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{{About|various Indian musical instruments called ''veena''|the modern mainstream veena|Saraswati veena|the ancient Indian harp|ancient veena|other uses|veena (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox Instrument
|name=
|image= File:Veena.png
|image_capt= A [[Saraswati Veena]]
|background=string
| names = Vina<ref name=britveena/>
|classification= [[String instruments]]
|developed = ''Veena'' has applied to stringed instruments in Indian written records since at least 1000 BCE. Instruments using the name have included forms of [[ancient veena|arched harp]] and musical bow, lutes, [[Alpini vina and eka-tantri vina|medieval stick zithers and tube zithers]], [[Pinaka vina|bowed chordophones]], [[Gottuvadhyam|fretless lutes]], the [[rudra veena|Hindustani bīn]] and [[Sarasvati veena]].<ref name=grovekinnari/>
|related= [[Chitra veena]], [[Mohan veena]], [[Rudra veena]], [[Saraswati veena]], [[Vichitra veena]], [[Sarod]], [[Sitar]], [[Surbahar]], [[Sursingar]], [[Tambouras]], [[Tanpura|Tambura]],
}}
The '''''veena''''', also spelled '''''vina''''' ({{lang-sa|वीणा}} [[IAST]]: vīṇā), comprises various [[chordophone]] instruments from the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name=hastvina/> Ancient musical instruments evolved into many variations, such as [[lute]]s, [[zither]]s and arched [[harp]]s.<ref name=britveena>[https://www.britannica.com/art/vina Vina: Musical Instrument], Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)</ref> The many regional designs have different names such as the ''[[Rudra veena]]'', the ''[[Saraswati veena]]'', the ''[[Vichitra veena]]'' and others.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Tutut Herawan|author2=Rozaida Ghazali|author3=Mustafa Mat Deris|title=Recent Advances on Soft Computing and Data Mining|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VdYlBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA512 |year=2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-07692-8|page=512}}</ref><ref name=sanyal24>{{cite book|author1=Ritwik Sanyal|author2=Richard Widdess|title=Dhrupad: Tradition and Performance in Indian Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7o8HAQAAMAAJ |year=2004|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-0-7546-0379-5|pages=23–25}}</ref>
The North Indian ''rudra veena'', used in [[Hindustani classical music]], is a [[stick zither]].<ref name=britveena/> About 3.5 to 4 feet (1 to 1.2 meters) long to fit the measurements of the musician, it has a hollow body and two large resonating gourds under each end.<ref name=sanyal24/> It has four main strings which are melodic, and three auxiliary drone strings.<ref name=britveena/> To play, the musician plucks the melody strings downward with a plectrum worn on the first and second fingers, while the drone strings are strummed with the little finger of the playing hand. The musician stops the resonating strings, when so desired, with the fingers of the free hand. In modern times the veena has been generally replaced with the [[sitar]] in North Indian performances.<ref name=britveena/><ref name=hastvina/>
The South Indian ''Saraswati veena'', used in [[Carnatic classical music]], is a lute. It is a long-necked, pear-shaped lute, but instead of the lower gourd of the North Indian design, it has a pear-shaped wooden piece. However it, too, has 24 frets, four melody strings, and three drone strings, and is played similarly. It remains an important and popular string instrument in classical [[Carnatic music]].<ref name=britveena/>{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=753–754}}{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}}
As a fretted, plucked lute, the veena can produce pitches in a full three-octave range.<ref name=hastvina>{{cite book|author1=Dorothea E. Hast|author2=James R. Cowdery|author3=Stanley Arnold Scott|title=Exploring the World of Music: An Introduction to Music from a World Music Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=00CwGRwv6XQC&pg=PA151 |year=1999|publisher=Kendall & Hunt|isbn=978-0-7872-7154-1|pages=151–152}}</ref> The long, hollow neck design of these Indian instruments allow [[portamento]] effects and legato ornaments found in Indian ''[[raga]]s''.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}} It has been a popular instrument in [[Indian classical music]], and one revered in the Indian culture by its inclusion in the iconography of [[Saraswati]], the [[Hindu goddess]] of arts and learning.{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=753–754}}
[[File:Kiravani-L Ramakrishnan.ogg|thumb|A veena improvisation (2004)]]
[[File:Shri Nilotpala Nayike, rendered on the Veena by L Ramakishnan.ogg|thumb|A veena kushree]]
==Etymology and history==
:''See: [[Ancient veena]]'' :''See: [[History of lute-family instruments]]''
{{multiple image|caption_align=center|header_align=center
| align = right
|header= Historical vinas, harp, lute and stick zither
| image1 = Plaque with a Dancer and a Vina Player 1st century B.C.jpg
| width1 = 130
| alt1 = Plaque with harp vina
| caption1 =Plaque with a dancer and a [[veena (harp)]] player 1st century B.C.
| image2 = Lute in Life scenes of Buddha-2nd century CE, Amravati.jpg
| width2 = 154
| alt2 = Veena lute from Amravati Stupa
| caption2 = Lute in relief at [[Amaravati Stupa]], 2nd century CE. The artwork was celebrating the Buddha and his mother.
|image3 = Kinnara with kachchapa veena, part of the Bodhisattva Padmapani, Cave 1, Ajanta, India.jpg
|width3 = 130
|alt3 = painting of kachappi veena from circa 450 CE
|caption3 = India, ca. 450-490 CE, [[Ajanta Caves]]. A ''[[Kinnara]]'' holding a lute-type veena, possibly a ''kacchapī veena'' (Sanskrit for "tortoise veena").<ref>{{cite web |author= Subramanian Swaminathan |title= Paintings |website= saigan.com|url= https://www.saigan.com/heritage/painting/ajanta/ajanta15.html|quote= Kinnara playing Kachchapa Vina, Padmapani Panel, Cave 1 }}</ref> No description survives to go with name.
|image4= Embekke Temple, Carving of a Kinnari 0557.jpg
|width4 = 130
|alt4 = stick zither veena in the hands of a Kinnari
|caption4 = [[Embekka Devalaya]] temple, Sri Lanka. A [[Kinnari]] holds an [[ālāpīni vīnī]], a type of [[stick-zither]] with a half gourd used for the resonator.
|footer =
}}
The [[Sanskrit]] word ''veena'' ({{lang|sa|[[wikt:वीणा|वीणा]]}}) in ancient and medieval Indian literature is a generic term for plucked string musical instruments. It is mentioned in the [[Rigveda]], [[Samaveda]] and other Vedic literature such as the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'' and ''[[Taittiriya Samhita]]''.<ref name=mmw1005>Monier Monier-Williams, [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1038.html वीणा], Sanskrit-English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 1005</ref>{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=33, 86–87, 115–116}} In the ancient texts, [[Narada]] is credited with inventing the ''Tampura'', and is described as a seven-string instrument with frets.<ref name=mmw1005/><ref name="Miner2004p26">{{cite book|author=Allyn Miner|title=Sitar and Sarod in the 18th and 19th Centuries|url=https://archive.org/details/sitarsarodin18th00mine|url-access=registration|year=2004|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1493-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sitarsarodin18th00mine/page/26 26]–27}}</ref> According to Suneera Kasliwal, a professor of music, in the ancient texts such as the ''Rigveda'' and ''[[Atharvaveda]]'' (both pre-1000 BCE), as well as the [[Upanishads]] (c. 800–300 BCE), a string instrument is called ''vana'', a term that evolved to become ''veena''. The early Sanskrit texts call any stringed instrument ''vana''; these include bowed, plucked, one string, many strings, fretted, non-fretted, zither, lute or harp lyre-style string instruments.<ref name="Kasliwal2004">{{cite book|author=Suneera Kasliwal|title=Classical musical instruments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Rupa|isbn=978-81-291-0425-0|pages=70–72, 102–114}}</ref>{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=17–22}}{{Sfn|Beck|1993|pp=108–112}}
[[File:Kinnara playing a yazh, Kailasanathar Temple in Kanchipuram, India, ca 8th century CE.jpg|thumb |200px|Kinnara playing a yazh, Kailasanathar Temple in Kanchipuram, India, ca 8th century CE.<ref>{{cite magazine |title= யாழ் என்னும் இசைக்கருவி - ஒரு பார்வை (translation from Tamil: Jaffna Musical Instrument - A View) |magazine= Varalaaru.com |author= லலிதாராம் (translation from Tamil: Lalitaram) |issue = 8 |date= February 15 – March 14, 2005|url= http://www.varalaaru.com/design/article.aspx?ArticleID=109}}</ref> In the Tamil tradition, the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] word for veena is ''[[Yazh|yaaḻ]]'' ({{lang|ta|யாழ்}}) (often written ''yaazh'' or ''yaal''). It is in the list of musical instruments used by Tamil people in ''[[Tirumurai]]'', dated from the 6th to the 11th century. ]]
A person who plays a veena is called a ''vainika''.<ref>{{cite web |author = Gabe Hiemstra |website= Wisdom Library (wisdom lib.org) |title= Vainika, Vaiṇika: 6 definitions |date= 22 February 2019 |url= https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/vainika |quote= Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Benfey Sanskrit-English Dictionary...Vaiṇika (वैणिक).—i. e. vīṇā + ika, m. A lutist.
}}</ref>
The ''[[Natya Shastra]]'' by Bharata Muni, the oldest surviving ancient Hindu text on classical music and performance arts, discusses the ''veena''.<ref name="Liu2016p131">{{cite book|author=A Madhavan|editor=Siyuan Liu|title=Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1iFCwAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-27886-3|pages=131–132}}</ref> This Sanskrit text, probably complete between 200 BCE and 200 CE,{{Sfn|Lidova|2014}} begins its discussion by stating that "the human throat is a ''sareer veena'', or a body's musical string instrument" when it is perfected, and that the source of ''gandharva'' music is such a throat, a string instrument and flute.<ref name="Liu2016p131"/> The same metaphor of human voice organ being a form of ''veena'', is also found in more ancient texts of [[Hinduism]], such as in verse 3.2.5 of the ''Aitareya [[Aranyaka]]'', verse 8.9 of the ''Shankhayana Aranyaka'' and others.{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=33, 86–87, 115–116}}{{Sfn|Beck|1993|pp=108–112}}<ref name="Baumer1988p135">{{cite book|author1=Bettina Bäumer|author2=Kapila Vatsyayan|title=Kalatattvakosa: A Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPoIZaGGtiMC&pg=PA135 |year=1988|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1402-8|pages=135–136 }}</ref> The ancient epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'' describes the sage Narada as a Vedic sage famed as a "vina player".{{Sfn|Dalal|2014|pp=272–273}}
The ''Natya Shastra'' describes a seven-string instrument and other string instruments in 35 verses,{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=114–116}} and then explains how the instrument should be played.<ref name="Miner2004p26"/>{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=98–104}} The technique of performance suggests that the veena in Bharata Muni's time was quite different than the zither or the lute that became popular after the ''Natya Shastra'' was complete. The [[ancient veena]], according to Allyn Miner and other scholars, was closer to an [[arched harp]]. The earliest lute and zither style veena playing musicians are evidenced in Hindu and Buddhist cave temple reliefs in the early centuries of the common era. Similarly, Indian sculptures from the mid-1st millennium CE depict musicians playing string instruments.<ref name="Miner2004p26"/> By about the 6th century CE, the goddess Saraswati sculptures are predominantly with veena of the zither-style, similar to modern styles.<ref name=ludvik227/>
===The early Gupta veena: depiction and playing technique===
[[File:Samudragupta Circa 335-380 CE Lyrist type.jpg|thumb|250px|Coin ca. 335-380 CE. (Front side) Samudragupta seated left on a low couch or throne, playing veena set on his knees. (Reverse side) Lakshmi seated left on wicker stool, holding diadem and cornucopia.]]
One of the early veenas used in India from early times until the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] period was an instrument of the [[harp]] type, and more precisely of the [[List of musical instruments by Hornbostel–Sachs number: 322.11|arched harp]]. It was played with the strings kept parallel to the body of the player, with both hands plucking the strings, as shown on [[Samudragupta]]'s gold coins.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://coinindia.com/galleries-samudragupta.html|title="The Coin Galleries: Gupta: Samudragupta"}}</ref> The Veena Cave at [[Udayagiri Caves|Udayagiri]] has one of the earliest visual depictions of a veena player, considered to be Samudragupta.
==Construction==
{{multiple image|caption_align=center|header_align=center
| align = left
|header = Saraswati and the vina
| image1 = Raja Ravi Varma, Goddess Saraswati.jpg
| width1 = 130
| alt1 = The Hindu goddess [[Saraswati]] with a veena
| caption1 =1896. Saraswati with a southern style "Saraswati veena" instrument.
| image2 = Saraswati with bīn on white bird.jpg
| width2 = 151
| alt2 = The Hindu Goddess Saraswati riding a white bird and holding a bīn (rudra vīnā)
| caption2 = Ca. 1700. Saraswati riding a white bird and holding a northern style bīn ([[rudra vīnā]]).
|footer= The Hindu Goddess [[Saraswati]] has been pictured holding different veenas over the centuries. The oldest known Saraswati-like relief carvings are from [[Buddhist]] archaeological sites dated to 200 BCE, where she holds a harp-style veena.<ref name=ludvik227>{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvík|title=Sarasvatī, Riverine Goddess of Knowledge: From the Manuscript-carrying Vīṇā-player to the Weapon-wielding Defender of the Dharma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lsYKIXBOK0C&pg=PA227|year=2007|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-15814-6|pages=227–229}}</ref>
| image3 = Saraswati with an alapini vina, from a larger image God Vishnu with Goddesses Lakshmi and Sarasvati.jpg
| width3 = 102
| alt3 = Saraswati with an ālāpiṇī vīṇā
| caption3 = Bangladesh, 10th-12th century CE Saraswati with an ''[[ālāpiṇī vīṇā]]''.
|image4 =Saraswati Third Century AD.jpg
|width4= 170
|alt4 = Saraswati Third Century CE with harp Veena
|caption4= Saraswati, 3rd century CE with harp-style veena. Variations included the ''chitra vīṇā'' with seven strings and ''[[vipanchi vīṇā]]'' with 9 strings. [[Chitra veena]] refers to another instrument today.
}}
At a first glance, the difference between the North and South Indian design is the presence of two resonant gourds in the North, while in the South, instead of the lower gourd there is a pear-shaped wooden body attached. However, there are other differences, and many similarities.<ref name=britveena/> Modern designs use fiberglass or other materials instead of hollowed jackwood and gourds.{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=352–355}} The construction is personalized to the musician's body proportions so that she can hold and play it comfortably. It ranges from about 3.5 to 4 feet (1 to 1.2 meters). The body is made of special wood and is hollow. Both designs have four melody strings, three drone strings and twenty-four frets.<ref name=britveena/><ref name=hastvina/><ref name=sanyal24/> The instrument's end is generally tastefully shaped such as a [[swan]] and the external surfaces colorfully decorated with traditional Indian designs.{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=352–355}}
The melody strings are tuned in ''c' g c G'' (the tonic, the fifth, the octave and the fourth<ref name=alainrudra/>), from which ''sarani'' (chanterelle) is frequently used.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}} The drone strings are tuned in ''c" g' c''' (the double octave, the tonic and the octave<ref name=alainrudra/>). The drones are typically used to create rhythmic ''[[tanam]]s'' of [[Indian classical music]] and to express harmony with clapped ''[[tala (music)|tala]]'' of the piece.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}}
The main string is called ''Nāyakī Tār'' (नायकी तार), and in the Sarasvati veena it is on the onlooked's left side.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=79}} The instrument is played with three fingers of the right (dominant) hand, struck inwards or outwards with a bent-wire plectrum (a "mizrab"). The index and second fingers strike inwards on the melody string, alternating between notes, and the little finger strikes outward on the sympathetic strings.
