavolini|Gorgonia]].<ref>{{cite book|section=Observations and Experiments on the Structure and Functions of the Sponge by R. E. Grant|title=The Edinburgh philosophical journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iYxKAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA94|year=1825|pages=94–107}}</ref>{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=14–17}} In October he said simple freshwater ''[[Spongilla]]'' were ancient, ancestral to complex sponges that had adapted to sea changes,<ref>{{cite book|section=On the Structure and Nature of the Spongilla friabilis|title=The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal |year=1826|publisher=Archibald Constable|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4RuVB09bwv0C&pg=PA270 270–284], [https://books.google.com/books?id=ijE7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA381 381–383]}}</ref>{{sfn | Ruse | 2009 | p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o0jN9RdWz1MC&pg=PA100 100]}} as the earth cooled and changing conditions drove life towards higher, hotter blooded forms.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=39–41}}<ref name="Jenkins Neptunism and Transformism"/> In May 1826 he said that "future observations" would determine if self-propelling "ova" were "general with zoophytes",<ref>{{cite book|section=Observations on the spontaneous motions of the ova of zoophytes by R. E. Grant|title=The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal: Exhibiting a View of the Progressive Discoveries and Improvements in the Sciences and the Arts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zkoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA150|date=27 May 1826|publisher=A. and C. Black|pages=150–156}}</ref> his conclusions published in December included a detailed description of how sponge ova contain "monads-like bodies", and "swim about" by "the rapid vibration of ciliæ".<ref name="sponge cilia December 1826">{{cite book|section=Observations and Experiments on the Structure and Functions of the Sponge|title=The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t4xKAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA121 |date=December 1826|publisher=Adam Black.|pages=121–141}} – p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=t4xKAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA129 129] says sponge ova "swim about" by "the rapid vibration of ciliæ".</ref>
[[File:Flustra foliacea.jpg|thumb|Seaweed-like ''[[Flustra foliacea]]'' – ''Carbasea'' is similar.]]
Coldstream assisted Grant, and that winter Darwin joined the search, learning what to look for, and dissection techniques using a portable microscope. On 16 March 1827 he noted in a new notebook that he had "Procured from the black rocks at Leith" a [[Cyclopterus lumpus|lumpfish]], "Dissected it with Dr Grant". Two days later he recorded "ova from the Newhaven rocks" said to be of the [[Doris (gastropod)|Doris]] [sea slug] "in rapid motion, & continued so for 7 days", then on 19 March saw ova of the ''[[Flustra foliacea]]'' in motion.<ref>Darwin, C. R. [Edinburgh notebook] CUL-DAR118. (Darwin Online) [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR118.-&pageseq=2 16–19 March 1827].</ref> As recalled in his autobiography, he made "one interesting little discovery" that "the so-called ova of Flustra had the power of independent movement by means of cilia, and were in fact larvæ", and also that little black globular bodies found sticking to empty oyster shells, once thought to be the young of ''[[Himanthalia elongata|Fucus loreus]]'', were egg-cases (cocoons) of the ''[[Pontobdella muricata]]'' (skate leech). He believed "Dr. Grant noticed my small discovery in his excellent memoir on Flustra."{{sfn|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=52&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text 50–51]}}
[[File:Pontobdella muricata.JPG|thumb|''[[Pontobdella muricata]]'' (Skate leech).]]
The ''Wernerian'' society minutes for 24 March record that Grant read "a Memoir regarding the Anatomy and Mode of Generation of Flustræ , illustrated by preparations and drawings", also a notice on "the Mode of Generation" of the skate leech.<ref name="Wernerian 1832p564">{{cite book|author=Wernerian Natural History Society|title=Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6333DYOcBOYC&pg=PA564|year=1832|publisher=The Society|page=564}}</ref> Three days later, on 27 March, the Plinian Society minutes record that Darwin "communicated to the Society" two discoveries, that "the ova of the flustra possess organs of motion", and the small black "ovum" of the ''Pontobdella muricata''. "At the request of the Society he promised to draw up an account of the facts and to lay them it, together with specimens, before the Society next evening."<ref>''[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=EUL-%5B1%5D&viewtype=text Minutes of the Plinian Society recording Darwin's first scientific papers]'' (3.1827). Edinburgh University Library. [27 March 1827]</ref> This was Darwin's first public presentation.<ref name=Plin>{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1583a&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 |title=On the Ova of Flustra, or, Early Notebook, Containing Observations Made by C.D. When He Was at Edinburgh, March 1827 |editor-last=Barrett |editor-first=P. H. |year=1977 |work=The collected papers of Charles Darwin |publisher=Chicago: University Press |volume=2 |pages=285–291 }}</ref> In the next item, Browne argued that mind and consciousness were simply aspects of brain activity, not "souls" or spiritual entities separate from the body. Following a furious debate, the minute of this item was crossed out.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=38}}
After recording more finds in April, Darwin copied into his notebook under the heading "20th" his first scientific papers.{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=35–36}} Newhaven dredge boats had provided the ''[[Carbasea|Flustra carbasea]]'' specimens, when "highly magnified" the "ciliae of the ova" were "seen in rapid motion", and "That such ova had organs of motion does not appear to have been hitherto observed either by Lamarck Cuvier Lamouroux or any other author." He wrote "This & the following communication was read both before the Wernerian & Plinian Societies", and wrote up a detailed account of his ''Pontobdella'' findings.<ref name="1st paper">Darwin, C. R. [Edinburgh notebook] CUL-DAR118. (Darwin Online) [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR118.-&pageseq=2 16–18 March 1827].</ref> At the Plinian meeting, on 3 April, Darwin presented the Society with "A specimen of the ''Pontobdella muricata'', with its ova & young ones", but there is no record of the papers being presented or kept.{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=8 104]}}
Grant in his publication about the leech eggs in the ''Edinburgh Journal of Science'' for July 1827 acknowledged "The merit of having first ascertained them to belong to that animal is due to my zealous young friend Mr Charles Darwin of Shrewsbury", the first time Darwin's name appeared in print.<ref name=leech>{{cite journal |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A144&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 |title=Notice regarding the ova of the Pontobdella muricata, Lam. |access-date=3 March 2008 |author= Grant, R. E. |date= July 1827 |journal=Edinburgh Journal of Science |volume= 7 |issue=1 |pages= 160–161 }}</ref> Grant's lengthy memoir read before the Wernerian on 24 March was split between the April and October issues of the ''Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal'', with more detail than Darwin had given:{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=9 105–106]}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal|year=1827 |publisher=[[A & C Black]]|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hC0_AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA107 107–118], [https://books.google.com/books?id=3BoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA337 337–342]}}</ref> he had seen ova (larvae) of ''Flustra carbasea'' in February, after they swam about they stuck to the glass and began to form a new colony. He noted the similarity of the cilia in "other ova", with reference to his 1826 publication describing sponge ova.<ref>{{cite book|title=Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal|year=1827 |publisher=[[A & C Black]]|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hC0_AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA116 116–118]|quote= {{nbsp}}• See Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, December 1826, p. 129.}}</ref><ref name="sponge cilia December 1826" /> Darwin was not given credit for what he felt was his discovery,{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=86–87}} and in 1871, when he discussed "the paltry feeling" of [[scientific priority]] with his daughter [[Henrietta Litchfield|Henrietta]], she got him to repeat the story of "his first introduction to the jealousy of scientific men"; when he had seen the ova of ''Flustra'' move he "rushed instantly to Grant" who, rather than being "delighted with so curious a fact", told Darwin "it was very unfair of him to work at Prof G's subject & in fact that he shd take it ill if my Father published it."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=CUL-DAR262.23.3&viewtype=text |title=On plagiarism and scientific jealousy |access-date=4 March 2008 |author=Litchfield, Henrietta. nd. |author-link= Henrietta Litchfield |year=1871 }}</ref> In European university practice, team leaders reported research without naming assistants, and clearly the find was derivative from Grant's research programme: it seems likely he had already seen the ova, like the sponge ova, moving by cilia. Grant phased announcement of discoveries rather than publishing quickly, and was now looking for a professorship before he ran out of funds, but young Darwin was disappointed. As Jameson noted in October,{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=86–87}}{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=36–37}} back in 1823 [[John Graham Dalyell|Dalyell]] had observed the ''Pontobdella'' young leaving their cocoons.{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=9 105–106]}}
In notes dated 15 and 23 April, Darwin described specimens of the deep-water [[sea pen]]s (from fishing boats), and on 23 April, "with Mr Coldstream at the black rocks at Leith", he saw a [[common starfish|starfish]] doubled up, releasing its ova.{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=12 108–109]}}
===Summer 1827===
Darwin left Edinburgh in late April, just 18 years old.{{sfn|Ashworth| 1935|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=12 108–109]}} In 1826 he had told his sister he would be "forced to go abroad for one year" of hospital studies, as he had to be 21 before taking his degree,<ref name=Letter20 /> but he was too upset by seeing blood or suffering, and had lost any ambition to be a doctor. He went a short tour, visiting [[Dundee]], [[St Andrews]], [[Stirling]], [[Glasgow]], [[Belfast]] and [[Dublin]],{{sfn|van Wyhe|2014|p=7}} then in May made his first trip to London to visit his sister Caroline. They joined his uncle [[Josiah Wedgwood II]] on a trip to France,{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=43–45}} and on 26 May arrived in Paris,<ref>Litchfield, H. E. ed. 1904. ''Emma Darwin, wife of Charles Darwin. A century of family letters''. Cambridge: University Press printed. Volume 1. [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=164&itemID=F1552.1&viewtype=text pp. 272 - 274]</ref> where Charles fended for himself for a few weeks: recently graduated Plinian society members, including Browne and Coldstream, were there for hospital studies. By July, Charles had returned to his home at [[The Mount, Shrewsbury]].{{sfn|Stott|2004|pp=37–38}}{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=45–46}} While indulging his hobby of [[Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom|shooting]] with his family's friends at the nearby [[Woodhouse, Shropshire|Woodhouse estate]] of William Mostyn Owen, Darwin flirted with his second daughter, [[Frances Mostyn Owen]].{{sfn|van Wyhe|2014|p=7}}
Coldstream studied in Paris for a year, and visited places of interest. His diary notes religious thoughts,<ref name="Coldstream by Balfour">{{cite web | title=Biography of the late John Coldstream, M.D., F.R.C.P.E. / by John Hutton Balfour ; with an introduction by the Rev. James Lewis. [1865] | website=Wellcome Collection | date=19 December 2020 | url=https://wellcomecollection.org/works/k9mpnd94 | access-date=16 April 2021|pages=28–29, 38–40, 52}}</ref> and occasional anguished comments such as "the foul mass of corruption within my own bosom", "corroding desires" and "lustful imaginations".<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|p=87}} cites Balfour 1865, but does not give page numbers.</ref> A doctor who befriended him later said that though Coldstream had led "a blameless life", he was "more or less in the dark on the vital question of religion, and was troubled with doubts arising from certain Materialist views, which are, alas! too common among medical students."<ref name="Coldstream by Balfour" /> He left in June 1828 for a short tour on his way home, but fell ill in [[Westphalia]], suffered a [[mental breakdown]], and got back to Leith late in July. In early December Coldstream began medical practice and gave it priority over natural history.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=41}}<ref name="letter 58">{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-58.xml |title=Letter 58 – John Coldstream to Darwin, C. R., 28 February 1829 |publisher= Darwin Correspondence Project| access-date=16 April 2021 }}</ref>
==University of Cambridge==
[[File:Christs shield.png|thumb|right|175px|The coat of arms of [[Christ's College, Cambridge]], a college of the [[University of Cambridge]] where Darwin was enrolled to become a clergyman.]]
His father was unhappy that his younger son would not become a physician and "was very properly vehement against my turning into an idle sporting man, which then seemed my probable destination." He therefore enrolled Charles at [[Christ's College, Cambridge]] in 1827 for a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree as the qualification required before taking a specialised divinity course and becoming an Anglican [[parson]]. He enrolled for an ''[[British undergraduate degree classification|ordinary]]'' degree, as at that time only capable mathematicians would take the [[Tripos]].<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=89–91}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=58 56_57]}}</ref><ref name=JvW>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}}</ref> At that time the only way to get an honours degree was the mathematical Tripos examination, or the classical Tripos created in 1822, which was only open to those who already had high honours in mathematics, or those who were the sons of [[Peerage|peers]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Smith, Jonathan C. |title=Teaching and learning in nineteenth-century Cambridge |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Ipswich |year=2002 |page=207 |isbn=0-85115-783-1 }}</ref>
This was a respectable career for a gentleman at a time when most naturalists in England were clergymen in the tradition of [[Gilbert White]], who saw it as part of their duties to "explore the wonders of God's creation". Charles had concerns about being able to declare his belief in all the dogmas of the [[Church of England]], so as well as hunting and fishing, he studied [[divinity]] books. He was particularly convinced by the reasoning of the Revd. [[John Bird Sumner]]'s ''Evidences of Christianity''. John Bird Summer wrote that Jesus's religion was "wonderfully suitable... to our ideas of happiness in this & the next world" and there was "no other way... of explaining the series of evidence & probability." His Classics had lapsed since school, and he spent the autumn term at home studying Greek with a tutor. Darwin was accepted as a "pensioner", having paid his fees, on 15 October 1827, but did not attend Cambridge until the Lent Term which began on 13 January 1828. Eras returned from Edinburgh ready to sit his [[Bachelor of Medicine]] exam, and in the new year he and Charles set out together for Cambridge.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=47–49}}<br />{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Christs.html |title=Darwin Online: The Admissions books of Christ's College, Cambridge |access-date=20 December 2008}}<br />{{acad|id=DRWN827CR|name=Darwin, Charles Robert}}</ref> Darwin came into residence in Cambridge on 26 January 1828, and [[matriculation|matriculated]] at the University's Senate House on 26 February.<ref name=JvW/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/cambridgeshire/7958710.stm|title=Darwin's 'gentleman' student days|author=Anonymous|date=23 March 2009|publisher=[[BBC]]|access-date=2 April 2009}}</ref>
Around this time he wrote to [[John Coldstream]], asking after him, expressing "greif" about hearing that Coldstream had "entirely forsworn Natural History", and assuring him "that no pursuit is more becoming for a physician than Nat: Hist". Coldstream replied on 28 February that he was as much "inclined than ever, to look into the World of Nature", but had to focus first on medicine.<ref name="letter 58" />
His tutors at [[Christ's College, Cambridge]] were to include [[Joseph Shaw (Christ's College)|Joseph Shaw]] in 1828, [[John Graham (bishop)|John Graham]] (in 1829 – 1830) and [[Edward John Ash]] in 1830 – 1831. One of his university friends was [[Frederick Watkins (clergyman)|Frederick Watkins]], (1808–1888).<ref name=JvW2>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2014}}</ref>
===Beetle collecting===
Arriving at the [[University of Cambridge]] in January 1828, Darwin found this elite theological training institution governed by complex rules much more congenial than his experiences at Edinburgh. No rooms were available at [[Christ's College, Cambridge|Christ's College]], so he took lodgings above a [[tobacconists]] in Sidney Street, across the road. In April the older student [[Albert Way]] drew a comic coat of arms featuring tobacco pipes, cigars, wine barrel and tankards, with a Latin statement that they were best friends; at Edinburgh, Darwin had begun a life-long habit of taking [[Snuff (tobacco)|snuff]].<ref name="Van Wyhe 2014 p. 33">{{cite book | last=Van Wyhe | first=J. | title=Charles Darwin In Cambridge: The Most Joyful Years | publisher=World Scientific Publishing Company | year=2014 | isbn=978-981-4583-99-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQO3CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 | access-date=15 January 2022 | pages=28, 33–35}}</ref>{{sfn|Darwin|1887|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=139&itemID=F1452.1&viewtype=text 121–122]}} Extramural activities were important, and while Darwin did not take up sports or debating, his interests included music and his main passion was the current national craze for the (competitive) collecting of [[beetle]]s. Trainee clergymen scoured [[Cambridgeshire]] for specimens, referring to ''An Introduction to [[Entomology]]'' by [[William Kirby (entomologist)|William Kirby]] and [[William Spence (entomologist)|William Spence]]. Charles joined his older cousin [[William Darwin Fox]] who was already a skilled collector and like him got a small dog. The two and their dogs became inseparable. They explored the countryside as Darwin learnt about [[natural history]] from his cousin. Darwin became obsessed with winning the student accolade and collected avidly. Once he stripped bark from a dead tree and caught a [[ground beetle]] in each hand, then saw the rare Crucifix Ground Beetle, ''[[Panagaeus cruxmajor]]''. With the habits of an egg-collector, he popped one ground beetle in his mouth to free his hand, but it ejected some intensely acrid fluid which burnt his tongue and Darwin was forced to spit it out. He lost all three.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=59}} describes the incident and states that the insect Darwin popped into his mouth was a [[bombardier beetle]].<br />*They cite Darwin's correspondence and his ''Autobiography'' ({{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=64 62–63].}})<br />*{{cite web |url=http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/young/lifelong.php |title=Darwin: Young Naturalist |work=American Museum of Natural History |access-date=12 July 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221210143/http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/young/lifelong.php |archive-date=21 December 2010 }} quotes the ''Autobiography'', and while its illustration shows a bombardier beetle, it says "Many beetles, including the ''[[Brachinus crepitans]]'' and the ''[[Stenaptinus insignis]]'', release irritating chemicals as a defense."<br />*[http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-1009 Letter 1009 – Darwin, C. R. to Jenyns, Leonard, 17 Oct (1846)] describes the two beetles as unidentified ''carabi'', or [[ground beetle]]s.<br />*{{cite web |url=http://www.wicken.org.uk/wildlife_beetles_crucifixground.htm |title=Wicken Fen: Crucifix Ground Beetle |access-date=16 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618192901/http://www.wicken.org.uk/wildlife_beetles_crucifixground.htm |archive-date=18 June 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The specimens he did not lose had to be mounted and identified, and his knowledge from Edinburgh of Lamarck proved useful. Fox introduced him for advice on identification to the [[John Stevens Henslow|Revd. John Stevens Henslow]], professor of botany, and Darwin began attending his soirées, a club for budding naturalists. Here he could meet other professors including the geologist the [[Adam Sedgwick|Revd. Adam Sedgwick]] and the new [[mineralogy|mineralogist]] the [[William Whewell|Revd. William Whewell]].
In the summer Darwin paid visits to Squire Owen, and romance seemed to be blossoming with the squire's daughter [[Frances Mostyn Owen|Fanny]]. Darwin joined other Cambridge friends on a three-month "reading party" at [[Barmouth]] on the coast of [[Wales]] to revise their studies with private tutors. For Charles it was an "Entomo-Mathematical expedition". Though he badly needed to catch up with his mathematics, the insect collecting predominated along with pleasant diversions such as [[hillwalking]], boating and [[fly fishing]]. He went on daily walks with his close friend, the older student [[John Maurice Herbert]] who he dubbed "Cherbury" after [[Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury|Herbert of Cherbury]], the father of English [[Deism]]. Herbert assisted with the insect collecting, but the usual outcome was that Darwin would examine Herbert's collecting bottle and say "Well, old Cherbury, none of these will do."<ref name=francis166>{{harvnb|Darwin|1887|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.1&pageseq=184 176–171]}}</ref> In September Darwin wrote to tell "My dear old ''Cherbury''" that his own catches had included "some of the rarest of the British Insects, & their being found near Barmouth is quite unknown to the Entomological world: I think I shall write & inform some of the crack Entomologists." He described these ''"extremely rare"'' insects and asked Herbert to oblige him by collecting some more of them.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-47 |title=Letter 47 – Darwin, C. R. to Herbert, J. M., (13 Sept 1828) |publisher= Darwin Correspondence Project }}</ref>
===Second year doldrums===
<!-- This section is linked from [[A Devil's Chaplain]] -->
[[File:Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-(Christ's-College-Cambridge)-3.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Bronze statue of Darwin in 1830 clothes, seated on the arm of a wooden bench, behind him plants partly cover a stone wall, a window has white-painted wooden frames.|[[Commemoration of Charles Darwin#Darwin day, and 2009 commemorations|Bicentennial]] portrait by [[Anthony Smith (sculptor)|Anthony Smith]] of Darwin as a student, in the First Court at Christ's opposite Darwin's rooms.<ref name="Darwin statue 2009">{{cite web | title=Darwin statue unveiled at college | website=BBC News | date=12 February 2009 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cambridgeshire/7886278.stm | access-date=22 April 2022}}</ref>]]
On 31 October Charles returned to Cambridge for the [[Michaelmas term|Michaelmas Term]], and was allocated a set of rooms on the south side of First Court in Christ's College. Although several biographers since the 1980s have referred to these rooms as traditionally having been occupied by the theologian [[William Paley]], research by [[John van Wyhe]] found that historical documentation did not support this idea.{{sfn|van Wyhe|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cQO3CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 46–47]}}
Darwin now had breakfast every day with his older cousin [[William Darwin Fox]]. This was Fox's last term before his BA exam, and he now had to cram desperately to make up for lost time. At the Christmas holiday Charles visited London with Eras, toured the scientific institutions "where Naturalists are gregarious" and through his friend the Revd. [[Frederick William Hope]] met other insect collectors. These included [[James Francis Stephens|James Stephens]], author of ''Illustrations of British Entomology''.
The January term brought miserable weather and a struggle to keep up with his studies. Around this time, he had an earnest conversation with [[John Maurice Herbert|John Herbert]] about going into Holy Orders, and asked him whether he could answer yes to the question that the Bishop would put in the ordination service, "Do you trust that you are inwardly moved by the Holy Spirit". When Herbert said that he could not, Darwin replied "Neither can I, and therefore I cannot take orders" to become an ordained priest.<ref name=francis166/> Even his interest in insect collecting waned. He fell out with one of the two locals he employed to catch beetles when he found that the local was giving first choice to a rival collector. In the doldrums, he joined a crowd of drinking pals in a frequent "debauch". He put in some hard riding. On one night he and three friends saw the sky lit up and "rode like incarnate devils" eleven miles to see the blaze. They arrived back at two in the morning and violated curfew. He was risking "[[rustication (academia)|rustication]]", temporary expulsion. Such behaviour would be noticed by the [[Proctor]]s, university officials appointed from the colleges who patrolled the town in plain gowns to police the students.
