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'''Plutarch''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|l|uː|t|ɑr|k}}; {{lang-grc-gre|Πλούταρχος}}, ''Ploútarchos''; {{IPA-el|ˈplutarkʰos|koine}}; {{circa|AD&nbsp;46}} – after AD&nbsp;119)<ref name=eb>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle= Plutarch | volume= 21 | pages = 857&ndash;860 |last1= Paley |first1= Frederick Apthorp |author1-link= Frederick Apthorp Paley|last2= Mitchell |first2= John Malcolm |short=1}}</ref> was a [[Greek people|Greek]] [[Middle Platonism|Middle Platonist]] [[philosopher]],<ref>Dillon, John M. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aJQ9dvgh6BwC&dq=Plutarch+middle+platonist&source=gbs_navlinks_s|The Middle Platonists: 80 BC to AD 220]''. Cornell University Press, 1996. pp. 184 ff.</ref> [[historian]], [[Biography|biographer]], [[essay]]ist, and priest at the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo]] in [[Delphi]]. He is known primarily for his ''[[Parallel Lives]]'', a series of biographies of illustrious Greeks and Romans, and ''[[Moralia]]'', a collection of essays and speeches.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy|title=Plutarch }}</ref> Upon becoming a [[Roman citizenship|Roman citizen]], he was possibly named '''Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus''' ({{lang|grc|Λούκιος Μέστριος Πλούταρχος}}).{{sfn|Russell|2012}}{{efn|The name Mestrius or Lucius Mestrius was taken by Plutarch, as was common Roman practice, from his patron for [[Roman citizenship|citizenship]] in the empire.{{cn|date=March 2022}}}}

==Life==

===Early life===

Plutarch was born to a prominent family in the small town of [[Chaeronea]],{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=13}} about {{convert|30|km}} east of [[Delphi]], in the Greek region of [[Boeotia]]. His family was long established in the town; his father was named Autobulus and his grandfather was named [[Lamprias]].{{sfn|Russell|2012}}

His name is a compound of the Greek words {{LSJ|plou=tos|πλοῦτος}}, "wealthy" and {{LSJ|a)rxo/s|ἀρχός}} , "leader." In the [[Ancient Greek personal names|traditional aspirational Greek naming convention]] the whole name means something like "prosperous leader."

His brothers, Timon and Lamprias, are frequently mentioned in his essays and dialogues, which speak of Timon in particular in the most affectionate terms. [[Joannes Rualdus|Rualdus]], in his 1624 work ''Life of Plutarchus'', recovered the name of Plutarch's wife, Timoxena, from internal evidence afforded by his writings. A letter is still extant, addressed by Plutarch to his wife, bidding her not to grieve too much at the death of their two-year-old daughter, who was named Timoxena after her mother. He hinted at a belief in [[reincarnation]] in that letter of consolation.<ref>{{cite book |author=Plutarch |translator-first1=Phillip H |translator-last1=De Lacy |translator-first2=Benedict |translator-last2=Einarson |chapter=Consolatio ad Uxorem |title=Moralia |year=1959 |pages=575–605 |series=Loeb Classical Library |publisher=Harvard University Press |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Consolatio_ad_uxorem*.html |via=LacusCurtius |access-date=17 March 2018}}</ref>

Plutarch studied [[mathematics]] and [[philosophy]] in [[Athens]] under [[Ammonius of Athens|Ammonius]] from AD&nbsp;66 to 67.<ref name=eb/> He attended the games of Delphi where the emperor [[Nero]] competed and possibly met prominent Romans, including future emperor [[Vespasian]].{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=14}}

Plutarch and Timoxena had at least four sons and one daughter, though two died in childhood. The loss of his daughter and a young son, Chaeron, are mentioned in the his letter to Timoxena.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plutarch, Consolatio ad uxorem, section 5 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0310:section=5 |access-date=15 January 2023 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> Two sons, named Autoboulos and Plutarch, appear in a number of Plutarch's works; Plutarch's treatise on Plato's [[Timaeus]] is dedicated to them.{{sfn|Jones|1971|p=11}} It's likely that a third son, named Soklaros after Plutarch's confidant Soklaros of Tithora, survived to adulthood as well although he is not mentioned in Plutarch's later works: a Lucius Mestrius Soclarus, who shares Plutarch's Latin family name, appears in an inscription in Boeotia from the time of Trajan.<ref>The inscription is in [https://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/42003?bookid=8&location=1698 ''Inscriptiones Graecae'', 9.1.61], see the note in Jones, ''Plutarch and Rome'', 22. Older scholarship tended assume Soklaros was not a son or died young, because he didn't appear in any dedications.</ref> Traditionally the surviving catalog of Plutarch's works is ascribed to another son, named Lamprias after Plutarch's grandfather.<ref>See for example the entry for [http://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/lambda/96 Lamprias] in the [[Suda]]. </ref> However most modern scholars believe this tradition is a later interpolation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ziegler |first=Konrat |title=Plutarchos von Chaironeia |publisher=Alfred Druckenmuller |year=1964 |location=Stuttgart |pages=60 |language=de}}</ref> Plutarch's treatise on marriage questions, addressed to Eurydice and Pollianus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plutarch • Conjugalia Praecepta |url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Coniugalia_praecepta*.html |access-date=15 January 2023 |website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref> seems to speak of the former as having recently lived in his house, but without any clear evidence on whether she was his daughter or not.<ref name=Stewart-Long>{{cite book |last1=Stewart |first1=Aubrey |last2=Long |title=Plutarch's Lives |volume=1 |year=1894 |chapter=Life of Plutarch |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14033/14033.txt |publisher=George Bell & Sons |via=Gutenberg |access-date=3 January 2007}}</ref>

Plutarch was either the uncle or grandfather of [[Sextus of Chaeronea]], who was one of the teachers of [[Marcus Aurelius]], and who may have been the same person as the philosopher [[Sextus Empiricus]]. His family remained in Greece down to at least the fourth century, producing a number of philosophers and authors.{{sfn|Jones|1971|p=11}} [[Apuleius]], the author of [[The Golden Ass]], made his fictional protagonist a descendant of Plutarch.