The ''bola'' alphabets struck in the North Indian veena are ''da, ga, ra'' on the main strings, and many others by a combination of fingers and other strings.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|pp=26–27}}{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=153–164}} The veena settings and tuning may be fixed or adjusted by loosening the pegs, to perform ''Dhruva'' from fixed and ''Cala'' with loosened pegs such that the second string and first string coincide.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|pp=111–113}}
One of the earliest description of the terminology currently used for veena construction, modification and operation appears in ''Sangita Cudamani'' by Govinda.{{Sfn| Gautam|1993|p=9}}
==Types==
{{multiple image|caption_align=center|header_align=center
| align = right
| image1 = Saraswati holding an Eka-tantri vina, ca. 1000 C.E.jpg
| width1 = 90
| alt1 = Saraswati with an Eka-tantri vina
| caption1 = Saraswati holding an [[Eka-tantri vina]], ca. 1000 CE
|image2 = One type of Veena, cithare sur tube "Bin" at Musée de la musique, Philharmonie de Paris.jpg
|width2 = 168
|alt2 = Rudra veena
|caption2 = A ''[[rudra veena]]'', now at [[Musée de la Musique (Paris).]] The frets are held to the body by a black wax.
|image3 = Kinnari vina, 19th century C.E., from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg
|width3 = 230
|alt3 = Kinnari vina, 19th century CE, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art
|caption3 = ''[[Kinnari vina]]'', 19th century CE, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
| image4= A 19th century strolling singer musician playing Tingadee instrument, Madras.jpg
| width4 = 100
| alt4 = Kinnari veena or tingadee
| caption4 =[[Madras]], 1876. ''[[Kinnari Vina]]'' labeled "''tingadee''." The spike is a bridge, directing string energy to resonator.
|footer = The eka-tantri developed from the alapini veena. It was longer and had a larger gourd. Over time gourds were added and the instrument may have developed into the rudra veena and the kinnari veena.
}}
{{multiple image|caption_align=center|header_align=center
| align = right
| image1 = Pinaka vina.jpg
| width1 = 130
| alt1 = Saraswati with an ālāpiṇī vīṇā
| caption1 =India, early 19th century. ''[[Pinaka veena]]''. Stick used on string as a slide, to choose notes.
|image2 =Frans Balthazar Solvyns, "Qaplious ou bin, instrument de musique hindou", from "Illustrations de Les Hindous", volume 2 plate 23.jpg
|width2 = 130
|alt2 = bīn or rudra veena
|caption2 =Early 19th century. A ''bīn'' or ''rudra veena'' without frets. Stick being used as slide on string to choose notes.
|image3 = Pandit Gopal Krishan.png
|width3 = 172
|alt3 = Vichitra veena
|caption3 = ''Vichitra veena'', uses a slide to choose notes instead of frets.
| image4= Concert de Raghunath Manet pour le Tibet.jpg
| width4 = 170
| alt4 = saraswati veena
| caption4 =Saraswati veena
|footer =
}}
[[file:Mayuri.jpg|thumb |200px|[[Mayuri veena]], 1903]]
[[File:A Mohan Veena, string musical instruments of India.jpg|thumb|A ''[[Mohan veena]]''.]]
[[File:Naga Veena.jpg|thumb|Modern recreations of Naga veena (1957) and Kachyapi vina (1957)]]
[[File:Nagula Veena.jpg|thumb|Modern recreation of Nagula vina]]
[[File:Pullavan Veenai.jpg|thumb |Pulluva vina used by the [[Pulluvan|Pulluvan tribals]] of [[Kerala]] in religious ceremony and [[Pulluvan paattu]].]]
Being a generic name for any string instrument, there are numerous types of veena.{{Sfn|Martinez|2001|pp=127–128}} Some significant ones are:
* ''[[Rudra veena]]'' is a fretted veena, with two large equal size tumba (resonators) below a stick zither.{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=48–49}} This instrument is played by laying it slanting with one gourd on a knee and other above the shoulder.<ref name=alainrudra/><ref name=kasliwal116/> The mythology states that this instrument was created by god [[Shiva]]{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=48–49}} It may be a post-6th century medieval era invention.<ref name=kasliwal116>{{cite book|author=Suneera Kasliwal|title=Classical musical instruments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Rupa|isbn=978-81-291-0425-0|pages=116–124}}</ref> According to [[Alain Daniélou]], this instrument is more ancient, and its older known versions from 6th to 10th century had just one resonator with the seven strings made from different metals.<ref name=alainrudra>[http://media.smithsonianfolkways.org/liner_notes/unesco/UNES08021.pdf Rudra Veena], Alain Danielou, Smithsonian Folkways and UNESCO (1987)</ref>
* ''[[Saraswati veena]]'' is another fretted veena, and one highly revered in Indian traditions, particularly Hinduism. This is often pictured, shown as two resonators of different size. Previously known as ''Raghunatha veena'', during the period of King Raghunatha Nayaka. This is played by holding it at about a 45 degree angle across one's body, and the smaller gourd over the musician's left thigh. This instrument is related to an ancient instrument of South India, around the region now called [[Kerala]], where the ancient version is called Nanthuni or Nanduruni.<ref>{{cite book|author=Suneera Kasliwal|title=Classical musical instruments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Rupa|isbn=978-81-291-0425-0|pages=117–118, 123}}</ref>
* ''[[Vichitra veena]]'' and ''Chitra veena'' or ''[[gottuvadhyam]]'' do not have frets. It sounds close to humming human singer. The Vichitra veena is played with a piece of ovoid or round glass, which is used to stop the strings to create delicate musical ornaments and slides during a performance.{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=48–49}}
* ''[[Sitar]]'' is a Persian word meaning three strings.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=179}} Legends state that Amir Khusro of [[Delhi Sultanate]] renamed the [[Tritantri veena]] to sitar, but this is unlikely because the list of musical instruments created by Akbar historians makes no mention of sitar or sitariya.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=65}} The sitar has been popular with Indian Muslim musicians.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=66}}
* ''[[Surbahar]]'' the base tuned version of the Sitar, created due to the fact that Sitar players wanted to play a base tune like that of the Saraswati veena.
* ''[[Ālāpiṇī vīṇā]]''. Historical. A one string [[stick zither|stick-zither]] style veena, shorter than the one string ''[[Eka-tantri vina]]''. It had one half-gourd resonator, which was pressed into the player's chest while plucking the string.
*''[[Bobbili Veena]]'', a specialized Saraswati veena, carved from a single piece of wood. Named for [[Bobbili]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]], where the instrument originated.
*''[[Chitra veena]]'', a modern 21-string fretless lute, also called ''Gottuvadhyam'' or ''Kotuvadya''.
*''[[Ancient veena|Chitra veena]], a 7-string arched harp, mainstream from ancient times until about the 5th century CE.
* ''[[Krachappi|Kachapi veena]]'', now called ''Kachua sitar'', built with a wooden model of a [[turtle]] or [[tortoise]] as a resonator.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=179}}
*''[[Kinnari veena]]'', one of three veena types mentioned in the [[Sangita Ratnakara]] (written 1210–1247 CE) by [[Śārṅgadeva]]. The other two mentioned were the ''[[Ālāpiṇī vīṇā]]'' and the ''Eka-tantri vina''. Tube zither with multiple gourds for resonators.<ref name=grovekinnari>{{cite encyclopedia |author = Alastair Dick |author2= Gordon Geekie |author3= Richard Widdess |editor-last= Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |entry= Vina, section 4 Medieval stick zithers|encyclopedia= The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |id= Volume 3 |pages=729–730 |quote=}}</ref> In surviving museum examples, the center gourd is open where it presses against the player's chest, like the [[Kse diev]] or [[Ālāpiṇī vīṇā]].
* ''[[Pinaki veena]]'', related to ''[[Sarangi]]''.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=177}} Historical. A bowed Veena, resembling the rudra veena. The notes were picked by moving a stick or coconut shell along the string.
* ''[[Pulluva veena]]'', used by the Pulluvan tribe of [[Kerala]] in religious ceremonies and ''Pulluvan pāttu''.
* ''[[Mattakokila vīṇā]]'' (meaning "intoxicated cuckoo"), a 21-string instrument, mentioned in literature, type unproven. Possibly an [[ancient veena|arched harp]] or a [[board zither]].<ref name=grovekinnari/><ref name=grovematto>{{cite encyclopedia |author = |editor-last= Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |entry= Mattakokilā |encyclopedia= The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |id= Volume 2 |page=623 |quote=}}</ref><ref name=grovesurman>{{cite encyclopedia |author = |editor-last= Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |entry= Surmandal|encyclopedia= The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |id= Volume 3 |page=477 |quote= in...[[Sangita Ratnakara|Sangītaratnākara]], a chordophone with 21 strings...is mentioned...does not make it clear whether this was a board zither or even whether the author had actually seen one...may have been a...harp-vīnā...}}</ref>
* ''[[Mohan veena]]'', A modified [[sarod]], created by sarod player [[Radhika Mohan Maitra]] in the 1940s. Made out of a modified Hawaiian guitar and a sarod.
* ''[[Mayuri veena]]'', Also called ''[[Taus (instrument)|Taus]]'' (derived from [[Arabic]] ''tawwus'' meaning, peacock), an instrument with the carving of a [[Indian peafowl|peacock]] as a resonator, decorated with genuine peacock feathers.
* ''[[Mukha veena]]'', A blowing instrument.
* ''[[Naga veena]]'', An instrument with the carving of a [[Indian cobra|snake]] for decoration.
* ''[[Nagula veena]]'', An instrument with no resonator.
* ''[[Shatatantri veena]]'' (''[[Santoor]]''),
* ''[[Gayatri veena]]'' (with one string only)
* ''[[Saptatantri veena]]''
* ''[[Ranjan veena]]''
* ''[[Sagar veena]]'', a Pakistani instrument, created in 1970 by prominent Pakistani lawyer [[Raza Kazim]].
* ''[[Saradiya veena]]'', now called ''[[Sarod]]''.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=176}}
* ''[[Thanjavur veena]]'', a specialized Saraswati veena, carved from a single piece of wood. Named for [[Thanjavur]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], where the instrument originated.
* ''[[Triveni veena]]''
==See also==
{{Portal|India|Music}}
*[[Pandura]]
*[[Sarod]]
*[[Sitar]]
*[[Surbahar]]
*[[Sursingar]]
*[[Tambouras]]
*[[Tanpura|Tambura]]
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Bibliography===
*{{cite book|first=Guy |last=Beck|year=1993 |title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound|location=Columbia |publisher=University of South Carolina Press|isbn=978-0-87249-855-6}}
*{{cite book|first=Vimalakānta Rôya|last=Caudhurī|title=The Dictionary of Hindustani Classical Music|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofhind00roya |url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1708-1}}
*{{cite book|last= Dalal |first=Roshen |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ |year=2014 | publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-81-8475-277-9 }}
*{{Cite book | last=Daniélou | first=Alain | author-link=Alain Daniélou | title=Northern Indian Music, Volume 1. Theory & technique; Volume 2. The main rāgǎs | publisher=C. Johnson | place=London | year=1949|oclc= 851080}}
*{{cite book|title= Evolution of Raga and Tala in Indian Music| first=M.R.|last = Gautam| publisher= Munshiram Manoharlal | year = 1993|isbn = 81-215-0442-2}}
*{{Cite book | last=Kaufmann | first=Walter | author-link=Walter Kaufmann (composer) | title=The Ragas of North India | publisher=Oxford & Indiana University Press | isbn=978-0-253-34780-0 | year=1968 | oclc=11369 | url=https://archive.org/details/ragasofnorthindi00kauf }}
*{{cite book |first=Ananda|last=Lal |title=The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DftkAAAAMAAJ| year=2004| publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-564446-3}}
*{{cite book|first=Natalia|last=Lidova|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0071 |title= Natyashastra}}
*{{cite book|first=James G.|last=Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, 2 Volume Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-2287-1}}
*{{cite book|first=José Luiz|last=Martinez|title=Semiosis in Hindustani Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OwJRnFIcM4cC |year=2001|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1801-9}}
*{{citation |ref={{sfnref|Nettl et al.|1998}}| first1=Bruno|last1=Nettl | author2= Ruth M. Stone|author3=James Porter|author4=Timothy Rice|title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia : the Indian subcontinent| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC |year=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1}}
*{{cite book|first=Don Michael |last= Randel|title=The Harvard Dictionary of Music|edition=fourth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=02rFSecPhEsC |year=2003|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01163-2}}
*{{cite book|first=Lewis |last= Rowell|title=Music and Musical Thought in Early India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_UCgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-73034-9}}
*{{cite book|first1=Neil| last1= Sorrell|first2=Ram |last2= Narayan|title=Indian Music in Performance: A Practical Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNhRAQAAIAAJ |year=1980|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-0756-9}}
*{{cite book|first=Emmie|last=Te Nijenhuis |author-link=Emmie te Nijenhuis |title=Indian Music: History and Structure |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ |year=1974|publisher= BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-03978-3 }}
*{{cite book| first=Kapila|last=Vatsyayan |title=Classical Indian dance in literature and the arts |year=1977 |publisher=Sangeet Natak Akademi |oclc= 233639306}}, [http://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/toc/z2008_2719.pdf Table of Contents]
*{{cite book| first=Kapila|last=Vatsyayan |title=Aesthetic theories and forms in Indian tradition |year=2008 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |oclc= 286469807| isbn= 978-81-87586-35-7}}
*{{cite book |first1=Annette|last1=Wilke|first2=Oliver|last2= Moebus|title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC |year=2011|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-024003-0}}
==External links==
{{Commons category-inline}}
*[http://media.smithsonianfolkways.org/liner_notes/unesco/UNES08021.pdf Rudra Veena, Vichitra Veena, Sarod and Shahnai], Alain Danielou, Smithsonian Folkways and UNESCO
*[https://www.ethnomusic.ucla.edu/music-of-india-ensemble Music of India Ensemble: Veena], Department of Ethnomusicology, UCLA
{{Indian musical instruments}}
{{Lute}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Chordophones]]
[[Category:String instruments]]
[[Category:Indian musical instruments]]
[[Category:Sacred musical instruments]]
[[Category:Indian inventions]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{vishwanath@gmail.com}
==Etymology and history==
:''See: [[Ancient veena]]'' :''See: [[History of lute-family instruments]]''
{{multiple image|caption_align=center|header_align=center
| align = right
|header= Historical vinas, harp, lute and stick zither
| image1 = Plaque with a Dancer and a Vina Player 1st century B.C.jpg
| width1 = 130
| alt1 = Plaque with harp vina
| caption1 =Plaque with a dancer and a [[veena (harp)]] player 1st century B.C.
| image2 = Lute in Life scenes of Buddha-2nd century CE, Amravati.jpg
| width2 = 154
| alt2 = Veena lute from Amravati Stupa
| caption2 = Lute in relief at [[Amaravati Stupa]], 2nd century CE. The artwork was celebrating the Buddha and his mother.
|image3 = Kinnara with kachchapa veena, part of the Bodhisattva Padmapani, Cave 1, Ajanta, India.jpg
|width3 = 130
|alt3 = painting of kachappi veena from circa 450 CE
|caption3 = India, ca. 450-490 CE, [[Ajanta Caves]]. A ''[[Kinnara]]'' holding a lute-type veena, possibly a ''kacchapī veena'' (Sanskrit for "tortoise veena").<ref>{{cite web |author= Subramanian Swaminathan |title= Paintings |website= saigan.com|url= https://www.saigan.com/heritage/painting/ajanta/ajanta15.html|quote= Kinnara playing Kachchapa Vina, Padmapani Panel, Cave 1 }}</ref> No description survives to go with name.
|image4= Embekke Temple, Carving of a Kinnari 0557.jpg
|width4 = 130
|alt4 = stick zither veena in the hands of a Kinnari
|caption4 = [[Embekka Devalaya]] temple, Sri Lanka. A [[Kinnari]] holds an [[ālāpīni vīnī]], a type of [[stick-zither]] with a half gourd used for the resonator.
|footer =
}}
The [[Sanskrit]] word ''veena'' ({{lang|sa|[[wikt:वीणा|वीणा]]}}) in ancient and medieval Indian literature is a generic term for plucked string musical instruments. It is mentioned in the [[Rigveda]], [[Samaveda]] and other Vedic literature such as the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'' and ''[[Taittiriya Samhita]]''.<ref name=mmw1005>Monier Monier-Williams, [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1038.html वीणा], Sanskrit-English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 1005</ref>{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=33, 86–87, 115–116}} In the ancient texts, [[Narada]] is credited with inventing the ''Tampura'', and is described as a seven-string instrument with frets.<ref name=mmw1005/><ref name="Miner2004p26">{{cite book|author=Allyn Miner|title=Sitar and Sarod in the 18th and 19th Centuries|url=https://archive.org/details/sitarsarodin18th00mine|url-access=registration|year=2004|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1493-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sitarsarodin18th00mine/page/26 26]–27}}</ref> According to Suneera Kasliwal, a professor of music, in the ancient texts such as the ''Rigveda'' and ''[[Atharvaveda]]'' (both pre-1000 BCE), as well as the [[Upanishads]] (c. 800–300 BCE), a string instrument is called ''vana'', a term that evolved to become ''veena''. The early Sanskrit texts call any stringed instrument ''vana''; these include bowed, plucked, one string, many strings, fretted, non-fretted, zither, lute or harp lyre-style string instruments.<ref name="Kasliwal2004">{{cite book|author=Suneera Kasliwal|title=Classical musical instruments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Rupa|isbn=978-81-291-0425-0|pages=70–72, 102–114}}</ref>{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=17–22}}{{Sfn|Beck|1993|pp=108–112}}
[[File:Kinnara playing a yazh, Kailasanathar Temple in Kanchipuram, India, ca 8th century CE.jpg|thumb |200px|Kinnara playing a yazh, Kailasanathar Temple in Kanchipuram, India, ca 8th century CE.<ref>{{cite magazine |title= யாழ் என்னும் இசைக்கருவி - ஒரு பார்வை (translation from Tamil: Jaffna Musical Instrument - A View) |magazine= Varalaaru.com |author= லலிதாராம் (translation from Tamil: Lalitaram) |issue = 8 |date= February 15 – March 14, 2005|url= http://www.varalaaru.com/design/article.aspx?ArticleID=109}}</ref> In the Tamil tradition, the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] word for veena is ''[[Yazh|yaaḻ]]'' ({{lang|ta|யாழ்}}) (often written ''yaazh'' or ''yaal''). It is in the list of musical instruments used by Tamil people in ''[[Tirumurai]]'', dated from the 6th to the 11th century. ]]
A person who plays a veena is called a ''vainika''.<ref>{{cite web |author = Gabe Hiemstra |website= Wisdom Library (wisdom lib.org) |title= Vainika, Vaiṇika: 6 definitions |date= 22 February 2019 |url= https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/vainika |quote= Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Benfey Sanskrit-English Dictionary...Vaiṇika (वैणिक).—i. e. vīṇā + ika, m. A lutist.