Student resentment against two unpopular Proctors built up, and on 9 April 1829 a tumult broke out. Charles described how the Senior Proctor was "most gloriously hissed.. & pelted with mud", being "driven so furious" that his servant "dared not go near him for an hour."<ref name=Letter61>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-61 |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 61 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (10 Apr 1829) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> The Proctors had noted some faces in the mob, and four were rusticated and one fined for being out-of-gown and shouting abuse. Outraged by this leniency, the Proctors quit ''en masse'' and printed their resignation to post up around the colleges. Though the unpopular Proctors were gone, Charles was jolted into thinking of the consequences of [[Theory of criminal justice|law-breaking]].
In the Spring, Darwin enrolled for [[John Stevens Henslow]]'s lectures on [[botany]]. Professor Henslow's first "public herborizing expedition" of the year took place in May, an outing on which students assisted with collection of plants. However, Darwin made no mention of Henslow in his letters to Fox.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=70, 76}}</ref> On 18 May Darwin wrote to Fox enthusing about his success with beetle collecting, "I think I beat Jenyns in Colymbetes", contrasted with his lack of application to studies: "my time is solely occupied in riding & Entomologizing".<ref name="Letter 64">{{Cite web | title = Letter 64 — Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (18 May 1829) | url = http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-64 | publisher = Darwin Correspondence Project | access-date = 5 September 2011 }}</ref>
[[Cambridge]] was briefly visited on 21 May by the Radicals [[Richard Carlile]] and the [[Robert Taylor (Radical)|Revd. Robert Taylor]], both recently jailed for blasphemy, on an "infidel home missionary tour" which caused several days of controversy. Taylor was later nicknamed "[[A Devil's Chaplain|the Devil's Chaplain]]", a phrase remembered by Darwin.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=70–73}}<br />{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-1924 |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 1924 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., 13 July (1856) |quote=What a book a Devil's chaplain might write on the clumsy, wasteful, blundering low & horridly cruel works of nature! |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref>
Charles had been sending records of the insects he had caught to the entomologist [[James Francis Stephens]], and was thrilled when Stevens published about thirty of these records in ''Illustrations of British entomology; or, a synopsis of indigenous insects etc.'' which was printed in parts, with the first description under Darwin's name appearing in an appendix dated 15 June 1829.<ref name=Darwinsinsects>{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Stephens.html |title=Darwin Online: Darwin's insects in Stephens' Illustrations of British entomology (1829–32) }}</ref>
That summer, amongst horse riding and beetle collecting, Charles visited his cousin Fox, and this time Charles was teaching entomology to his older cousin. Home at [[Shrewsbury, Shropshire]], he saw his brother Erasmus whose "delicate frame" led to him now giving up medicine and retiring at the age of 26. The brothers visited the [[History of Birmingham|Birmingham]] Music Festival for what Charles described as the "most glorious" experience.
===Third year, theology and natural history===
Back at Cambridge, Charles studied hard for his ''Little Go'' preliminary exam, as a fail would mean a re-sit the following year. He dropped his drinking companions and resumed attending [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]]'s Friday evening soirées. For the exam he slogged away at Greek and Latin, and studied [[William Paley]]'s ''Evidences of Christianity'', becoming so delighted with Paley's logic that he learnt it well. This was a text he also had to study for his finals, and he was "convinced that I could have written out the whole of the ''Evidences'' with perfect correctness, but not of course in the clear language of Paley." Later, on the [[second voyage of HMS Beagle|''Beagle'' expedition]], he saw evidence which challenged Paley's rose-tinted view, but at this time he was convinced that the Christian revelation established "a future state of reward and punishment" which "gives order for confusion: makes the moral world of a piece with the natural". As with Cambridge University, God gave authority and assigned stations in life, misconduct was penalised and excellence bountifully rewarded. Charles took the one-day verbal examination on 24 March 1830. There were three hours in the morning on the classics and three in the afternoon on the [[New Testament]] and Paley. The next day he was delighted to be informed that he had passed.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=76–79}}</ref><ref name=dar57>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=59 57–67]}}</ref>
Several of his friends celebrated their examination successes by dining in each other's rooms in rotation in a weekly club commonly known as the ''Glutton Club''. This name was proposed to ridicule another group whose Greek title meant "fond of dainties", but who dined out on "Mutton Chops, or Beans & Bacon". The ''Glutton Club'' attempted to live up to their title by experimentally dining on "birds and beasts which were before unknown to human palate" and tried hawk and [[bittern]], but gave up after eating an old brown owl, "which was indescribable". They had more amusement from concluding each meeting with "a game of mild [[Blackjack|vingt-et-un]]".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR112.B57-B76&pageseq=14 |title= (Recollections of Darwin at Cambridge) CUL-DAR112.B57-B76 |author=Herbert, John Maurice |date= 2 June 1882 |publisher=Darwin Online |pages=70–72 |access-date=28 April 2009}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1887|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.1&pageseq=187 169–170]}}<br />{{harvnb|Freeman|1978|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A27&pageseq=159 152]}}</ref>
Over Easter Charles stayed at Cambridge, mounting and cataloguing his beetle collection. He then became an enthusiastic member of the [[botany]] course which the "good natured & agreeable" professor Henslow taught five days a week in the Botanic Gardens and on field trips. Henslow's outings were attended by 78 men including professor Whewell. Charles became the "favourite pupil", known as "the man who walks with Henslow", helping to find specimens and to set up "practicals" dissecting plants. He became interested in pollen. One day he watched through a microscope and saw "transparent cones" emerge from the side of a [[geranium]] pollen grain. Then one burst spraying out "numberless granules". Henslow explained that the granules were indeed the constituent atoms of pollen, but they had no intrinsic vital power – life was endowed from outside and ultimately derived its power from God, whatever more "speculative" naturalists argued regarding self-activating power. Darwin had been taught otherwise by Grant, and reflected quietly on this, biding his time.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=80–82}}</ref>
For the summer holidays Darwin arranged to meet Fox at The Mount, but Darwin's father had been ill and family tensions led to a row. Charles went off with the Revd. Hope and other friends for three weeks "entomologizing" in North Wales, hunting for beetles and trout fishing. He went partridge shooting at Maer before returning home.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=82–83}}</ref>
===Fourth year finals and later attitude towards mathematics ===
Back at Cambridge, his final exams loomed. A "desperate" Charles focused on his studies and got private tuition from Henslow whose subjects were mathematics and theology. This term he had to study [[Euclid]] and learn Paley's ''Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy'', though this old text was becoming outdated. It opposed arguments for increased democracy, but saw no divine right of rule for the sovereign or the state, only "expediency". Government could be opposed if grievances outweighed the danger and expense to society. The judgement was "Every man for himself". These ideas had suited the conditions of reasonable rule prevailing when the text was published in 1785, but in 1830 they were dangerous ideas. At this time the French king was deposed by middle class republicans and given refuge in England by the [[Tory]] government. In response, radical street protests demanded [[suffrage]], [[Social equality|equality]] and [[freedom of religion]]. Then in November the Tory administration collapsed and the [[British Whig Party|Whigs]] took over. Paley's text even supported abolition of the ''[[Thirty-nine Articles]] of the [[Anglican]] faith'' which every student at Cambridge (and [[Oxford University]]) was required to sign. Henslow insisted that "he should be grieved if a single word... was altered" and emphasised the need to respect authority. This happened even as campaigns of civil disobedience spread to starving agricultural labourers and villages close to Cambridge suffered riots and arson attacks.
In the third week of January 1831 Charles sat his final exam. There were three days of written papers covering the Classics, the two Paley texts and [[John Locke]]'s ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'', then mathematics and physics. At the end of the week when the results were posted he was dazed and proud to have come 10th out of a pass list of 178 doing the ''ordinary'' degree. Charles shone in theology and scraped through in the other subjects. He was also exhausted and depressed, writing to Fox "I do not know why the degree should make one so miserable."<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=87–88}}</ref> In later life he recalled Paley and Euclid being the only part of the course which was useful to him, and "By answering well the examination questions in Paley, by doing Euclid well, and by not failing miserably in Classics, I gained a good place among the [[Hoi polloi#Appearances in the nineteenth century|οἱ πολλοί]], or crowd of men who do not go in for honours."<ref name=dar57 />
On the specific issue of his mathematical education, Darwin came to regret his lack of ability and application: "I attempted mathematics, and even went during the summer of 1828 with a private tutor (a very dull man) to Barmouth, but I got on very slowly. The work was repugnant to me, chiefly from my not being able to see any meaning in the early steps in algebra. This impatience was very foolish, and in after years I have deeply regretted that I did not proceed far enough at least to understand something of the great leading principles of mathematics, for men thus endowed seem to have an extra sense".<ref>[http://www.turtlereader.com/authors/charles-darwin/the-life-and-letters-of-charles-darwin-day-13-of-188/ Darwin Correspondence Cambridge 1828–1831]</ref>
===Natural theology and geology===
[[File:Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-(Christ's-College-Cambridge)-3.jpg|thumb|right|Statue of Darwin during his last months at Christ's College (age 22). Sculpted by [[Anthony Smith (sculptor)|Anthony Smith]], the statue features some of the books Darwin was reading at this time; [[Alexander von Humboldt|Humboldt's]] ''Personal Narrative'', [[William Paley|Paley's]] ''[[Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity|Natural Theology]]'', [[John Herschel|Herschel's]] ''Preliminary Discourse on Natural Philosophy'' and James Stephens' ''Illustrations of British Entomology''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Young Man! Darwin 200|url=http://darwin200.christs.cam.ac.uk/node/35|website=Darwin 200 website hosted by Christ's College Cambridge|access-date=30 October 2016}}</ref>]]
Residence requirements kept Darwin in Cambridge till June. He resumed his beetle collecting, took career advice from Henslow, and read [[William Paley]]'s ''[[Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity]]'' which set out to refute [[David Hume]]'s argument that [[Teleological argument|"design" by a Creator]] was merely a human projection onto the forces of nature. Paley saw a rational proof of God's existence in the complexity and perfect [[adaptation]] to needs of living beings exquisitely fitted to their places in a happy world, while attacking the evolutionary ideas of [[Erasmus Darwin]] as coinciding with atheistic schemes and lacking evidence.<ref>{{harvnb|Paley|1809|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A142&viewtype=text&pageseq=437 431–433], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A142&viewtype=text&pageseq=462 456].}}</ref> Paley's benevolent God acted in nature though uniform and universal laws, not arbitrary miracles or changes of laws, and this use of secondary laws provided a [[theodicy]] explaining the [[problem of evil]] by separating nature from direct divine action. This convinced Charles and encouraged his interest in science.<ref>{{Harvnb|von Sydow|2005}}</ref> He later wrote "I do not think I hardly ever admired a book more than Paley's ''Natural Theology'': I could almost formerly have said it by heart."<ref name=Letter2532>{{cite news |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-2532.|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 2532 – Darwin, C. R. to Lubbock, John, (22 Nov 1859) |newspaper=Darwin Correspondence Project |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref>
He read [[John Herschel]]'s new ''Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy'', learning that nature was governed by laws, and the highest aim of [[natural philosophy]] was to understand them through an orderly process of [[Inductive reasoning|induction]], balancing observation and theorising. This was part of the [[liberal Christianity]] of Darwin's tutors, who saw no disharmony between honest inductive science and religion. Such science was religion, and could not be heretical.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=128–129}},<br />{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-94 |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 94 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (15 Feb 1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> Darwin also read [[Alexander von Humboldt]]'s ''Personal Narrative'', and the two books were immensely influential, stirring up in him "a burning zeal to add even the most humble contribution to the noble structure of Natural Science."<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=69 67–68].}}</ref>
As a young graduate, Henslow had geologised on the [[Isle of Wight]] and the [[Isle of Man]], and he too had longed to visit Africa. Marriage and his position at the university now made the prospect remote, but he still had an unfulfilled ambition to "explore regions but little known, and enrich science with new species."<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=91}}.</ref>
At home for Easter in early April, Darwin told his cousin Fox of "a scheme I have almost hatched" to visit the [[Canary Islands]] and see [[Tenerife]] as recommended by Humboldt.<ref name=Letter96>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-96|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 96 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (7 Apr 1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> On returning to Cambridge, he wrote to his sister that "my head is running about the Tropics: in the morning I go and gaze at Palm trees in the hot-house and come home and read Humboldt: my enthusiasm is so great that I cannot hardly sit still on my chair. Henslow & other Dons give us great credit for our plan: Henslow promises to cram me in geology". He was studying Spanish language, and was in "a Tropical glow".<ref name="letter98">{{Cite web | title = Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 98 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., (28 Apr 1831) | url = http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-98 }}</ref>
Henslow introduced Darwin to the great geologist the [[Adam Sedgwick|Revd. Adam Sedgwick]] who had been his own tutor, and shared views on religion, politics and morals. Darwin was fired up by Sedgwick's Spring course of "equestrian outings" with its vistas of the grandeur of God's creation, so much of which was yet unexplored.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=136–138}}</ref> He exclaimed, "What a capital hand is Sedgewick for drawing large cheques upon the Bank of Time!".<ref name=Letter101>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-101 |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 101 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (9 July 1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> When Sedgwick mentioned the effects of a local spring from a chalk hill depositing lime on twigs, Charles rode out to find the spring and threw a bush in, then later brought back the white coated spray which Sedgwick exhibited in class, inspiring others to do the same.
Darwin continued plotting his "Canary scheme", and on 11 May he told Fox "My other friends most sincerely wish me there I plague them so with talking about tropical scenery &c &c.". His father gave him "a 200£ note" to pay his college debts. In addition, "Some goodnatured Cambridge man has made me a most magnificent anonymous present of a Microscope: did ever hear of such a delightful piece of luck? one would like to know who it was, just to feel obliged to him."<ref name=Letter100>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-100|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 100 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (11 May 1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> Darwin later found that the gift was from his friend John Herbert.<ref name="letter99">{{Cite web | title = Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 99 – Herbert, J. M. to Darwin, C. R., (early May 1831) | url = http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-99 | access-date = 22 February 2013 }}</ref>
In mid June Darwin returned home to Shrewsbury, and continued "working like a tiger" for the Canary scheme, "at present Spanish & Geology, the former I find as intensely stupid, as the latter most interesting". By then his most likely companion on the trip was the tutor Marmaduke Ramsay. Darwin was "trying to make a map" of [[Shropshire]], "but dont find it so easy as I expected."<ref name=Letter101/> He ordered a [[Inclinometer|clinometer]], and on 11 July wrote to tell Henslow that it had arrived and he had tried it out in his bedroom. "As yet I have only indulged in hypotheses; but they are such powerful ones, that I suppose, if they were put into action but for one day, the world would come to an end."<ref name=Letter102>{{cite web |url= http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-102|title= Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 102 – Darwin, C. R. to Henslow, J. S., (11 July 1831) |access-date= 12 April 2019 }}</ref> In efforts to learn the basics of geology he extended his mapping of [[Stratum|strata]] as far away as [[Llanymynech]], some {{convert|16|miles|km}} from Shrewsbury, using the terminology he had learnt in Edinburgh from [[Robert Jameson]].<ref>{{harvnb|Herbert|2005|pp=38–39}}</ref> Already he was anxious that he had not heard from Sedgwick, and when he investigated ship sailings he found that they were only available in certain months.<ref name=Letter102 /> For this reason, the trip to Teneriffe had to be postponed to the following June, and it looked increasingly unlikely that Henslow would come on the trip.<ref name=Letter103>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-103|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 103 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., 1 Aug (1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> Darwin wrote to one of his student friends that he was "at present mad about Geology" and had plans to ride through Wales then meet with other students at [[Barmouth]].<ref name="letter102A">{{Cite web | title = Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 102a – Darwin, C. R. to Whitley, C. T., (19 July 1831) | url = http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-102a }}</ref>
On 4 August 1831 Sedgwick arrived in his gig at [[The Mount, Shrewsbury]], to take Charles as his assistant on a short geological expedition mapping strata in [[Wales]]. That evening Charles told of a tropical shell found in a nearby gravel pit and was impressed when Sedgwick responded that it must have been thrown away there, as it contradicted the known geology of the area. This made him realise "that science consists in grouping facts so that general laws or conclusions may be drawn from them." Sedgwick aimed to investigate and correct possible errors in [[George Bellas Greenough|George Greenough]]'s geological map of 1820, and to trace the fossil record to the earliest times to rebut the [[uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarian]] ideas just published by [[Charles Lyell]].<ref name=wales/>
On the morning of 5 August they went from Shrewsbury to [[Llangollen]], and on 11 August reached [[Penrhyn Quarry]].<ref name=lucas/> After less than a week of doing hard practical work Charles had learnt how to identify specimens, interpret strata and generalise from his observations. Then he went off on his own to collect samples and investigate the [[Vale of Clwyd]], looking in vain for the [[Old Red Sandstone]] shown by Greenough. They met up in [[Colwyn]], and Sedgwick's pleasure at the confirmation that the map was incorrect made Darwin "exceedingly proud". They went on to [[Capel Curig]] where Charles struck out on his own across 30 miles (50 km) of "some strange wild places" to Barmouth.<ref name=wales>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=70 68–72].}}<br />{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=139–143}}</ref> He had parted from Sedgwick by 20 August, and travelled via [[Ffestiniog]].<ref name=lucas>{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Lucas_Lowe_Journal.html |title=The recovery of time past: Darwin at Barmouth on the eve of the Beagle |author=Peter Lucas |date=1 January 2010 |publisher=Darwin Online |access-date=21 January 2010}}</ref>
==Voyage on the Beagle==
Arriving at [[Barmouth]] on the evening of 23 August, Charles met up with a "reading party" of Cambridge friends for a time before he left on the morning of 29 August,<ref name=lucas/> to go back to Shrewsbury and on to partridge shooting with his Wedgwood relatives at [[Maer Hall]].<ref name=wales/> He was grieved to have received a message that Ramsay had died. This upset Darwin's plans for a visit in the following year to Tenerife. He arrived home at [[The Mount, Shrewsbury]], on 29 August, and found a letter from John Stevens Henslow.<ref name=Letter107>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-107|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 107 – Darwin, C. R. to Henslow, J. S., 30 (Aug 1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> The Cambridge Fellow [[George Peacock (mathematician)|George Peacock]] had heard from [[Francis Beaufort]] of plans for the [[Second voyage of HMS Beagle|second survey voyage of]] [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']], and had written to Henslow proposing [[Leonard Jenyns]] as "a proper person to go out as a naturalist with this expedition", or if he was unavailable seeking recommendations for an alternative to take up this "glorious opportunity". When Jenyns decided not to leave his parish, he and Henslow thought of Darwin.<ref name=Letter104>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-104|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 104 – Peacock, George to Henslow, J. S., (6 or 13 Aug 1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> Henslow's letter, read by Peacock and forwarded to Darwin, expected him to eagerly catch at the likely offer of a two-year trip to [[Tierra del Fuego|Terra del Fuego]] & home by the [[Indies|East Indies]], not as "a ''finished'' Naturalist", but as a ''[[gentleman]]'' "amply qualified for collecting, observing, & noting any thing worthy to be noted in Natural History". The appointment was more as a companion to Captain [[Robert FitzRoy]], than as a mere collector. Henslow wrote "I assure you I think you are the very man they are in search of".<ref name=Letter105>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-105|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 105 – Henslow, J. S. to Darwin, C. R., 24 Aug 1831 }}</ref>
His father thought the voyage a waste of his son's time and strongly objected. Dejected, Charles declined the offer,<ref name=Letter107/> and went to Maer for the partridge shooting with a note from his father to [[Josiah Wedgwood II|"Uncle Jos" Wedgwood]]. This contained a prescription for a bowel ailment and a note saying that Charles had quite given up the proposed "voyage of discovery", but "if you think differently from me I shall wish him to follow your advice."<ref name=Letter108>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-108|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 108 – Darwin, R. W. to Wedgwood, Josiah, II, 30–1 Aug (1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> Charles' hopes were revived by this unexpected news, and his relatives came out in favour of the voyage. He outlined his father's objections, and sat up that night drafting a reply with his uncle. Jos wrote suggesting that Charles would be likely to "acquire and strengthen, habits of application", and "Natural History... is very suitable to a Clergyman." Though "useless as regards his profession", for "a man of enlarged curiosity, it affords him such an opportunity of seeing men and things as happens to few". The Admiralty would look after him well, but "you & Charles... must decide."<ref name=Letter110>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-110|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 110 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, R. W., 31 Aug (1831) |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> Charles begged "one favour... a decided answer, yes or no."<ref name=Letter109>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-109|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 109 – Wedgwood, Josiah, II to Darwin, R. W., 31 Aug 1831 |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref> This reply was sent post-haste early on the morning of 1 September and Charles went shooting. About 10 o'clock he received word from his uncle that they should go to The Mount at once.<ref name=Letter110/> When they arrived a few hours later, Charles' father had decided that he would give "all the assistance in my power".<ref name=Letter111>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-111|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 111 – Darwin, R. W. to Wedgwood, Josiah, II, 1 Sept 1831 |access-date=12 April 2019 }}</ref>
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==References==
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| isbn =0-7181-3430-3
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* {{cite book |last1=Freeman |first1=Richard Broke |title=Charles Darwin, a Companion |date=1978 |publisher=Dawson |isbn=978-0-7129-0901-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htILAQAAIAAJ |language=en}}
*{{citation
|last= Herbert
|first= Sandra
|title=Charles Darwin, Geologist
|year= 2005
|publisher=Cornell University Press
|location=Ithaca, N.Y
|isbn=0-8014-4348-2 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Paley |first1=William |title=Natural Theology: Or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity |date=1809 |publisher=J. Faulder |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2GZRAAAAYAAJ |language=en}}
* {{cite book | last=Ruse | first=Michael |author-link=Michael Ruse| title=Monad to man : the concept of progress in evolutionary biology | publisher=Harvard University Press | publication-place=Cambridge, Mass. London | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-674-58220-0 | oclc=436302097}}
* {{cite book
| last=Stott
| first=Rebecca
| author-link = Rebecca Stott
| title=Darwin and the barnacle : the story of one tiny creature and history's most spectacular scientific breakthrough
| publisher=Faber
| publication-place=London
| year=2004
| isbn=978-0-571-21609-3
| oclc=53821905}}
* {{cite book
| last=Stott
| first=Rebecca
| title=Darwin's ghosts : in search of the first evolutionists
| publisher=Bloomsbury
| publication-place=London, New York
| year=2012
| isbn=978-1-4088-3101-4
| oclc=774638991}}
*{{Cite web
| last =van Wyhe
| first = John
| author-link = John van Wyhe
| year = 2008
| title =Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch
| publisher =Darwin Online
| url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html
| access-date =17 November 2008
}}
*{{cite book|first=John|last=van Wyhe|title=Charles Darwin In Cambridge: The Most Joyful Years|date=27 May 2014|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=978-981-4583-99-2}}
* {{cite book
| last =von Sydow
| first =Momme
| year =2005
| contribution =Darwin – A Christian Undermining Christianity? On Self-Undermining Dynamics of Ideas Between Belief and Science
| contribution-url =http://www.psych.uni-goettingen.de/abt/1/sydow/von_Sydow_(2005)_Darwin_A_Christian_Undermining_Christianity.pdf
| editor-last =Knight
| editor-first =David M.
| editor2-last =Eddy
| editor2-first =Matthew D.
| title =Science and Beliefs: From Natural Philosophy to Natural Science, 1700–1900
| location =Burlington
| publisher =Ashgate
| pages =141–156
| isbn =0-7546-3996-7
| access-date =24 April 2014
| archive-date =26 March 2009
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20090326070105/http://www.psych.uni-goettingen.de/abt/1/sydow/von_Sydow_(2005)_Darwin_A_Christian_Undermining_Christianity.pdf
| url-status =bot: unknown
}}
==External links==
*[[The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online]] – [http://darwin-online.org.uk/ Darwin Online]; Darwin's publications, private papers and bibliography, supplementary works including biographies, obituaries and reviews. Free to use, includes items not in public domain.