[[File:Delfi Apollons tempel.jpg|thumb|right|Ruins of the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo at Delphi]], where Plutarch served as one of the priests responsible for interpreting the predictions of the [[Pythia]].]]

Plutarch was a [[Vegetarianism|vegetarian]], though how long and how strictly he adhered to this diet is unclear.<ref name="chrysopoulos">{{Cite web|url=https://greece.greekreporter.com/2016/03/16/ancient-greek-historian-plutarch-might-have-been-the-first-vegetarian/|title=Ancient Greek Historian Plutarch Might Have Been the First Vegetarian|first=Philip|last=Chrysopoulos|website=Greek Reporter|access-date=5 September 2020}}</ref><ref name="newmyer">{{cite journal |last=Newmyer |first=Stephen |date=1992 |title=Plutarch on Justice Toward Animals: Ancient Insights on a Modern Debate |url=https://journals.co.za/content/scholia/1/1/EJC128293 |journal=Scholia: Studies in Classical Antiquity |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=38–54 |access-date=5 September 2020}}</ref> He wrote about the [[ethics]] of meat-eating in two discourses in ''Moralia''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Plutarch |title=Moralia |url=https://www.loebclassics.com/view/plutarch-eating_flesh/1957/pb_LCL406.539.xml |chapter=On the Eating of Flesh}}</ref>

At some point, Plutarch received [[Roman citizenship]]. His sponsor was [[Lucius Mestrius Florus]], who was an associate of the new emperor Vespasian, as evidenced by his new name, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus.{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=14}} As a Roman citizen, Plutarch would have been of the [[Equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] order, he visited Rome some time {{circa|AD 70}} with Florus, who served also as a historical source for his ''Life of Otho''.<ref>Plutarch, ''Otho'' 14.1</ref>{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=14}} Plutarch was on familiar terms with a number of Roman nobles, particularly the consulars [[Quintus Sosius Senecio]], [[Titus Avidius Quietus]], and [[Arulenus Rusticus]], all of whom appear in his works.{{sfn|Jones|1971|p=20-27}}

He lived most of his life at Chaeronea, and was initiated into the [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mysteries]] of the Greek god [[Apollo]]. He probably took part in the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/32/the-eleusinian-mysteries-the-rites-of-demeter/|title=The Eleusinian Mysteries: The Rites of Demeter|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=27 April 2019}}</ref> During his visit to Rome he may have been part of a municipal embassy for [[Delphi]]: around the same time, Vespasian granted Delphi various municipal rights and privileges.{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=15}}

===Work as magistrate and ambassador===

In addition to his duties as a priest of the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Delphic temple]], Plutarch was also a [[magistrate]] at Chaeronea and he represented his home town on various missions to foreign countries during his early adult years. Plutarch held the office of [[archon]] in his native municipality, probably only an annual one which he likely served more than once.<ref>{{cite book|title=Plutarch's Lives|last=Clough|first=Arthur Hugh|year=1864|publisher=Liberty Library of Constitutional Classics|chapter-url=http://www.constitution.org/rom/plutarch/intro.htm|chapter=Introduction }}</ref>

Plutarch was [[epimeletes]] (manager) of the [[Amphictyonic League]] for at least five terms, from 107 to 127, in which role he was responsible for organising the [[Pythian Games]]. He mentions this service in his work, ''Whether an Old Man Should Engage in Public Affairs'' (17 = ''Moralia'' 792f).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=West |first1=Allen B. |title=Notes on Achaean Prosopography and Chronology |journal=Classical Philology |date=1928 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=262–267|doi=10.1086/361044 |jstor=263715 |s2cid=161334831 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/263715 |issn=0009-837X}}</ref>

The ''[[Suda]]'', a [[medieval]] Greek encyclopedia, states that [[Trajan]] made Plutarch [[Procurator (Roman)|procurator]] of [[Illyria]]. However, most historians consider this unlikely, since Illyria was not a procuratorial province.<ref>Gianakaris, C. J. ''Plutarch''. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1970.</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2022}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Suda Online, Pi 1793 |url=http://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/pi/1793 |access-date=15 January 2023 |website=www.cs.uky.edu}}</ref>

According to the 8th/9th-century historian [[George Syncellus]], late in Plutarch's life, Emperor [[Hadrian]] appointed him nominal [[Procurator (Roman)|procurator]] of [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]] – which entitled him to wear the vestments and ornaments of a consul.<ref>Russell, D. A. ''Plutarch''. New York: Scribner, 1973.</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2022}}

===Late period: Priest at Delphi===

[[File:Plutarch and herm.jpg|thumb|Portrait of a philosopher, and a [[Herm_(sculpture)|hermaic]] [[stele]] at the [[Delphi Archaeological Museum]]]]

Some time {{circa|AD 95}}, Plutarch was made one of the two sanctuary priests for the temple of Apollo at Delphi; the site had declined considerably since the classical Greek period. Around the same time in the 90s, Delphi experienced a construction boom, financed by Greek patrons and possible imperial support.{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=20}} His priestly duties connected part of his literary work with the Pythian oracle at Delphia: one of his most important works is the "Why Pythia does not give oracles in verse".<ref>{{cite book |author=Plutarch |title=[[Moralia]] |at=11}}</ref>({{math|“Περὶ τοῦ μὴ χρᾶν ἔμμετρα νῦν τὴν Πυθίαν”}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%BC%CE%B7_%CF%87%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD_%CE%AD%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1_%CE%BD%CF%85%CE%BD_%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD_%CE%A0%CF%85%CE%B8%CE%AF%CE%B1%CE%BD_(%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%82) |title=Περί του μη χραν έμμετρα νυν την Πυθίαν (Πλούταρχος) - Βικιθήκη |website=el.wikisource.org |access-date=17 March 2018}}</ref> Even more important is the dialogue “On the ‘E’ at Delphi” ({{math|“Περὶ τοῦ Εἶ τοῦ ἐν Δελφοῖς”}}),<ref>{{cite book |author=Plutarch |title=Moralia |chapter=On the ‘E’ at “Delphi” |language=ancient Greek |url=https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%95%CE%B9_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%B5%CE%BD_%CE%94%CE%B5%CE%BB%CF%86%CE%BF%CE%AF%CF%82}}

</ref> which features [[Ammonius of Athens|Ammonius]], a Platonic philosopher and teacher of Plutarch, and Lambrias, Plutarch's brother.