}}</ref>
The ''[[Natya Shastra]]'' by Bharata Muni, the oldest surviving ancient Hindu text on classical music and performance arts, discusses the ''veena''.<ref name="Liu2016p131">{{cite book|author=A Madhavan|editor=Siyuan Liu|title=Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1iFCwAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-27886-3|pages=131–132}}</ref> This Sanskrit text, probably complete between 200 BCE and 200 CE,{{Sfn|Lidova|2014}} begins its discussion by stating that "the human throat is a ''sareer veena'', or a body's musical string instrument" when it is perfected, and that the source of ''gandharva'' music is such a throat, a string instrument and flute.<ref name="Liu2016p131"/> The same metaphor of human voice organ being a form of ''veena'', is also found in more ancient texts of [[Hinduism]], such as in verse 3.2.5 of the ''Aitareya [[Aranyaka]]'', verse 8.9 of the ''Shankhayana Aranyaka'' and others.{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=33, 86–87, 115–116}}{{Sfn|Beck|1993|pp=108–112}}<ref name="Baumer1988p135">{{cite book|author1=Bettina Bäumer|author2=Kapila Vatsyayan|title=Kalatattvakosa: A Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPoIZaGGtiMC&pg=PA135 |year=1988|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1402-8|pages=135–136 }}</ref> The ancient epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'' describes the sage Narada as a Vedic sage famed as a "vina player".{{Sfn|Dalal|2014|pp=272–273}}
The ''Natya Shastra'' describes a seven-string instrument and other string instruments in 35 verses,{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=114–116}} and then explains how the instrument should be played.<ref name="Miner2004p26"/>{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=98–104}} The technique of performance suggests that the veena in Bharata Muni's time was quite different than the zither or the lute that became popular after the ''Natya Shastra'' was complete. The [[ancient veena]], according to Allyn Miner and other scholars, was closer to an [[arched harp]]. The earliest lute and zither style veena playing musicians are evidenced in Hindu and Buddhist cave temple reliefs in the early centuries of the common era. Similarly, Indian sculptures from the mid-1st millennium CE depict musicians playing string instruments.<ref name="Miner2004p26"/> By about the 6th century CE, the goddess Saraswati sculptures are predominantly with veena of the zither-style, similar to modern styles.<ref name=ludvik227/>
===The early Gupta veena: depiction and playing technique===
[[File:Samudragupta Circa 335-380 CE Lyrist type.jpg|thumb|250px|Coin ca. 335-380 CE. (Front side) Samudragupta seated left on a low couch or throne, playing veena set on his knees. (Reverse side) Lakshmi seated left on wicker stool, holding diadem and cornucopia.]]
One of the early veenas used in India from early times until the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] period was an instrument of the [[harp]] type, and more precisely of the [[List of musical instruments by Hornbostel–Sachs number: 322.11|arched harp]]. It was played with the strings kept parallel to the body of the player, with both hands plucking the strings, as shown on [[Samudragupta]]'s gold coins.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://coinindia.com/galleries-samudragupta.html|title="The Coin Galleries: Gupta: Samudragupta"}}</ref> The Veena Cave at [[Udayagiri Caves|Udayagiri]] has one of the earliest visual depictions of a veena player, considered to be Samudragupta.
==Construction==
{{multiple image|caption_align=center|header_align=center
| align = left
|header = Saraswati and the vina
| image1 = Raja Ravi Varma, Goddess Saraswati.jpg
| width1 = 130
| alt1 = The Hindu goddess [[Saraswati]] with a veena
| caption1 =1896. Saraswati with a southern style "Saraswati veena" instrument.
| image2 = Saraswati with bīn on white bird.jpg
| width2 = 151
| alt2 = The Hindu Goddess Saraswati riding a white bird and holding a bīn (rudra vīnā)
| caption2 = Ca. 1700. Saraswati riding a white bird and holding a northern style bīn ([[rudra vīnā]]).
|footer= The Hindu Goddess [[Saraswati]] has been pictured holding different veenas over the centuries. The oldest known Saraswati-like relief carvings are from [[Buddhist]] archaeological sites dated to 200 BCE, where she holds a harp-style veena.<ref name=ludvik227>{{cite book|author=Catherine Ludvík|title=Sarasvatī, Riverine Goddess of Knowledge: From the Manuscript-carrying Vīṇā-player to the Weapon-wielding Defender of the Dharma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lsYKIXBOK0C&pg=PA227|year=2007|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-15814-6|pages=227–229}}</ref>
| image3 = Saraswati with an alapini vina, from a larger image God Vishnu with Goddesses Lakshmi and Sarasvati.jpg
| width3 = 102
| alt3 = Saraswati with an ālāpiṇī vīṇā
| caption3 = Bangladesh, 10th-12th century CE Saraswati with an ''[[ālāpiṇī vīṇā]]''.
|image4 =Saraswati Third Century AD.jpg
|width4= 170
|alt4 = Saraswati Third Century CE with harp Veena
|caption4= Saraswati, 3rd century CE with harp-style veena. Variations included the ''chitra vīṇā'' with seven strings and ''[[vipanchi vīṇā]]'' with 9 strings. [[Chitra veena]] refers to another instrument today.
}}
At a first glance, the difference between the North and South Indian design is the presence of two resonant gourds in the North, while in the South, instead of the lower gourd there is a pear-shaped wooden body attached. However, there are other differences, and many similarities.<ref name=britveena/> Modern designs use fiberglass or other materials instead of hollowed jackwood and gourds.{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=352–355}} The construction is personalized to the musician's body proportions so that she can hold and play it comfortably. It ranges from about 3.5 to 4 feet (1 to 1.2 meters). The body is made of special wood and is hollow. Both designs have four melody strings, three drone strings and twenty-four frets.<ref name=britveena/><ref name=hastvina/><ref name=sanyal24/> The instrument's end is generally tastefully shaped such as a [[swan]] and the external surfaces colorfully decorated with traditional Indian designs.{{sfn|Nettl et al.|1998|pp=352–355}}
The melody strings are tuned in ''c' g c G'' (the tonic, the fifth, the octave and the fourth<ref name=alainrudra/>), from which ''sarani'' (chanterelle) is frequently used.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}} The drone strings are tuned in ''c" g' c''' (the double octave, the tonic and the octave<ref name=alainrudra/>). The drones are typically used to create rhythmic ''[[tanam]]s'' of [[Indian classical music]] and to express harmony with clapped ''[[tala (music)|tala]]'' of the piece.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}}
The main string is called ''Nāyakī Tār'' (नायकी तार), and in the Sarasvati veena it is on the onlooked's left side.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=79}} The instrument is played with three fingers of the right (dominant) hand, struck inwards or outwards with a bent-wire plectrum (a "mizrab"). The index and second fingers strike inwards on the melody string, alternating between notes, and the little finger strikes outward on the sympathetic strings.
The ''bola'' alphabets struck in the North Indian veena are ''da, ga, ra'' on the main strings, and many others by a combination of fingers and other strings.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|pp=26–27}}{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=153–164}} The veena settings and tuning may be fixed or adjusted by loosening the pegs, to perform ''Dhruva'' from fixed and ''Cala'' with loosened pegs such that the second string and first string coincide.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|pp=111–113}}
One of the earliest description of the terminology currently used for veena construction, modification and operation appears in ''Sangita Cudamani'' by Govinda.{{Sfn| Gautam|1993|p=9}}
==Types==
{{multiple image|caption_align=center|header_align=center
| align = right
| image1 = Saraswati holding an Eka-tantri vina, ca. 1000 C.E.jpg
| width1 = 90
| alt1 = Saraswati with an Eka-tantri vina
| caption1 = Saraswati holding an [[Eka-tantri vina]], ca. 1000 CE
|image2 = One type of Veena, cithare sur tube "Bin" at Musée de la musique, Philharmonie de Paris.jpg
|width2 = 168
|alt2 = Rudra veena
|caption2 = A ''[[rudra veena]]'', now at [[Musée de la Musique (Paris).]] The frets are held to the body by a black wax.
|image3 = Kinnari vina, 19th century C.E., from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg
|width3 = 230
|alt3 = Kinnari vina, 19th century CE, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art
|caption3 = ''[[Kinnari vina]]'', 19th century CE, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
| image4= A 19th century strolling singer musician playing Tingadee instrument, Madras.jpg
| width4 = 100
| alt4 = Kinnari veena or tingadee
| caption4 =[[Madras]], 1876. ''[[Kinnari Vina]]'' labeled "''tingadee''." The spike is a bridge, directing string energy to resonator.
|footer = The eka-tantri developed from the alapini veena. It was longer and had a larger gourd. Over time gourds were added and the instrument may have developed into the rudra veena and the kinnari veena.
}}
{{multiple image|caption_align=center|header_align=center
| align = right
| image1 = Pinaka vina.jpg
| width1 = 130
| alt1 = Saraswati with an ālāpiṇī vīṇā
| caption1 =India, early 19th century. ''[[Pinaka veena]]''. Stick used on string as a slide, to choose notes.
|image2 =Frans Balthazar Solvyns, "Qaplious ou bin, instrument de musique hindou", from "Illustrations de Les Hindous", volume 2 plate 23.jpg
|width2 = 130
|alt2 = bīn or rudra veena
|caption2 =Early 19th century. A ''bīn'' or ''rudra veena'' without frets. Stick being used as slide on string to choose notes.
|image3 = Pandit Gopal Krishan.png
|width3 = 172
|alt3 = Vichitra veena
|caption3 = ''Vichitra veena'', uses a slide to choose notes instead of frets.
| image4= Concert de Raghunath Manet pour le Tibet.jpg
| width4 = 170
| alt4 = saraswati veena
| caption4 =Saraswati veena
|footer =
}}
[[file:Mayuri.jpg|thumb |200px|[[Mayuri veena]], 1903]]
[[File:A Mohan Veena, string musical instruments of India.jpg|thumb|A ''[[Mohan veena]]''.]]
[[File:Naga Veena.jpg|thumb|Modern recreations of Naga veena (1957) and Kachyapi vina (1957)]]
[[File:Nagula Veena.jpg|thumb|Modern recreation of Nagula vina]]
[[File:Pullavan Veenai.jpg|thumb |Pulluva vina used by the [[Pulluvan|Pulluvan tribals]] of [[Kerala]] in religious ceremony and [[Pulluvan paattu]].]]
Being a generic name for any string instrument, there are numerous types of veena.{{Sfn|Martinez|2001|pp=127–128}} Some significant ones are:
* ''[[Rudra veena]]'' is a fretted veena, with two large equal size tumba (resonators) below a stick zither.{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=48–49}} This instrument is played by laying it slanting with one gourd on a knee and other above the shoulder.<ref name=alainrudra/><ref name=kasliwal116/> The mythology states that this instrument was created by god [[Shiva]]{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=48–49}} It may be a post-6th century medieval era invention.<ref name=kasliwal116>{{cite book|author=Suneera Kasliwal|title=Classical musical instruments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Rupa|isbn=978-81-291-0425-0|pages=116–124}}</ref> According to [[Alain Daniélou]], this instrument is more ancient, and its older known versions from 6th to 10th century had just one resonator with the seven strings made from different metals.<ref name=alainrudra>[http://media.smithsonianfolkways.org/liner_notes/unesco/UNES08021.pdf Rudra Veena], Alain Danielou, Smithsonian Folkways and UNESCO (1987)</ref>
* ''[[Saraswati veena]]'' is another fretted veena, and one highly revered in Indian traditions, particularly Hinduism. This is often pictured, shown as two resonators of different size. Previously known as ''Raghunatha veena'', during the period of King Raghunatha Nayaka. This is played by holding it at about a 45 degree angle across one's body, and the smaller gourd over the musician's left thigh. This instrument is related to an ancient instrument of South India, around the region now called [[Kerala]], where the ancient version is called Nanthuni or Nanduruni.<ref>{{cite book|author=Suneera Kasliwal|title=Classical musical instruments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Rupa|isbn=978-81-291-0425-0|pages=117–118, 123}}</ref>
* ''[[Vichitra veena]]'' and ''Chitra veena'' or ''[[gottuvadhyam]]'' do not have frets. It sounds close to humming human singer. The Vichitra veena is played with a piece of ovoid or round glass, which is used to stop the strings to create delicate musical ornaments and slides during a performance.{{Sfn|Sorrell|Narayan|1980|pp=48–49}}
* ''[[Sitar]]'' is a Persian word meaning three strings.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=179}} Legends state that Amir Khusro of [[Delhi Sultanate]] renamed the [[Tritantri veena]] to sitar, but this is unlikely because the list of musical instruments created by Akbar historians makes no mention of sitar or sitariya.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=65}} The sitar has been popular with Indian Muslim musicians.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=66}}
* ''[[Surbahar]]'' the base tuned version of the Sitar, created due to the fact that Sitar players wanted to play a base tune like that of the Saraswati veena.
* ''[[Ālāpiṇī vīṇā]]''. Historical. A one string [[stick zither|stick-zither]] style veena, shorter than the one string ''[[Eka-tantri vina]]''. It had one half-gourd resonator, which was pressed into the player's chest while plucking the string.
*''[[Bobbili Veena]]'', a specialized Saraswati veena, carved from a single piece of wood. Named for [[Bobbili]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]], where the instrument originated.
*''[[Chitra veena]]'', a modern 21-string fretless lute, also called ''Gottuvadhyam'' or ''Kotuvadya''.
*''[[Ancient veena|Chitra veena]], a 7-string arched harp, mainstream from ancient times until about the 5th century CE.