*{{gutenberg author| id=Charles+Darwin | name=Charles Darwin}}; public domain
*[http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/ Darwin Correspondence Project] Text and notes for most of his letters
{{Darwin}}
[[Category:Charles Darwin|Education]]
[[Category:History of evolutionary biology]]
[[Category:Early lives by individual|Darwin]]' |
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1097763485">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}html.client-js body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .mbox-text-span{margin-left:23px!important}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Charles+Darwin%27s+education%22">"Charles Darwin's education"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Charles+Darwin%27s+education%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?&q=%22Charles+Darwin%27s+education%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Charles+Darwin%27s+education%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Charles+Darwin%27s+education%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Charles+Darwin%27s+education%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Charles Darwin's education</b> gave him a foundation in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_creationism" title="History of creationism">doctrine of Creation</a> prevalent throughout the West at the time, as well as knowledge of medicine and theology. More significantly, it led to his interest in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a>, which culminated in his taking part in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_voyage_of_HMS_Beagle" title="Second voyage of HMS Beagle">the second voyage of the <i>Beagle</i></a> and the eventual <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inception_of_Darwin%27s_theory" title="Inception of Darwin's theory">inception of his theory</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. Although <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a> changed his field of interest several times in these formative years, many of his later discoveries and beliefs were foreshadowed by the influences he had as a youth.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Background_and_influences"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Background and influences</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Childhood"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Childhood</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#University_of_Edinburgh"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">University of Edinburgh</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Natural_history_in_second_year"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Natural history in second year</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Student_societies"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Student societies</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Geology_and_Origin_of_the_Species"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Geology and <i>Origin of the Species</i></span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Sealife_homologies_and_monads"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Sealife homologies and monads</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Summer_1827"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Summer 1827</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#University_of_Cambridge"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">University of Cambridge</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Beetle_collecting"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Beetle collecting</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Second_year_doldrums"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Second year doldrums</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Third_year,_theology_and_natural_history"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Third year, theology and natural history</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Fourth_year_finals_and_later_attitude_towards_mathematics"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Fourth year finals and later attitude towards mathematics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Natural_theology_and_geology"><span class="tocnumber">4.5</span> <span class="toctext">Natural theology and geology</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Voyage_on_the_Beagle"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Voyage on the Beagle</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Background_and_influences">Background and influences</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background and influences">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Darwin_cutout.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Darwin_cutout.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="216" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="216" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Darwin_cutout.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erasmus_Darwin" title="Erasmus Darwin">Erasmus Darwin</a>, Charles Darwin's paternal grandfather, helped influence Darwin's later <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Darwin%27s_views_on_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Darwin's views on religion">religious views</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>A child of the early 19th century, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Robert Darwin</a> grew up in a conservative era when repression of revolutionary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">Radicalism</a> had displaced the 18th century <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> dominated the English scientific establishment. The Church saw natural history as revealing God's underlying plan and as supporting the existing social hierarchy. It rejected Enlightenment philosophers such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> who had argued for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalism</a> and against <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">belief in God</a>.
</p><p>The discovery of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</a> species was explained by theories such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">catastrophism</a>. Catastrophism claimed that animals and plants were periodically annihilated as a result of natural catastrophes and then replaced by new species <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Creatio_ex_nihilo" title="Creatio ex nihilo">created <i>ex nihilo</i></a> (out of nothing). The extinct organisms could then be observed in the fossil record, and their replacements were considered to be immutable.
</p><p>Darwin's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darwin%E2%80%93Wedgwood_family" title="Darwin–Wedgwood family">extended family of Darwins and Wedgwoods</a> was strongly <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarian</a>. One of Darwin’s grandfathers, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erasmus_Darwin" title="Erasmus Darwin">Erasmus Darwin</a>, was a successful physician, and was followed in this by his sons <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Darwin_(medical_student)" title="Charles Darwin (medical student)">Charles Darwin</a>, who died in 1778 while still a promising medical student at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a>, and Doctor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Darwin" title="Robert Darwin">Robert Waring Darwin</a>, Darwin's father, who named his son Charles Robert Darwin, honouring his deceased brother.
</p><p>Erasmus was a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Freethought" title="Freethought">freethinker</a> who hypothesized that all warm-blooded animals sprang from a single living "filament" long, long ago. He further proposed evolution by acquired characteristics, anticipating the theory later developed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a>. Although Charles was born after his grandfather Erasmus died, his father Robert found the texts an invaluable medical guide and Charles read them as a student. Doctor Robert also followed Erasmus in being a freethinker, but as a wealthy society physician was more discreet and attended the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> patronised by his clients.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Childhood">Childhood</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Childhood">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:192px;"><a href="/enwiki//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Charles_Darwin_18888816.jpg" class="new" title="File:Charles Darwin 18888816.jpg">File:Charles Darwin 18888816.jpg</a> <div class="thumbcaption">The seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816, a year before the sudden loss of his mother.</div></div></div>
<p>Charles Robert Darwin was born in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shrewsbury" title="Shrewsbury">Shrewsbury</a>, Shropshire, England on 12 February 1809 at his family home, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Mount,_Shrewsbury" title="The Mount, Shrewsbury">the Mount</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Darwin" title="Robert Darwin">Robert Waring Darwin</a> , and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Susannah_Darwin" title="Susannah Darwin">Susannah Darwin</a> (<i>née</i> Wedgwood). Both families were largely <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarian</a>, though the Wedgwoods were adopting <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a>. Robert Waring Darwin, himself quietly a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Freethought#England_and_France" title="Freethought">freethinker</a>, had baby Charles <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptised</a> on 15 November 1809 in the Anglican <a href="/enwiki/wiki/St_Chad%27s_Church,_Shrewsbury" title="St Chad's Church, Shrewsbury">St Chad's Church, Shrewsbury</a>, but Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarian chapel with their mother.<sup id="cite_ref-skool_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skool-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>As a young child at The Mount, Darwin avidly collected <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Animal_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal shell">animal shells</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philately" title="Philately">postal franks</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egg_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg (biology)">bird's eggs</a>, pebbles and minerals. He was very fond of gardening, an interest his father shared and encouraged, and would follow the family gardener around. Early in 1817, soon after becoming eight years old, he started at the small local school run by a Unitarian minister, the Reverend George Case. At home, Charles learned to ride ponies, shoot and fish. Influenced by his father's fashionable interest in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a>, he tried to make out the names of plants, and was given by his father two elementary natural history books. Childhood games included inventing and writing out complex secret codes. Charles would tell elaborate stories to his family and friends "for the pure pleasure of attracting attention & surprise", including hoaxes such as pretending to find apples he'd hidden earlier, and what he later called the "monstrous fable" which persuaded his schoolfriend that the colour of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Primula" title="Primula">primula</a> flowers could be changed by dosing them with special water. However, his father benignly ignored these passing games, and Charles later recounted that he stopped them because no-one paid any attention.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>In July 1817 his mother died after the sudden onset of violent stomach pains and amidst the grief his older sisters had to take charge, with their father continuing to dominate the household whenever he returned from his doctor's rounds. To the <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1020198016">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac" role="math">8<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>-year-old Charles this situation was not a great change, as his mother had frequently been ill and her available time taken up by social duties, so his upbringing had largely been in the hands of his three older sisters who were nearly adults by then. In later years he had difficulty in remembering his mother, and his only memory of her death and funeral was of the children being sent for and going into her room, and his "Father meeting us crying afterwards".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>As had been planned previously, in September 1818 Charles joined his older brother <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erasmus_Alvey_Darwin" title="Erasmus Alvey Darwin">Erasmus Alvey Darwin</a> (nicknamed "Eras") in staying as a boarder at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shrewsbury_School" title="Shrewsbury School">Shrewsbury School</a>, where he loathed the required <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">rote learning</a>, and would try to visit home when he could, but also made many friends and developed interests.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199523–27_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199523–27-7">[7]</a></sup> Years later, he recalled being "very fond of playing at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bandy" title="Bandy">Hocky on the ice</a> in skates" in the winter time.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> He continued collecting minerals and insects, and family holidays in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> brought Charles new opportunities, but an older sister ruled that "it was not right to kill insects" for his collections, and he had to find dead ones. He read <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gilbert_White" title="Gilbert White">Gilbert White</a>'s <i>The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne</i> and took up <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Birdwatching" title="Birdwatching">birdwatching</a>. Eras took an interest in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> and Charles became his assistant, with the two using a garden shed at their home fitted out as a laboratory and extending their interests to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">crystallography</a>. When Eras went on to a medical course at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>, Charles continued to rush home to the shed on weekends, and for this received the nickname "Gas". The headmaster was not amused at this diversion from studying the classics, calling him a <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pococurante" class="extiw" title="wikt:pococurante">poco curante</a></i> (trifler) in front of the boys. At fifteen, his interest shifted to hunting and bird-shooting at local estates, particularly at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maer,_Staffordshire" title="Maer, Staffordshire">Maer</a> in Staffordshire, the home of his relatives, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wedgwood" title="Wedgwood">Wedgwoods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199528–34_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199528–34-9">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> His exasperated father once told him off, saying "You care for nothing but shooting, dogs, and rat-catching, and you will be a disgrace to yourself and all your family."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>His father decided that he should leave school earlier than usual, and in 1825 at the age of sixteen Charles was to go along with his brother who was to attend the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a> for a year to obtain medical qualifications.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> Charles spent the summer as an apprentice doctor, helping his father with treating the poor of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</a>. He had half a dozen patients of his own, and would note their symptoms for his father to make up the prescriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="University_of_Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: University of Edinburgh">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Edinburgh_University_1827.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Edinburgh_University_1827.jpg/250px-Edinburgh_University_1827.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="179" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Edinburgh_University_1827.jpg/375px-Edinburgh_University_1827.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Edinburgh_University_1827.jpg/500px-Edinburgh_University_1827.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="860" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Edinburgh_University_1827.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Darwin attended the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a> to study medicine, at a time when <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_College,_University_of_Edinburgh" title="Old College, University of Edinburgh">its new buildings</a> (shown here) were still under construction. View along <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Bridge,_Edinburgh" title="South Bridge, Edinburgh">South Bridge Street</a>, towards the bridge crossing high above the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cowgate" title="Cowgate">Cowgate</a>. On the left, South College Street leads up to Lothian Street.</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:142px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Charles_Darwin_plaque,_Lothian_Street,_Edinburgh.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Charles_Darwin_plaque%2C_Lothian_Street%2C_Edinburgh.JPG/140px-Charles_Darwin_plaque%2C_Lothian_Street%2C_Edinburgh.JPG" decoding="async" width="140" height="161" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Charles_Darwin_plaque%2C_Lothian_Street%2C_Edinburgh.JPG/210px-Charles_Darwin_plaque%2C_Lothian_Street%2C_Edinburgh.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Charles_Darwin_plaque%2C_Lothian_Street%2C_Edinburgh.JPG/280px-Charles_Darwin_plaque%2C_Lothian_Street%2C_Edinburgh.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1546" data-file-height="1781" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Charles_Darwin_plaque,_Lothian_Street,_Edinburgh.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Plaque in Lothian Street, indicating where Darwin lived while studying at Edinburgh</div></div></div>
<p>In October 1825, Darwin went to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">Edinburgh University</a> to study medicine, accompanied by Eras doing his external hospital study. For a few days, while looking for rooms to rent, the brothers stayed at the Star Hotel in Princes Street.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199122_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199122-14">[14]</a></sup> They took up an introduction to a friend of their father, Dr. Hawley, who led them on a walk around the town. They admired it immensely; Darwin thought Bridge Street "most extraordinary" as, on looking over the sides, "instead of a fine river we saw a stream of people".<sup id="cite_ref-letter_16_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letter_16-15">[15]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> They found comfortable lodgings near the University at 11 Lothian Street,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199122_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199122-14">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rough_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rough-17">[17]</a></sup> on 22 October Charles signed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Matriculation" title="Matriculation">matriculation</a> book, and enrolled in courses.<sup id="cite_ref-Ashworth_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashworth-18">[18]</a></sup> That evening, they moved in.<sup id="cite_ref-letter_16_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letter_16-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>Darwin attended classes from their start on 26 October.<sup id="cite_ref-Ashworth_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashworth-18">[18]</a></sup> By early January he had formed opinions on the lecturers, and complained that most were boring.<sup id="cite_ref-Letter20_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter20-19">[19]</a></sup>
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Andrew_Duncan_(physician,_born_1773)" title="Andrew Duncan (physician, born 1773)">Andrew Duncan, the younger</a>, taught <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dietitian" title="Dietitian">dietetics</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">pharmacy</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Materia_medica" title="Materia medica">materia medica</a>. Darwin thought the latter stupid, and said Duncan was "so very learned that his wisdom has left no room for his sense".<sup id="cite_ref-Letter20_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter20-19">[19]</a></sup> His lectures began at 8<span class="nowrap"> </span>a.m. – years later Darwin recalled "a whole, cold, breakfastless hour on the properties of rhubarb!",<sup id="cite_ref-Letter_1082_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter_1082-20">[20]</a></sup> but they usefully introduced him to the <i>natural system</i> of classification of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustin_de_Candolle" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustin de Candolle">Augustin de Candolle</a>, who emphasised the "war" between competing species.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199127,_43_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199127,_43-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>From 10<span class="nowrap"> </span>a.m., the brothers greatly enjoyed the spectacular chemistry lectures of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Charles_Hope" title="Thomas Charles Hope">Thomas Charles Hope</a>, but they did not join a student society giving hands-on experience. Anatomy and surgery classes began at noon, Darwin was disgusted by the dull and outdated anatomy lectures of professor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_Monro_(tertius)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Monro (tertius)">Alexander Monro <i>tertius</i></a>, many students went instead to private independent schools, with new ideas of teaching by dissecting corpses (giving clandestine trade to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Body-snatching" class="mw-redirect" title="Body-snatching">bodysnatchers</a>) – his brother went to a "charming Lecturer", the surgeon <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Lizars" title="John Lizars">John Lizars</a>. Darwin later regretted his own failure to persevere and learn dissection.The city was in an uproar over political and religious controversies, and the competitive system where professors were dependent on attracting student fees for income meant that the university was riven with argumentative feuds and conflicts. Monro's lectures included vehement opposition to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Combe" title="George Combe">George Combe</a>'s daringly <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialist</a> ideas of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">phrenology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Ashworth_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashworth-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-B45-62_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B45-62-22">[22]</a></sup> but Darwin found "his lectures on human anatomy as dull, as he was himself, and the subject disgusted me." Eventually, to Darwin's mind there were "no advantages and many disadvantages in lectures compared with reading."<sup id="cite_ref-auto46_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto46-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>Darwin regularly attended clinical wards in the hospital despite his great distress about some of the cases, but could only bear to attend surgical operations twice, rushing away before they were completed due to his distress at the brutality of surgery before <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anaesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaesthetic">anaesthetics</a>. He was long haunted by the memory, particularly of an operation on a child.<sup id="cite_ref-B45-62_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B45-62-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto46_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto46-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>At the end of January, Darwin wrote home that they had "been very dissipated", having dined with Dr. Hawley then gone to the theatre with a relative of the botanist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Kaye_Greville" title="Robert Kaye Greville">Robert Kaye Greville</a>. They also visited <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Andrew_Duncan_(physician,_born_1744)" title="Andrew Duncan (physician, born 1744)">"the old Dr. Duncan"</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199147_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199147-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Letter22_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter22-25">[25]</a></sup> who spoke with the warmest affection about his student and friend <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Darwin_(medical_student)" title="Charles Darwin (medical student)">Charles Darwin</a> (Darwin's uncle) who had died in 1778.<sup id="cite_ref-Woodall_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodall-26">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Krause1879_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krause1879-27">[27]</a></sup> Darwin wrote "What an extraordinary old man he is, now being past 80, & continuing to lecture", though Dr. Hawley thought Duncan was now failing. Darwin added that "I am going to learn to stuff birds, from a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/blackamoor" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:blackamoor">blackamoor</a>... he only charges one guinea, for an hour every day for two months".<sup id="cite_ref-Letter22_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter22-25">[25]</a></sup> These lessons in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taxidermy" title="Taxidermy">taxidermy</a> were with the freed black slave <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Edmonstone" title="John Edmonstone">John Edmonstone</a>, who also lived in Lothian Street. Darwin often sat with him to hear tales of the South American rain-forest of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a>, and later remembered him as "a very pleasant and intelligent man."<sup id="cite_ref-rough_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rough-17">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-B45-62_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B45-62-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto51_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto51-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p><p>The brothers kept each other company, and made extensive use of the library. Darwin's reading included novels and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell</a>'s <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Life_of_Samuel_Johnson" title="Life of Samuel Johnson">Life of Johnson</a></i>. He had brought <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a> books with him, including a copy of <i>A Naturalist's Companion</i> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Graves_(biologist)" title="George Graves (biologist)">George Graves</a>, bought in August in anticipation of seeing the seaside. He borrowed similar books from the library,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199546,_49_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199546,_49-29">[29]</a></sup> and also read <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Fleming_(naturalist)" title="John Fleming (naturalist)">Fleming</a>'s <i>Philosophy of Zoology</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200425–26_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200425–26-30">[30]</a></sup>
</p><p>The brothers went for regular Sunday walks to the seaport of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leith" title="Leith">Leith</a> and the shores of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Firth_of_Forth" title="Firth of Forth">Firth of Forth</a>. Darwin kept a diary recording bird observations, and their seashore finds which began with a sea mouse (<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aphrodita_aculeata" title="Aphrodita aculeata">Aphrodita aculeata</a>)</i> he caught on 2 February and identified from his copy of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Turton" title="William Turton">William Turton</a>'s <i>British fauna</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199565–67_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199565–67-31">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-red_diary_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-red_diary-32">[32]</a></sup> A few days later Darwin noted "Erasmus caught a Cuttle fish", wondering if it was "Sepia Loligo",<sup id="cite_ref-red_diary_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-red_diary-32">[32]</a></sup> then from his textbooks identified it as <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_flying_squid" title="European flying squid">Loligo sagittata</a></i> (a squid).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200426_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200426-33">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> A few days later, Darwin returned with a basin and caught a globular orange zoophyte, then after storms at the start of March saw the shore "literally covered with Cuttle fish". He touched them so they emitted ink and swam away, and also found a damaged starfish beginning to regrow its arms. Eras completed his external hospital study, and returned to Shrewsbury, Darwin found other zoophytes and, on the shore "between Leith & Portobello", caught more sea mice which "when thrown into the sea rolled themselves up like hedgehogs."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200426–28_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200426–28-35">[35]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-letter_28_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letter_28-36">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 27 March, Susan Darwin wrote to pass on their father's disapproval of Darwin's "plan of picking & chusing what lectures you like to attend", as "you cannot have enough information to know what may be of use to you". His son's "present indulgent way" would make studies "utterly useless", and he wanted Darwin to complete the course.<sup id="cite_ref-letter_29_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letter_29-37">[37]</a></sup> Darwin wrote home apologetically on 8 April with the news that "Dr. Hope has been giving some very good Lectures on Electricity &c. and I am very glad I stayed for them", requesting money to fund staying on another 9 to 14 days.<sup id="cite_ref-letter_30_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letter_30-38">[38]</a></sup>