According to Ammonius, the letter ‘E’ written on the temple of Apollo in Delphi originated from the following fact: The [[Seven Sages of Greece]], whose [[Delphic maxims|maxims]] were also written on the walls of the vestibule of the temple, were not seven but actually five: [[Chilon]], [[Solon]], [[Thales]], [[Bias of Priene|Bias]], and [[Pittakos]]. However, the tyrants [[Cleobulus|Cleobulos]] and [[Periandros]] used their political power to be incorporated in the list. Thus, the ‘E’, which was [[Greek numerals|used to represent the number]]&nbsp;5, constituted an acknowledgement that the Delphic maxims actually originated from only five genuine wise men.

=== Portrait ===

There was a portrait bust dedicated to Plutarch for his efforts in helping to revive the Delphic shrines.{{sfn|Russell|2012}}

The portrait of a philosopher exhibited at the exit of the [[Delphi Archaeological Museum|Archaeological Museum of Delphi]], dates to the 2nd&nbsp;century; due to its inscription, in the past it had been identified with Plutarch. The man, although bearded, is depicted at a relatively young age: His hair and beard are rendered in coarse volumes and thin incisions. The gaze is deep, due to the heavy eyelids and the incised pupils.<ref>{{cite web |title=SELECTED EXHIBITS - Archaeological Site of Delphi - Museum of Delphi |url=https://delphi.culture.gr/museum/selected-exhibits/ |website=Delphi.culture.gr |publisher=Delphi Archaeological Museum |access-date=26 October 2022 |date=11 December 2019}}</ref>

But a fragmentary [[Herm_(sculpture)|hermaic]] [[stele]] ''next'' to the portrait probably did once bear a portrait of Plutarch, since it is inscribed, "The Delphians, along with the Chaeroneans, dedicated this (image of) Plutarch, following the precepts of the Amphictyony" ({{math|"Δελφοὶ Χαιρωνεῦσιν ὁμοῦ Πλούταρχον ἔθηκαν}} | {{math|τοῖς Ἀμφικτυόνων δόγμασι πειθόμενοι"}}.<ref>''Syll.''³ 843=''CID'' 4, no.&nbsp;151 {{full citation|date=July 2021}}</ref>

==Works==

Plutarch's surviving works were intended for Greek speakers throughout the Roman Empire, not just Greeks.<ref>

{{cite book

|last1= Stadter

|first1= Philip A.

|title= Plutarch and His Roman Readers

|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ExCaBQAAQBAJ

|publisher= Oxford University Press

|publication-date= 2015

|page= 69

|isbn= 978-0198718338

|access-date= 4 February 2015

|quote= Although Plutarch wrote in Greek and with a Greek point of view, [...] he was thinking of a Roman as well as a Greek audience.

|year= 2015

}}

</ref>

===Lives of the Roman emperors===

[[File:Nuremberg_chronicles_f_111r_3.png|thumb|left|Plutarch in the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' ]]

Plutarch's first biographical works were the Lives of the Roman Emperors from [[Augustus]] to [[Vitellius]]. Of these, only the Lives of [[Galba]] and [[Otho]] survive. The Lives of [[Tiberius]] and [[Nero]] are extant only as fragments, provided by Damascius (Life of Tiberius, cf. his Life of Isidore)<ref>Ziegler, Konrad, Plutarchos von Chaironeia (Stuttgart 1964), 258. Citation translated by the author.</ref> and Plutarch himself (Life of Nero, cf. Galba 2.1), respectively. These early emperors’ biographies were probably published under the [[Flavian dynasty]] or during the reign of Nerva (AD 96–98).

There is reason to believe that the two Lives still extant, those of Galba and Otho, "ought to be considered as a single work."<ref>Cf. among others, Holzbach, M.-C.(2006). Plutarch: Galba-Otho und die Apostelgeschichte : ein Gattungsvergleich. Religion and Biography, 14 (ed. by Detlev Dormeyer et al.). Berlin London: LIT, p. 13</ref> Therefore, they do not form a part of the Plutarchian canon of single biographies – as represented by the Life of [[Aratus of Sicyon]] and the Life of [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] (the biographies of [[Hesiod]], [[Pindar]], [[Crates (comic poet)|Crates]] and Daiphantus were lost). Unlike in these biographies, in ''Galba-Otho'' the individual characters of the persons portrayed are not depicted for their own sake but instead serve as an illustration of an abstract principle; namely the adherence or non-adherence to Plutarch's morally founded ideal of governing as a [[Princeps]] (cf. Galba 1.3; Moralia 328D–E).<ref name="Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24, 67–83">Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24, 67–83</ref>

Arguing from the perspective of Platonic political philosophy (cf. Republic 375E, 410D-E, 411E-412A, 442B-C), in ''Galba-Otho'' Plutarch reveals the constitutional principles of the [[Principate]] in the time of the civil war after Nero's death. While morally questioning the behavior of the autocrats, he also gives an impression of their tragic destinies, ruthlessly competing for the throne and finally destroying each other.<ref name="Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24, 67–83"/> "The Caesars' house in Rome, the Palatium, received in a shorter space of time no less than four Emperors", Plutarch writes, "passing, as it were, across the stage, and one making room for another to enter" (Galba 1).<ref>The citation from Galba was extracted from the Dryden translation as given at the [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/galba.html MIT Internet Classics Archive]</ref>

''Galba-Otho'' was handed down through different channels. It can be found in the appendix to Plutarch's ''Parallel Lives'' as well as in various Moralia manuscripts, most prominently in [[Maximus Planudes]]' edition where Galba and Otho appear as ''Opera'' XXV and XXVI. Thus it seems reasonable to maintain that ''Galba-Otho'' was from early on considered as an illustration of a moral-ethical approach, possibly even by Plutarch himself.<ref>Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24</ref>

===''Parallel Lives''===

{{Main|Parallel Lives}}

[[File:Plutarch Han.jpg|thumb|right|A page from the 1470 [[Ulrich Han]] printing of Plutarch's ''[[Parallel Lives]]'']]

Plutarch's best-known work is the ''[[Parallel Lives]]'', a series of [[biography|biographies]] of illustrious Greeks and Romans, arranged in pairs to illuminate their common [[morality|moral]] virtues and vices, thus it being more of an insight into human nature than a [[History|historical]] account.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Plutarch|title=The life of Alexander|pages=1}}</ref> The surviving ''Lives'' contain 23 pairs, each with one Greek life and one Roman life, as well as four unpaired single lives.