* ''[[Krachappi|Kachapi veena]]'', now called ''Kachua sitar'', built with a wooden model of a [[turtle]] or [[tortoise]] as a resonator.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=179}}
*''[[Kinnari veena]]'', one of three veena types mentioned in the [[Sangita Ratnakara]] (written 1210–1247 CE) by [[Śārṅgadeva]]. The other two mentioned were the ''[[Ālāpiṇī vīṇā]]'' and the ''Eka-tantri vina''. Tube zither with multiple gourds for resonators.<ref name=grovekinnari>{{cite encyclopedia |author = Alastair Dick |author2= Gordon Geekie |author3= Richard Widdess |editor-last= Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |entry= Vina, section 4 Medieval stick zithers|encyclopedia= The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |id= Volume 3 |pages=729–730 |quote=}}</ref> In surviving museum examples, the center gourd is open where it presses against the player's chest, like the [[Kse diev]] or [[Ālāpiṇī vīṇā]].
* ''[[Pinaki veena]]'', related to ''[[Sarangi]]''.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=177}} Historical. A bowed Veena, resembling the rudra veena. The notes were picked by moving a stick or coconut shell along the string.
* ''[[Pulluva veena]]'', used by the Pulluvan tribe of [[Kerala]] in religious ceremonies and ''Pulluvan pāttu''.
* ''[[Mattakokila vīṇā]]'' (meaning "intoxicated cuckoo"), a 21-string instrument, mentioned in literature, type unproven. Possibly an [[ancient veena|arched harp]] or a [[board zither]].<ref name=grovekinnari/><ref name=grovematto>{{cite encyclopedia |author = |editor-last= Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |entry= Mattakokilā |encyclopedia= The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |id= Volume 2 |page=623 |quote=}}</ref><ref name=grovesurman>{{cite encyclopedia |author = |editor-last= Sadie |editor-first=Stanley |entry= Surmandal|encyclopedia= The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |year=1984 |id= Volume 3 |page=477 |quote= in...[[Sangita Ratnakara|Sangītaratnākara]], a chordophone with 21 strings...is mentioned...does not make it clear whether this was a board zither or even whether the author had actually seen one...may have been a...harp-vīnā...}}</ref>
* ''[[Mohan veena]]'', A modified [[sarod]], created by sarod player [[Radhika Mohan Maitra]] in the 1940s. Made out of a modified Hawaiian guitar and a sarod.
* ''[[Mayuri veena]]'', Also called ''[[Taus (instrument)|Taus]]'' (derived from [[Arabic]] ''tawwus'' meaning, peacock), an instrument with the carving of a [[Indian peafowl|peacock]] as a resonator, decorated with genuine peacock feathers.
* ''[[Mukha veena]]'', A blowing instrument.
* ''[[Naga veena]]'', An instrument with the carving of a [[Indian cobra|snake]] for decoration.
* ''[[Nagula veena]]'', An instrument with no resonator.
* ''[[Shatatantri veena]]'' (''[[Santoor]]''),
* ''[[Gayatri veena]]'' (with one string only)
* ''[[Saptatantri veena]]''
* ''[[Ranjan veena]]''
* ''[[Sagar veena]]'', a Pakistani instrument, created in 1970 by prominent Pakistani lawyer [[Raza Kazim]].
* ''[[Saradiya veena]]'', now called ''[[Sarod]]''.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=176}}
* ''[[Thanjavur veena]]'', a specialized Saraswati veena, carved from a single piece of wood. Named for [[Thanjavur]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], where the instrument originated.
* ''[[Triveni veena]]''
==See also==
{{Portal|India|Music}}
*[[Pandura]]
*[[Sarod]]
*[[Sitar]]
*[[Surbahar]]
*[[Sursingar]]
*[[Tambouras]]
*[[Tanpura|Tambura]]
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Bibliography===
*{{cite book|first=Guy |last=Beck|year=1993 |title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound|location=Columbia |publisher=University of South Carolina Press|isbn=978-0-87249-855-6}}
*{{cite book|first=Vimalakānta Rôya|last=Caudhurī|title=The Dictionary of Hindustani Classical Music|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofhind00roya |url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1708-1}}
*{{cite book|last= Dalal |first=Roshen |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ |year=2014 | publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-81-8475-277-9 }}
*{{Cite book | last=Daniélou | first=Alain | author-link=Alain Daniélou | title=Northern Indian Music, Volume 1. Theory & technique; Volume 2. The main rāgǎs | publisher=C. Johnson | place=London | year=1949|oclc= 851080}}
*{{cite book|title= Evolution of Raga and Tala in Indian Music| first=M.R.|last = Gautam| publisher= Munshiram Manoharlal | year = 1993|isbn = 81-215-0442-2}}
*{{Cite book | last=Kaufmann | first=Walter | author-link=Walter Kaufmann (composer) | title=The Ragas of North India | publisher=Oxford & Indiana University Press | isbn=978-0-253-34780-0 | year=1968 | oclc=11369 | url=https://archive.org/details/ragasofnorthindi00kauf }}
*{{cite book |first=Ananda|last=Lal |title=The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DftkAAAAMAAJ| year=2004| publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-564446-3}}
*{{cite book|first=Natalia|last=Lidova|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0071 |title= Natyashastra}}
*{{cite book|first=James G.|last=Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, 2 Volume Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-2287-1}}
*{{cite book|first=José Luiz|last=Martinez|title=Semiosis in Hindustani Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OwJRnFIcM4cC |year=2001|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1801-9}}
*{{citation |ref={{sfnref|Nettl et al.|1998}}| first1=Bruno|last1=Nettl | author2= Ruth M. Stone|author3=James Porter|author4=Timothy Rice|title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia : the Indian subcontinent| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC |year=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1}}
*{{cite book|first=Don Michael |last= Randel|title=The Harvard Dictionary of Music|edition=fourth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=02rFSecPhEsC |year=2003|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01163-2}}
*{{cite book|first=Lewis |last= Rowell|title=Music and Musical Thought in Early India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_UCgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-73034-9}}
*{{cite book|first1=Neil| last1= Sorrell|first2=Ram |last2= Narayan|title=Indian Music in Performance: A Practical Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNhRAQAAIAAJ |year=1980|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-0756-9}}
*{{cite book|first=Emmie|last=Te Nijenhuis |author-link=Emmie te Nijenhuis |title=Indian Music: History and Structure |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ |year=1974|publisher= BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-03978-3 }}
*{{cite book| first=Kapila|last=Vatsyayan |title=Classical Indian dance in literature and the arts |year=1977 |publisher=Sangeet Natak Akademi |oclc= 233639306}}, [http://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/toc/z2008_2719.pdf Table of Contents]
*{{cite book| first=Kapila|last=Vatsyayan |title=Aesthetic theories and forms in Indian tradition |year=2008 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |oclc= 286469807| isbn= 978-81-87586-35-7}}
*{{cite book |first1=Annette|last1=Wilke|first2=Oliver|last2= Moebus|title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC |year=2011|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-024003-0}}
==External links==
{{Commons category-inline}}
*[http://media.smithsonianfolkways.org/liner_notes/unesco/UNES08021.pdf Rudra Veena, Vichitra Veena, Sarod and Shahnai], Alain Danielou, Smithsonian Folkways and UNESCO
*[https://www.ethnomusic.ucla.edu/music-of-india-ensemble Music of India Ensemble: Veena], Department of Ethnomusicology, UCLA
{{Indian musical instruments}}
{{Lute}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Chordophones]]
[[Category:String instruments]]
[[Category:Indian musical instruments]]
[[Category:Sacred musical instruments]]
[[Category:Indian inventions]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,25 +1,3 @@
-{{Short description|Various chordophone instruments from the Indian subcontinent}}
-{{About|various Indian musical instruments called ''veena''|the modern mainstream veena|Saraswati veena|the ancient Indian harp|ancient veena|other uses|veena (disambiguation)}}
-
-{{Infobox Instrument
-|name=
-|image= File:Veena.png
-|image_capt= A [[Saraswati Veena]]
-|background=string
-| names = Vina<ref name=britveena/>
-|classification= [[String instruments]]
-|developed = ''Veena'' has applied to stringed instruments in Indian written records since at least 1000 BCE. Instruments using the name have included forms of [[ancient veena|arched harp]] and musical bow, lutes, [[Alpini vina and eka-tantri vina|medieval stick zithers and tube zithers]], [[Pinaka vina|bowed chordophones]], [[Gottuvadhyam|fretless lutes]], the [[rudra veena|Hindustani bīn]] and [[Sarasvati veena]].<ref name=grovekinnari/>
-|related= [[Chitra veena]], [[Mohan veena]], [[Rudra veena]], [[Saraswati veena]], [[Vichitra veena]], [[Sarod]], [[Sitar]], [[Surbahar]], [[Sursingar]], [[Tambouras]], [[Tanpura|Tambura]],
-}}
-The '''''veena''''', also spelled '''''vina''''' ({{lang-sa|वीणा}} [[IAST]]: vīṇā), comprises various [[chordophone]] instruments from the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name=hastvina/> Ancient musical instruments evolved into many variations, such as [[lute]]s, [[zither]]s and arched [[harp]]s.<ref name=britveena>[https://www.britannica.com/art/vina Vina: Musical Instrument], Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)</ref> The many regional designs have different names such as the ''[[Rudra veena]]'', the ''[[Saraswati veena]]'', the ''[[Vichitra veena]]'' and others.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Tutut Herawan|author2=Rozaida Ghazali|author3=Mustafa Mat Deris|title=Recent Advances on Soft Computing and Data Mining|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VdYlBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA512 |year=2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-07692-8|page=512}}</ref><ref name=sanyal24>{{cite book|author1=Ritwik Sanyal|author2=Richard Widdess|title=Dhrupad: Tradition and Performance in Indian Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7o8HAQAAMAAJ |year=2004|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-0-7546-0379-5|pages=23–25}}</ref>
-
-The North Indian ''rudra veena'', used in [[Hindustani classical music]], is a [[stick zither]].<ref name=britveena/> About 3.5 to 4 feet (1 to 1.2 meters) long to fit the measurements of the musician, it has a hollow body and two large resonating gourds under each end.<ref name=sanyal24/> It has four main strings which are melodic, and three auxiliary drone strings.<ref name=britveena/> To play, the musician plucks the melody strings downward with a plectrum worn on the first and second fingers, while the drone strings are strummed with the little finger of the playing hand. The musician stops the resonating strings, when so desired, with the fingers of the free hand. In modern times the veena has been generally replaced with the [[sitar]] in North Indian performances.<ref name=britveena/><ref name=hastvina/>
-
-The South Indian ''Saraswati veena'', used in [[Carnatic classical music]], is a lute. It is a long-necked, pear-shaped lute, but instead of the lower gourd of the North Indian design, it has a pear-shaped wooden piece. However it, too, has 24 frets, four melody strings, and three drone strings, and is played similarly. It remains an important and popular string instrument in classical [[Carnatic music]].<ref name=britveena/>{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=753–754}}{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}}
-
-As a fretted, plucked lute, the veena can produce pitches in a full three-octave range.<ref name=hastvina>{{cite book|author1=Dorothea E. Hast|author2=James R. Cowdery|author3=Stanley Arnold Scott|title=Exploring the World of Music: An Introduction to Music from a World Music Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=00CwGRwv6XQC&pg=PA151 |year=1999|publisher=Kendall & Hunt|isbn=978-0-7872-7154-1|pages=151–152}}</ref> The long, hollow neck design of these Indian instruments allow [[portamento]] effects and legato ornaments found in Indian ''[[raga]]s''.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}} It has been a popular instrument in [[Indian classical music]], and one revered in the Indian culture by its inclusion in the iconography of [[Saraswati]], the [[Hindu goddess]] of arts and learning.{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=753–754}}
-
-[[File:Kiravani-L Ramakrishnan.ogg|thumb|A veena improvisation (2004)]]
-[[File:Shri Nilotpala Nayike, rendered on the Veena by L Ramakishnan.ogg|thumb|A veena kushree]]
+{vishwanath@gmail.com}
==Etymology and history==
' |
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0 => '{{Short description|Various chordophone instruments from the Indian subcontinent}}',
1 => '{{About|various Indian musical instruments called ''veena''|the modern mainstream veena|Saraswati veena|the ancient Indian harp|ancient veena|other uses|veena (disambiguation)}}',
2 => '',
3 => '{{Infobox Instrument',
4 => '|name=',
5 => '|image= File:Veena.png',
6 => '|image_capt= A [[Saraswati Veena]]',
7 => '|background=string',
8 => '| names = Vina<ref name=britveena/>',
9 => '|classification= [[String instruments]]',
10 => '|developed = ''Veena'' has applied to stringed instruments in Indian written records since at least 1000 BCE. Instruments using the name have included forms of [[ancient veena|arched harp]] and musical bow, lutes, [[Alpini vina and eka-tantri vina|medieval stick zithers and tube zithers]], [[Pinaka vina|bowed chordophones]], [[Gottuvadhyam|fretless lutes]], the [[rudra veena|Hindustani bīn]] and [[Sarasvati veena]].<ref name=grovekinnari/>',
11 => '|related= [[Chitra veena]], [[Mohan veena]], [[Rudra veena]], [[Saraswati veena]], [[Vichitra veena]], [[Sarod]], [[Sitar]], [[Surbahar]], [[Sursingar]], [[Tambouras]], [[Tanpura|Tambura]], ',
12 => '}}',
13 => 'The '''''veena''''', also spelled '''''vina''''' ({{lang-sa|वीणा}} [[IAST]]: vīṇā), comprises various [[chordophone]] instruments from the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name=hastvina/> Ancient musical instruments evolved into many variations, such as [[lute]]s, [[zither]]s and arched [[harp]]s.<ref name=britveena>[https://www.britannica.com/art/vina Vina: Musical Instrument], Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)</ref> The many regional designs have different names such as the ''[[Rudra veena]]'', the ''[[Saraswati veena]]'', the ''[[Vichitra veena]]'' and others.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Tutut Herawan|author2=Rozaida Ghazali|author3=Mustafa Mat Deris|title=Recent Advances on Soft Computing and Data Mining|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VdYlBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA512 |year=2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-07692-8|page=512}}</ref><ref name=sanyal24>{{cite book|author1=Ritwik Sanyal|author2=Richard Widdess|title=Dhrupad: Tradition and Performance in Indian Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7o8HAQAAMAAJ |year=2004|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-0-7546-0379-5|pages=23–25}}</ref>',
14 => '',
15 => 'The North Indian ''rudra veena'', used in [[Hindustani classical music]], is a [[stick zither]].<ref name=britveena/> About 3.5 to 4 feet (1 to 1.2 meters) long to fit the measurements of the musician, it has a hollow body and two large resonating gourds under each end.<ref name=sanyal24/> It has four main strings which are melodic, and three auxiliary drone strings.<ref name=britveena/> To play, the musician plucks the melody strings downward with a plectrum worn on the first and second fingers, while the drone strings are strummed with the little finger of the playing hand. The musician stops the resonating strings, when so desired, with the fingers of the free hand. In modern times the veena has been generally replaced with the [[sitar]] in North Indian performances.<ref name=britveena/><ref name=hastvina/>',
16 => '',
17 => 'The South Indian ''Saraswati veena'', used in [[Carnatic classical music]], is a lute. It is a long-necked, pear-shaped lute, but instead of the lower gourd of the North Indian design, it has a pear-shaped wooden piece. However it, too, has 24 frets, four melody strings, and three drone strings, and is played similarly. It remains an important and popular string instrument in classical [[Carnatic music]].<ref name=britveena/>{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=753–754}}{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}}',
18 => '',
19 => 'As a fretted, plucked lute, the veena can produce pitches in a full three-octave range.<ref name=hastvina>{{cite book|author1=Dorothea E. Hast|author2=James R. Cowdery|author3=Stanley Arnold Scott|title=Exploring the World of Music: An Introduction to Music from a World Music Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=00CwGRwv6XQC&pg=PA151 |year=1999|publisher=Kendall & Hunt|isbn=978-0-7872-7154-1|pages=151–152}}</ref> The long, hollow neck design of these Indian instruments allow [[portamento]] effects and legato ornaments found in Indian ''[[raga]]s''.{{Sfn|Randel|2003|pp=819–820}} It has been a popular instrument in [[Indian classical music]], and one revered in the Indian culture by its inclusion in the iconography of [[Saraswati]], the [[Hindu goddess]] of arts and learning.{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|pp=753–754}}',
20 => '',
21 => '[[File:Kiravani-L Ramakrishnan.ogg|thumb|A veena improvisation (2004)]]',
22 => '[[File:Shri Nilotpala Nayike, rendered on the Veena by L Ramakishnan.ogg|thumb|A veena kushree]]'
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3 => 'http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1038.html',
4 => 'http://media.smithsonianfolkways.org/liner_notes/unesco/UNES08021.pdf',
5 => 'https://www.britannica.com/art/vina',
6 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=00CwGRwv6XQC&pg=PA151',
7 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=02rFSecPhEsC',
8 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=4lsYKIXBOK0C&pg=PA227',
9 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC',
10 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=7o8HAQAAMAAJ',
11 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC',
12 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=DftkAAAAMAAJ',
13 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ',
14 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=H1iFCwAAQBAJ',
15 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ',
16 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=OwJRnFIcM4cC',
17 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=VdYlBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA512',
18 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC',
19 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_UCgAAQBAJ',
20 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=jNhRAQAAIAAJ',
21 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=uPoIZaGGtiMC&pg=PA135',
22 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ',
23 => 'https://www.saigan.com/heritage/painting/ajanta/ajanta15.html',
24 => 'https://www.ethnomusic.ucla.edu/music-of-india-ensemble',
25 => 'https://d-nb.info/gnd/4349356-7',
26 => 'https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofhind00roya',
27 => 'https://archive.org/details/ragasofnorthindi00kauf',
28 => 'https://archive.org/details/sitarsarodin18th00mine',
29 => 'https://archive.org/details/sitarsarodin18th00mine/page/26',
30 => 'https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780195399318-0071',
31 => 'https://musicbrainz.org/instrument/a4711cb9-800f-4b6b-b7fc-23fd1d494d9b',
32 => 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q959769#identifiers',
33 => 'https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/vainika',
34 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11369',
35 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/233639306',
36 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/286469807',
37 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/851080'
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><p>{vishwanath@gmail.com}