</p><p>During his summer holiday Charles read <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zo%C3%B6nomia" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoönomia">Zoönomia</a></i> by his grandfather <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erasmus_Darwin" title="Erasmus Darwin">Erasmus Darwin</a>, which his father valued for medical guidance but which also proposed evolution by acquired characteristics. In June he went on a walking tour in North Wales.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Natural_history_in_second_year">Natural history in second year</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Natural history in second year">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In October Charles returned on his own for his second year, and took smaller lodgings in a top flat at 21 Lothian Street. He joined the required classes of Practice of Physic and Midwifery, but by then realised he would inherit property and need not make "any strenuous effort to learn medicine". For his own interests, and to meet other students, he joined <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Jameson" title="Robert Jameson">Robert Jameson</a>'s <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a> course which started on 8 November. It was unique in Britain, covering a wide range of topics including geology, zoology, mineralogy, meteorology and botany.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199568–69_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199568–69-39">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ashworth_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashworth-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>Jameson was a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neptunism" title="Neptunism">Neptunian</a> geologist who taught <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abraham_Gottlob_Werner" title="Abraham Gottlob Werner">Werner</a>'s view that all rock <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">strata</a> had precipitated from a universal ocean, and founded the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wernerian_Natural_History_Society" title="Wernerian Natural History Society">Wernerian Natural History Society</a> to discuss and publish science. He encouraged debate, and in lectures pointedly disagreed with chemistry professor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Charles_Hope" title="Thomas Charles Hope">Hope</a> who held that granites had crystallised from molten crust, influenced by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plutonism" title="Plutonism">Plutonism</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a> who had been Hope's friend. In 1827, Jameson told a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royal_commission" title="Royal commission">commission of inquiry</a> into the curriculum that "It would be a misfortune if we all had the same way of thinking... Dr Hope is decidedly opposed to me, and I am opposed to Dr Hope, and between us we make the subject interesting."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199569–71_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199569–71-40">[40]</a></sup>
</p><p>Jameson edited the quarterly <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edinburgh_New_Philosophical_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal">Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal</a></i>, with an international reputation for publishing science. It could touch on controversial subjects; in the April–October 1826 edition an anonymous paper proposed that geological study of fossils could "lift the veil that hangs over the origin and progress of the organic world". It praised <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Lamarck's</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">transmutation of species</a> concept that from "the simplest worms" arising by spontaneous generation and affected by external circumstances, all other animals "are evolved from these in a double series, and in a gradual manner."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> This was the first use of the word "evolved" in a modern sense,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> and the first significant statement to relate Lamarck's concepts to the geological fossil record.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199581_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199581-43">[43]</a></sup> It seems likely that Jameson wrote it, but it could have been a former student of his, possibly <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ami_Bou%C3%A9" title="Ami Boué">Ami Boué</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jenkins_Neptunism_and_Transformism_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jenkins_Neptunism_and_Transformism-44">[44]</a></sup>
</p><p>Through family connections, Darwin was introduced to the reforming educationalist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leonard_Horner" title="Leonard Horner">Leonard Horner</a> who took him to the opening of the 1826–1827 session of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a>, presided over by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Sir Walter Scott</a>. Darwin "looked at him and at the whole scene with some awe and reverence".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199572–73_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199572–73-45">[45]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Student_societies">Student societies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Student societies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>To make friends, Darwin had <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Visiting_card" title="Visiting card">visiting cards</a> printed,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199567_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199567-46">[46]</a></sup> and joined student societies. He attended the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royal_Medical_Society" title="Royal Medical Society">Royal Medical Society</a> regularly though uninterested in its medical topics, and remembered <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Kay-Shuttleworth" title="James Kay-Shuttleworth">James Kay-Shuttleworth</a> as a good speaker.<sup id="cite_ref-auto51_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto51-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 21 November 1826 Darwin (17 years old) petitioned to join the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plinian_Society" title="Plinian Society">Plinian Society</a>, student-run, with professors excluded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199573–74_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199573–74-47">[47]</a></sup> At its Tuesday evening meetings, members read short papers, sometimes controversial, mostly on natural history topics or about their research excursions. The secretary minuted the titles, any publication was in other journals. Three of its five presidents proposed him for membership: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_A._F._Browne" title="William A. F. Browne">William A. F. Browne</a> (21), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Coldstream" title="John Coldstream">John Coldstream</a> (19) and medical student George Fife (19).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq6_102–103]_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq6_102–103]-48">[48]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200431–33_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200431–33-49">[49]</a></sup> A week later, Darwin was elected, as was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Rathbone_Greg" title="William Rathbone Greg">William R. Greg</a> (17) who offered a controversial talk to prove "the lower animals possess every faculty & propensity of the human mind", in a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialist</a> view of nature as just physical forces. Darwin was elected to its Council on 5 December, at the same meeting Browne, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">radical</a> demagogue opposed to church doctrines, attacked <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Bell" title="Charles Bell">Charles Bell</a>'s <i>Anatomy and Physiology of Expression</i> (which in 1872 Darwin addressed in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals" title="The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals">The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals</a></i>), flatly rejecting Bell's belief that the Creator had endowed humans with unique anatomical features. Greg and Browne were both avid proponents of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">phrenology</a> to undermine aristocratic rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199131–33_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199131–33-50">[50]</a></sup> Darwin found the meetings stimulating and attended 17, missing only one.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq6_102–103]_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq6_102–103]-48">[48]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Samuel_Bough_-_Newhaven_harbour_on_the_Firth_of_Forth.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Samuel_Bough_-_Newhaven_harbour_on_the_Firth_of_Forth.jpg/220px-Samuel_Bough_-_Newhaven_harbour_on_the_Firth_of_Forth.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Samuel_Bough_-_Newhaven_harbour_on_the_Firth_of_Forth.jpg/330px-Samuel_Bough_-_Newhaven_harbour_on_the_Firth_of_Forth.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Samuel_Bough_-_Newhaven_harbour_on_the_Firth_of_Forth.jpg/440px-Samuel_Bough_-_Newhaven_harbour_on_the_Firth_of_Forth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2167" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Samuel_Bough_-_Newhaven_harbour_on_the_Firth_of_Forth.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>19th century; fishing boats at Newhaven, view over Firth of Forth to Fife.</div></div></div>
<p>Darwin became friends with Coldstream who was "prim, formal, highly religious and most kind-hearted".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq50itemIDF1497viewtypetext_48]_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq50itemIDF1497viewtypetext_48]-51">[51]</a></sup> Coldstream's interest in the skies and identifying sea creatures on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Firth_of_Forth" title="Firth of Forth">Firth of Forth</a> shore went back to his childhood in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leith" title="Leith">Leith</a>. He had joined the Plinian in 1823, his diary around then noted self-blame and torment, but he persisted and in 1824 became one of its presidents. He regularly published in the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edinburgh_Philosophical_Journal" title="Edinburgh Philosophical Journal">Edinburgh Philosophical Journal</a></i>, and also assisted the research of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Edmond_Grant" title="Robert Edmond Grant">Robert Edmond Grant</a>, who had studied under Jameson before graduating in 1814, and was researching simple <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine lifeforms</a> for evidence of the transmutation conjectured in Erasmus Darwin's <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zoonomia" title="Zoonomia">Zoonomia</a></i> and Lamarck's writings. Grant was active in the Plinian and on the council of the Wernerian Society, where he took Darwin as a guest to meetings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott20046–8,_29–30_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott20046–8,_29–30-52">[52]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199575–_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199575–-53">[53]</a></sup> The Wernerian was visited by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_James_Audubon" title="John James Audubon">John James Audubon</a> three times that winter,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq16_112]_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq16_112]-54">[54]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Audubon1868_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Audubon1868-55">[55]</a></sup> and Darwin saw his lectures on the habits of North American birds.<sup id="cite_ref-auto51_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto51-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Inchkeith_from_Pettycur_Bay,_Fife.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Inchkeith_from_Pettycur_Bay%2C_Fife.JPG/220px-Inchkeith_from_Pettycur_Bay%2C_Fife.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Inchkeith_from_Pettycur_Bay%2C_Fife.JPG/330px-Inchkeith_from_Pettycur_Bay%2C_Fife.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Inchkeith_from_Pettycur_Bay%2C_Fife.JPG/440px-Inchkeith_from_Pettycur_Bay%2C_Fife.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2546" data-file-height="1317" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Inchkeith_from_Pettycur_Bay,_Fife.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inchkeith" title="Inchkeith">Inchkeith</a>, seen from Fife. The old lighthouse on the skyline, and modern fortifications.</div></div></div>
<p>With Coldstream, Darwin walked along the shore looking for animals in tidal pools, and became friends with oyster fishermen from nearby <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Newhaven,_Edinburgh" title="Newhaven, Edinburgh">Newhaven</a> who took them along to pick specimens from the catches. He went long walks with Grant and others, frequently with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Francis_Ainsworth" title="William Francis Ainsworth">William Ainsworth</a>, one of the Presidents who became a Wernerian geologist. As well as the shores of the Forth, he and Ainsworth took boat trips to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fife" title="Fife">Fife</a> and the islands. On the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isle_of_May" title="Isle of May">Isle of May</a> with the botanist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Kaye_Greville" title="Robert Kaye Greville">Robert Kaye Greville</a>, this "eminent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cryptogam" title="Cryptogam">cryptogamist</a>" laughed so much at screeching seabirds that he had to "lie down on the greensward to enjoy his prolonged <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cachinnation" class="extiw" title="wikt:cachinnation">cachinnation</a>." On another trip, Darwin and Ainsworth got stuck overnight on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inchkeith" title="Inchkeith">Inchkeith</a> and had to stay in the lighthouse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200432–34_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200432–34-56">[56]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bettany_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bettany-57">[57]</a></sup>
Routes to the Firth soon became familiar, and after another student presented a paper to the Plinian in the common literary form of describing the sights from a journey, Darwin and William Kay (another president) drafted a parody, to be read taking turns, describing "a complete failure" of an excursion from the university via <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holyrood_Palace" title="Holyrood Palace">Holyrood House</a>, where <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holyrood_Park#Salisbury_Crags" title="Holyrood Park">Salisbury Craigs</a>, ruined by quarrying, were completely hidden by "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Haar_(fog)" title="Haar (fog)">dense & impenetrable mist</a>", along a dirty track to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portobello,_Edinburgh" title="Portobello, Edinburgh">Portobello shore</a>, where "Inch Keith, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bass_Rock" title="Bass Rock">Bas-rock</a>, the distant hills in Fifeshire" were similarly hidden – the sole sight of interest, as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Dr Johnson</a> had said, was the "high-road to England". High tide prevented any seashore finds so, rejecting "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Haggis" title="Haggis">Haggis</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collops" title="Collops">Scotch Collops</a>", they dined on (English) "Beef-steak".<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Geology_and_Origin_of_the_Species">Geology and <i>Origin of the Species</i></span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Geology and Origin of the Species">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Jameson" title="Robert Jameson">Jameson</a>'s own main topic was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>, his <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a> course covered zoology and geology, with instruction on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">hydrography</a>, and some discussion on botany as it related to "the animal and mineral kingdoms." Lectures began on 9 November and were on five days a week for five months (ending a week into April). Zoology began with the natural history of man, followed by chief classes of vertebrates and invertebrates, then concluded with philosophy of zoology starting with "Origin of the Species of Animals". As well as field lectures, the course made full use of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Museum_of_Scotland" title="National Museum of Scotland">Royal Museum of the University</a> which Jameson had developed into one of the largest in Europe. Darwin's flat was near the entrance to the museum in the western part of the university,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq3_99–102]_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq3_99–102]-59">[59]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chambers_St_museum_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chambers_St_museum-60">[60]</a></sup> he assisted and made full use of the collections, spending hours studying, taking notes and stuffing specimens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199141–43_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199141–43-61">[61]</a></sup> He "had much interesting natural-history talk" with the curator, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_MacGillivray" title="William MacGillivray">William MacGillivray</a>, who later published a book on the birds of Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq55itemIDF1497viewtypetext_53]_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq55itemIDF1497viewtypetext_53]-62">[62]</a></sup>
</p><p>The geology course gave Darwin a grounding in mineralogy and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a> geology. He bought Jameson's 1821 <i>Manual of Mineralogy</i>, its first part classifies minerals comprehensively on the system of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Friedrich_Mohs" title="Friedrich Mohs">Friedrich Mohs</a>, the second part includes concepts of field geology such as defining <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Strike_and_dip" title="Strike and dip">strike and dip</a> of strata. Darwin heavily <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Text_annotation" title="Text annotation">annotated</a> his copy of the book, sometimes when in lectures (though not always paying attention), and noted where it related to museum exhibits.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbert200532–36_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbert200532–36-63">[63]</a></sup> He also read Jameson's translation of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Cuvier</a>'s <i>Essay on the Theory of the Earth </i>, covering fossils and extinctions in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">revolutions</a> such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flood_geology" title="Flood geology">the Flood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199571–72_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199571–72-64">[64]</a></sup> In the preface, Jameson said geology discloses "the history of the first origin of organic beings, and traces their gradual developement [<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] from the monade to man himself".<sup id="cite_ref-Secord_Lamarckians_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Secord_Lamarckians-65">[65]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cuvier1827_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cuvier1827-66">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>The lectures were heavy going for a young student,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbert200532–36_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbert200532–36-63">[63]</a></sup> and Darwin remembered Jameson as an "old brown, dry stick",<sup id="cite_ref-letter_1575_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letter_1575-67">[67]</a></sup> He recalled Jameson's lectures as "incredibly dull. The sole effect they produced on me was the determination never as long as I lived to read a book on Geology or in any way to study the science. Yet I feel sure that I was prepared for a philosophical treatment of the subject", and he had been delighted when he read an explanation for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glacial_erratic" title="Glacial erratic">erratic boulders</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq54itemIDF1497viewtypetext_52]_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq54itemIDF1497viewtypetext_52]-68">[68]</a></sup>
</p><p>Jameson still held to Werner's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neptunism" title="Neptunism">Neptunist</a> concept that phenomena such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trap_rock" title="Trap rock">trap</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dike_(geology)" title="Dike (geology)">dykes</a> had precipitated from a universal ocean. By then, geologists increasingly accepted that trap rock had <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">igneous</a> origins, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plutonism" title="Plutonism">Plutonist</a> view promoted by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Charles_Hope" title="Thomas Charles Hope">Hope</a>, who had been <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a>'s friend. From hearing exponents of both sides, Darwin learned the range of current opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbert200532–36_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbert200532–36-63">[63]</a></sup> His grandfather Erasmus had favoured Plutonism, and Darwin later supported Huttonian ideas. Almost fifty years after the course, Darwin recalled Jameson giving a field lecture at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holyrood_Park#Salisbury_Crags" title="Holyrood Park">Salisbury Crags</a>, "discoursing on a trap-dyke" with "volcanic rocks all around us", saying it was "a fissure filled with sediment from above, adding with a sneer that there were men who maintained that it had been injected from beneath in a molten condition. When I think of this lecture, I do not wonder that I determined never to attend to Geology."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199569–71_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199569–71-40">[40]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq55itemIDF1497viewtypetext_53]_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq55itemIDF1497viewtypetext_53]-62">[62]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sealife_homologies_and_monads">Sealife homologies and monads</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sealife homologies and monads">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In his <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Life_and_Letters_of_Charles_Darwin" title="The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin">autobiography</a>, begun in 1876, Darwin remembered <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Edmond_Grant" title="Robert Edmond Grant">Robert Edmond Grant</a> as "dry and formal in manner, but with much enthusiasm beneath this outer crust. He one day, when we were walking together burst forth in high admiration of Lamarck and his views on evolution. I listened in silent astonishment, and as far as I can judge, without any effect on my mind. I had previously read the Zoönomia of my grandfather, in which similar views are maintained, but without producing any effect on me."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq51itemIDF1497viewtypetext_49]_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq51itemIDF1497viewtypetext_49]-69">[69]</a></sup>
</p><p>Grant's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">doctoral dissertation</a>, prepared in 1813, cited Erasmus Darwin's <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zo%C3%B6nomia" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoönomia">Zoönomia</a></i> which suggested that over geological time all organic life could have gradually arisen from a kind of "living filament" capable of heritable self-improvement. He found in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Lamarck</a>'s similar <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">uniformitarian</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lamarckism#Lamarck's_evolutionary_framework" title="Lamarckism">theoretical framework</a> a similar idea that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">spontaneously generated</a> simple animal <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monad_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Monad (biology)">monads</a></i> continually <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">improved in complexity and perfection</a>, while use or disuse of features to adapt to environmental changes diversified species and genera.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott20046–10_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott20046–10-70">[70]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse200946–47_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse200946–47-71">[71]</a></sup>
</p><p>Funded by a small inheritance, Grant went to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_France" title="National Museum of Natural History, France">Paris University</a> in 1815, to study with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Cuvier</a>, the leading <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">comparative anatomist</a>, and his rival <a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Geoffroy_Saint-Hilaire" title="Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire">Geoffroy</a>. Cuvier held that species were fixed, grouped into four entirely separate <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Le_R%C3%A8gne_Animal" title="Le Règne Animal">embranchements</a></i>, and any <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">similarity of structures</a> between species was merely due to functional needs. Grant favoured Geoffroy's view that similarities showed "unity of form", similar to Lamarck's ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott20046–10_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott20046–10-70">[70]</a></sup>
</p><p>Like Lamarck, Grant investigated <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marine_invertebrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine invertebrate">marine invertebrates</a>, particularly <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a> as naturalists disputed whether they were plants or animals. After specimen collecting and research in European universities, he returned to Edinburgh in 1820. Many species lived in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Firth_of_Forth" title="Firth of Forth">Firth of Forth</a>, and Grant got winter use of <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Walford,_Prestonpans&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walford, Prestonpans (page does not exist)">Walford House</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prestonpans" title="Prestonpans">Prestonpans</a>, with a garden gate in its high seawall leading to rock pools. He kept sponges alive in glass jars for long term observation, and at night used his microscope by candle light to dissect specimens in a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Watch_glass" title="Watch glass">watch glass</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200410–13_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200410–13-72">[72]</a></sup>
</p><p>In spring 1825 at the <i>Wernerian</i>, Grant dramatically dissected <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">molluscs</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_flying_squid" title="European flying squid">squid</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Platydoris_argo" title="Platydoris argo">sea-slugs</a>) showing they had a simple pancreas analogous to the complex pancreas in fish,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200414_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200414-74">[74]</a></sup> controversially suggesting <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">shared ancestry</a> between molluscs and Cuvier's "higher" <i>embranchement</i> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199139_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199139-75">[75]</a></sup> In the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edinburgh_Philosophical_Journal" title="Edinburgh Philosophical Journal">Edinburgh Philosophical Journal</a></i> Grant revealed that sponges had <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cilium" title="Cilium">cilia</a> to draw in water and expel waste, and their "ova" (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larvae</a>) were self-propelled by cilia in "spontaneous motion" like that seen by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Filippo_Cavolini" title="Filippo Cavolini">Cavolini</a> in "ova" of the soft coral <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eunicella_cavolini" title="Eunicella cavolini">Gorgonia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200414–17_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200414–17-77">[77]</a></sup> In October he said simple freshwater <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spongilla" title="Spongilla">Spongilla</a></i> were ancient, ancestral to complex sponges that had adapted to sea changes,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksido0jN9RdWz1MCpgPA100_100]_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksido0jN9RdWz1MCpgPA100_100]-79">[79]</a></sup> as the earth cooled and changing conditions drove life towards higher, hotter blooded forms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199139–41_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199139–41-80">[80]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jenkins_Neptunism_and_Transformism_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jenkins_Neptunism_and_Transformism-44">[44]</a></sup> In May 1826 he said that "future observations" would determine if self-propelling "ova" were "general with zoophytes",<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup> his conclusions published in December included a detailed description of how sponge ova contain "monads-like bodies", and "swim about" by "the rapid vibration of ciliæ".<sup id="cite_ref-sponge_cilia_December_1826_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sponge_cilia_December_1826-82">[82]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Flustra_foliacea.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flustra_foliacea.jpg/220px-Flustra_foliacea.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flustra_foliacea.jpg/330px-Flustra_foliacea.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flustra_foliacea.jpg/440px-Flustra_foliacea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Flustra_foliacea.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Seaweed-like <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flustra_foliacea" title="Flustra foliacea">Flustra foliacea</a></i> – <i>Carbasea</i> is similar.</div></div></div>
<p>Coldstream assisted Grant, and that winter Darwin joined the search, learning what to look for, and dissection techniques using a portable microscope. On 16 March 1827 he noted in a new notebook that he had "Procured from the black rocks at Leith" a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyclopterus_lumpus" title="Cyclopterus lumpus">lumpfish</a>, "Dissected it with Dr Grant". Two days later he recorded "ova from the Newhaven rocks" said to be of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doris_(gastropod)" title="Doris (gastropod)">Doris</a> [sea slug] "in rapid motion, & continued so for 7 days", then on 19 March saw ova of the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flustra_foliacea" title="Flustra foliacea">Flustra foliacea</a></i> in motion.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup> As recalled in his autobiography, he made "one interesting little discovery" that "the so-called ova of Flustra had the power of independent movement by means of cilia, and were in fact larvæ", and also that little black globular bodies found sticking to empty oyster shells, once thought to be the young of <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Himanthalia_elongata" title="Himanthalia elongata">Fucus loreus</a></i>, were egg-cases (cocoons) of the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pontobdella_muricata" title="Pontobdella muricata">Pontobdella muricata</a></i> (skate leech). He believed "Dr. Grant noticed my small discovery in his excellent memoir on Flustra."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq52itemIDF1497viewtypetext_50–51]_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq52itemIDF1497viewtypetext_50–51]-84">[84]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Pontobdella_muricata.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Pontobdella_muricata.JPG/220px-Pontobdella_muricata.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Pontobdella_muricata.JPG/330px-Pontobdella_muricata.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Pontobdella_muricata.JPG/440px-Pontobdella_muricata.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1998" data-file-height="1412" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Pontobdella_muricata.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pontobdella_muricata" title="Pontobdella muricata">Pontobdella muricata</a></i> (Skate leech).</div></div></div>