As is explained in the opening paragraph of his ''Life of Alexander'', Plutarch was not concerned with history so much as the influence of character, good or bad, on the lives and destinies of men. Whereas sometimes he barely touched on epoch-making events, he devoted much space to charming anecdote and incidental triviality, reasoning that this often said far more for his subjects than even their most famous accomplishments. He sought to provide rounded portraits, likening his craft to that of a painter; indeed, he went to tremendous lengths (often leading to tenuous comparisons) to draw [[Physiognomy|parallels between physical appearance]] and [[moral character]]. In many ways, he must be counted amongst the earliest [[ethics|moral philosophers]].{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

Some of the ''Lives'', such as those of [[Heracles]], [[Philip II of Macedon]], [[Epaminondas]], [[Scipio Africanus]], [[Scipio Aemilianus]] and possibly [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus]] no longer exist; many of the remaining ''Lives'' are truncated, contain obvious [[lacuna (manuscripts)|lacunae]] or have been tampered with by later writers. Extant ''Lives'' include those on [[Solon]], [[Themistocles]], [[Aristides]], [[Agesilaus II]], [[Pericles]], [[Alcibiades]], [[Nicias]], [[Demosthenes]], [[Pelopidas]], [[Philopoemen]], [[Timoleon]], [[Dion of Syracuse]], [[Eumenes]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]], [[Romulus]], [[Numa Pompilius]], [[Gaius Marcius Coriolanus|Coriolanus]], [[Theseus]], [[Aemilius Paullus]], [[Tiberius Gracchus]], [[Gaius Gracchus]], [[Gaius Marius]], [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]], [[Sertorius]], [[Lucullus]], [[Pompey]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Cicero]], [[Cato the Elder]], [[Mark Antony]], and [[Marcus Junius Brutus]].

====''Life of Alexander''====

Plutarch's ''Life of Alexander'', written as a parallel to that of Julius Caesar, is one of five extant tertiary sources on the Macedonian conqueror [[Alexander the Great]]. It includes [[anecdote]]s and descriptions of events that appear in no other source, just as Plutarch's portrait of [[Numa Pompilius]], the putative second king of Rome, holds much that is unique on the early [[Roman calendar]].

Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander's drive and desire, and strives to determine how much of it was presaged in his youth. He also draws extensively on the work of [[Lysippus]], Alexander's favourite [[sculptor]], to provide what is probably the fullest and most accurate description of the conqueror's physical appearance. When it comes to his character, Plutarch emphasizes his unusual degree of self-control and scorn for luxury: "He desired not pleasure or wealth, but only excellence and glory." As the narrative progresses, however, the subject incurs less admiration from his biographer and the deeds that it recounts become less savoury. The murder of [[Cleitus the Black]], which Alexander instantly and deeply regretted, is commonly cited to this end.

====''Life of Caesar''====

Together with [[Suetonius]]'s ''[[The Twelve Caesars]]'', and [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]]'s own works [[Commentarii de Bello Gallico|''de Bello Gallico'']] and ''[[Commentarii de Bello Civili|de Bello Civili]]'', the ''Life of Caesar'' is the main account of [[Julius Caesar]]'s feats by ancient historians. Plutarch starts by telling of the audacity of Caesar and his refusal to dismiss [[Lucius Cornelius Cinna|Cinna's]] daughter, [[Cornelia (wife of Caesar)|Cornelia]]. Other important parts are those containing his military deeds, accounts of battles and Caesar's capacity of inspiring the soldiers.

{{quotation|His soldiers showed such good will and zeal in his service that those who in their previous campaigns had been in no way superior to others were invincible and irresistible in confronting every danger to enhance Caesar's fame. Such a man, for instance, was Acilius, who, in the sea-fight at Massalia, boarded a hostile ship and had his right hand cut off with a sword, but clung with the other hand to his shield, and dashing it into the faces of his foes, routed them all and got possession of the vessel. Such a man, again, was Cassius Scaeva, who, in the battle at Dyrrhachium, had his eye struck out with an arrow, his shoulder transfixed with one javelin and his thigh with another, and received on his shield the blows of one hundred and thirty missiles. In this plight, he called the enemy to him as though he would surrender. Two of them, accordingly, coming up, he lopped off the shoulder of one with his sword, smote the other in the face and put him to flight, and came off safely himself with the aid of his comrades. Again, in Britain, when the enemy had fallen upon the foremost centurions, who had plunged into a watery marsh, a soldier, while Caesar in person was watching the battle, dashed into the midst of the fight, displayed many conspicuous deeds of daring, and rescued the centurions, after the Barbarians had been routed. Then he himself, making his way with difficulty after all the rest, plunged into the muddy current, and at last, without his shield, partly swimming and partly wading, got across. Caesar and his company were amazed and came to meet the soldier with cries of joy; but he, in great dejection, and with a burst of tears, cast himself at Caesar's feet, begging pardon for the loss of his shield. Again, in Africa, Scipio captured a ship of Caesar's in which Granius Petro, who had been appointed quaestor, was sailing. Of the rest of the passengers Scipio made booty, but told the quaestor that he offered him his life. Granius, however, remarking that it was the custom with Caesar's soldiers not to receive but to offer mercy, killed himself with a blow of his sword.|''Life of Caesar'', XVI}}

However, Plutarch's life shows few differences from Suetonius' work and Caesar's own works (see ''[[De Bello Gallico]]'' and ''[[De Bello Civili]]''). Sometimes, Plutarch quotes directly from the ''De Bello Gallico'' and even tells us of the moments when Caesar was dictating his works.