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymology_and_history"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology and history</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#The_early_Gupta_veena:_depiction_and_playing_technique"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">The early Gupta veena: depiction and playing technique</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Construction"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Construction</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Types"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Types</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology_and_history">Etymology and history</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Veena&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and history">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<dl><dd><i>See: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_veena" title="Ancient veena">Ancient veena</a></i> :<i>See: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_lute-family_instruments" title="History of lute-family instruments">History of lute-family instruments</a></i></dd></dl>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:560px;max-width:560px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="text-align:center">Historical vinas, harp, lute and stick zither</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Plaque_with_a_Dancer_and_a_Vina_Player_1st_century_B.C.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Plaque with harp vina" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Plaque_with_a_Dancer_and_a_Vina_Player_1st_century_B.C.jpg/130px-Plaque_with_a_Dancer_and_a_Vina_Player_1st_century_B.C.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="163" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Plaque_with_a_Dancer_and_a_Vina_Player_1st_century_B.C.jpg/195px-Plaque_with_a_Dancer_and_a_Vina_Player_1st_century_B.C.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Plaque_with_a_Dancer_and_a_Vina_Player_1st_century_B.C.jpg/260px-Plaque_with_a_Dancer_and_a_Vina_Player_1st_century_B.C.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2000" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Plaque with a dancer and a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Veena_(harp)" class="mw-redirect" title="Veena (harp)">veena (harp)</a> player 1st century B.C.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:156px;max-width:156px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Lute_in_Life_scenes_of_Buddha-2nd_century_CE,_Amravati.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Veena lute from Amravati Stupa" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Lute_in_Life_scenes_of_Buddha-2nd_century_CE%2C_Amravati.jpg/154px-Lute_in_Life_scenes_of_Buddha-2nd_century_CE%2C_Amravati.jpg" decoding="async" width="154" height="104" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Lute_in_Life_scenes_of_Buddha-2nd_century_CE%2C_Amravati.jpg/231px-Lute_in_Life_scenes_of_Buddha-2nd_century_CE%2C_Amravati.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Lute_in_Life_scenes_of_Buddha-2nd_century_CE%2C_Amravati.jpg/308px-Lute_in_Life_scenes_of_Buddha-2nd_century_CE%2C_Amravati.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1520" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Lute in relief at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amaravati_Stupa" title="Amaravati Stupa">Amaravati Stupa</a>, 2nd century CE. The artwork was celebrating the Buddha and his mother.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Kinnara_with_kachchapa_veena,_part_of_the_Bodhisattva_Padmapani,_Cave_1,_Ajanta,_India.jpg" class="image"><img alt="painting of kachappi veena from circa 450 CE" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Kinnara_with_kachchapa_veena%2C_part_of_the_Bodhisattva_Padmapani%2C_Cave_1%2C_Ajanta%2C_India.jpg/130px-Kinnara_with_kachchapa_veena%2C_part_of_the_Bodhisattva_Padmapani%2C_Cave_1%2C_Ajanta%2C_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="103" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Kinnara_with_kachchapa_veena%2C_part_of_the_Bodhisattva_Padmapani%2C_Cave_1%2C_Ajanta%2C_India.jpg/195px-Kinnara_with_kachchapa_veena%2C_part_of_the_Bodhisattva_Padmapani%2C_Cave_1%2C_Ajanta%2C_India.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Kinnara_with_kachchapa_veena%2C_part_of_the_Bodhisattva_Padmapani%2C_Cave_1%2C_Ajanta%2C_India.jpg/260px-Kinnara_with_kachchapa_veena%2C_part_of_the_Bodhisattva_Padmapani%2C_Cave_1%2C_Ajanta%2C_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="557" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">India, ca. 450-490 CE, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a>. A <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kinnara" title="Kinnara">Kinnara</a></i> holding a lute-type veena, possibly a <i>kacchapī veena</i> (Sanskrit for "tortoise veena").<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> No description survives to go with name.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Embekke_Temple,_Carving_of_a_Kinnari_0557.jpg" class="image"><img alt="stick zither veena in the hands of a Kinnari" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Embekke_Temple%2C_Carving_of_a_Kinnari_0557.jpg/130px-Embekke_Temple%2C_Carving_of_a_Kinnari_0557.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="126" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Embekke_Temple%2C_Carving_of_a_Kinnari_0557.jpg/195px-Embekke_Temple%2C_Carving_of_a_Kinnari_0557.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Embekke_Temple%2C_Carving_of_a_Kinnari_0557.jpg/260px-Embekke_Temple%2C_Carving_of_a_Kinnari_0557.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2001" data-file-height="1941" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Embekka_Devalaya" title="Embekka Devalaya">Embekka Devalaya</a> temple, Sri Lanka. A <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kinnari" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinnari">Kinnari</a> holds an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C4%80l%C4%81p%C4%ABni_v%C4%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Ālāpīni vīnī">ālāpīni vīnī</a>, a type of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stick-zither" class="mw-redirect" title="Stick-zither">stick-zither</a> with a half gourd used for the resonator.</div></div></div></div></div>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> word <i>veena</i> (<span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE" class="extiw" title="wikt:वीणा">वीणा</a></span></span>) in ancient and medieval Indian literature is a generic term for plucked string musical instruments. It is mentioned in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a> and other Vedic literature such as the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shatapatha_Brahmana" title="Shatapatha Brahmana">Shatapatha Brahmana</a></i> and <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taittiriya_Samhita" class="mw-redirect" title="Taittiriya Samhita">Taittiriya Samhita</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-mmw1005_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmw1005-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell201533,_86–87,_115–116_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell201533,_86–87,_115–116-3">[3]</a></sup> In the ancient texts, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Narada" title="Narada">Narada</a> is credited with inventing the <i>Tampura</i>, and is described as a seven-string instrument with frets.<sup id="cite_ref-mmw1005_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmw1005-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Miner2004p26_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miner2004p26-4">[4]</a></sup> According to Suneera Kasliwal, a professor of music, in the ancient texts such as the <i>Rigveda</i> and <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></i> (both pre-1000 BCE), as well as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> (c. 800–300 BCE), a string instrument is called <i>vana</i>, a term that evolved to become <i>veena</i>. The early Sanskrit texts call any stringed instrument <i>vana</i>; these include bowed, plucked, one string, many strings, fretted, non-fretted, zither, lute or harp lyre-style string instruments.<sup id="cite_ref-Kasliwal2004_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kasliwal2004-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETe_Nijenhuis197417–22_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETe_Nijenhuis197417–22-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck1993108–112_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck1993108–112-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Kinnara_playing_a_yazh,_Kailasanathar_Temple_in_Kanchipuram,_India,_ca_8th_century_CE.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Kinnara_playing_a_yazh%2C_Kailasanathar_Temple_in_Kanchipuram%2C_India%2C_ca_8th_century_CE.jpg/200px-Kinnara_playing_a_yazh%2C_Kailasanathar_Temple_in_Kanchipuram%2C_India%2C_ca_8th_century_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="228" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Kinnara_playing_a_yazh%2C_Kailasanathar_Temple_in_Kanchipuram%2C_India%2C_ca_8th_century_CE.jpg/300px-Kinnara_playing_a_yazh%2C_Kailasanathar_Temple_in_Kanchipuram%2C_India%2C_ca_8th_century_CE.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Kinnara_playing_a_yazh%2C_Kailasanathar_Temple_in_Kanchipuram%2C_India%2C_ca_8th_century_CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="304" data-file-height="347" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Kinnara_playing_a_yazh,_Kailasanathar_Temple_in_Kanchipuram,_India,_ca_8th_century_CE.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Kinnara playing a yazh, Kailasanathar Temple in Kanchipuram, India, ca 8th century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> In the Tamil tradition, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> word for veena is <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yazh" title="Yazh">yaaḻ</a></i> (<span title="Tamil-language text"><span lang="ta">யாழ்</span></span>) (often written <i>yaazh</i> or <i>yaal</i>). It is in the list of musical instruments used by Tamil people in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></i>, dated from the 6th to the 11th century.</div></div></div>
<p>A person who plays a veena is called a <i>vainika</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natya Shastra</a></i> by Bharata Muni, the oldest surviving ancient Hindu text on classical music and performance arts, discusses the <i>veena</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu2016p131_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu2016p131-10">[10]</a></sup> This Sanskrit text, probably complete between 200 BCE and 200 CE,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELidova2014_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELidova2014-11">[11]</a></sup> begins its discussion by stating that "the human throat is a <i>sareer veena</i>, or a body's musical string instrument" when it is perfected, and that the source of <i>gandharva</i> music is such a throat, a string instrument and flute.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu2016p131_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu2016p131-10">[10]</a></sup> The same metaphor of human voice organ being a form of <i>veena</i>, is also found in more ancient texts of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, such as in verse 3.2.5 of the <i>Aitareya <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></i>, verse 8.9 of the <i>Shankhayana Aranyaka</i> and others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell201533,_86–87,_115–116_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell201533,_86–87,_115–116-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck1993108–112_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck1993108–112-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baumer1988p135_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baumer1988p135-12">[12]</a></sup> The ancient epic <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></i> describes the sage Narada as a Vedic sage famed as a "vina player".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalal2014272–273_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalal2014272–273-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <i>Natya Shastra</i> describes a seven-string instrument and other string instruments in 35 verses,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell2015114–116_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell2015114–116-14">[14]</a></sup> and then explains how the instrument should be played.<sup id="cite_ref-Miner2004p26_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miner2004p26-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell201598–104_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell201598–104-15">[15]</a></sup> The technique of performance suggests that the veena in Bharata Muni's time was quite different than the zither or the lute that became popular after the <i>Natya Shastra</i> was complete. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_veena" title="Ancient veena">ancient veena</a>, according to Allyn Miner and other scholars, was closer to an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arched_harp" class="mw-redirect" title="Arched harp">arched harp</a>. The earliest lute and zither style veena playing musicians are evidenced in Hindu and Buddhist cave temple reliefs in the early centuries of the common era. Similarly, Indian sculptures from the mid-1st millennium CE depict musicians playing string instruments.<sup id="cite_ref-Miner2004p26_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miner2004p26-4">[4]</a></sup> By about the 6th century CE, the goddess Saraswati sculptures are predominantly with veena of the zither-style, similar to modern styles.<sup id="cite_ref-ludvik227_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ludvik227-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="The_early_Gupta_veena:_depiction_and_playing_technique">The early Gupta veena: depiction and playing technique</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Veena&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The early Gupta veena: depiction and playing technique">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Samudragupta_Circa_335-380_CE_Lyrist_type.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Samudragupta_Circa_335-380_CE_Lyrist_type.jpg/250px-Samudragupta_Circa_335-380_CE_Lyrist_type.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="118" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Samudragupta_Circa_335-380_CE_Lyrist_type.jpg/375px-Samudragupta_Circa_335-380_CE_Lyrist_type.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Samudragupta_Circa_335-380_CE_Lyrist_type.jpg/500px-Samudragupta_Circa_335-380_CE_Lyrist_type.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="377" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Samudragupta_Circa_335-380_CE_Lyrist_type.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Coin ca. 335-380 CE. (Front side) Samudragupta seated left on a low couch or throne, playing veena set on his knees. (Reverse side) Lakshmi seated left on wicker stool, holding diadem and cornucopia.</div></div></div>
<p>One of the early veenas used in India from early times until the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a> period was an instrument of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harp" title="Harp">harp</a> type, and more precisely of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_musical_instruments_by_Hornbostel%E2%80%93Sachs_number:_322.11" title="List of musical instruments by Hornbostel–Sachs number: 322.11">arched harp</a>. It was played with the strings kept parallel to the body of the player, with both hands plucking the strings, as shown on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samudragupta" title="Samudragupta">Samudragupta</a>'s gold coins.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> The Veena Cave at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Udayagiri_Caves" title="Udayagiri Caves">Udayagiri</a> has one of the earliest visual depictions of a veena player, considered to be Samudragupta.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Construction">Construction</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Veena&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Construction">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"/><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:569px;max-width:569px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="text-align:center">Saraswati and the vina</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Raja_Ravi_Varma,_Goddess_Saraswati.jpg" class="image"><img alt="The Hindu goddess Saraswati with a veena" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Raja_Ravi_Varma%2C_Goddess_Saraswati.jpg/130px-Raja_Ravi_Varma%2C_Goddess_Saraswati.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="179" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Raja_Ravi_Varma%2C_Goddess_Saraswati.jpg/195px-Raja_Ravi_Varma%2C_Goddess_Saraswati.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Raja_Ravi_Varma%2C_Goddess_Saraswati.jpg/260px-Raja_Ravi_Varma%2C_Goddess_Saraswati.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7953" data-file-height="10936" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">1896. Saraswati with a southern style "Saraswati veena" instrument.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:153px;max-width:153px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Saraswati_with_b%C4%ABn_on_white_bird.jpg" class="image"><img alt="The Hindu Goddess Saraswati riding a white bird and holding a bīn (rudra vīnā)" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Saraswati_with_b%C4%ABn_on_white_bird.jpg/151px-Saraswati_with_b%C4%ABn_on_white_bird.jpg" decoding="async" width="151" height="210" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Saraswati_with_b%C4%ABn_on_white_bird.jpg/227px-Saraswati_with_b%C4%ABn_on_white_bird.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Saraswati_with_b%C4%ABn_on_white_bird.jpg/302px-Saraswati_with_b%C4%ABn_on_white_bird.jpg 2x" data-file-width="409" data-file-height="568" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Ca. 1700. Saraswati riding a white bird and holding a northern style bīn (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rudra_v%C4%ABn%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudra vīnā">rudra vīnā</a>).</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:104px;max-width:104px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Saraswati_with_an_alapini_vina,_from_a_larger_image_God_Vishnu_with_Goddesses_Lakshmi_and_Sarasvati.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Saraswati with an ālāpiṇī vīṇā" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Saraswati_with_an_alapini_vina%2C_from_a_larger_image_God_Vishnu_with_Goddesses_Lakshmi_and_Sarasvati.jpg/102px-Saraswati_with_an_alapini_vina%2C_from_a_larger_image_God_Vishnu_with_Goddesses_Lakshmi_and_Sarasvati.jpg" decoding="async" width="102" height="210" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Saraswati_with_an_alapini_vina%2C_from_a_larger_image_God_Vishnu_with_Goddesses_Lakshmi_and_Sarasvati.jpg/153px-Saraswati_with_an_alapini_vina%2C_from_a_larger_image_God_Vishnu_with_Goddesses_Lakshmi_and_Sarasvati.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Saraswati_with_an_alapini_vina%2C_from_a_larger_image_God_Vishnu_with_Goddesses_Lakshmi_and_Sarasvati.jpg/204px-Saraswati_with_an_alapini_vina%2C_from_a_larger_image_God_Vishnu_with_Goddesses_Lakshmi_and_Sarasvati.jpg 2x" data-file-width="463" data-file-height="952" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Bangladesh, 10th-12th century CE Saraswati with an <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C4%80l%C4%81pi%E1%B9%87%C4%AB_v%C4%AB%E1%B9%87%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Ālāpiṇī vīṇā">ālāpiṇī vīṇā</a></i>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Saraswati_Third_Century_AD.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Saraswati Third Century CE with harp Veena" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Saraswati_Third_Century_AD.jpg/170px-Saraswati_Third_Century_AD.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="191" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Saraswati_Third_Century_AD.jpg/255px-Saraswati_Third_Century_AD.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Saraswati_Third_Century_AD.jpg/340px-Saraswati_Third_Century_AD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="445" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Saraswati, 3rd century CE with harp-style veena. Variations included the <i>chitra vīṇā</i> with seven strings and <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vipanchi_v%C4%AB%E1%B9%87%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipanchi vīṇā">vipanchi vīṇā</a></i> with 9 strings. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chitra_veena" class="mw-redirect" title="Chitra veena">Chitra veena</a> refers to another instrument today.</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The Hindu Goddess <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a> has been pictured holding different veenas over the centuries. The oldest known Saraswati-like relief carvings are from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> archaeological sites dated to 200 BCE, where she holds a harp-style veena.<sup id="cite_ref-ludvik227_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ludvik227-16">[16]</a></sup></div></div></div></div>
<p>At a first glance, the difference between the North and South Indian design is the presence of two resonant gourds in the North, while in the South, instead of the lower gourd there is a pear-shaped wooden body attached. However, there are other differences, and many similarities.<sup id="cite_ref-britveena_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britveena-18">[18]</a></sup> Modern designs use fiberglass or other materials instead of hollowed jackwood and gourds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENettl_et_al.1998352–355_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENettl_et_al.1998352–355-19">[19]</a></sup> The construction is personalized to the musician's body proportions so that she can hold and play it comfortably. It ranges from about 3.5 to 4 feet (1 to 1.2 meters). The body is made of special wood and is hollow. Both designs have four melody strings, three drone strings and twenty-four frets.<sup id="cite_ref-britveena_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britveena-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hastvina_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hastvina-20">[20]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sanyal24_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sanyal24-21">[21]</a></sup> The instrument's end is generally tastefully shaped such as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swan" title="Swan">swan</a> and the external surfaces colorfully decorated with traditional Indian designs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENettl_et_al.1998352–355_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENettl_et_al.1998352–355-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p><p>The melody strings are tuned in <i>c' g c G</i> (the tonic, the fifth, the octave and the fourth<sup id="cite_ref-alainrudra_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alainrudra-22">[22]</a></sup>), from which <i>sarani</i> (chanterelle) is frequently used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERandel2003819–820_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERandel2003819–820-23">[23]</a></sup> The drone strings are tuned in <i>c" g' c'</i> (the double octave, the tonic and the octave<sup id="cite_ref-alainrudra_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alainrudra-22">[22]</a></sup>). The drones are typically used to create rhythmic <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tanam" title="Tanam">tanams</a></i> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_classical_music" title="Indian classical music">Indian classical music</a> and to express harmony with clapped <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tala_(music)" title="Tala (music)">tala</a></i> of the piece.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERandel2003819–820_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERandel2003819–820-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>The main string is called <i>Nāyakī Tār</i> (नायकी तार), and in the Sarasvati veena it is on the onlooked's left side.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200079_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200079-24">[24]</a></sup> The instrument is played with three fingers of the right (dominant) hand, struck inwards or outwards with a bent-wire plectrum (a "mizrab"). The index and second fingers strike inwards on the melody string, alternating between notes, and the little finger strikes outward on the sympathetic strings.