<p>The <i>Wernerian</i> society minutes for 24 March record that Grant read "a Memoir regarding the Anatomy and Mode of Generation of Flustræ , illustrated by preparations and drawings", also a notice on "the Mode of Generation" of the skate leech.<sup id="cite_ref-Wernerian_1832p564_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wernerian_1832p564-85">[85]</a></sup> Three days later, on 27 March, the Plinian Society minutes record that Darwin "communicated to the Society" two discoveries, that "the ova of the flustra possess organs of motion", and the small black "ovum" of the <i>Pontobdella muricata</i>. "At the request of the Society he promised to draw up an account of the facts and to lay them it, together with specimens, before the Society next evening."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup> This was Darwin's first public presentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Plin_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plin-87">[87]</a></sup> In the next item, Browne argued that mind and consciousness were simply aspects of brain activity, not "souls" or spiritual entities separate from the body. Following a furious debate, the minute of this item was crossed out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199138_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199138-88">[88]</a></sup>
</p><p>After recording more finds in April, Darwin copied into his notebook under the heading "20th" his first scientific papers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200435–36_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200435–36-89">[89]</a></sup> Newhaven dredge boats had provided the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbasea" title="Carbasea">Flustra carbasea</a></i> specimens, when "highly magnified" the "ciliae of the ova" were "seen in rapid motion", and "That such ova had organs of motion does not appear to have been hitherto observed either by Lamarck Cuvier Lamouroux or any other author." He wrote "This & the following communication was read both before the Wernerian & Plinian Societies", and wrote up a detailed account of his <i>Pontobdella</i> findings.<sup id="cite_ref-1st_paper_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1st_paper-90">[90]</a></sup> At the Plinian meeting, on 3 April, Darwin presented the Society with "A specimen of the <i>Pontobdella muricata</i>, with its ova & young ones", but there is no record of the papers being presented or kept.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq8_104]_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq8_104]-91">[91]</a></sup>
</p><p>Grant in his publication about the leech eggs in the <i>Edinburgh Journal of Science</i> for July 1827 acknowledged "The merit of having first ascertained them to belong to that animal is due to my zealous young friend Mr Charles Darwin of Shrewsbury", the first time Darwin's name appeared in print.<sup id="cite_ref-leech_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leech-92">[92]</a></sup> Grant's lengthy memoir read before the Wernerian on 24 March was split between the April and October issues of the <i>Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal</i>, with more detail than Darwin had given:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq9_105–106]_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq9_105–106]-93">[93]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup> he had seen ova (larvae) of <i>Flustra carbasea</i> in February, after they swam about they stuck to the glass and began to form a new colony. He noted the similarity of the cilia in "other ova", with reference to his 1826 publication describing sponge ova.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sponge_cilia_December_1826_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sponge_cilia_December_1826-82">[82]</a></sup> Darwin was not given credit for what he felt was his discovery,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199586–87_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199586–87-96">[96]</a></sup> and in 1871, when he discussed "the paltry feeling" of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">scientific priority</a> with his daughter <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henrietta_Litchfield" title="Henrietta Litchfield">Henrietta</a>, she got him to repeat the story of "his first introduction to the jealousy of scientific men"; when he had seen the ova of <i>Flustra</i> move he "rushed instantly to Grant" who, rather than being "delighted with so curious a fact", told Darwin "it was very unfair of him to work at Prof G's subject & in fact that he shd take it ill if my Father published it."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup> In European university practice, team leaders reported research without naming assistants, and clearly the find was derivative from Grant's research programme: it seems likely he had already seen the ova, like the sponge ova, moving by cilia. Grant phased announcement of discoveries rather than publishing quickly, and was now looking for a professorship before he ran out of funds, but young Darwin was disappointed. As Jameson noted in October,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199586–87_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199586–87-96">[96]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200436–37_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200436–37-98">[98]</a></sup> back in 1823 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Graham_Dalyell" title="John Graham Dalyell">Dalyell</a> had observed the <i>Pontobdella</i> young leaving their cocoons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq9_105–106]_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq9_105–106]-93">[93]</a></sup>
</p><p>In notes dated 15 and 23 April, Darwin described specimens of the deep-water <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sea_pen" title="Sea pen">sea pens</a> (from fishing boats), and on 23 April, "with Mr Coldstream at the black rocks at Leith", he saw a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Common_starfish" title="Common starfish">starfish</a> doubled up, releasing its ova.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq12_108–109]_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq12_108–109]-99">[99]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Summer_1827">Summer 1827</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Summer 1827">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Darwin left Edinburgh in late April, just 18 years old.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq12_108–109]_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq12_108–109]-99">[99]</a></sup> In 1826 he had told his sister he would be "forced to go abroad for one year" of hospital studies, as he had to be 21 before taking his degree,<sup id="cite_ref-Letter20_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter20-19">[19]</a></sup> but he was too upset by seeing blood or suffering, and had lost any ambition to be a doctor. He went a short tour, visiting <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dundee" title="Dundee">Dundee</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/St_Andrews" title="St Andrews">St Andrews</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stirling" title="Stirling">Stirling</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belfast" title="Belfast">Belfast</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Wyhe20147_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Wyhe20147-100">[100]</a></sup> then in May made his first trip to London to visit his sister Caroline. They joined his uncle <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood_II" title="Josiah Wedgwood II">Josiah Wedgwood II</a> on a trip to France,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199143–45_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199143–45-101">[101]</a></sup> and on 26 May arrived in Paris,<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup> where Charles fended for himself for a few weeks: recently graduated Plinian society members, including Browne and Coldstream, were there for hospital studies. By July, Charles had returned to his home at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Mount,_Shrewsbury" title="The Mount, Shrewsbury">The Mount, Shrewsbury</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200437–38_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200437–38-103">[103]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199145–46_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199145–46-104">[104]</a></sup> While indulging his hobby of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hunting_and_shooting_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom">shooting</a> with his family's friends at the nearby <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Woodhouse,_Shropshire" title="Woodhouse, Shropshire">Woodhouse estate</a> of William Mostyn Owen, Darwin flirted with his second daughter, <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Frances_Mostyn_Owen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frances Mostyn Owen (page does not exist)">Frances Mostyn Owen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Wyhe20147_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Wyhe20147-100">[100]</a></sup>
</p><p>Coldstream studied in Paris for a year, and visited places of interest. His diary notes religious thoughts,<sup id="cite_ref-Coldstream_by_Balfour_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coldstream_by_Balfour-105">[105]</a></sup> and occasional anguished comments such as "the foul mass of corruption within my own bosom", "corroding desires" and "lustful imaginations".<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup> A doctor who befriended him later said that though Coldstream had led "a blameless life", he was "more or less in the dark on the vital question of religion, and was troubled with doubts arising from certain Materialist views, which are, alas! too common among medical students."<sup id="cite_ref-Coldstream_by_Balfour_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coldstream_by_Balfour-105">[105]</a></sup> He left in June 1828 for a short tour on his way home, but fell ill in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Westphalia" title="Westphalia">Westphalia</a>, suffered a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mental_breakdown" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental breakdown">mental breakdown</a>, and got back to Leith late in July. In early December Coldstream began medical practice and gave it priority over natural history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199141_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199141-107">[107]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-letter_58_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letter_58-108">[108]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="University_of_Cambridge">University of Cambridge</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: University of Cambridge">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:177px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Christs_shield.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Christs_shield.png/175px-Christs_shield.png" decoding="async" width="175" height="208" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Christs_shield.png/263px-Christs_shield.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Christs_shield.png/350px-Christs_shield.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="953" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Christs_shield.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The coat of arms of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christ%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="Christ's College, Cambridge">Christ's College, Cambridge</a>, a college of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> where Darwin was enrolled to become a clergyman.</div></div></div>
<p>His father was unhappy that his younger son would not become a physician and "was very properly vehement against my turning into an idle sporting man, which then seemed my probable destination." He therefore enrolled Charles at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christ%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="Christ's College, Cambridge">Christ's College, Cambridge</a> in 1827 for a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor of Arts</a> degree as the qualification required before taking a specialised divinity course and becoming an Anglican <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parson" title="Parson">parson</a>. He enrolled for an <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_undergraduate_degree_classification" title="British undergraduate degree classification">ordinary</a></i> degree, as at that time only capable mathematicians would take the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tripos" title="Tripos">Tripos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JvW_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JvW-110">[110]</a></sup> At that time the only way to get an honours degree was the mathematical Tripos examination, or the classical Tripos created in 1822, which was only open to those who already had high honours in mathematics, or those who were the sons of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peerage" title="Peerage">peers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup>
</p><p>This was a respectable career for a gentleman at a time when most naturalists in England were clergymen in the tradition of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gilbert_White" title="Gilbert White">Gilbert White</a>, who saw it as part of their duties to "explore the wonders of God's creation". Charles had concerns about being able to declare his belief in all the dogmas of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>, so as well as hunting and fishing, he studied <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divinity</a> books. He was particularly convinced by the reasoning of the Revd. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Bird_Sumner" title="John Bird Sumner">John Bird Sumner</a>'s <i>Evidences of Christianity</i>. John Bird Summer wrote that Jesus's religion was "wonderfully suitable... to our ideas of happiness in this & the next world" and there was "no other way... of explaining the series of evidence & probability." His Classics had lapsed since school, and he spent the autumn term at home studying Greek with a tutor. Darwin was accepted as a "pensioner", having paid his fees, on 15 October 1827, but did not attend Cambridge until the Lent Term which began on 13 January 1828. Eras returned from Edinburgh ready to sit his <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Medicine">Bachelor of Medicine</a> exam, and in the new year he and Charles set out together for Cambridge.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup> Darwin came into residence in Cambridge on 26 January 1828, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Matriculation" title="Matriculation">matriculated</a> at the University's Senate House on 26 February.<sup id="cite_ref-JvW_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JvW-110">[110]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup>
</p><p>Around this time he wrote to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Coldstream" title="John Coldstream">John Coldstream</a>, asking after him, expressing "greif" about hearing that Coldstream had "entirely forsworn Natural History", and assuring him "that no pursuit is more becoming for a physician than Nat: Hist". Coldstream replied on 28 February that he was as much "inclined than ever, to look into the World of Nature", but had to focus first on medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-letter_58_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letter_58-108">[108]</a></sup>
</p><p>His tutors at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christ%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="Christ's College, Cambridge">Christ's College, Cambridge</a> were to include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joseph_Shaw_(Christ%27s_College)" title="Joseph Shaw (Christ's College)">Joseph Shaw</a> in 1828, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Graham_(bishop)" title="John Graham (bishop)">John Graham</a> (in 1829 – 1830) and <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Edward_John_Ash&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward John Ash (page does not exist)">Edward John Ash</a> in 1830 – 1831. One of his university friends was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frederick_Watkins_(clergyman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Watkins (clergyman)">Frederick Watkins</a>, (1808–1888).<sup id="cite_ref-JvW2_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JvW2-114">[114]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Beetle_collecting">Beetle collecting</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Beetle collecting">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Arriving at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> in January 1828, Darwin found this elite theological training institution governed by complex rules much more congenial than his experiences at Edinburgh. No rooms were available at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christ%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="Christ's College, Cambridge">Christ's College</a>, so he took lodgings above a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tobacconists" class="mw-redirect" title="Tobacconists">tobacconists</a> in Sidney Street, across the road. In April the older student <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Albert_Way" title="Albert Way">Albert Way</a> drew a comic coat of arms featuring tobacco pipes, cigars, wine barrel and tankards, with a Latin statement that they were best friends; at Edinburgh, Darwin had begun a life-long habit of taking <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Snuff_(tobacco)" title="Snuff (tobacco)">snuff</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Van_Wyhe_2014_p._33_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Wyhe_2014_p._33-115">[115]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1887[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq139itemIDF14521viewtypetext_121–122]_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1887[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq139itemIDF14521viewtypetext_121–122]-116">[116]</a></sup> Extramural activities were important, and while Darwin did not take up sports or debating, his interests included music and his main passion was the current national craze for the (competitive) collecting of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beetle" title="Beetle">beetles</a>. Trainee clergymen scoured <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambridgeshire" title="Cambridgeshire">Cambridgeshire</a> for specimens, referring to <i>An Introduction to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">Entomology</a></i> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Kirby_(entomologist)" title="William Kirby (entomologist)">William Kirby</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Spence_(entomologist)" title="William Spence (entomologist)">William Spence</a>. Charles joined his older cousin <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Darwin_Fox" title="William Darwin Fox">William Darwin Fox</a> who was already a skilled collector and like him got a small dog. The two and their dogs became inseparable. They explored the countryside as Darwin learnt about <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a> from his cousin. Darwin became obsessed with winning the student accolade and collected avidly. Once he stripped bark from a dead tree and caught a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ground_beetle" title="Ground beetle">ground beetle</a> in each hand, then saw the rare Crucifix Ground Beetle, <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Panagaeus_cruxmajor" title="Panagaeus cruxmajor">Panagaeus cruxmajor</a></i>. With the habits of an egg-collector, he popped one ground beetle in his mouth to free his hand, but it ejected some intensely acrid fluid which burnt his tongue and Darwin was forced to spit it out. He lost all three.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup> The specimens he did not lose had to be mounted and identified, and his knowledge from Edinburgh of Lamarck proved useful. Fox introduced him for advice on identification to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Stevens_Henslow" title="John Stevens Henslow">Revd. John Stevens Henslow</a>, professor of botany, and Darwin began attending his soirées, a club for budding naturalists. Here he could meet other professors including the geologist the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adam_Sedgwick" title="Adam Sedgwick">Revd. Adam Sedgwick</a> and the new <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogist</a> the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">Revd. William Whewell</a>.
</p><p>In the summer Darwin paid visits to Squire Owen, and romance seemed to be blossoming with the squire's daughter <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Frances_Mostyn_Owen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frances Mostyn Owen (page does not exist)">Fanny</a>. Darwin joined other Cambridge friends on a three-month "reading party" at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barmouth" title="Barmouth">Barmouth</a> on the coast of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> to revise their studies with private tutors. For Charles it was an "Entomo-Mathematical expedition". Though he badly needed to catch up with his mathematics, the insect collecting predominated along with pleasant diversions such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hillwalking" class="mw-redirect" title="Hillwalking">hillwalking</a>, boating and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fly_fishing" title="Fly fishing">fly fishing</a>. He went on daily walks with his close friend, the older student <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=John_Maurice_Herbert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Maurice Herbert (page does not exist)">John Maurice Herbert</a> who he dubbed "Cherbury" after <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edward_Herbert,_1st_Baron_Herbert_of_Cherbury" title="Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury">Herbert of Cherbury</a>, the father of English <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a>. Herbert assisted with the insect collecting, but the usual outcome was that Darwin would examine Herbert's collecting bottle and say "Well, old Cherbury, none of these will do."<sup id="cite_ref-francis166_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-francis166-118">[118]</a></sup> In September Darwin wrote to tell "My dear old <i>Cherbury</i>" that his own catches had included "some of the rarest of the British Insects, & their being found near Barmouth is quite unknown to the Entomological world: I think I shall write & inform some of the crack Entomologists." He described these <i>"extremely rare"</i> insects and asked Herbert to oblige him by collecting some more of them.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Second_year_doldrums">Second year doldrums</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Second year doldrums">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-(Christ%27s-College-Cambridge)-3.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Bronze statue of Darwin in 1830 clothes, seated on the arm of a wooden bench, behind him plants partly cover a stone wall, a window has white-painted wooden frames." src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-%28Christ%27s-College-Cambridge%29-3.jpg/220px-Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-%28Christ%27s-College-Cambridge%29-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-%28Christ%27s-College-Cambridge%29-3.jpg/330px-Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-%28Christ%27s-College-Cambridge%29-3.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-%28Christ%27s-College-Cambridge%29-3.jpg/440px-Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-%28Christ%27s-College-Cambridge%29-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1004" data-file-height="1280" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-(Christ%27s-College-Cambridge)-3.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commemoration_of_Charles_Darwin#Darwin_day,_and_2009_commemorations" title="Commemoration of Charles Darwin">Bicentennial</a> portrait by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anthony_Smith_(sculptor)" title="Anthony Smith (sculptor)">Anthony Smith</a> of Darwin as a student, in the First Court at Christ's opposite Darwin's rooms.<sup id="cite_ref-Darwin_statue_2009_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Darwin_statue_2009-120">[120]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>On 31 October Charles returned to Cambridge for the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michaelmas_term" title="Michaelmas term">Michaelmas Term</a>, and was allocated a set of rooms on the south side of First Court in Christ's College. Although several biographers since the 1980s have referred to these rooms as traditionally having been occupied by the theologian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Paley" title="William Paley">William Paley</a>, research by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_van_Wyhe" title="John van Wyhe">John van Wyhe</a> found that historical documentation did not support this idea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Wyhe2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcQO3CgAAQBAJpgPA46_46–47]_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Wyhe2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcQO3CgAAQBAJpgPA46_46–47]-121">[121]</a></sup>
</p><p>Darwin now had breakfast every day with his older cousin <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Darwin_Fox" title="William Darwin Fox">William Darwin Fox</a>. This was Fox's last term before his BA exam, and he now had to cram desperately to make up for lost time. At the Christmas holiday Charles visited London with Eras, toured the scientific institutions "where Naturalists are gregarious" and through his friend the Revd. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frederick_William_Hope" title="Frederick William Hope">Frederick William Hope</a> met other insect collectors. These included <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Francis_Stephens" title="James Francis Stephens">James Stephens</a>, author of <i>Illustrations of British Entomology</i>.
</p><p>The January term brought miserable weather and a struggle to keep up with his studies. Around this time, he had an earnest conversation with <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=John_Maurice_Herbert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Maurice Herbert (page does not exist)">John Herbert</a> about going into Holy Orders, and asked him whether he could answer yes to the question that the Bishop would put in the ordination service, "Do you trust that you are inwardly moved by the Holy Spirit". When Herbert said that he could not, Darwin replied "Neither can I, and therefore I cannot take orders" to become an ordained priest.<sup id="cite_ref-francis166_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-francis166-118">[118]</a></sup> Even his interest in insect collecting waned. He fell out with one of the two locals he employed to catch beetles when he found that the local was giving first choice to a rival collector. In the doldrums, he joined a crowd of drinking pals in a frequent "debauch". He put in some hard riding. On one night he and three friends saw the sky lit up and "rode like incarnate devils" eleven miles to see the blaze. They arrived back at two in the morning and violated curfew. He was risking "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rustication_(academia)" title="Rustication (academia)">rustication</a>", temporary expulsion. Such behaviour would be noticed by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proctor" title="Proctor">Proctors</a>, university officials appointed from the colleges who patrolled the town in plain gowns to police the students.
</p><p>Student resentment against two unpopular Proctors built up, and on 9 April 1829 a tumult broke out. Charles described how the Senior Proctor was "most gloriously hissed.. & pelted with mud", being "driven so furious" that his servant "dared not go near him for an hour."<sup id="cite_ref-Letter61_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter61-122">[122]</a></sup> The Proctors had noted some faces in the mob, and four were rusticated and one fined for being out-of-gown and shouting abuse. Outraged by this leniency, the Proctors quit <i>en masse</i> and printed their resignation to post up around the colleges. Though the unpopular Proctors were gone, Charles was jolted into thinking of the consequences of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theory_of_criminal_justice" title="Theory of criminal justice">law-breaking</a>.
</p><p>In the Spring, Darwin enrolled for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Stevens_Henslow" title="John Stevens Henslow">John Stevens Henslow</a>'s lectures on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>. Professor Henslow's first "public herborizing expedition" of the year took place in May, an outing on which students assisted with collection of plants. However, Darwin made no mention of Henslow in his letters to Fox.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup> On 18 May Darwin wrote to Fox enthusing about his success with beetle collecting, "I think I beat Jenyns in Colymbetes", contrasted with his lack of application to studies: "my time is solely occupied in riding & Entomologizing".<sup id="cite_ref-Letter_64_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter_64-124">[124]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a> was briefly visited on 21 May by the Radicals <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Richard_Carlile" title="Richard Carlile">Richard Carlile</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Taylor_(Radical)" title="Robert Taylor (Radical)">Revd. Robert Taylor</a>, both recently jailed for blasphemy, on an "infidel home missionary tour" which caused several days of controversy. Taylor was later nicknamed "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/A_Devil%27s_Chaplain" title="A Devil's Chaplain">the Devil's Chaplain</a>", a phrase remembered by Darwin.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup>
</p><p>Charles had been sending records of the insects he had caught to the entomologist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Francis_Stephens" title="James Francis Stephens">James Francis Stephens</a>, and was thrilled when Stevens published about thirty of these records in <i>Illustrations of British entomology; or, a synopsis of indigenous insects etc.</i> which was printed in parts, with the first description under Darwin's name appearing in an appendix dated 15 June 1829.<sup id="cite_ref-Darwinsinsects_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Darwinsinsects-126">[126]</a></sup>
</p><p>That summer, amongst horse riding and beetle collecting, Charles visited his cousin Fox, and this time Charles was teaching entomology to his older cousin. Home at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shrewsbury,_Shropshire" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrewsbury, Shropshire">Shrewsbury, Shropshire</a>, he saw his brother Erasmus whose "delicate frame" led to him now giving up medicine and retiring at the age of 26. The brothers visited the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Birmingham" title="History of Birmingham">Birmingham</a> Music Festival for what Charles described as the "most glorious" experience.