In the final part of this life, Plutarch recounts details of [[Assassination of Julius Caesar|Caesar's assassination]]. It ends by telling the destiny of his murderers, just after a detailed account of the scene when a [[Ghost|phantom]] appeared to [[Marcus Junius Brutus|Brutus]] at night.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Plutarch|title=The life of Caesar}}</ref>

====''Life of Pyrrhus''====

Plutarch's ''Life of Pyrrhus'' is a key text because it is the main historical account on Roman history for the period from 293 to 264&nbsp;BCE, for which both [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus|Dionysius]]’ and [[Livy]]’s texts are lost.<ref name=TJCornell>{{cite book |last=Cornell |first=T.J. |year=1995 |title=The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c.&nbsp;1000–264&nbsp;BC) |publisher=Routledge |page=3 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref>

{{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=30em

|"It is not ''histories'' I am writing, but ''lives''; and in the most glorious deeds there is not always an indication of virtue or vice, indeed a small thing like a phrase or a jest often makes a greater revelation of a character than battles where thousands die."|''Life of Alexander'' }}

===''Moralia''===

{{Main|Moralia}}

[[Image:Plutarchus - Moralia. De placitis philosophorum, 1531 - 3020537.tif|thumb|''Moralia'', 1531]]

The remainder of Plutarch's surviving work is collected under the title of the ''[[Moralia]]'' (loosely translated as ''Customs and Mores''). It is an eclectic collection of seventy-eight essays and transcribed speeches, including ''On Fraternal Affection''—a discourse on honour and affection of siblings toward each other, ''On the Fortune or the Virtue of [[Alexander the Great]]''—an important adjunct to his Life of the great king, ''On the Worship of [[Isis]] and [[Osiris]]'' (a crucial source of information on [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] religious rites),<ref>(but which according to Erasmus referred to the Thessalonians){{cite web|url=http://altreligion.about.com/library/texts/bl_isisandosiris.htm|title=Isis and Osiris|access-date=10 December 2006|last=Plutarch|others=Frank Cole Babbitt (trans.)}}</ref> along with more philosophical treatises, such as ''On the Decline of the Oracles'', ''On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance'', ''On Peace of Mind'' and lighter fare, such as ''[[Odysseus]] and Gryllus'', a humorous [[dialogue]] between [[Homer]]'s Odysseus and one of [[Circe]]'s enchanted pigs. The ''Moralia'' was composed first, while writing the Lives occupied much of the last two decades of Plutarch's own life.

====Spartan lives and sayings====

Since Spartans wrote no history prior to the Hellenistic period – their only extant literature is fragments of 7th-century lyrics – Plutarch's five Spartan lives and ''Sayings of Spartans'' and ''Sayings of Spartan Women'', rooted in sources that have since disappeared, are some of the richest sources for historians of [[Laconia (ancient region)|Lacedaemonia]].<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999">Pomeroy, Sarah B.; Burstein, Stanley M.; Donlan, Walter; and Tolbert Roberts, Jennifer (1999). ''Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-509742-4}}. {{OCLC|38504496}}.{{page needed|date=May 2019}}</ref> But while they are important, they are also controversial. Plutarch lived centuries after the Sparta he writes about (and a full millennium separates him from the earliest events he records) and even though he visited Sparta, many of the ancient customs he reports had been long abandoned, so he never actually saw of what he wrote.<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/> Plutarch's sources themselves can be problematic. As the historians [[Sarah B. Pomeroy|Sarah Pomeroy]], [[Stanley M. Burstein|Stanley Burstein]], Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts have written, "Plutarch was influenced by histories written after the decline of Sparta and marked by nostalgia for a happier past, real or imagined."<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/> Turning to Plutarch himself, they write, "the admiration writers like Plutarch and Xenophon felt for Spartan society led them to exaggerate its monolithic nature, minimizing departures from ideals of equality and obscuring patterns of historical change."<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/> Thus the Spartan egalitarianism and superhuman immunity to pain that have seized the popular imagination are likely myths, and their main architect is Plutarch. While flawed, Plutarch is nonetheless indispensable as one of the only ancient sources of information on Spartan life. Pomeroy et al. conclude that Plutarch's works on Sparta, while they must be treated with skepticism, remain valuable for their "large quantities of information" and these historians concede that "Plutarch's writings on Sparta, more than those of any other ancient author, have shaped later views of Sparta", despite their potential to misinform. He was also referenced in saying unto Sparta, "The beast will feed again."<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/>

====''Questions''====

Book IV of the ''Moralia'' contains the ''Roman and Greek Questions'' (Αἰτίαι Ῥωμαϊκαί and Αἰτίαι Ἑλλήνων). The customs of Romans and Greeks are illuminated in little essays that pose questions such as "Why were patricians not permitted to live on the Capitoline?" (no. 91)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Roman_Questions*/E.html#91|title=Plutarch • Roman Questions, 90‑113|work=uchicago.edu}}</ref> and then suggests answers to them.