</p><p>The <i>bola</i> alphabets struck in the North Indian veena are <i>da, ga, ra</i> on the main strings, and many others by a combination of fingers and other strings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200026–27_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200026–27-25">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell2015153–164_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell2015153–164-26">[26]</a></sup> The veena settings and tuning may be fixed or adjusted by loosening the pegs, to perform <i>Dhruva</i> from fixed and <i>Cala</i> with loosened pegs such that the second string and first string coincide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000111–113_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000111–113-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p>One of the earliest description of the terminology currently used for veena construction, modification and operation appears in <i>Sangita Cudamani</i> by Govinda.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGautam19939_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGautam19939-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Types">Types</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Veena&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Types">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"/><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:604px;max-width:604px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:92px;max-width:92px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Saraswati_holding_an_Eka-tantri_vina,_ca._1000_C.E.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Saraswati with an Eka-tantri vina" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Saraswati_holding_an_Eka-tantri_vina%2C_ca._1000_C.E.jpg/90px-Saraswati_holding_an_Eka-tantri_vina%2C_ca._1000_C.E.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="194" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Saraswati_holding_an_Eka-tantri_vina%2C_ca._1000_C.E.jpg/135px-Saraswati_holding_an_Eka-tantri_vina%2C_ca._1000_C.E.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Saraswati_holding_an_Eka-tantri_vina%2C_ca._1000_C.E.jpg/180px-Saraswati_holding_an_Eka-tantri_vina%2C_ca._1000_C.E.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1029" data-file-height="2217" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Saraswati holding an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eka-tantri_vina" class="mw-redirect" title="Eka-tantri vina">Eka-tantri vina</a>, ca. 1000 CE</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:170px;max-width:170px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:One_type_of_Veena,_cithare_sur_tube_%22Bin%22_at_Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_musique,_Philharmonie_de_Paris.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Rudra veena" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/One_type_of_Veena%2C_cithare_sur_tube_%22Bin%22_at_Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_musique%2C_Philharmonie_de_Paris.jpg/168px-One_type_of_Veena%2C_cithare_sur_tube_%22Bin%22_at_Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_musique%2C_Philharmonie_de_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="168" height="93" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/One_type_of_Veena%2C_cithare_sur_tube_%22Bin%22_at_Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_musique%2C_Philharmonie_de_Paris.jpg/252px-One_type_of_Veena%2C_cithare_sur_tube_%22Bin%22_at_Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_musique%2C_Philharmonie_de_Paris.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/One_type_of_Veena%2C_cithare_sur_tube_%22Bin%22_at_Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_musique%2C_Philharmonie_de_Paris.jpg/336px-One_type_of_Veena%2C_cithare_sur_tube_%22Bin%22_at_Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_musique%2C_Philharmonie_de_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="779" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">A <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rudra_veena" title="Rudra veena">rudra veena</a></i>, now at <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_Musique_(Paris).&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Musée de la Musique (Paris). (page does not exist)">Musée de la Musique (Paris).</a> The frets are held to the body by a black wax.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:232px;max-width:232px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Kinnari_vina,_19th_century_C.E.,_from_the_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Kinnari vina, 19th century CE, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Kinnari_vina%2C_19th_century_C.E.%2C_from_the_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/230px-Kinnari_vina%2C_19th_century_C.E.%2C_from_the_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="95" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Kinnari_vina%2C_19th_century_C.E.%2C_from_the_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/345px-Kinnari_vina%2C_19th_century_C.E.%2C_from_the_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Kinnari_vina%2C_19th_century_C.E.%2C_from_the_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/460px-Kinnari_vina%2C_19th_century_C.E.%2C_from_the_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg 2x" data-file-width="928" data-file-height="385" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kinnari_vina" title="Kinnari vina">Kinnari vina</a></i>, 19th century CE, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:A_19th_century_strolling_singer_musician_playing_Tingadee_instrument,_Madras.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Kinnari veena or tingadee" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/A_19th_century_strolling_singer_musician_playing_Tingadee_instrument%2C_Madras.jpg/100px-A_19th_century_strolling_singer_musician_playing_Tingadee_instrument%2C_Madras.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="146" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/A_19th_century_strolling_singer_musician_playing_Tingadee_instrument%2C_Madras.jpg/150px-A_19th_century_strolling_singer_musician_playing_Tingadee_instrument%2C_Madras.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/A_19th_century_strolling_singer_musician_playing_Tingadee_instrument%2C_Madras.jpg/200px-A_19th_century_strolling_singer_musician_playing_Tingadee_instrument%2C_Madras.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="950" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Madras" class="mw-redirect" title="Madras">Madras</a>, 1876. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kinnari_Vina" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinnari Vina">Kinnari Vina</a></i> labeled "<i>tingadee</i>." The spike is a bridge, directing string energy to resonator.</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The eka-tantri developed from the alapini veena. It was longer and had a larger gourd. Over time gourds were added and the instrument may have developed into the rudra veena and the kinnari veena.</div></div></div></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"/><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:618px;max-width:618px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Pinaka_vina.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Saraswati with an ālāpiṇī vīṇā" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Pinaka_vina.jpg/130px-Pinaka_vina.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="186" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Pinaka_vina.jpg/195px-Pinaka_vina.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Pinaka_vina.jpg/260px-Pinaka_vina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="809" data-file-height="1156" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">India, early 19th century. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pinaka_veena" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinaka veena">Pinaka veena</a></i>. Stick used on string as a slide, to choose notes.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Frans_Balthazar_Solvyns,_%22Qaplious_ou_bin,_instrument_de_musique_hindou%22,_from_%22Illustrations_de_Les_Hindous%22,_volume_2_plate_23.jpg" class="image"><img alt="bīn or rudra veena" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Frans_Balthazar_Solvyns%2C_%22Qaplious_ou_bin%2C_instrument_de_musique_hindou%22%2C_from_%22Illustrations_de_Les_Hindous%22%2C_volume_2_plate_23.jpg/130px-Frans_Balthazar_Solvyns%2C_%22Qaplious_ou_bin%2C_instrument_de_musique_hindou%22%2C_from_%22Illustrations_de_Les_Hindous%22%2C_volume_2_plate_23.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="185" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Frans_Balthazar_Solvyns%2C_%22Qaplious_ou_bin%2C_instrument_de_musique_hindou%22%2C_from_%22Illustrations_de_Les_Hindous%22%2C_volume_2_plate_23.jpg/195px-Frans_Balthazar_Solvyns%2C_%22Qaplious_ou_bin%2C_instrument_de_musique_hindou%22%2C_from_%22Illustrations_de_Les_Hindous%22%2C_volume_2_plate_23.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Frans_Balthazar_Solvyns%2C_%22Qaplious_ou_bin%2C_instrument_de_musique_hindou%22%2C_from_%22Illustrations_de_Les_Hindous%22%2C_volume_2_plate_23.jpg/260px-Frans_Balthazar_Solvyns%2C_%22Qaplious_ou_bin%2C_instrument_de_musique_hindou%22%2C_from_%22Illustrations_de_Les_Hindous%22%2C_volume_2_plate_23.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1460" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Early 19th century. A <i>bīn</i> or <i>rudra veena</i> without frets. Stick being used as slide on string to choose notes.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:174px;max-width:174px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Pandit_Gopal_Krishan.png" class="image"><img alt="Vichitra veena" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Pandit_Gopal_Krishan.png/172px-Pandit_Gopal_Krishan.png" decoding="async" width="172" height="185" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Pandit_Gopal_Krishan.png/258px-Pandit_Gopal_Krishan.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Pandit_Gopal_Krishan.png/344px-Pandit_Gopal_Krishan.png 2x" data-file-width="545" data-file-height="587" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><i>Vichitra veena</i>, uses a slide to choose notes instead of frets.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Concert_de_Raghunath_Manet_pour_le_Tibet.jpg" class="image"><img alt="saraswati veena" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Concert_de_Raghunath_Manet_pour_le_Tibet.jpg/170px-Concert_de_Raghunath_Manet_pour_le_Tibet.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Concert_de_Raghunath_Manet_pour_le_Tibet.jpg/255px-Concert_de_Raghunath_Manet_pour_le_Tibet.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Concert_de_Raghunath_Manet_pour_le_Tibet.jpg/340px-Concert_de_Raghunath_Manet_pour_le_Tibet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1365" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Saraswati veena</div></div></div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Mayuri.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Mayuri.jpg/200px-Mayuri.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Mayuri.jpg/300px-Mayuri.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Mayuri.jpg/400px-Mayuri.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Mayuri.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mayuri_veena" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayuri veena">Mayuri veena</a>, 1903</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:A_Mohan_Veena,_string_musical_instruments_of_India.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/A_Mohan_Veena%2C_string_musical_instruments_of_India.jpg/220px-A_Mohan_Veena%2C_string_musical_instruments_of_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/A_Mohan_Veena%2C_string_musical_instruments_of_India.jpg/330px-A_Mohan_Veena%2C_string_musical_instruments_of_India.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/A_Mohan_Veena%2C_string_musical_instruments_of_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="427" data-file-height="288" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:A_Mohan_Veena,_string_musical_instruments_of_India.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohan_veena" title="Mohan veena">Mohan veena</a></i>.</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Naga_Veena.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Naga_Veena.jpg/220px-Naga_Veena.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Naga_Veena.jpg/330px-Naga_Veena.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Naga_Veena.jpg/440px-Naga_Veena.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Naga_Veena.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Modern recreations of Naga veena (1957) and Kachyapi vina (1957)</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Nagula_Veena.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Nagula_Veena.jpg/220px-Nagula_Veena.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Nagula_Veena.jpg/330px-Nagula_Veena.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Nagula_Veena.jpg/440px-Nagula_Veena.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Nagula_Veena.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Modern recreation of Nagula vina</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Pullavan_Veenai.jpg" class="image"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Pullavan_Veenai.jpg/220px-Pullavan_Veenai.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="thumbimage" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Pullavan_Veenai.jpg/330px-Pullavan_Veenai.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Pullavan_Veenai.jpg/440px-Pullavan_Veenai.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Pullavan_Veenai.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Pulluva vina used by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pulluvan" title="Pulluvan">Pulluvan tribals</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> in religious ceremony and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pulluvan_paattu" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulluvan paattu">Pulluvan paattu</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>Being a generic name for any string instrument, there are numerous types of veena.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartinez2001127–128_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinez2001127–128-29">[29]</a></sup> Some significant ones are:
</p>
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rudra_veena" title="Rudra veena">Rudra veena</a></i> is a fretted veena, with two large equal size tumba (resonators) below a stick zither.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49-30">[30]</a></sup> This instrument is played by laying it slanting with one gourd on a knee and other above the shoulder.<sup id="cite_ref-alainrudra_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alainrudra-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kasliwal116_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kasliwal116-31">[31]</a></sup> The mythology states that this instrument was created by god <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49-30">[30]</a></sup> It may be a post-6th century medieval era invention.<sup id="cite_ref-kasliwal116_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kasliwal116-31">[31]</a></sup> According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alain_Dani%C3%A9lou" title="Alain Daniélou">Alain Daniélou</a>, this instrument is more ancient, and its older known versions from 6th to 10th century had just one resonator with the seven strings made from different metals.<sup id="cite_ref-alainrudra_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alainrudra-22">[22]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saraswati_veena" title="Saraswati veena">Saraswati veena</a></i> is another fretted veena, and one highly revered in Indian traditions, particularly Hinduism. This is often pictured, shown as two resonators of different size. Previously known as <i>Raghunatha veena</i>, during the period of King Raghunatha Nayaka. This is played by holding it at about a 45 degree angle across one's body, and the smaller gourd over the musician's left thigh. This instrument is related to an ancient instrument of South India, around the region now called <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, where the ancient version is called Nanthuni or Nanduruni.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vichitra_veena" title="Vichitra veena">Vichitra veena</a></i> and <i>Chitra veena</i> or <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gottuvadhyam" title="Gottuvadhyam">gottuvadhyam</a></i> do not have frets. It sounds close to humming human singer. The Vichitra veena is played with a piece of ovoid or round glass, which is used to stop the strings to create delicate musical ornaments and slides during a performance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49-30">[30]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sitar" title="Sitar">Sitar</a></i> is a Persian word meaning three strings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000179_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000179-33">[33]</a></sup> Legends state that Amir Khusro of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> renamed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tritantri_veena" class="mw-redirect" title="Tritantri veena">Tritantri veena</a> to sitar, but this is unlikely because the list of musical instruments created by Akbar historians makes no mention of sitar or sitariya.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200065_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200065-34">[34]</a></sup> The sitar has been popular with Indian Muslim musicians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200066_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200066-35">[35]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Surbahar" title="Surbahar">Surbahar</a></i> the base tuned version of the Sitar, created due to the fact that Sitar players wanted to play a base tune like that of the Saraswati veena.</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C4%80l%C4%81pi%E1%B9%87%C4%AB_v%C4%AB%E1%B9%87%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Ālāpiṇī vīṇā">Ālāpiṇī vīṇā</a></i>. Historical. A one string <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stick_zither" class="mw-redirect" title="Stick zither">stick-zither</a> style veena, shorter than the one string <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eka-tantri_vina" class="mw-redirect" title="Eka-tantri vina">Eka-tantri vina</a></i>. It had one half-gourd resonator, which was pressed into the player's chest while plucking the string.</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bobbili_Veena" title="Bobbili Veena">Bobbili Veena</a></i>, a specialized Saraswati veena, carved from a single piece of wood. Named for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bobbili" title="Bobbili">Bobbili</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a>, where the instrument originated.</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chitra_veena" class="mw-redirect" title="Chitra veena">Chitra veena</a></i>, a modern 21-string fretless lute, also called <i>Gottuvadhyam</i> or <i>Kotuvadya</i>.</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_veena" title="Ancient veena">Chitra veena</a>, a 7-string arched harp, mainstream from ancient times until about the 5th century CE.</i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Krachappi" title="Krachappi">Kachapi veena</a></i>, now called <i>Kachua sitar</i>, built with a wooden model of a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">turtle</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tortoise" title="Tortoise">tortoise</a> as a resonator.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000179_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000179-33">[33]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kinnari_veena" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinnari veena">Kinnari veena</a></i>, one of three veena types mentioned in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sangita_Ratnakara" title="Sangita Ratnakara">Sangita Ratnakara</a> (written 1210–1247 CE) by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81r%E1%B9%85gadeva" title="Śārṅgadeva">Śārṅgadeva</a>. The other two mentioned were the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C4%80l%C4%81pi%E1%B9%87%C4%AB_v%C4%AB%E1%B9%87%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Ālāpiṇī vīṇā">Ālāpiṇī vīṇā</a></i> and the <i>Eka-tantri vina</i>. Tube zither with multiple gourds for resonators.<sup id="cite_ref-grovekinnari_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grovekinnari-36">[36]</a></sup> In surviving museum examples, the center gourd is open where it presses against the player's chest, like the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kse_diev" title="Kse diev">Kse diev</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C4%80l%C4%81pi%E1%B9%87%C4%AB_v%C4%AB%E1%B9%87%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Ālāpiṇī vīṇā">Ālāpiṇī vīṇā</a>.</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pinaki_veena" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinaki veena">Pinaki veena</a></i>, related to <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarangi" title="Sarangi">Sarangi</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000177_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000177-37">[37]</a></sup> Historical. A bowed Veena, resembling the rudra veena. The notes were picked by moving a stick or coconut shell along the string.</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Pulluva_veena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pulluva veena (page does not exist)">Pulluva veena</a></i>, used by the Pulluvan tribe of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> in religious ceremonies and <i>Pulluvan pāttu</i>.</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Mattakokila_v%C4%AB%E1%B9%87%C4%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mattakokila vīṇā (page does not exist)">Mattakokila vīṇā</a></i> (meaning "intoxicated cuckoo"), a 21-string instrument, mentioned in literature, type unproven. Possibly an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_veena" title="Ancient veena">arched harp</a> or a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Board_zither" class="mw-redirect" title="Board zither">board zither</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-grovekinnari_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grovekinnari-36">[36]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-grovematto_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grovematto-38">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-grovesurman_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grovesurman-39">[39]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohan_veena" title="Mohan veena">Mohan veena</a></i>, A modified <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarod" title="Sarod">sarod</a>, created by sarod player <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radhika_Mohan_Maitra" title="Radhika Mohan Maitra">Radhika Mohan Maitra</a> in the 1940s. Made out of a modified Hawaiian guitar and a sarod.</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mayuri_veena" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayuri veena">Mayuri veena</a></i>, Also called <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taus_(instrument)" title="Taus (instrument)">Taus</a></i> (derived from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> <i>tawwus</i> meaning, peacock), an instrument with the carving of a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_peafowl" title="Indian peafowl">peacock</a> as a resonator, decorated with genuine peacock feathers.