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<h3><span id="Third_year.2C_theology_and_natural_history"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Third_year,_theology_and_natural_history">Third year, theology and natural history</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Third year, theology and natural history">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Back at Cambridge, Charles studied hard for his <i>Little Go</i> preliminary exam, as a fail would mean a re-sit the following year. He dropped his drinking companions and resumed attending <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Stevens_Henslow" title="John Stevens Henslow">Henslow</a>'s Friday evening soirées. For the exam he slogged away at Greek and Latin, and studied <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Paley" title="William Paley">William Paley</a>'s <i>Evidences of Christianity</i>, becoming so delighted with Paley's logic that he learnt it well. This was a text he also had to study for his finals, and he was "convinced that I could have written out the whole of the <i>Evidences</i> with perfect correctness, but not of course in the clear language of Paley." Later, on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_voyage_of_HMS_Beagle" title="Second voyage of HMS Beagle"><i>Beagle</i> expedition</a>, he saw evidence which challenged Paley's rose-tinted view, but at this time he was convinced that the Christian revelation established "a future state of reward and punishment" which "gives order for confusion: makes the moral world of a piece with the natural". As with Cambridge University, God gave authority and assigned stations in life, misconduct was penalised and excellence bountifully rewarded. Charles took the one-day verbal examination on 24 March 1830. There were three hours in the morning on the classics and three in the afternoon on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> and Paley. The next day he was delighted to be informed that he had passed.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dar57_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dar57-128">[128]</a></sup>
</p><p>Several of his friends celebrated their examination successes by dining in each other's rooms in rotation in a weekly club commonly known as the <i>Glutton Club</i>. This name was proposed to ridicule another group whose Greek title meant "fond of dainties", but who dined out on "Mutton Chops, or Beans & Bacon". The <i>Glutton Club</i> attempted to live up to their title by experimentally dining on "birds and beasts which were before unknown to human palate" and tried hawk and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bittern" title="Bittern">bittern</a>, but gave up after eating an old brown owl, "which was indescribable". They had more amusement from concluding each meeting with "a game of mild <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blackjack" title="Blackjack">vingt-et-un</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup>
</p><p>Over Easter Charles stayed at Cambridge, mounting and cataloguing his beetle collection. He then became an enthusiastic member of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a> course which the "good natured & agreeable" professor Henslow taught five days a week in the Botanic Gardens and on field trips. Henslow's outings were attended by 78 men including professor Whewell. Charles became the "favourite pupil", known as "the man who walks with Henslow", helping to find specimens and to set up "practicals" dissecting plants. He became interested in pollen. One day he watched through a microscope and saw "transparent cones" emerge from the side of a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geranium" title="Geranium">geranium</a> pollen grain. Then one burst spraying out "numberless granules". Henslow explained that the granules were indeed the constituent atoms of pollen, but they had no intrinsic vital power – life was endowed from outside and ultimately derived its power from God, whatever more "speculative" naturalists argued regarding self-activating power. Darwin had been taught otherwise by Grant, and reflected quietly on this, biding his time.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></sup>
</p><p>For the summer holidays Darwin arranged to meet Fox at The Mount, but Darwin's father had been ill and family tensions led to a row. Charles went off with the Revd. Hope and other friends for three weeks "entomologizing" in North Wales, hunting for beetles and trout fishing. He went partridge shooting at Maer before returning home.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Fourth_year_finals_and_later_attitude_towards_mathematics">Fourth year finals and later attitude towards mathematics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Fourth year finals and later attitude towards mathematics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Back at Cambridge, his final exams loomed. A "desperate" Charles focused on his studies and got private tuition from Henslow whose subjects were mathematics and theology. This term he had to study <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a> and learn Paley's <i>Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy</i>, though this old text was becoming outdated. It opposed arguments for increased democracy, but saw no divine right of rule for the sovereign or the state, only "expediency". Government could be opposed if grievances outweighed the danger and expense to society. The judgement was "Every man for himself". These ideas had suited the conditions of reasonable rule prevailing when the text was published in 1785, but in 1830 they were dangerous ideas. At this time the French king was deposed by middle class republicans and given refuge in England by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tory" title="Tory">Tory</a> government. In response, radical street protests demanded <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">suffrage</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">equality</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">freedom of religion</a>. Then in November the Tory administration collapsed and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Whig_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="British Whig Party">Whigs</a> took over. Paley's text even supported abolition of the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">Thirty-nine Articles</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglican</a> faith</i> which every student at Cambridge (and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oxford_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a>) was required to sign. Henslow insisted that "he should be grieved if a single word... was altered" and emphasised the need to respect authority. This happened even as campaigns of civil disobedience spread to starving agricultural labourers and villages close to Cambridge suffered riots and arson attacks.
</p><p>In the third week of January 1831 Charles sat his final exam. There were three days of written papers covering the Classics, the two Paley texts and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>'s <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding" title="An Essay Concerning Human Understanding">An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</a></i>, then mathematics and physics. At the end of the week when the results were posted he was dazed and proud to have come 10th out of a pass list of 178 doing the <i>ordinary</i> degree. Charles shone in theology and scraped through in the other subjects. He was also exhausted and depressed, writing to Fox "I do not know why the degree should make one so miserable."<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></sup> In later life he recalled Paley and Euclid being the only part of the course which was useful to him, and "By answering well the examination questions in Paley, by doing Euclid well, and by not failing miserably in Classics, I gained a good place among the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hoi_polloi#Appearances_in_the_nineteenth_century" title="Hoi polloi">οἱ πολλοί</a>, or crowd of men who do not go in for honours."<sup id="cite_ref-dar57_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dar57-128">[128]</a></sup>
</p><p>On the specific issue of his mathematical education, Darwin came to regret his lack of ability and application: "I attempted mathematics, and even went during the summer of 1828 with a private tutor (a very dull man) to Barmouth, but I got on very slowly. The work was repugnant to me, chiefly from my not being able to see any meaning in the early steps in algebra. This impatience was very foolish, and in after years I have deeply regretted that I did not proceed far enough at least to understand something of the great leading principles of mathematics, for men thus endowed seem to have an extra sense".<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Natural_theology_and_geology">Natural theology and geology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Natural theology and geology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-(Christ%27s-College-Cambridge)-3.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-%28Christ%27s-College-Cambridge%29-3.jpg/220px-Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-%28Christ%27s-College-Cambridge%29-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-%28Christ%27s-College-Cambridge%29-3.jpg/330px-Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-%28Christ%27s-College-Cambridge%29-3.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-%28Christ%27s-College-Cambridge%29-3.jpg/440px-Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-%28Christ%27s-College-Cambridge%29-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1004" data-file-height="1280" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-(Christ%27s-College-Cambridge)-3.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Statue of Darwin during his last months at Christ's College (age 22). Sculpted by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anthony_Smith_(sculptor)" title="Anthony Smith (sculptor)">Anthony Smith</a>, the statue features some of the books Darwin was reading at this time; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Humboldt's</a> <i>Personal Narrative</i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Paley" title="William Paley">Paley's</a> <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_Theology_or_Evidences_of_the_Existence_and_Attributes_of_the_Deity" title="Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity">Natural Theology</a></i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Herschel" title="John Herschel">Herschel's</a> <i>Preliminary Discourse on Natural Philosophy</i> and James Stephens' <i>Illustrations of British Entomology</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>Residence requirements kept Darwin in Cambridge till June. He resumed his beetle collecting, took career advice from Henslow, and read <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_Paley" title="William Paley">William Paley</a>'s <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_Theology_or_Evidences_of_the_Existence_and_Attributes_of_the_Deity" title="Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity">Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity</a></i> which set out to refute <a href="/enwiki/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>'s argument that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">"design" by a Creator</a> was merely a human projection onto the forces of nature. Paley saw a rational proof of God's existence in the complexity and perfect <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a> to needs of living beings exquisitely fitted to their places in a happy world, while attacking the evolutionary ideas of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erasmus_Darwin" title="Erasmus Darwin">Erasmus Darwin</a> as coinciding with atheistic schemes and lacking evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></sup> Paley's benevolent God acted in nature though uniform and universal laws, not arbitrary miracles or changes of laws, and this use of secondary laws provided a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">theodicy</a> explaining the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</a> by separating nature from direct divine action. This convinced Charles and encouraged his interest in science.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></sup> He later wrote "I do not think I hardly ever admired a book more than Paley's <i>Natural Theology</i>: I could almost formerly have said it by heart."<sup id="cite_ref-Letter2532_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter2532-137">[137]</a></sup>
</p><p>He read <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Herschel" title="John Herschel">John Herschel</a>'s new <i>Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy</i>, learning that nature was governed by laws, and the highest aim of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> was to understand them through an orderly process of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">induction</a>, balancing observation and theorising. This was part of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">liberal Christianity</a> of Darwin's tutors, who saw no disharmony between honest inductive science and religion. Such science was religion, and could not be heretical.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></sup> Darwin also read <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a>'s <i>Personal Narrative</i>, and the two books were immensely influential, stirring up in him "a burning zeal to add even the most humble contribution to the noble structure of Natural Science."<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></sup>
As a young graduate, Henslow had geologised on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isle_of_Wight" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a>, and he too had longed to visit Africa. Marriage and his position at the university now made the prospect remote, but he still had an unfulfilled ambition to "explore regions but little known, and enrich science with new species."<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></sup>
</p><p>At home for Easter in early April, Darwin told his cousin Fox of "a scheme I have almost hatched" to visit the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> and see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tenerife" title="Tenerife">Tenerife</a> as recommended by Humboldt.<sup id="cite_ref-Letter96_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter96-141">[141]</a></sup> On returning to Cambridge, he wrote to his sister that "my head is running about the Tropics: in the morning I go and gaze at Palm trees in the hot-house and come home and read Humboldt: my enthusiasm is so great that I cannot hardly sit still on my chair. Henslow & other Dons give us great credit for our plan: Henslow promises to cram me in geology". He was studying Spanish language, and was in "a Tropical glow".<sup id="cite_ref-letter98_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letter98-142">[142]</a></sup>
Henslow introduced Darwin to the great geologist the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adam_Sedgwick" title="Adam Sedgwick">Revd. Adam Sedgwick</a> who had been his own tutor, and shared views on religion, politics and morals. Darwin was fired up by Sedgwick's Spring course of "equestrian outings" with its vistas of the grandeur of God's creation, so much of which was yet unexplored.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a></sup> He exclaimed, "What a capital hand is Sedgewick for drawing large cheques upon the Bank of Time!".<sup id="cite_ref-Letter101_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter101-144">[144]</a></sup> When Sedgwick mentioned the effects of a local spring from a chalk hill depositing lime on twigs, Charles rode out to find the spring and threw a bush in, then later brought back the white coated spray which Sedgwick exhibited in class, inspiring others to do the same.
</p><p>Darwin continued plotting his "Canary scheme", and on 11 May he told Fox "My other friends most sincerely wish me there I plague them so with talking about tropical scenery &c &c.". His father gave him "a 200£ note" to pay his college debts. In addition, "Some goodnatured Cambridge man has made me a most magnificent anonymous present of a Microscope: did ever hear of such a delightful piece of luck? one would like to know who it was, just to feel obliged to him."<sup id="cite_ref-Letter100_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter100-145">[145]</a></sup> Darwin later found that the gift was from his friend John Herbert.<sup id="cite_ref-letter99_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letter99-146">[146]</a></sup>
</p><p>In mid June Darwin returned home to Shrewsbury, and continued "working like a tiger" for the Canary scheme, "at present Spanish & Geology, the former I find as intensely stupid, as the latter most interesting". By then his most likely companion on the trip was the tutor Marmaduke Ramsay. Darwin was "trying to make a map" of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</a>, "but dont find it so easy as I expected."<sup id="cite_ref-Letter101_144-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter101-144">[144]</a></sup> He ordered a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inclinometer" title="Inclinometer">clinometer</a>, and on 11 July wrote to tell Henslow that it had arrived and he had tried it out in his bedroom. "As yet I have only indulged in hypotheses; but they are such powerful ones, that I suppose, if they were put into action but for one day, the world would come to an end."<sup id="cite_ref-Letter102_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter102-147">[147]</a></sup> In efforts to learn the basics of geology he extended his mapping of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">strata</a> as far away as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Llanymynech" title="Llanymynech">Llanymynech</a>, some 16 miles (26 km) from Shrewsbury, using the terminology he had learnt in Edinburgh from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Jameson" title="Robert Jameson">Robert Jameson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></sup> Already he was anxious that he had not heard from Sedgwick, and when he investigated ship sailings he found that they were only available in certain months.<sup id="cite_ref-Letter102_147-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter102-147">[147]</a></sup> For this reason, the trip to Teneriffe had to be postponed to the following June, and it looked increasingly unlikely that Henslow would come on the trip.<sup id="cite_ref-Letter103_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter103-149">[149]</a></sup> Darwin wrote to one of his student friends that he was "at present mad about Geology" and had plans to ride through Wales then meet with other students at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barmouth" title="Barmouth">Barmouth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-letter102A_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letter102A-150">[150]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 4 August 1831 Sedgwick arrived in his gig at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Mount,_Shrewsbury" title="The Mount, Shrewsbury">The Mount, Shrewsbury</a>, to take Charles as his assistant on a short geological expedition mapping strata in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>. That evening Charles told of a tropical shell found in a nearby gravel pit and was impressed when Sedgwick responded that it must have been thrown away there, as it contradicted the known geology of the area. This made him realise "that science consists in grouping facts so that general laws or conclusions may be drawn from them." Sedgwick aimed to investigate and correct possible errors in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Bellas_Greenough" title="George Bellas Greenough">George Greenough</a>'s geological map of 1820, and to trace the fossil record to the earliest times to rebut the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uniformitarianism_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniformitarianism (science)">uniformitarian</a> ideas just published by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wales_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wales-151">[151]</a></sup>
On the morning of 5 August they went from Shrewsbury to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Llangollen" title="Llangollen">Llangollen</a>, and on 11 August reached <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Penrhyn_Quarry" class="mw-redirect" title="Penrhyn Quarry">Penrhyn Quarry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lucas_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lucas-152">[152]</a></sup> After less than a week of doing hard practical work Charles had learnt how to identify specimens, interpret strata and generalise from his observations. Then he went off on his own to collect samples and investigate the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vale_of_Clwyd" title="Vale of Clwyd">Vale of Clwyd</a>, looking in vain for the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Red_Sandstone" title="Old Red Sandstone">Old Red Sandstone</a> shown by Greenough. They met up in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colwyn" title="Colwyn">Colwyn</a>, and Sedgwick's pleasure at the confirmation that the map was incorrect made Darwin "exceedingly proud". They went on to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capel_Curig" title="Capel Curig">Capel Curig</a> where Charles struck out on his own across 30 miles (50 km) of "some strange wild places" to Barmouth.<sup id="cite_ref-wales_151-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wales-151">[151]</a></sup> He had parted from Sedgwick by 20 August, and travelled via <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ffestiniog" title="Ffestiniog">Ffestiniog</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lucas_152-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lucas-152">[152]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Voyage_on_the_Beagle">Voyage on the Beagle</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Voyage on the Beagle">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Arriving at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barmouth" title="Barmouth">Barmouth</a> on the evening of 23 August, Charles met up with a "reading party" of Cambridge friends for a time before he left on the morning of 29 August,<sup id="cite_ref-lucas_152-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lucas-152">[152]</a></sup> to go back to Shrewsbury and on to partridge shooting with his Wedgwood relatives at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maer_Hall" title="Maer Hall">Maer Hall</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wales_151-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wales-151">[151]</a></sup> He was grieved to have received a message that Ramsay had died. This upset Darwin's plans for a visit in the following year to Tenerife. He arrived home at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Mount,_Shrewsbury" title="The Mount, Shrewsbury">The Mount, Shrewsbury</a>, on 29 August, and found a letter from John Stevens Henslow.<sup id="cite_ref-Letter107_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter107-153">[153]</a></sup> The Cambridge Fellow <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Peacock_(mathematician)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Peacock (mathematician)">George Peacock</a> had heard from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Francis_Beaufort" title="Francis Beaufort">Francis Beaufort</a> of plans for the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_voyage_of_HMS_Beagle" title="Second voyage of HMS Beagle">second survey voyage of</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/HMS_Beagle" title="HMS Beagle">HMS <i>Beagle</i></a>, and had written to Henslow proposing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leonard_Jenyns" title="Leonard Jenyns">Leonard Jenyns</a> as "a proper person to go out as a naturalist with this expedition", or if he was unavailable seeking recommendations for an alternative to take up this "glorious opportunity". When Jenyns decided not to leave his parish, he and Henslow thought of Darwin.<sup id="cite_ref-Letter104_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter104-154">[154]</a></sup> Henslow's letter, read by Peacock and forwarded to Darwin, expected him to eagerly catch at the likely offer of a two-year trip to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuego" title="Tierra del Fuego">Terra del Fuego</a> & home by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Indies">East Indies</a>, not as "a <i>finished</i> Naturalist", but as a <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gentleman" title="Gentleman">gentleman</a></i> "amply qualified for collecting, observing, & noting any thing worthy to be noted in Natural History". The appointment was more as a companion to Captain <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_FitzRoy" title="Robert FitzRoy">Robert FitzRoy</a>, than as a mere collector. Henslow wrote "I assure you I think you are the very man they are in search of".<sup id="cite_ref-Letter105_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter105-155">[155]</a></sup>
</p><p>His father thought the voyage a waste of his son's time and strongly objected. Dejected, Charles declined the offer,<sup id="cite_ref-Letter107_153-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter107-153">[153]</a></sup> and went to Maer for the partridge shooting with a note from his father to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood_II" title="Josiah Wedgwood II">"Uncle Jos" Wedgwood</a>. This contained a prescription for a bowel ailment and a note saying that Charles had quite given up the proposed "voyage of discovery", but "if you think differently from me I shall wish him to follow your advice."<sup id="cite_ref-Letter108_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter108-156">[156]</a></sup> Charles' hopes were revived by this unexpected news, and his relatives came out in favour of the voyage. He outlined his father's objections, and sat up that night drafting a reply with his uncle. Jos wrote suggesting that Charles would be likely to "acquire and strengthen, habits of application", and "Natural History... is very suitable to a Clergyman." Though "useless as regards his profession", for "a man of enlarged curiosity, it affords him such an opportunity of seeing men and things as happens to few". The Admiralty would look after him well, but "you & Charles... must decide."<sup id="cite_ref-Letter110_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter110-157">[157]</a></sup> Charles begged "one favour... a decided answer, yes or no."<sup id="cite_ref-Letter109_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter109-158">[158]</a></sup> This reply was sent post-haste early on the morning of 1 September and Charles went shooting. About 10 o'clock he received word from his uncle that they should go to The Mount at once.<sup id="cite_ref-Letter110_157-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter110-157">[157]</a></sup> When they arrived a few hours later, Charles' father had decided that he would give "all the assistance in my power".<sup id="cite_ref-Letter111_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letter111-159">[159]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1067248974">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFJohn_H._Wahlert2001" class="citation web cs1">John H. Wahlert (11 June 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081206010149/http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/">"The Mount House, Shrewsbury, England (Charles Darwin)"</a>. <i>Darwin and Darwinism</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baruch_College" title="Baruch College">Baruch College</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/">the original</a> on 6 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Darwin+and+Darwinism&rft.atitle=The+Mount+House%2C+Shrewsbury%2C+England+%28Charles+Darwin%29&rft.date=2001-06-11&rft.au=John+H.+Wahlert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin.baruch.cuny.edu%2Fbiography%2Fshrewsbury%2Fmount%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-skool-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-skool_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 12–15<br /><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=21">21–25</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/life1b.html">Charles Darwin: a life in pictures</a> at Darwin Online, the parish register of St. Chad's gives Darwin's date of baptism as 15 November 1809, a date supported by "England, Births and Christenings, 1538–1975," index, FamilySearch, accessed 18 July 2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.1.1/J362-MP8">Charles Robt. Darwin</a>, 1809. The date is given as 17 November in Freeman (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A27b&viewtype=text&pageseq=113">p. 106</a>, and <a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, p. 12.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 10–16</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=22">22–24</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 18–20</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199523–27-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199523–27_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 23–27.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chris Middlebrook: ”It's True - Charles Darwin Actually Played Bandy!”, worldbandy.com, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.worldbandy.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Did-Charles-Darwin-play-bandy2.pdf">[1]</a>, read 23 October 2022</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199528–34-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199528–34_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 28–34.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=46">44–46</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=28">28</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 34–35</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=48">46–47</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199122-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199122_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199122_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, p. 22.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-letter_16-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-letter_16_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-letter_16_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-16">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 16 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, R. W., (23 Oct 1825)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+16+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Darwin%2C+R.+W.%2C+%2823+Oct+1825%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fentry-16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 46–47. Town plans of the time show <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Bridge,_Edinburgh" title="South Bridge, Edinburgh">South Bridge Street</a> crossing above the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cowgate" title="Cowgate">Cowgate</a>, a main thoroughfare, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Bridge,_Edinburgh" title="North Bridge, Edinburgh">North Bridge Street</a> with views west down to the green market and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/shambles" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:shambles">Shambles</a>, and east to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royal_Botanic_Garden_Edinburgh#History" title="Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh">"Old Physick Garden"</a> – see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://maps.nls.uk/towns/rec/7594">Lothian's plan of the city of Edinburgh and its vicinity</a> (1825) and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Ainslie1804" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Ainslie" title="John Ainslie">John Ainslie</a> (1804). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://maps.nls.uk/geo/explore/side-by-side/#zoom=15&lat=55.95040&lon=-3.18822&layers=126&right=BingHyb">"Old and New Town of Edinburgh and Leith with the proposed docks"</a>. <i>Town Plans / Views, 1580-1919</i>. National Library of Scotland<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Town+Plans+%2F+Views%2C+1580-1919&rft.atitle=Old+and+New+Town+of+Edinburgh+and+Leith+with+the+proposed+docks.&rft.date=1804&rft.au=John+Ainslie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmaps.nls.uk%2Fgeo%2Fexplore%2Fside-by-side%2F%23zoom%3D15%26lat%3D55.95040%26lon%3D-3.18822%26layers%3D126%26right%3DBingHyb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-rough-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rough_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rough_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFMark_Pallen.2008" class="citation web cs1">Mark Pallen. (27 September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://roughguidetoevolution.blogspot.com/2008/09/evolutionary-tourist-in-edinburgh.html">"The Rough Guide to Evolution: The evolutionary tourist in Edinburgh"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Rough+Guide+to+Evolution%3A+The+evolutionary+tourist+in+Edinburgh&rft.date=2008-09-27&rft.au=Mark+Pallen.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Froughguidetoevolution.blogspot.com%2F2008%2F09%2Fevolutionary-tourist-in-edinburgh.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Ashworth-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ashworth_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ashworth_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ashworth_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ashworth_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashworth, J.H. (1935) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=1">Charles Darwin as a student in Edinburgh</a>, 1825-1827.</i> Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 55: 97-113, pls. 1-2.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Letter20-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Letter20_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Letter20_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Letter20_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-20.xml">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 20 – Darwin, C. R. to Caroline Darwin, 6 January 1826"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+20+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Caroline+Darwin%2C+6+January+1826&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fletter%2FDCP-LETT-20.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Letter_1082-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Letter_1082_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter">"Letter no. 1082 – Darwin, C. R. to J. D. Hooker [18 April 1847]"</a>. <i>Darwin Correspondence Project</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project&rft.atitle=Letter+no.+1082+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+J.+D.+Hooker+%5B18+April+1847%5D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fletter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199127,_43-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199127,_43_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 27, 43.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-B45-62-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-B45-62_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-B45-62_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-B45-62_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 45–62</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-auto46-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto46_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto46_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=48">46–48</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199147-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199147_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, p. 47.