====''On the Malice of Herodotus''====

[[File:Herodotus Massimo Inv124478.jpg|thumb|left|A bust of the early Greek historian [[Herodotus]], whom Plutarch criticized in ''On the Malice of Herodotus'']]

In ''[[On the Malice of Herodotus]]'', Plutarch criticizes the historian [[Herodotus]] for all manner of prejudice and misrepresentation. It has been called the "first instance in literature of the slashing review".<ref name=NewCriterion/> The 19th&nbsp;century English historian [[George Grote]] considered this essay a serious attack upon the works of Herodotus, and speaks of the "honourable frankness which Plutarch calls his malignity".<ref>{{cite book |last=Grote |first=George |title=A History of Greece: From the time of Solon to 403&nbsp;B.C. |orig-year=1830 |publisher=Routledge |date=19 October 2000 |page=203}}</ref>

Plutarch makes some palpable hits, catching Herodotus out in various errors, but it is also probable that it was merely a rhetorical exercise, in which Plutarch plays [[wikt:devil's advocate|devil's advocate]] to see what could be said against so favourite and well-known a writer.<ref name=Stewart-Long/> According to Barrow (1967), Herodotus' real failing in Plutarch's eyes was to advance ''any criticism at all'' of the city-states that saved Greece from Persia. Barrow concluded that ''"Plutarch is fanatically biased in favor of the Greek cities; they can do no wrong."''<ref>{{cite book |last=Barrow |first=R.H. |title=Plutarch and his Times |orig-year=1967 |year=1979}}</ref>

=== Other works ===

''Symposiacs''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/symposiacs/ |title=Plutarch: Symposiacs, in ''The complete works of Plutarch: essays and miscellanies'', New York: Crowell, 1909. Vol. III. |access-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419132530/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/symposiacs/ |archive-date=19 April 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> (Συμποσιακά); ''[[Convivium Septem Sapientium]]''.

''Dialogue on Love'' (Ερωτικος); Latin name = ''Amatorius''.

===Lost works===

The [[Lost work#Classical world|lost works]] of Plutarch are determined by references in his own texts to them and from other authors' references over time. Parts of the ''Lives'' and what would be considered parts of the ''Moralia'' have been lost. The 'Catalogue of Lamprias', an ancient list of works attributed to Plutarch, lists 227 works, of which 78 have come down to us.<ref>Russell, D.A.F.M. (1970) ''The Oxford Classical Dictionary'', Clarendon Press, Oxford, p. 849</ref>

The Romans loved the ''Lives''. Enough copies were written out over the centuries so that a copy of most of the lives has survived to the present day, but there are traces of twelve more Lives that are now lost.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Parallel Lives|publisher=Loeb Classical Library Edition|edition=Vol. I|year=1914|chapter=Translator's Introduction|chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Introduction*.html }}</ref> Plutarch's general procedure for the ''Lives'' was to write the life of a prominent Greek, then cast about for a suitable Roman parallel, and end with a brief comparison of the Greek and Roman lives. Currently, only 19 of the parallel lives end with a comparison, while possibly they all did at one time. Also missing are many of his ''Lives'' which appear in a list of his writings: those of Hercules, the first pair of ''Parallel Lives'', [[Scipio Africanus]] and [[Epaminondas]], and the companions to the four solo biographies. Even the lives of such important figures as [[Augustus]], [[Claudius]] and [[Nero]] have not been found and may be lost forever.<ref name=NewCriterion>{{cite web|last=Kimball|first=Roger|title=Plutarch & the issue of character|url=http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/19/dec00/plutarch.htm|publisher=The New Criterion Online|access-date=11 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116200602/http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/19/dec00/plutarch.htm|archive-date=16 November 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.e-classics.com/plutarch.htm|title=Plutarch - His Life and Legacy|access-date=10 December 2006|last=McCutchen|first=Wilmot H.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061205061217/http://e-classics.com/plutarch.htm|archive-date=5 December 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Lost works that would have been part of the ''Moralia'' include "Whether One Who [[epoche|Suspends Judgment on Everything]] Is Condemned to Inaction", "On [[Pyrrho]]’s Ten Modes", and "On the Difference between the [[Pyrrhonism|Pyrrhonians]] and the [[Academic Skepticism|Academics]]".<ref>Mauro Bonazzi, "Plutarch on the Differences Between the Pyrrhonists and Academics", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, 2012 https://www.academia.edu/2362682/Plutarch_on_the_Difference_between_Academics_and_Pyrrhonists_in_Oxford_Studies_in_Ancient_Philosophy_43_2012_pp._271-298</ref>

==Philosophy==

{{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=30em

|"The [[soul]], being eternal, after [[death]] is like a caged bird that has been released. If it has been a long time in the body, and has become tame by many affairs and long habit, the soul will immediately take another body and once again become involved in the troubles of the world. The worst thing about old age is that the soul's memory of the other world grows dim, while at the same time its attachment to things of this world becomes so strong that the soul tends to retain the form that it had in the body. But that soul which remains only a short time within a body, until liberated by the higher powers, quickly recovers its fire and goes on to higher things."

|Plutarch ("The Consolation", ''Moralia'')

}}

Plutarch was a [[Middle Platonism|Platonist]], but was open to the influence of the [[Peripatetics]], and in some details even to [[Stoicism]] despite his criticism of their principles.<ref name="zeller306">Eduard Zeller, ''Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy'', 13th edition, p. 306</ref> He rejected only [[Epicureanism]] absolutely.<ref name="zeller306"/> He attached little importance to theoretical questions and doubted the possibility of ever solving them.<ref name="zeller307">Eduard Zeller, ''Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy'', 13th edition, p. 307</ref> He was more interested in moral and religious questions.<ref name="zeller307"/>

In opposition to Stoic materialism and Epicurean atheism he cherished a pure idea of [[God]] that was more in accordance with [[Plato]].<ref name="zeller307"/> He adopted a second principle (''[[Dyad (Greek philosophy)|Dyad]]'') in order to explain the phenomenal world.<ref name="zeller307"/> This principle he sought, however, not in any indeterminate matter but in the evil [[Anima mundi|world-soul]] which has from the beginning been bound up with matter, but in the creation was filled with reason and arranged by it.<ref name="zeller307"/> Thus it was transformed into the divine soul of the world, but continued to operate as the source of all evil.<ref name="zeller307"/> He elevated God above the finite world, and thus [[Daemon (mythology)|daemons]] became for him agents of God's influence on the world. He strongly defends freedom of the will, and the immortality of the soul.<ref name="zeller307"/>