</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Mukha_veena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mukha veena (page does not exist)">Mukha veena</a></i>, A blowing instrument.</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Naga_veena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Naga veena (page does not exist)">Naga veena</a></i>, An instrument with the carving of a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_cobra" title="Indian cobra">snake</a> for decoration.</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Nagula_veena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nagula veena (page does not exist)">Nagula veena</a></i>, An instrument with no resonator.</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Shatatantri_veena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shatatantri veena (page does not exist)">Shatatantri veena</a></i> (<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Santoor" title="Santoor">Santoor</a></i>),</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gayatri_veena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gayatri veena (page does not exist)">Gayatri veena</a></i> (with one string only)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Saptatantri_veena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saptatantri veena (page does not exist)">Saptatantri veena</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ranjan_veena" title="Ranjan veena">Ranjan veena</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sagar_veena" title="Sagar veena">Sagar veena</a></i>, a Pakistani instrument, created in 1970 by prominent Pakistani lawyer <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Raza_Kazim" title="Raza Kazim">Raza Kazim</a>.</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Saradiya_veena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saradiya veena (page does not exist)">Saradiya veena</a></i>, now called <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarod" title="Sarod">Sarod</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000176_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000176-40">[40]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Thanjavur_veena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thanjavur veena (page does not exist)">Thanjavur veena</a></i>, a specialized Saraswati veena, carved from a single piece of wood. Named for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thanjavur" title="Thanjavur">Thanjavur</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, where the instrument originated.</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Triveni_veena" title="Triveni veena">Triveni veena</a></i></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Veena&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><img alt="flag" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/32px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="noviewer thumbborder" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/48px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/64px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:India" title="Portal:India">India portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/GClef.svg/10px-GClef.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/GClef.svg/15px-GClef.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/GClef.svg/20px-GClef.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="15" data-file-height="41" /></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Music" title="Portal:Music">Music portal</a></span></li></ul>
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<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sitar" title="Sitar">Sitar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Surbahar" title="Surbahar">Surbahar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sursingar" title="Sursingar">Sursingar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tambouras" title="Tambouras">Tambouras</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tanpura" title="Tanpura">Tambura</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Veena&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFSubramanian_Swaminathan" class="citation web cs1">Subramanian Swaminathan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.saigan.com/heritage/painting/ajanta/ajanta15.html">"Paintings"</a>. <i>saigan.com</i>. <q>Kinnara playing Kachchapa Vina, Padmapani Panel, Cave 1</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=saigan.com&rft.atitle=Paintings&rft.au=Subramanian+Swaminathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.saigan.com%2Fheritage%2Fpainting%2Fajanta%2Fajanta15.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-mmw1005-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mmw1005_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mmw1005_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Monier Monier-Williams, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1038.html">वीणा</a>, Sanskrit-English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 1005</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell201533,_86–87,_115–116-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell201533,_86–87,_115–116_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell201533,_86–87,_115–116_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowell2015">Rowell 2015</a>, pp. 33, 86–87, 115–116.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Miner2004p26-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miner2004p26_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miner2004p26_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miner2004p26_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFAllyn_Miner2004" class="citation book cs1">Allyn Miner (2004). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sitarsarodin18th00mine"><i>Sitar and Sarod in the 18th and 19th Centuries</i></a></span>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sitarsarodin18th00mine/page/26">26</a>–27. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1493-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1493-6"><bdi>978-81-208-1493-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sitar+and+Sarod+in+the+18th+and+19th+Centuries&rft.pages=26-27&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1493-6&rft.au=Allyn+Miner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsitarsarodin18th00mine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Kasliwal2004-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kasliwal2004_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFSuneera_Kasliwal2004" class="citation book cs1">Suneera Kasliwal (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ"><i>Classical musical instruments</i></a>. Rupa. pp. 70–72, 102–114. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-291-0425-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-291-0425-0"><bdi>978-81-291-0425-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+musical+instruments&rft.pages=70-72%2C+102-114&rft.pub=Rupa&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-291-0425-0&rft.au=Suneera+Kasliwal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGVsUAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETe_Nijenhuis197417–22-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETe_Nijenhuis197417–22_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTe_Nijenhuis1974">Te Nijenhuis 1974</a>, pp. 17–22.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck1993108–112-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck1993108–112_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck1993108–112_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeck1993">Beck 1993</a>, pp. 108–112.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFலலிதாராம்_(translation_from_Tamil:_Lalitaram)2005" class="citation magazine cs1">லலிதாராம் (translation from Tamil: Lalitaram) (February 15 – March 14, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.varalaaru.com/design/article.aspx?ArticleID=109">"யாழ் என்னும் இசைக்கருவி - ஒரு பார்வை (translation from Tamil: Jaffna Musical Instrument - A View)"</a>. <i>Varalaaru.com</i>. No. 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Varalaaru.com&rft.atitle=%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%8D+%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D+%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF+-+%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81+%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%88+%28translation+from+Tamil%3A+Jaffna+Musical+Instrument+-+A+View%29&rft.issue=8&rft.date=2005-02-15%2F2005-03-14&rft.au=%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D+%28translation+from+Tamil%3A+Lalitaram%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.varalaaru.com%2Fdesign%2Farticle.aspx%3FArticleID%3D109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFGabe_Hiemstra2019" class="citation web cs1">Gabe Hiemstra (22 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/vainika">"Vainika, Vaiṇika: 6 definitions"</a>. <i>Wisdom Library (wisdom lib.org)</i>. <q>Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Benfey Sanskrit-English Dictionary...Vaiṇika (वैणिक).—i. e. vīṇā + ika, m. A lutist.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wisdom+Library+%28wisdom+lib.org%29&rft.atitle=Vainika%2C+Vai%E1%B9%87ika%3A+6+definitions&rft.date=2019-02-22&rft.au=Gabe+Hiemstra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wisdomlib.org%2Fdefinition%2Fvainika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Liu2016p131-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Liu2016p131_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Liu2016p131_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFA_Madhavan2016" class="citation book cs1">A Madhavan (2016). Siyuan Liu (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H1iFCwAAQBAJ"><i>Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 131–132. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-27886-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-27886-3"><bdi>978-1-317-27886-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+of+Asian+Theatre&rft.pages=131-132&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-27886-3&rft.au=A+Madhavan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH1iFCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELidova2014-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELidova2014_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLidova2014">Lidova 2014</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Baumer1988p135-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baumer1988p135_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFBettina_BäumerKapila_Vatsyayan1988" class="citation book cs1">Bettina Bäumer; Kapila Vatsyayan (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uPoIZaGGtiMC&pg=PA135"><i>Kalatattvakosa: A Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 135–136. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1402-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1402-8"><bdi>978-81-208-1402-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kalatattvakosa%3A+A+Lexicon+of+Fundamental+Concepts+of+the+Indian+Arts&rft.pages=135-136&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1402-8&rft.au=Bettina+B%C3%A4umer&rft.au=Kapila+Vatsyayan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuPoIZaGGtiMC%26pg%3DPA135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalal2014272–273-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalal2014272–273_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDalal2014">Dalal 2014</a>, pp. 272–273.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell2015114–116-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell2015114–116_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowell2015">Rowell 2015</a>, pp. 114–116.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell201598–104-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell201598–104_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowell2015">Rowell 2015</a>, pp. 98–104.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-ludvik227-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ludvik227_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ludvik227_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFCatherine_Ludvík2007" class="citation book cs1">Catherine Ludvík (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4lsYKIXBOK0C&pg=PA227"><i>Sarasvatī, Riverine Goddess of Knowledge: From the Manuscript-carrying Vīṇā-player to the Weapon-wielding Defender of the Dharma</i></a>. BRILL Academic. pp. 227–229. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15814-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15814-6"><bdi>978-90-04-15814-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sarasvat%C4%AB%2C+Riverine+Goddess+of+Knowledge%3A+From+the+Manuscript-carrying+V%C4%AB%E1%B9%87%C4%81-player+to+the+Weapon-wielding+Defender+of+the+Dharma&rft.pages=227-229&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-15814-6&rft.au=Catherine+Ludv%C3%ADk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4lsYKIXBOK0C%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coinindia.com/galleries-samudragupta.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"The Coin Galleries: Gupta: Samudragupta"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22The+Coin+Galleries%3A+Gupta%3A+Samudragupta%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcoinindia.com%2Fgalleries-samudragupta.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-britveena-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britveena_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-britveena_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>britveena</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENettl_et_al.1998352–355-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENettl_et_al.1998352–355_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENettl_et_al.1998352–355_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNettl_et_al.1998">Nettl et al. 1998</a>, pp. 352–355.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-hastvina-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hastvina_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>hastvina</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-sanyal24-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sanyal24_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>sanyal24</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-alainrudra-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-alainrudra_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-alainrudra_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-alainrudra_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-alainrudra_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.smithsonianfolkways.org/liner_notes/unesco/UNES08021.pdf">Rudra Veena</a>, Alain Danielou, Smithsonian Folkways and UNESCO (1987)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERandel2003819–820-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERandel2003819–820_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERandel2003819–820_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRandel2003">Randel 2003</a>, pp. 819–820.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200079-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200079_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, p. 79.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200026–27-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200026–27_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, pp. 26–27.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERowell2015153–164-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowell2015153–164_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowell2015">Rowell 2015</a>, pp. 153–164.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000111–113-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000111–113_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, pp. 111–113.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGautam19939-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGautam19939_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGautam1993">Gautam 1993</a>, p. 9.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinez2001127–128-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartinez2001127–128_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMartinez2001">Martinez 2001</a>, pp. 127–128.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorrellNarayan198048–49_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSorrellNarayan1980">Sorrell & Narayan 1980</a>, pp. 48–49.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-kasliwal116-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kasliwal116_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kasliwal116_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFSuneera_Kasliwal2004" class="citation book cs1">Suneera Kasliwal (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ"><i>Classical musical instruments</i></a>. Rupa. pp. 116–124. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-291-0425-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-291-0425-0"><bdi>978-81-291-0425-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+musical+instruments&rft.pages=116-124&rft.pub=Rupa&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-291-0425-0&rft.au=Suneera+Kasliwal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGVsUAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFSuneera_Kasliwal2004" class="citation book cs1">Suneera Kasliwal (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GVsUAQAAIAAJ"><i>Classical musical instruments</i></a>. Rupa. pp. 117–118, 123. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-291-0425-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-291-0425-0"><bdi>978-81-291-0425-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+musical+instruments&rft.pages=117-118%2C+123&rft.pub=Rupa&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-291-0425-0&rft.au=Suneera+Kasliwal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGVsUAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000179-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000179_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000179_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, p. 179.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200065-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200065_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, p. 65.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200066-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī200066_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, p. 66.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-grovekinnari-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-grovekinnari_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-grovekinnari_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFAlastair_DickGordon_GeekieRichard_Widdess1984" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Alastair Dick; Gordon Geekie; Richard Widdess (1984). "Vina, section 4 Medieval stick zithers". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.). <i>The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments</i>. pp. 729–730. Volume 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vina%2C+section+4+Medieval+stick+zithers&rft.btitle=The+New+Grove+Dictionary+of+Musical+Instruments&rft.pages=729-730&rft.date=1984&rft.au=Alastair+Dick&rft.au=Gordon+Geekie&rft.au=Richard+Widdess&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000177-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000177_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, p. 177.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-grovematto-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-grovematto_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFSadie1984" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Sadie, Stanley, ed. (1984). "Mattakokilā". <i>The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments</i>. p. 623. Volume 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mattakokil%C4%81&rft.btitle=The+New+Grove+Dictionary+of+Musical+Instruments&rft.pages=623&rft.date=1984&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-grovesurman-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-grovesurman_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFSadie1984" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Sadie, Stanley, ed. (1984). "Surmandal". <i>The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments</i>. p. 477. Volume 3. <q>in...<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sangita_Ratnakara" title="Sangita Ratnakara">Sangītaratnākara</a>, a chordophone with 21 strings...is mentioned...does not make it clear whether this was a board zither or even whether the author had actually seen one...may have been a...harp-vīnā...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Surmandal&rft.btitle=The+New+Grove+Dictionary+of+Musical+Instruments&rft.pages=477&rft.date=1984&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000176-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaudhurī2000176_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaudhurī2000">Caudhurī 2000</a>, p. 176.</span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Veena&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFBeck1993" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Guy (1993). <i>Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound</i>. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87249-855-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87249-855-6"><bdi>978-0-87249-855-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sonic+Theology%3A+Hinduism+and+Sacred+Sound&rft.place=Columbia&rft.pub=University+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-87249-855-6&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFCaudhurī2000" class="citation book cs1">Caudhurī, Vimalakānta Rôya (2000). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofhind00roya"><i>The Dictionary of Hindustani Classical Music</i></a></span>. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1708-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1708-1"><bdi>978-81-208-1708-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dictionary+of+Hindustani+Classical+Music&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1708-1&rft.aulast=Caudhur%C4%AB&rft.aufirst=Vimalak%C4%81nta+R%C3%B4ya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdictionaryofhind00roya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFDalal2014" class="citation book cs1">Dalal, Roshen (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ"><i>Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide</i></a>. Penguin Books. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-8475-277-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-8475-277-9"><bdi>978-81-8475-277-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hinduism%3A+An+Alphabetical+Guide&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-81-8475-277-9&rft.aulast=Dalal&rft.aufirst=Roshen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzrk0AwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFDaniélou1949" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alain_Dani%C3%A9lou" title="Alain Daniélou">Daniélou, Alain</a> (1949). <i>Northern Indian Music, Volume 1. Theory & technique; Volume 2. The main rāgǎs</i>. London: C. Johnson. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/851080">851080</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Northern+Indian+Music%2C+Volume+1.+Theory+%26+technique%3B+Volume+2.+The+main+r%C4%81g%C7%8Es&rft.place=London&rft.pub=C.+Johnson&rft.date=1949&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F851080&rft.aulast=Dani%C3%A9lou&rft.aufirst=Alain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFGautam1993" class="citation book cs1">Gautam, M.R. (1993). <i>Evolution of Raga and Tala in Indian Music</i>. Munshiram Manoharlal. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-215-0442-2" title="Special:BookSources/81-215-0442-2"><bdi>81-215-0442-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution+of+Raga+and+Tala+in+Indian+Music&rft.pub=Munshiram+Manoharlal&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=81-215-0442-2&rft.aulast=Gautam&rft.aufirst=M.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFKaufmann1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(composer)" title="Walter Kaufmann (composer)">Kaufmann, Walter</a> (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ragasofnorthindi00kauf"><i>The Ragas of North India</i></a>. Oxford & Indiana University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34780-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34780-0"><bdi>978-0-253-34780-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11369">11369</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ragas+of+North+India&rft.pub=Oxford+%26+Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11369&rft.isbn=978-0-253-34780-0&rft.aulast=Kaufmann&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fragasofnorthindi00kauf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFLal2004" class="citation book cs1">Lal, Ananda (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DftkAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-564446-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-564446-3"><bdi>978-0-19-564446-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Indian+Theatre&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-564446-3&rft.aulast=Lal&rft.aufirst=Ananda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDftkAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFLidova2014" class="citation book cs1">Lidova, Natalia (2014). <i>Natyashastra</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780195399318-0071">10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0071</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natyashastra&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780195399318-0071&rft.aulast=Lidova&rft.aufirst=Natalia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFLochtefeld2002" class="citation book cs1">Lochtefeld, James G. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC"><i>The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, 2 Volume Set</i></a>. The Rosen Publishing Group. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-2287-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-2287-1"><bdi>978-0-8239-2287-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Illustrated+Encyclopedia+of+Hinduism%2C+2+Volume+Set&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8239-2287-1&rft.aulast=Lochtefeld&rft.aufirst=James+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5kl0DYIjUPgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFMartinez2001" class="citation book cs1">Martinez, José Luiz (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OwJRnFIcM4cC"><i>Semiosis in Hindustani Music</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1801-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1801-9"><bdi>978-81-208-1801-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semiosis+in+Hindustani+Music&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1801-9&rft.aulast=Martinez&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9+Luiz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOwJRnFIcM4cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFNettl_et_al.1998" class="citation cs2">Nettl, Bruno; Ruth M. Stone; James Porter; Timothy Rice (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC"><i>The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia : the Indian subcontinent</i></a>, Routledge, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8240-4946-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8240-4946-1"><bdi>978-0-8240-4946-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Garland+Encyclopedia+of+World+Music%3A+South+Asia+%3A+the+Indian+subcontinent&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1&rft.aulast=Nettl&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft.au=Ruth+M.+Stone&rft.au=James+Porter&rft.au=Timothy+Rice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZOlNv8MAXIEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFRandel2003" class="citation book cs1">Randel, Don Michael (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=02rFSecPhEsC"><i>The Harvard Dictionary of Music</i></a> (fourth ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01163-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01163-2"><bdi>978-0-674-01163-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Harvard+Dictionary+of+Music&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.edition=fourth&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01163-2&rft.aulast=Randel&rft.aufirst=Don+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D02rFSecPhEsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFRowell2015" class="citation book cs1">Rowell, Lewis (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_UCgAAQBAJ"><i>Music and Musical Thought in Early India</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-73034-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-73034-9"><bdi>978-0-226-73034-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Music+and+Musical+Thought+in+Early+India&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-226-73034-9&rft.aulast=Rowell&rft.aufirst=Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh5_UCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFSorrellNarayan1980" class="citation book cs1">Sorrell, Neil; Narayan, Ram (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jNhRAQAAIAAJ"><i>Indian Music in Performance: A Practical Introduction</i></a>. Manchester University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-0756-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-0756-9"><bdi>978-0-7190-0756-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Music+in+Performance%3A+A+Practical+Introduction&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-0756-9&rft.aulast=Sorrell&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft.au=Narayan%2C+Ram&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjNhRAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFTe_Nijenhuis1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emmie_te_Nijenhuis" title="Emmie te Nijenhuis">Te Nijenhuis, Emmie</a> (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ"><i>Indian Music: History and Structure</i></a>. BRILL Academic. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-03978-3" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-03978-3"><bdi>90-04-03978-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Music%3A+History+and+Structure&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=90-04-03978-3&rft.aulast=Te+Nijenhuis&rft.aufirst=Emmie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNrgfAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFVatsyayan1977" class="citation book cs1">Vatsyayan, Kapila (1977). <i>Classical Indian dance in literature and the arts</i>. Sangeet Natak Akademi. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/233639306">233639306</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Indian+dance+in+literature+and+the+arts&rft.pub=Sangeet+Natak+Akademi&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F233639306&rft.aulast=Vatsyayan&rft.aufirst=Kapila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/toc/z2008_2719.pdf">Table of Contents</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFVatsyayan2008" class="citation book cs1">Vatsyayan, Kapila (2008). <i>Aesthetic theories and forms in Indian tradition</i>. Munshiram Manoharlal. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-87586-35-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-87586-35-7"><bdi>978-81-87586-35-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/286469807">286469807</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aesthetic+theories+and+forms+in+Indian+tradition&rft.pub=Munshiram+Manoharlal&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F286469807&rft.isbn=978-81-87586-35-7&rft.aulast=Vatsyayan&rft.aufirst=Kapila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"/><cite id="CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011" class="citation book cs1">Wilke, Annette; Moebus, Oliver (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC"><i>Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-024003-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-024003-0"><bdi>978-3-11-024003-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sound+and+Communication%3A+An+Aesthetic+Cultural+History+of+Sanskrit+Hinduism&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-11-024003-0&rft.aulast=Wilke&rft.aufirst=Annette&rft.au=Moebus%2C+Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9wmYz_OtZ_gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVeena" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Veena&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Veenas" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Veenas">Veenas</a> at Wikimedia Commons
</p>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.smithsonianfolkways.org/liner_notes/unesco/UNES08021.pdf">Rudra Veena, Vichitra Veena, Sarod and Shahnai</a>, Alain Danielou, Smithsonian Folkways and UNESCO</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnomusic.ucla.edu/music-of-india-ensemble">Music of India Ensemble: Veena</a>, Department of Ethnomusicology, UCLA</li></ul>
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transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Indian_musical_instruments" title="Template talk:Indian musical instruments"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Indian_musical_instruments&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indian_musical_instruments" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Indian_musical_instruments" title="List of Indian musical instruments">Indian musical instruments</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wind (Sushir)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" 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<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bansuri" title="Bansuri">Bansuri</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pump_organ#In_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Pump organ">Harmonium</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karnay" title="Karnay">Karnay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kombu_(instrument)" title="Kombu (instrument)">Kombu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kuzhal" title="Kuzhal">Kuzhal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nadaswaram" title="Nadaswaram">Nadaswaram</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nafir" title="Nafir">Nafir</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pungi" title="Pungi">Pungi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shankha" title="Shankha">Shankha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shehnai" title="Shehnai">Shehnai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shruti_box" title="Shruti box">Shruti box</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sringa" title="Sringa">Sringa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Venu" title="Venu">Venu</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plucked Stringed (Tat)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dotara" title="Dotara">Dotara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ektara" title="Ektara">Ektara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gottuvadhyam" title="Gottuvadhyam">Gottuvadhyam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pena_(musical_instrument)" title="Pena (musical instrument)">Pena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rudra_veena" title="Rudra veena">Rudra veena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Santoor" title="Santoor">Santoor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saraswati_veena" title="Saraswati veena">Saraswati veena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarod" title="Sarod">Sarod</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seni_rebab" title="Seni rebab">Seni Rebab</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sitar" title="Sitar">Sitar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Surbahar" title="Surbahar">Surbahar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swarabat" title="Swarabat">Swarabat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swarmandal" title="Swarmandal">Swarmandal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tanpura" title="Tanpura">Tanpura</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electronic_tanpura" title="Electronic tanpura">Electronic tanpura</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Veena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vichitra_veena" title="Vichitra veena">Vichitra veena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yazh" title="Yazh">Yazh</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bowed Stringed (Vitat)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Esraj" title="Esraj">Dilruba</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Esraj" title="Esraj">Esraj</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarangi" title="Sarangi">Sarangi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarinda_(instrument)" title="Sarinda (instrument)">Sarinda</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taus_(instrument)" title="Taus (instrument)">Taus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Violin" title="Violin">Violin</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Membranous Percussion (Avanaddh)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anandalahari" title="Anandalahari">Anandalahari</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chande" title="Chande">Chande</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chenda" title="Chenda">Chenda</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Damaru" title="Damaru">Damaru</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dhak_(instrument)" title="Dhak (instrument)">Dhaak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Duggi_(drum)" title="Duggi (drum)">Duggi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dhol" title="Dhol">Dhol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dholak" title="Dholak">Dholak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dholki" class="mw-redirect" title="Dholki">Dholki</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Idakka" title="Idakka">Edakka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kanjira" title="Kanjira">Kanjira</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khamak" title="Khamak">Khamak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khol" title="Khol">Khol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Madal" title="Madal">Madal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mardala" title="Mardala">Mardala</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mizhavu" title="Mizhavu">Mizhav</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mridangam" title="Mridangam">Mridangam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naqareh" title="Naqareh">Nagada</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pakhavaj" title="Pakhavaj">Pakhawaj</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parai" title="Parai">Parai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sambal_(drum)" title="Sambal (drum)">Sambal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tabla" title="Tabla">Tabla</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jori_(instrument)" title="Jori (instrument)">Jori (instrument)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thavil" title="Thavil">Tavil</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Udukai" title="Udukai">Udukai</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-Membranous Percussion (Ghan)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chimta" title="Chimta">Chimta</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ghatam" title="Ghatam">Ghatam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ghungroo" title="Ghungroo">Ghungroo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jal_tarang" title="Jal tarang">Jal tarang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taal_(instrument)" title="Taal (instrument)">Kartal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khanjani" title="Khanjani">Khanjani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khartal" title="Khartal">Khartal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taal_(instrument)" title="Taal (instrument)">Manjira</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Morsing" title="Morsing">Morsing</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bharatiya_Sangeet_Vadya" title="Bharatiya Sangeet Vadya">Bharatiya Sangeet Vadya</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_classical_music" title="Indian classical music">Indian classical music</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Music_of_India" title="Music of India">Music of India</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jivari" title="Jivari">Jivari</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical/ possibly extinct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C4%80l%C4%81pi%E1%B9%87%C4%AB_v%C4%AB%E1%B9%87%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Ālāpiṇī vīṇā">Ālāpiṇī vīṇā</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eka-tantri_vina" class="mw-redirect" title="Eka-tantri vina">Eka-tantri vina</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kinnari_vina" title="Kinnari vina">Kinnari vina</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pinaka_vina" title="Pinaka vina">Pinaka vina</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lute" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Lute" title="Template:Lute"><abbr title="View this template" style=";background:#;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Lute" title="Template talk:Lute"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";background:#;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Lute&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";background:#;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lute" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lute" title="Lute">Lute</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Medieval music</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renaissance_music" title="Renaissance music">Renaissance music</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types by region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Goje" title="Goje">Goje</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xalam" title="Xalam">Xalam</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbat_(lute)" title="Barbat (lute)">Barbat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bipa" title="Bipa">Bipa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biwa" title="Biwa">Biwa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dombra" title="Dombra">Dombra</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dutar" title="Dutar">Dutar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dramyin" title="Dramyin">Dramyin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Komuz" title="Komuz">Komuz</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kutiyapi" title="Kutiyapi">Kutiyapi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oud" title="Oud">Oud</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pipa" title="Pipa">Pipa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qanb%C5%ABs" title="Qanbūs">Qanbūs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qinqin" title="Qinqin">Qinqin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rubab_(instrument)" title="Rubab (instrument)">Rubab</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sanshin" title="Sanshin">Sanshin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sanxian" title="Sanxian">Sanxian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sapeh" title="Sapeh">Sapeh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Setar" title="Setar">Setar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shamisen" title="Shamisen">Shamisen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sitar" title="Sitar">Sitar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tanbur" title="Tanbur">Tanbur</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tar_(string_instrument)" title="Tar (string instrument)">Tar</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Veena</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yueqin" title="Yueqin">Yueqin</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ang%C3%A9lique_(instrument)" title="Angélique (instrument)">Angélique</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Archlute" title="Archlute">Archlute</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cobza" title="Cobza">Cobza</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kobza" title="Kobza">Kobza</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mandore_(instrument)" title="Mandore (instrument)">Mandore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mandora" title="Mandora">Mandora</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swedish_lute" title="Swedish lute">Swedish lute</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Torban" title="Torban">Torban</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theorbo" title="Theorbo">Theorbo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vihuela" title="Vihuela">Vihuela</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related instruments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Citole" title="Citole">Citole</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cittern" title="Cittern">Cittern</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/English_guitar" title="English guitar">English guitar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gittern" title="Gittern">Gittern</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guitarra_latina" title="Guitarra latina">Guitarra latina</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guitarra_morisca" title="Guitarra morisca">Guitarra morisca</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/La%C3%BAd" title="Laúd">Laúd</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_composers_for_lute" title="List of composers for lute">Composers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Lute_makers" title="Category:Lute makers">Manufacturers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Lutenists_by_nationality" title="Category:Lutenists by nationality">Players</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="Commons-logo.svg" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/10px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="13" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/15px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Lutes" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Lutes">Commons</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q959769#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q959769#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q959769#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" style="vertical-align: text-top" class="noprint" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National libraries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4349356-7">Germany</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/MBI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="MBI (identifier)">MusicBrainz</a>
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/instrument/a4711cb9-800f-4b6b-b7fc-23fd1d494d9b">instrument</a></span></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1676751527' |