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Letter22-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Letter22_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Letter22_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-22.xml">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 22 – Darwin, C. R. to Susan Darwin, 29 January (1826)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+22+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Susan+Darwin%2C+29+January+%281826%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fletter%2FDCP-LETT-22.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Woodall-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Woodall_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woodall, Edward (1884) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=30&itemID=A317&viewtype=text">Charles Darwin. A paper contributed to the Transactions of the Shropshire Archæological Society</a>. London: Trubner. p. 18.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Krause1879-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Krause1879_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFErnst_Krause1879" class="citation book cs1">Ernst Krause (1879). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vle1nNTRWWwC&pg=PA82"><i>Erasmus Darwin</i></a>. J. Murray. p. 82.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Erasmus+Darwin&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=J.+Murray&rft.date=1879&rft.au=Ernst+Krause&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVle1nNTRWWwC%26pg%3DPA82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-auto51-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto51_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto51_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto51_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=53">51</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199546,_49-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199546,_49_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 46, 49.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200425–26-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200425–26_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStott2004">Stott 2004</a>, pp. 25–26.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199565–67-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199565–67_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 65–67.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-red_diary-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-red_diary_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-red_diary_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Darwin, C. R. [Edinburgh diary for 1826]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=57&itemID=CUL-DAR129.-&viewtype=side">CUL-DAR129</a>.- Transcribed and edited by John van Wyhe (Darwin Online)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200426-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200426_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStott2004">Stott 2004</a>, p. 26.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Fleming_(naturalist)" title="John Fleming (naturalist)">Fleming, John</a>. 1822. <i>The Philosophy of Zoology</i>. Edinburgh: Constable. Volume 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=433&itemID=A773.02&viewtype=text">pp. 431, 435</a>, the Order Sepiacea includes <i>Loligo Sagittata</i>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200426–28-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200426–28_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStott2004">Stott 2004</a>, pp. 26–28.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-letter_28-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-letter_28_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-58.xml">"Letter 28 – Caroline Darwin to Darwin, C. R., [22 March 1826]"</a>. Darwin Correspondence Project<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+28+%E2%80%93+Caroline+Darwin+to+Darwin%2C+C.+R.%2C+%5B22+March+1826%5D&rft.pub=Darwin+Correspondence+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fletter%2FDCP-LETT-58.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-letter_29-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-letter_29_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-58.xml">"Letter 29 – Susan Darwin to Darwin, C. R., [27 March 1826]"</a>. Darwin Correspondence Project<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+29+%E2%80%93+Susan+Darwin+to+Darwin%2C+C.+R.%2C+%5B27+March+1826%5D&rft.pub=Darwin+Correspondence+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fletter%2FDCP-LETT-58.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-letter_30-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-letter_30_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-58.xml">"Letter 30 – Darwin, C. R., to Caroline Darwin, 8 April [1826]"</a>. Darwin Correspondence Project<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+30+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.%2C+to+Caroline+Darwin%2C+8+April+%5B1826%5D&rft.pub=Darwin+Correspondence+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fletter%2FDCP-LETT-58.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199568–69-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199568–69_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 68–69.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199569–71-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199569–71_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199569–71_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 69–71.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Jameson" title="Robert Jameson">Jameson, Robert</a> ed. (1826) <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edinburgh_New_Philosophical_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal">Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal</a></i>, A. and C. Black, Edinburgh, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zkoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA295">295–297</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, p. 40</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199581-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199581_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, p. 81.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Jenkins_Neptunism_and_Transformism-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jenkins_Neptunism_and_Transformism_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jenkins_Neptunism_and_Transformism_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFJenkins2015" class="citation journal cs1">Jenkins, Bill (24 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10739-015-9425-4">"Neptunism and Transformism: Robert Jameson and other Evolutionary Theorists in Early Nineteenth-Century Scotland"</a>. <i>Journal of the History of Biology</i>. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. <b>49</b> (3): 527–557. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10739-015-9425-4">10.1007/s10739-015-9425-4</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-5010">0022-5010</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26498767">26498767</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Biology&rft.atitle=Neptunism+and+Transformism%3A+Robert+Jameson+and+other+Evolutionary+Theorists+in+Early+Nineteenth-Century+Scotland&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=527-557&rft.date=2015-10-24&rft.issn=0022-5010&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26498767&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10739-015-9425-4&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10739-015-9425-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199572–73-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199572–73_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 72–73.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199567-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199567_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, p. 67.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199573–74-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199573–74_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 73–74.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq6_102–103]-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq6_102–103]_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq6_102–103]_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshworth1935">Ashworth 1935</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=6">102–103</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200431–33-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200431–33_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStott2004">Stott 2004</a>, pp. 31–33.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199131–33-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199131–33_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 31–33.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq50itemIDF1497viewtypetext_48]-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq50itemIDF1497viewtypetext_48]_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=50&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text">48</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott20046–8,_29–30-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott20046–8,_29–30_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStott2004">Stott 2004</a>, pp. 6–8, 29–30.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199575–-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199575–_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 75–.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq16_112]-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq16_112]_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshworth1935">Ashworth 1935</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=16">112</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Audubon1868-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Audubon1868_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFJohn_James_Audubon1868" class="citation book cs1">John James Audubon (1868). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aE5dnBtGyigC&pg=PA112"><i>The Life and Adventures of J. J. Audubon ... Edited, from Materials Supplied by His Widow, by Robert Buchanan. Second Edition. [With Portraits.]</i></a>. Sampson Low, Son&Marston. pp. 112–113, 117. <q>December 16. [1826] went to the Wernerian Society ... [February 10, 1827] When I entered the rooms of the Wernerian Society, they were full as an egg, ..</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+and+Adventures+of+J.+J.+Audubon+...+Edited%2C+from+Materials+Supplied+by+His+Widow%2C+by+Robert+Buchanan.+Second+Edition.+%26%2391%3BWith+Portraits.%26%2393%3B&rft.pages=112-113%2C+117&rft.pub=Sampson+Low%2C+Son%26Marston&rft.date=1868&rft.au=John+James+Audubon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaE5dnBtGyigC%26pg%3DPA112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200432–34-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200432–34_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStott2004">Stott 2004</a>, pp. 32–34.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Bettany-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bettany_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bettany, G. T. (1887) <i>Life of Charles Darwin</i>. London: Walter Scott, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=21&itemID=A75&viewtype=text">22–23</a>, also <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Athenaeum_(British_magazine)" title="The Athenaeum (British magazine)">The Athenaeum</a></i>. 1882. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RhEMNedWZGoC&pg=PA604">604</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Athenaeum&rft.pages=604&rft.date=1882&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darwin, C. R. c. 1827. [Notes on a zoological walk to Portobello]. CUL-DAR5.A49-A51 Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker and edited by John van Wyhe, discussion from Janet Browne.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq3_99–102]-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq3_99–102]_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshworth1935">Ashworth 1935</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=3">99–102</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Chambers_St_museum-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chambers_St_museum_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=4.7">"Natural History Collections: The Royal Museum of the University"</a>. <i>University of Edinburgh</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Edinburgh&rft.atitle=Natural+History+Collections%3A+The+Royal+Museum+of+the+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhc.ed.ac.uk%2Findex.php%3Fpage%3D4.7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199141–43-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199141–43_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 41–43.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq55itemIDF1497viewtypetext_53]-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq55itemIDF1497viewtypetext_53]_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq55itemIDF1497viewtypetext_53]_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=55&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text">53</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerbert200532–36-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbert200532–36_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbert200532–36_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbert200532–36_63-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerbert2005">Herbert 2005</a>, pp. 32–36.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199571–72-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199571–72_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 71–72.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Secord_Lamarckians-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Secord_Lamarckians_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Edinburgh Lamarckians: Robert Jameson and Robert E. Grant". <i>Journal of the History of Biology</i>. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. <b>24</b> (1): 1–18. 1991. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00130472">10.1007/bf00130472</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-5010">0022-5010</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:189828273">189828273</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Biology&rft.atitle=Edinburgh+Lamarckians%3A+Robert+Jameson+and+Robert+E.+Grant&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A189828273%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-5010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00130472&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Cuvier1827-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cuvier1827_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFGeorges_baron_Cuvier1827" class="citation book cs1">Georges baron Cuvier (1827). Robert Jameson (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e3IcAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR6"><i>Essay on the Theory of the Earth</i></a>. W. Blackwood. p. vi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essay+on+the+Theory+of+the+Earth&rft.pages=vi&rft.pub=W.+Blackwood&rft.date=1827&rft.au=Georges+baron+Cuvier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De3IcAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPR6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-letter_1575-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-letter_1575_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-1575.xml">"Letter 1575 – Darwin, C. R., to J. D. Hooker, 29 [May 1854]"</a>. Darwin Correspondence Project<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+1575+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.%2C+to+J.+D.+Hooker%2C+29+%5BMay+1854%5D&rft.pub=Darwin+Correspondence+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fletter%2FDCP-LETT-1575.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq54itemIDF1497viewtypetext_52]-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq54itemIDF1497viewtypetext_52]_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=54&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text">52</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq51itemIDF1497viewtypetext_49]-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq51itemIDF1497viewtypetext_49]_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=51&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text">49</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott20046–10-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott20046–10_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott20046–10_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStott2004">Stott 2004</a>, pp. 6–10.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse200946–47-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse200946–47_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRuse2009">Ruse 2009</a>, pp. 46–47.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200410–13-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200410–13_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStott2004">Stott 2004</a>, pp. 10–13.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iRgxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA197"><i>The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal</i></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Archibald_Constable" title="Archibald Constable">Archibald Constable</a>. 1825. pp. 197–198.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Edinburgh+Philosophical+Journal&rft.pages=197-198&rft.pub=Archibald+Constable&rft.date=1825&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiRgxAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA197&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200414-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200414_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStott2004">Stott 2004</a>, p. 14.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199139-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199139_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, p. 39.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation book cs1">"Observations and Experiments on the Structure and Functions of the Sponge by R. E. Grant". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iYxKAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA94"><i>The Edinburgh philosophical journal</i></a>. 1825. pp. 94–107.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Observations+and+Experiments+on+the+Structure+and+Functions+of+the+Sponge+by+R.+E.+Grant&rft.btitle=The+Edinburgh+philosophical+journal&rft.pages=94-107&rft.date=1825&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiYxKAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200414–17-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200414–17_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStott2004">Stott 2004</a>, pp. 14–17.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation book cs1">"On the Structure and Nature of the Spongilla friabilis". <i>The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal</i>. Archibald Constable. 1826. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4RuVB09bwv0C&pg=PA270">270–284</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ijE7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA381">381–383</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+Structure+and+Nature+of+the+Spongilla+friabilis&rft.btitle=The+Edinburgh+Philosophical+Journal&rft.pages=270-284%2C+381-383&rft.pub=Archibald+Constable&rft.date=1826&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksido0jN9RdWz1MCpgPA100_100]-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksido0jN9RdWz1MCpgPA100_100]_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRuse2009">Ruse 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o0jN9RdWz1MC&pg=PA100">100</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199139–41-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199139–41_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 39–41.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-jul-greg-uncertainty">"Observations on the spontaneous motions of the ova of zoophytes by R. E. Grant". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zkoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA150"><i>The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal: Exhibiting a View of the Progressive Discoveries and Improvements in the Sciences and the Arts</i></a>. A. and C. Black. 27 May 1826. pp. 150–156.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Observations+on+the+spontaneous+motions+of+the+ova+of+zoophytes+by+R.+E.+Grant&rft.btitle=The+Edinburgh+New+Philosophical+Journal%3A+Exhibiting+a+View+of+the+Progressive+Discoveries+and+Improvements+in+the+Sciences+and+the+Arts&rft.pages=150-156&rft.pub=A.+and+C.+Black&rft.date=1826-05-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzkoEAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-sponge_cilia_December_1826-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sponge_cilia_December_1826_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sponge_cilia_December_1826_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation book cs1">"Observations and Experiments on the Structure and Functions of the Sponge". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t4xKAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA121"><i>The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal</i></a>. Adam Black. December 1826. pp. 121–141.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Observations+and+Experiments+on+the+Structure+and+Functions+of+the+Sponge&rft.btitle=The+Edinburgh+New+Philosophical+Journal&rft.pages=121-141&rft.pub=Adam+Black.&rft.date=1826-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt4xKAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span> – p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t4xKAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA129">129</a> says sponge ova "swim about" by "the rapid vibration of ciliæ".</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darwin, C. R. [Edinburgh notebook] CUL-DAR118. (Darwin Online) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR118.-&pageseq=2">16–19 March 1827</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq52itemIDF1497viewtypetext_50–51]-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1958[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq52itemIDF1497viewtypetext_50–51]_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=52&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text">50–51</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Wernerian_1832p564-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wernerian_1832p564_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFWernerian_Natural_History_Society1832" class="citation book cs1">Wernerian Natural History Society (1832). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6333DYOcBOYC&pg=PA564"><i>Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society</i></a>. The Society. p. 564.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+the+Wernerian+Natural+History+Society&rft.pages=564&rft.pub=The+Society&rft.date=1832&rft.au=Wernerian+Natural+History+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6333DYOcBOYC%26pg%3DPA564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=EUL-%5B1%5D&viewtype=text">Minutes of the Plinian Society recording Darwin's first scientific papers</a></i> (3.1827). Edinburgh University Library. [27 March 1827]</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Plin-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Plin_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFBarrett1977" class="citation web cs1">Barrett, P. H., ed. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1583a&viewtype=text&pageseq=1">"On the Ova of Flustra, or, Early Notebook, Containing Observations Made by C.D. When He Was at Edinburgh, March 1827"</a>. <i>The collected papers of Charles Darwin</i>. Chicago: University Press. pp. 285–291.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+collected+papers+of+Charles+Darwin&rft.atitle=On+the+Ova+of+Flustra%2C+or%2C+Early+Notebook%2C+Containing+Observations+Made+by+C.D.+When+He+Was+at+Edinburgh%2C+March+1827&rft.pages=285-291&rft.date=1977&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3FitemID%3DF1583a%26viewtype%3Dtext%26pageseq%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199138-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199138_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, p. 38.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200435–36-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200435–36_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStott2004">Stott 2004</a>, pp. 35–36.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-1st_paper-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1st_paper_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darwin, C. R. [Edinburgh notebook] CUL-DAR118. (Darwin Online) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR118.-&pageseq=2">16–18 March 1827</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq8_104]-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq8_104]_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshworth1935">Ashworth 1935</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=8">104</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-leech-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-leech_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFGrant,_R._E.1827" class="citation journal cs1">Grant, R. E. (July 1827). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A144&viewtype=text&pageseq=1">"Notice regarding the ova of the Pontobdella muricata, Lam"</a>. <i>Edinburgh Journal of Science</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 160–161<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Edinburgh+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=Notice+regarding+the+ova+of+the+Pontobdella+muricata%2C+Lam.&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=160-161&rft.date=1827-07&rft.au=Grant%2C+R.+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3FitemID%3DA144%26viewtype%3Dtext%26pageseq%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq9_105–106]-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq9_105–106]_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq9_105–106]_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshworth1935">Ashworth 1935</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=9">105–106</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/A_%26_C_Black" title="A & C Black">A & C Black</a>. 1827. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hC0_AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA107">107–118</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3BoAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA337">337–342</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edinburgh+New+Philosophical+Journal&rft.pages=107-118%2C+337-342&rft.pub=A+%26+C+Black&rft.date=1827&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/A_%26_C_Black" title="A & C Black">A & C Black</a>. 1827. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hC0_AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA116">116–118</a>. <q><span class="nowrap"> </span>• See Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, December 1826, p. 129.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edinburgh+New+Philosophical+Journal&rft.pages=116-118&rft.pub=A+%26+C+Black&rft.date=1827&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowne199586–87-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199586–87_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowne199586–87_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 86–87.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFLitchfield,_Henrietta._nd.1871" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henrietta_Litchfield" title="Henrietta Litchfield">Litchfield, Henrietta. nd.</a> (1871). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=CUL-DAR262.23.3&viewtype=text">"On plagiarism and scientific jealousy"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+plagiarism+and+scientific+jealousy&rft.date=1871&rft.au=Litchfield%2C+Henrietta.+nd.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3Fpageseq%3D1%26itemID%3DCUL-DAR262.23.3%26viewtype%3Dtext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200436–37-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200436–37_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStott2004">Stott 2004</a>, pp. 36–37.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq12_108–109]-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq12_108–109]_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworth1935[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDA349viewtypetextpageseq12_108–109]_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshworth1935">Ashworth 1935</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=12">108–109</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Wyhe20147-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Wyhe20147_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Wyhe20147_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_Wyhe2014">van Wyhe 2014</a>, p. 7.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199143–45-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199143–45_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 43–45.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Litchfield, H. E. ed. 1904. <i>Emma Darwin, wife of Charles Darwin. A century of family letters</i>. Cambridge: University Press printed. Volume 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=164&itemID=F1552.1&viewtype=text">pp. 272 - 274</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStott200437–38-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStott200437–38_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStott2004">Stott 2004</a>, pp. 37–38.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199145–46-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199145–46_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 45–46.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Coldstream_by_Balfour-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coldstream_by_Balfour_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coldstream_by_Balfour_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/k9mpnd94">"Biography of the late John Coldstream, M.D., F.R.C.P.E. / by John Hutton Balfour ; with an introduction by the Rev. James Lewis. [1865]"</a>. <i>Wellcome Collection</i>. 19 December 2020. pp. 28–29, 38–40, 52<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wellcome+Collection&rft.atitle=Biography+of+the+late+John+Coldstream%2C+M.D.%2C+F.R.C.P.E.+%2F+by+John+Hutton+Balfour+%3B+with+an+introduction+by+the+Rev.+James+Lewis.+%5B1865%5D&rft.pages=28-29%2C+38-40%2C+52&rft.date=2020-12-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwellcomecollection.org%2Fworks%2Fk9mpnd94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, p. 87 cites Balfour 1865, but does not give page numbers.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199141-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDesmondMoore199141_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, p. 41.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-letter_58-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-letter_58_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-letter_58_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-58.xml">"Letter 58 – John Coldstream to Darwin, C. R., 28 February 1829"</a>. Darwin Correspondence Project<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+58+%E2%80%93+John+Coldstream+to+Darwin%2C+C.+R.%2C+28+February+1829&rft.pub=Darwin+Correspondence+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fletter%2FDCP-LETT-58.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 89–91<br /><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=58">56_57</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-JvW-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JvW_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JvW_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_Wyhe2008">van Wyhe 2008</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSmith,_Jonathan_C.2002" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Jonathan C. (2002). <i>Teaching and learning in nineteenth-century Cambridge</i>. Ipswich: Boydell Press. p. 207. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85115-783-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-85115-783-1"><bdi>0-85115-783-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teaching+and+learning+in+nineteenth-century+Cambridge&rft.place=Ipswich&rft.pages=207&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-85115-783-1&rft.au=Smith%2C+Jonathan+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 47–49<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Christs.html">"Darwin Online: The Admissions books of Christ's College, Cambridge"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Online%3A+The+Admissions+books+of+Christ%27s+College%2C+Cambridge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2FEditorialIntroductions%2FvanWyhe_Christs.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFACADDRWN827CR" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=DRWN827CR&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50">"Darwin, Charles Robert (DRWN827CR)"</a>. <i>A Cambridge Alumni Database</i>. University of Cambridge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Darwin%2C+Charles+Robert+%28DRWN827CR%29&rft.btitle=A+Cambridge+Alumni+Database&rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvenn.lib.cam.ac.uk%2Fcgi-bin%2Fsearch-2018.pl%3Fsur%3D%26suro%3Dw%26fir%3D%26firo%3Dc%26cit%3D%26cito%3Dc%26c%3Dall%26z%3Dall%26tex%3DDRWN827CR%26sye%3D%26eye%3D%26col%3Dall%26maxcount%3D50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFAnonymous2009" class="citation web cs1">Anonymous (23 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/cambridgeshire/7958710.stm">"Darwin's 'gentleman' student days"</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 April</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin%27s+%27gentleman%27+student+days&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2009-03-23&rft.au=Anonymous&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fuk_news%2Fengland%2Fcambridgeshire%2F7958710.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-JvW2-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JvW2_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_Wyhe2014">van Wyhe 2014</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Van_Wyhe_2014_p._33-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Van_Wyhe_2014_p._33_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFVan_Wyhe2014" class="citation book cs1">Van Wyhe, J. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cQO3CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA33"><i>Charles Darwin In Cambridge: The Most Joyful Years</i></a>. World Scientific Publishing Company. pp. 28, 33–35. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4583-99-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-4583-99-2"><bdi>978-981-4583-99-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charles+Darwin+In+Cambridge%3A+The+Most+Joyful+Years&rft.pages=28%2C+33-35&rft.pub=World+Scientific+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-981-4583-99-2&rft.aulast=Van+Wyhe&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcQO3CgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1887[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq139itemIDF14521viewtypetext_121–122]-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1887[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq139itemIDF14521viewtypetext_121–122]_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1887">Darwin 1887</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=139&itemID=F1452.1&viewtype=text">121–122</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, p. 59 describes the incident and states that the insect Darwin popped into his mouth was a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bombardier_beetle" title="Bombardier beetle">bombardier beetle</a>.<br />*They cite Darwin's correspondence and his <i>Autobiography</i> (<a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=64">62–63</a>.)