Platonic-Peripatetic [[ethics]] were upheld by Plutarch against the opposing theories of the Stoics and Epicureans.<ref name="zeller307"/> The most characteristic feature of Plutarch's ethics is, however, its close connection with religion.<ref name="zeller308">Eduard Zeller, ''Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy'', 13th edition, p. 308</ref> However pure Plutarch's idea of God is, and however vivid his description of the vice and corruption which superstition causes, his warm religious feelings and his distrust of human powers of knowledge led him to believe that God comes to our aid by direct revelations, which we perceive the more clearly the more completely that we refrain in "enthusiasm" from all action; this made it possible for him to justify popular belief in [[divination]] in the way which had long been usual among the Stoics.<ref name="zeller308"/>

His attitude to popular religion was similar. The gods of different peoples are merely different names for one and the same divine Being and the powers that serve it.<ref name="zeller308"/> The [[Greek mythology|myths]] contain philosophical truths which can be interpreted allegorically.<ref name="zeller308"/> Thus Plutarch sought to combine the philosophical and religious conception of things and to remain as close as possible to tradition.<ref name="zeller308"/>

Plutarch was the teacher of [[Favorinus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Richter |first1=Daniel S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZ47DwAAQBAJ |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Second Sophistic |last2=Johnson |first2=William Allen |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-983747-2 |pages=552 |language=en}}</ref>

==Influence==

{{external media|width=210px|align=right

|headerimage=[[File:North's translation of Plutarch.jpg|210px]]

|video1=[https://vimeo.com/161028814 Shakespeare: Metamorphosis – Plutarch’s “Lives” (1579)], [[Senate House Library]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Shakespeare: Metamorphosis – Plutarch's "Lives" (1579)|publisher=[[Senate House Library]] at [[Vimeo]]|url=https://vimeo.com/161028814|access-date=9 May 2016|date=31 March 2016}}</ref>}}

Plutarch's writings had an enormous influence on [[English Literature|English]] and [[French literature]]. [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] paraphrased parts of [[Thomas North]]'s translation of selected ''Lives'' in [[Shakespeare's plays|his plays]], and occasionally quoted from them verbatim.<ref>Honigmann 1959.</ref>

[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] quotes from Plutarch in the 1762 ''[[Emile, or On Education]]'', a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. Rousseau introduces a passage from Plutarch in support of his position against eating meat: {{"'}}You ask me', said Plutarch, 'why [[Pythagoras]] abstained from eating the flesh of beasts...{{'"}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Emile, or On Education|last=Rousseau|first=Jean-Jacques|publisher=JM Dent & Sons / EP Dutton & Co|year=1911|url=http://lf-oll.s3.amazonaws.com/titles/2256/Rousseau_1499_Bk.pdf|page=118|translator-last=Foxley|translator-first=Barbara}}</ref>

[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] and the [[Transcendentalism|Transcendentalists]] were greatly influenced by the ''Moralia'' and in his glowing introduction to the five-volume, 19th-century edition, he called the ''Lives'' "a bible for heroes".<ref>{{cite book|last=Emerson|first=Ralph Waldo|editor=William W. Goodwin|title=Plutarch's Morals|year=1870|publisher=Sampson, Low|location=London|page=xxi|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> He also opined that it was impossible to "read Plutarch without a tingling of the blood; and I accept the saying of the Chinese [[Mencius]]: 'A sage is the instructor of a hundred ages. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become intelligent, and the wavering, determined.{{'"}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Emerson|first=Ralph Waldo|title=Representative Men|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/representativeme1850emer|year=1850|chapter=Uses of Great Men}}</ref>

[[Michel de Montaigne|Montaigne]]'s ''[[Essays (Montaigne)|Essays]]'' draw extensively on Plutarch's ''Moralia'' and are consciously modelled on the Greek's easygoing and discursive inquiries into science, manners, customs and beliefs. ''Essays'' contains more than 400 references to Plutarch and his works.<ref name=NewCriterion/>

[[James Boswell]] quoted Plutarch on writing lives, rather than biographies, in the introduction to his own ''[[Life of Samuel Johnson]]''. Other admirers included [[Ben Jonson]], [[John Dryden]], [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[John Milton]], [[Edmund Burke]], [[Joseph De Maistre]], [[Mark Twain]], [[Louis L'amour]], and [[Francis Bacon]], as well as such disparate figures as [[Cotton Mather]] and [[Robert Browning]].

Plutarch's influence declined in the 19th and 20th centuries, but it remains embedded in the popular ideas of Greek and Roman history. One of his most famous quotes was one that he included in one of his earliest works. "The world of man is best captured through the lives of the men who created history."

==Translations of ''Lives'' and ''Moralia''==

There are translations, from the original [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], in [[Latin]], [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Polish language|Polish]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].

British classical scholar H. J. Rose writes "One advantage to a modern reader who is not well acquainted with Greek is, that being but a moderate stylist, Plutarch is almost as good in a translation as in the original."<ref>[[H. J. Rose]]. ''A Handbook of Greek Literature: From Homer to the Age of Lucian.''. New York: Dutton, 1960. p. 409.</ref>

===French translations===

[[Jacques Amyot]]'s translations brought Plutarch's works to Western Europe. He went to Italy and studied the Vatican text of Plutarch, from which he published a French translation of the ''Lives'' in 1559 and ''Moralia'' in 1572, which were widely read by educated Europe.<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle= Amyot, Jacques | volume= 01 | page = 901 |quote= He was thus enabled to go to Italy to study the Vatican text of Plutarch, on the translation on whose Lives (1559; 1565) he had been some time engaged.}}</ref> Amyot's translations had as deep an impression in England as France, because Thomas North later published his English translation of the ''Lives'' in 1579 based on Amyot's French translation instead of the original Greek.

===English translations===

Plutarch's ''Lives'' were translated into English, from Amyot's version, by [[Sir Thomas North]] in 1579. The complete ''Moralia'' was first translated into English from the original Greek by [[Philemon Holland]] in 1603.

In 1683, [[John Dryden]] began a life of Plutarch and oversaw a translation of the ''Lives'' by several hands and based on the original Greek. This translation has been reworked and revised several times, most recently in the 19th century by the English poet and classicist [[Arthur Hugh Clough]] (first published in 1859). One contemporary publisher of this version is [[Modern Library]]. Another is Encyclopædia Britannica in association with the University of Chicago, {{ISBN|0-85229-163-9}}, 1952, {{LCCN|5510323}}.