<br />*<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101221210143/http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/young/lifelong.php">"Darwin: Young Naturalist"</a>. <i>American Museum of Natural History</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/young/lifelong.php">the original</a> on 21 December 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 July</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Museum+of+Natural+History&rft.atitle=Darwin%3A+Young+Naturalist&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnh.org%2Fexhibitions%2Fdarwin%2Fyoung%2Flifelong.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span> quotes the <i>Autobiography</i>, and while its illustration shows a bombardier beetle, it says "Many beetles, including the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brachinus_crepitans" title="Brachinus crepitans">Brachinus crepitans</a></i> and the <i><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Stenaptinus_insignis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stenaptinus insignis (page does not exist)">Stenaptinus insignis</a></i>, release irritating chemicals as a defense."<br />*<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-1009">Letter 1009 – Darwin, C. R. to Jenyns, Leonard, 17 Oct (1846)</a> describes the two beetles as unidentified <i>carabi</i>, or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ground_beetle" title="Ground beetle">ground beetles</a>.<br />*<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080618192901/http://www.wicken.org.uk/wildlife_beetles_crucifixground.htm">"Wicken Fen: Crucifix Ground Beetle"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wicken.org.uk/wildlife_beetles_crucifixground.htm">the original</a> on 18 June 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 August</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wicken+Fen%3A+Crucifix+Ground+Beetle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wicken.org.uk%2Fwildlife_beetles_crucifixground.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-francis166-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-francis166_118-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-francis166_118-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1887">Darwin 1887</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.1&pageseq=184">176–171</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-47">"Letter 47 – Darwin, C. R. to Herbert, J. M., (13 Sept 1828)"</a>. Darwin Correspondence Project.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+47+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Herbert%2C+J.+M.%2C+%2813+Sept+1828%29&rft.pub=Darwin+Correspondence+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fentry-47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Darwin_statue_2009-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Darwin_statue_2009_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cambridgeshire/7886278.stm">"Darwin statue unveiled at college"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 12 February 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Darwin+statue+unveiled+at+college&rft.date=2009-02-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fengland%2Fcambridgeshire%2F7886278.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Wyhe2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcQO3CgAAQBAJpgPA46_46–47]-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Wyhe2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcQO3CgAAQBAJpgPA46_46–47]_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_Wyhe2014">van Wyhe 2014</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cQO3CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46">46–47</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Letter61-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Letter61_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-61">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 61 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (10 Apr 1829)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+61+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Fox%2C+W.+D.%2C+%2810+Apr+1829%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 70, 76</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Letter_64-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Letter_64_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-64">"Letter 64 — Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (18 May 1829)"</a>. Darwin Correspondence Project<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+64+%E2%80%94+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Fox%2C+W.+D.%2C+%2818+May+1829%29&rft.pub=Darwin+Correspondence+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fentry-64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 70–73<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-1924">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 1924 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., 13 July (1856)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>. <q>What a book a Devil's chaplain might write on the clumsy, wasteful, blundering low & horridly cruel works of nature!</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+1924+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Hooker%2C+J.+D.%2C+13+July+%281856%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-1924&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Darwinsinsects-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Darwinsinsects_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Stephens.html">"Darwin Online: Darwin's insects in Stephens' Illustrations of British entomology (1829–32)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Online%3A+Darwin%27s+insects+in+Stephens%27+Illustrations+of+British+entomology+%281829%E2%80%9332%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2FEditorialIntroductions%2FvanWyhe_Stephens.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 76–79</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-dar57-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dar57_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dar57_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=59">57–67</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHerbert,_John_Maurice1882" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-jul-greg-uncertainty">Herbert, John Maurice (2 June 1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR112.B57-B76&pageseq=14">"(Recollections of Darwin at Cambridge) CUL-DAR112.B57-B76"</a>. Darwin Online. pp. 70–72<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%28Recollections+of+Darwin+at+Cambridge%29+CUL-DAR112.B57-B76&rft.pages=70-72&rft.pub=Darwin+Online&rft.date=1882-06-02&rft.au=Herbert%2C+John+Maurice&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3Fviewtype%3Dside%26itemID%3DCUL-DAR112.B57-B76%26pageseq%3D14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span><br /><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1887">Darwin 1887</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.1&pageseq=187">169–170</a><br /><a href="#CITEREFFreeman1978">Freeman 1978</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A27&pageseq=159">152</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 80–82</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 82–83</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, pp. 87–88</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.turtlereader.com/authors/charles-darwin/the-life-and-letters-of-charles-darwin-day-13-of-188/">Darwin Correspondence Cambridge 1828–1831</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin200.christs.cam.ac.uk/node/35">"Young Man! Darwin 200"</a>. <i>Darwin 200 website hosted by Christ's College Cambridge</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Darwin+200+website+hosted+by+Christ%27s+College+Cambridge&rft.atitle=Young+Man%21+Darwin+200&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin200.christs.cam.ac.uk%2Fnode%2F35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPaley1809">Paley 1809</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A142&viewtype=text&pageseq=437">431–433</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A142&viewtype=text&pageseq=462">456</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Sydow2005">von Sydow 2005</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Letter2532-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Letter2532_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-2532.">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 2532 – Darwin, C. R. to Lubbock, John, (22 Nov 1859)"</a>. <i>Darwin Correspondence Project</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project&rft.atitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+2532+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Lubbock%2C+John%2C+%2822+Nov+1859%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-2532.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 128–129,<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-94">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 94 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (15 Feb 1831)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+94+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Fox%2C+W.+D.%2C+%2815+Feb+1831%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=69">67–68</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDesmondMoore1991">Desmond & Moore 1991</a>, p. 91.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Letter96-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Letter96_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-96">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 96 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (7 Apr 1831)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+96+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Fox%2C+W.+D.%2C+%287+Apr+1831%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-letter98-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-letter98_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-98">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 98 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., (28 Apr 1831)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+98+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Darwin%2C+C.+S.%2C+%2828+Apr+1831%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fentry-98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 136–138</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Letter101-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Letter101_144-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Letter101_144-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-101">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 101 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (9 July 1831)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+101+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Fox%2C+W.+D.%2C+%289+July+1831%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Letter100-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Letter100_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-100">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 100 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (11 May 1831)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+100+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Fox%2C+W.+D.%2C+%2811+May+1831%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-letter99-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-letter99_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-99">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 99 – Herbert, J. M. to Darwin, C. R., (early May 1831)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+99+%E2%80%93+Herbert%2C+J.+M.+to+Darwin%2C+C.+R.%2C+%28early+May+1831%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fentry-99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Letter102-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Letter102_147-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Letter102_147-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-102">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 102 – Darwin, C. R. to Henslow, J. S., (11 July 1831)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+102+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Henslow%2C+J.+S.%2C+%2811+July+1831%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerbert2005">Herbert 2005</a>, pp. 38–39</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Letter103-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Letter103_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-103">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 103 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., 1 Aug (1831)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+103+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Fox%2C+W.+D.%2C+1+Aug+%281831%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-letter102A-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-letter102A_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-102a">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 102a – Darwin, C. R. to Whitley, C. T., (19 July 1831)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+102a+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Whitley%2C+C.+T.%2C+%2819+July+1831%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fentry-102a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-wales-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wales_151-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wales_151-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wales_151-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDarwin1958">Darwin 1958</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=70">68–72</a>.<br /><a href="#CITEREFBrowne1995">Browne 1995</a>, pp. 139–143</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-lucas-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lucas_152-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lucas_152-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lucas_152-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Lucas2010" class="citation web cs1">Peter Lucas (1 January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Lucas_Lowe_Journal.html">"The recovery of time past: Darwin at Barmouth on the eve of the Beagle"</a>. Darwin Online<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+recovery+of+time+past%3A+Darwin+at+Barmouth+on+the+eve+of+the+Beagle&rft.pub=Darwin+Online&rft.date=2010-01-01&rft.au=Peter+Lucas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2FEditorialIntroductions%2FLucas_Lowe_Journal.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Letter107-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Letter107_153-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Letter107_153-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-107">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 107 – Darwin, C. R. to Henslow, J. S., 30 (Aug 1831)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+107+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Henslow%2C+J.+S.%2C+30+%28Aug+1831%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Letter104-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Letter104_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-104">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 104 – Peacock, George to Henslow, J. S., (6 or 13 Aug 1831)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+104+%E2%80%93+Peacock%2C+George+to+Henslow%2C+J.+S.%2C+%286+or+13+Aug+1831%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Letter105-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Letter105_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-105">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 105 – Henslow, J. S. to Darwin, C. R., 24 Aug 1831"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+105+%E2%80%93+Henslow%2C+J.+S.+to+Darwin%2C+C.+R.%2C+24+Aug+1831&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Letter108-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Letter108_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-108">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 108 – Darwin, R. W. to Wedgwood, Josiah, II, 30–1 Aug (1831)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+108+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+R.+W.+to+Wedgwood%2C+Josiah%2C+II%2C+30%E2%80%931+Aug+%281831%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Letter110-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Letter110_157-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Letter110_157-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-110">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 110 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, R. W., 31 Aug (1831)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+110+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+C.+R.+to+Darwin%2C+R.+W.%2C+31+Aug+%281831%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Letter109-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Letter109_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-109">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 109 – Wedgwood, Josiah, II to Darwin, R. W., 31 Aug 1831"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+109+%E2%80%93+Wedgwood%2C+Josiah%2C+II+to+Darwin%2C+R.+W.%2C+31+Aug+1831&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Letter111-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Letter111_159-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/DCP-LETT-111">"Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 111 – Darwin, R. W. to Wedgwood, Josiah, II, 1 Sept 1831"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darwin+Correspondence+Project+%E2%80%93+Letter+111+%E2%80%93+Darwin%2C+R.+W.+to+Wedgwood%2C+Josiah%2C+II%2C+1+Sept+1831&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2FDCP-LETT-111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFAshworth1935" class="citation journal cs1">Ashworth, J.H. (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A349&viewtype=text&pageseq=1">"Charles Darwin as a student in Edinburgh], 1825-1827"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 55: 97-113, PLS. 1-2</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Edinburgh+55%3A+97-113%2C+PLS.+1-2.&rft.atitle=Charles+Darwin+as+a+student+in+Edinburgh%5D%2C+1825-1827.&rft.date=1935&rft.aulast=Ashworth&rft.aufirst=J.H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3FitemID%3DA349%26viewtype%3Dtext%26pageseq%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1887" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> (1887). Darwin, Francis (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.1&pageseq=184"><i>The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin: Including an Autobiographical Chapter</i></a>. Vol. 1. London: John Murray. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/271440007">271440007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+and+Letters+of+Charles+Darwin%3A+Including+an+Autobiographical+Chapter&rft.place=London&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1887&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F271440007&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3Fviewtype%3Dtext%26itemID%3DF1452.1%26pageseq%3D184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1958" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> (1958). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nora_Barlow" title="Nora Barlow">Barlow, Nora</a> (ed.). <i>The autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809–1882. With the original omissions restored. Edited and with appendix and notes by his granddaughter</i>. London: Collins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+autobiography+of+Charles+Darwin+1809%E2%80%931882.+With+the+original+omissions+restored.+Edited+and+with+appendix+and+notes+by+his+granddaughter&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Collins&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span>.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFBrowne1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Janet_Browne" title="Janet Browne">Browne, E. Janet</a> (1995). <i>Charles Darwin: vol. 1 Voyaging</i>. London: Jonathan Cape. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84413-314-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-84413-314-1"><bdi>1-84413-314-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charles+Darwin%3A+vol.+1+Voyaging&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Jonathan+Cape&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=1-84413-314-1&rft.aulast=Browne&rft.aufirst=E.+Janet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFDesmond1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adrian_Desmond" title="Adrian Desmond">Desmond, Adrian</a> (1989). <i>The politics of evolution : morphology, medicine, and reform in radical London</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-14374-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-14374-3"><bdi>978-0-226-14374-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/709606191">709606191</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+politics+of+evolution+%3A+morphology%2C+medicine%2C+and+reform+in+radical+London&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F709606191&rft.isbn=978-0-226-14374-3&rft.aulast=Desmond&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFDesmondMoore1991" class="citation book cs1">Desmond, Adrian; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Moore_(biographer)" title="James Moore (biographer)">Moore, James</a> (1991). <i>Darwin</i>. London: Michael Joseph, Penguin Group. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7181-3430-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7181-3430-3"><bdi>0-7181-3430-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darwin&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Michael+Joseph%2C+Penguin+Group&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-7181-3430-3&rft.aulast=Desmond&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft.au=Moore%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFFreeman1978" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Richard Broke (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=htILAQAAIAAJ"><i>Charles Darwin, a Companion</i></a>. Dawson. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7129-0901-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7129-0901-3"><bdi>978-0-7129-0901-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charles+Darwin%2C+a+Companion&rft.pub=Dawson&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-7129-0901-3&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Richard+Broke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhtILAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHerbert2005" class="citation cs2">Herbert, Sandra (2005), <i>Charles Darwin, Geologist</i>, Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-4348-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-4348-2"><bdi>0-8014-4348-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charles+Darwin%2C+Geologist&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+N.Y&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8014-4348-2&rft.aulast=Herbert&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFPaley1809" class="citation book cs1">Paley, William (1809). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2GZRAAAAYAAJ"><i>Natural Theology: Or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity</i></a>. J. Faulder.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Theology%3A+Or%2C+Evidences+of+the+Existence+and+Attributes+of+the+Deity&rft.pub=J.+Faulder&rft.date=1809&rft.aulast=Paley&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2GZRAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFRuse2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michael_Ruse" title="Michael Ruse">Ruse, Michael</a> (2009). <i>Monad to man : the concept of progress in evolutionary biology</i>. Cambridge, Mass. London: Harvard University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-58220-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-58220-0"><bdi>978-0-674-58220-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/436302097">436302097</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Monad+to+man+%3A+the+concept+of+progress+in+evolutionary+biology&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.+London&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F436302097&rft.isbn=978-0-674-58220-0&rft.aulast=Ruse&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFStott2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rebecca_Stott" title="Rebecca Stott">Stott, Rebecca</a> (2004). <i>Darwin and the barnacle : the story of one tiny creature and history's most spectacular scientific breakthrough</i>. London: Faber. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-571-21609-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-571-21609-3"><bdi>978-0-571-21609-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/53821905">53821905</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darwin+and+the+barnacle+%3A+the+story+of+one+tiny+creature+and+history%27s+most+spectacular+scientific+breakthrough&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Faber&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53821905&rft.isbn=978-0-571-21609-3&rft.aulast=Stott&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFStott2012" class="citation book cs1">Stott, Rebecca (2012). <i>Darwin's ghosts : in search of the first evolutionists</i>. London, New York: Bloomsbury. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-3101-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-3101-4"><bdi>978-1-4088-3101-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="/enwiki//www.worldcat.org/oclc/774638991">774638991</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darwin%27s+ghosts+%3A+in+search+of+the+first+evolutionists&rft.place=London%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F774638991&rft.isbn=978-1-4088-3101-4&rft.aulast=Stott&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFvan_Wyhe2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_van_Wyhe" title="John van Wyhe">van Wyhe, John</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html">"Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch"</a>. Darwin Online<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Charles+Darwin%3A+gentleman+naturalist%3A+A+biographical+sketch&rft.pub=Darwin+Online&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=van+Wyhe&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fdarwin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFvan_Wyhe2014" class="citation book cs1">van Wyhe, John (27 May 2014). <i>Charles Darwin In Cambridge: The Most Joyful Years</i>. World Scientific. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4583-99-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-4583-99-2"><bdi>978-981-4583-99-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charles+Darwin+In+Cambridge%3A+The+Most+Joyful+Years&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2014-05-27&rft.isbn=978-981-4583-99-2&rft.aulast=van+Wyhe&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFvon_Sydow2005" class="citation book cs1">von Sydow, Momme (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326070105/http://www.psych.uni-goettingen.de/abt/1/sydow/von_Sydow_(2005)_Darwin_A_Christian_Undermining_Christianity.pdf">"Darwin – A Christian Undermining Christianity? On Self-Undermining Dynamics of Ideas Between Belief and Science"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Knight, David M.; Eddy, Matthew D. (eds.). <i>Science and Beliefs: From Natural Philosophy to Natural Science, 1700–1900</i>. Burlington: Ashgate. pp. 141–156. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-3996-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7546-3996-7"><bdi>0-7546-3996-7</bdi></a>. Archived from the original on 26 March 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Darwin+%E2%80%93+A+Christian+Undermining+Christianity%3F+On+Self-Undermining+Dynamics+of+Ideas+Between+Belief+and+Science&rft.btitle=Science+and+Beliefs%3A+From+Natural+Philosophy+to+Natural+Science%2C+1700%E2%80%931900&rft.place=Burlington&rft.pages=141-156&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-7546-3996-7&rft.aulast=von+Sydow&rft.aufirst=Momme&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.psych.uni-goettingen.de%2Fabt%2F1%2Fsydow%2Fvon_Sydow_%282005%29_Darwin_A_Christian_Undermining_Christianity.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACharles+Darwin%27s+education" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Charles_Darwin%27s_education&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Complete_Works_of_Charles_Darwin_Online" title="The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online">The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/">Darwin Online</a>; Darwin's publications, private papers and bibliography, supplementary works including biographies, obituaries and reviews. Free to use, includes items not in public domain.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Charles+Darwin">Works by Charles Darwin</a> at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a>; public domain</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/">Darwin Correspondence Project</a> Text and notes for most of his letters</li></ul>
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.navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Charles_Darwin" title="Template:Charles Darwin"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Charles_Darwin" title="Template talk:Charles Darwin"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Charles_Darwin&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Charles_Darwin" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darwin%E2%80%93Wedgwood_family" title="Darwin–Wedgwood family">Darwin–Wedgwood family</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erasmus_Darwin" title="Erasmus Darwin">Erasmus Darwin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Josiah_Wedgwood" title="Josiah Wedgwood">Josiah Wedgwood</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_voyage_of_HMS_Beagle" title="Second voyage of HMS Beagle">Voyage on HMS <i>Beagle</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inception_of_Darwin%27s_theory" title="Inception of Darwin's theory">Inception of theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Development_of_Darwin%27s_theory" title="Development of Darwin's theory">Development of theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Publication_of_Darwin%27s_theory" title="Publication of Darwin's theory">Publication of theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reactions_to_On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="Reactions to On the Origin of Species">Reactions to <i>On the Origin of Species</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darwin_from_Orchids_to_Variation" title="Darwin from Orchids to Variation"><i>Orchids</i> to <i>Variation</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darwin_from_Descent_of_Man_to_Emotions" title="Darwin from Descent of Man to Emotions"><i>Descent of Man</i> to <i>Emotions</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darwin_from_Insectivorous_Plants_to_Worms" title="Darwin from Insectivorous Plants to Worms"><i>Insectivorous Plants</i> to <i>Worms</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_views_of_Charles_Darwin" title="Religious views of Charles Darwin">Religious views</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Health_of_Charles_Darwin" title="Health of Charles Darwin">Health</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darwin_and_women" title="Darwin and women">Women</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portraits_of_Charles_Darwin" title="Portraits of Charles Darwin">Portraits of Darwin</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caricatures_of_Charles_Darwin_and_his_evolutionary_theory_in_19th-century_England" title="Caricatures of Charles Darwin and his evolutionary theory in 19th-century England">caricatures</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Darwin_bibliography" title="Charles Darwin bibliography">Writings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extracts_from_Letters_to_Henslow" title="Extracts from Letters to Henslow">Extracts from Letters to Henslow</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Voyage_of_the_Beagle" title="The Voyage of the Beagle">The Voyage of the Beagle</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zoology_of_the_Voyage_of_H.M.S._Beagle" title="Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle">Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs" title="The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs">The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs</a></i></li>
<li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/On_the_Tendency_of_Species_to_form_Varieties;_and_on_the_Perpetuation_of_Varieties_and_Species_by_Natural_Means_of_Selection" title="On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection">On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection</a>"</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids" title="Fertilisation of Orchids">Fertilisation of Orchids</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geological_Observations_on_South_America" title="Geological Observations on South America">Geological Observations on South America</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geological_Observations_on_the_Volcanic_Islands" title="Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands">Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Variation_of_Animals_and_Plants_Under_Domestication" title="The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication">The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication</a></i>
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_Selection_(manuscript)" title="Natural Selection (manuscript)">Natural Selection</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Descent_of_Man,_and_Selection_in_Relation_to_Sex" title="The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex">The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals" title="The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals">The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Insectivorous_Plants_(book)" title="Insectivorous Plants (book)">Insectivorous Plants</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Power_of_Movement_in_Plants" title="The Power of Movement in Plants">The Power of Movement in Plants</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Formation_of_Vegetable_Mould_Through_the_Action_of_Worms" title="The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms">The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Autobiography_of_Charles_Darwin" title="The Autobiography of Charles Darwin">Autobiography</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Correspondence_of_Charles_Darwin" title="Correspondence of Charles Darwin">Correspondence</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Life_and_Letters_of_Charles_Darwin" title="The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin">The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/More_Letters_of_Charles_Darwin" title="More Letters of Charles Darwin">More Letters of Charles Darwin</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_taxa_described_by_Charles_Darwin" title="List of taxa described by Charles Darwin">List of described taxa</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vestiges_of_the_Natural_History_of_Creation#Influence_and_effects" title="Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation"><i>Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History of evolutionary thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pangenesis" title="Pangenesis">Pangenesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darwin_Industry" title="Darwin Industry">Darwin Industry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commemoration_of_Charles_Darwin" title="Commemoration of Charles Darwin">Commemoration</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Charles_Darwin" title="List of things named after Charles Darwin">things named for Darwin</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neural_Darwinism" title="Neural Darwinism">Neural Darwinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quantum_Darwinism" title="Quantum Darwinism">Quantum Darwinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Universal_Darwinism" title="Universal Darwinism">Universal Darwinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">Eclipse</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/HMS_Beagle" title="HMS Beagle">HMS <i>Beagle</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darwin_Medal" title="Darwin Medal">Darwin Medal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darwin_Awards" title="Darwin Awards">Darwin Awards</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