In 1770, English brothers [[John Langhorne (poet)|John]] and [[William Langhorne (clergyman)|William Langhorne]] published "Plutarch's ''Lives'' from the original Greek, with notes critical and historical, and a new life of Plutarch" in 6 volumes and dedicated to Lord Folkestone. Their translation was re-edited by Archdeacon Wrangham in the year 1819.

From 1901 to 1912, an American classicist, [[Bernadotte Perrin]],<ref>{{cite document|title=Bernadotte Perrin Papers (MS 1018) |publisher=Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library|hdl = 10079/fa/mssa.ms.1018}}</ref> produced a new translation of the ''Lives'' for the [[Loeb Classical Library]]. The ''Moralia'' is also included in the Loeb series, translated by various authors.

[[Penguin Classics]] began a series of translations by various scholars in 1958 with ''The Fall of the Roman Republic'', which contained six Lives and was translated by Rex Warner.<ref>''The Age of Alexander'', rev. ed. (Penguin, 2012), "Penguin Plutarch".</ref> Penguin continues to revise the volumes.

===Italian translations===

Note: only the main translations from the second half of 15th century are given.<ref>Virgilio Costa, ''[https://www.academia.edu/4825458/Sulle_prime_traduzioni_italiane_a_stampa_delle_opere_di_Plutarco_secc._XV-XVI_ Sulle prime traduzioni italiane a stampa delle opere di Plutarco (secc. XV–XVI)]''</ref>

*Battista Alessandro Iaconelli, ''Vite di Plutarcho traducte de Latino in vulgare in Aquila'', L’Aquila, 1482.

*Dario Tiberti, ''Le Vite di Plutarco ridotte in compendio, per M. Dario Tiberto da Cesena, e tradotte alla commune utilità di ciascuno per L. Fauno, in buona lingua volgare'', Venice, 1543.

*[[Lodovico Domenichi]], ''Vite di Plutarco. Tradotte da m. Lodouico Domenichi, con gli suoi sommarii posti dinanzi a ciascuna vita...'', Venice, 1560.

*[[Francesco Sansovino]], ''Le vite de gli huomini illustri greci e romani, di Plutarco Cheroneo sommo filosofo et historico, tradotte nuovamente da M. Francesco Sansovino...'', Venice, 1564.

*Marcello Adriani il Giovane, ''Opuscoli morali di Plutarco volgarizzati da Marcello Adriani il giovane'', Florence, 1819–1820.

*Girolamo Pompei, ''Le Vite Di Plutarco'', Verona, 1772–1773.

===Latin translations===

There are multiple translations of ''Parallel Lives'' into Latin, most notably the one titled "Pour le Dauphin" (French for "for the Prince") written by a scribe in the court of [[Louis XV of France]] and a 1470 [[Ulrich Han]] translation.

===German translations===

====Hieronymus Emser====

In 1519, Hieronymus Emser translated ''De capienda ex inimicis utilitate'' (''wie ym eyner seinen veyndt nutz machen kan'', Leipzig).

====Gottlob Benedict von Schirach====

The biographies were translated by Gottlob Benedict von Schirach (1743–1804) and printed in Vienna by Franz Haas (1776–1780).

====Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser====

Plutarch's ''Lives'' and ''Moralia'' were translated into German by [[Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser]]:

* ''Vitae parallelae. Vergleichende Lebensbeschreibungen''. 10 Bände. Magdeburg 1799–1806.

* ''Moralia. Moralische Abhandlungen''. 9 Bde. Frankfurt a.M. 1783–1800.

====Subsequent German translations====

* ''Lives''

** ''Große Griechen und Römer''. {{Interlanguage link multi|Konrat Ziegler|de}}, 6 vols. Zürich 1954–1965. (''Bibliothek der alten Welt'').

* ''Moralia''

** ''Plutarch. Über Gott und Vorsehung, Dämonen und Weissagung'', Zürich: Konrat Ziegler, 1952. (''Bibliothek der alten Welt'')

** ''Plutarch. Von der Ruhe des Gemüts – und andere Schriften'', Zürich: Bruno Snell, 1948. (''Bibliothek der alten Welt'')

** ''Plutarch. Moralphilosophische Schriften'', Stuttgart: [[Hans-Josef Klauck]], 1997. (''Reclams Universal-Bibliothek'')

** ''Plutarch. Drei Religionsphilosophische Schriften'', Düsseldorf: [[Herwig Görgemanns]], 2003. (''Tusculum'')

===Hebrew translations===

Following some Hebrew translations of selections from Plutarch's ''Parallel Lives'' published in the 1920s and the 1940s, a complete translation was published in three volumes by the [[Bialik Institute]] in 1954, 1971 and 1973. The first volume, ''Roman Lives'', first published in 1954, presents the translations of Joseph G. Liebes to the biographies of [[Coriolanus]], [[Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus|Fabius Maximus]], [[Tiberius Gracchus]] and [[Gaius Gracchus]], [[Cato the Elder]] and [[Cato the Younger]], [[Gaius Marius]], [[Sulla]], [[Sertorius]], [[Lucullus]], [[Pompey]], [[Crassus]], [[Cicero]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Brutus]] and [[Mark Antony|Mark Anthony]].

The second volume, ''Greek Lives'', first published in 1971 presents A. A. Halevy's translations of the biographies of [[Lycurgus of Sparta|Lycurgus]], [[Aristides]], [[Cimon]], [[Pericles]], [[Nicias]], [[Lysander]], [[Agesilaus]], [[Pelopidas]], [[Dion of Syracuse|Dion]], [[Timoleon]], [[Demosthenes]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[Eumenes]] and [[Phocion]]. Three more biographies presented in this volume, those of [[Solon]], [[Themistocles]] and [[Alcibiades]] were translated by M. H. Ben-Shamai.

The third volume, ''Greek and Roman Lives'', published in 1973, presented the remaining biographies and parallels as translated by Halevy. Included are the biographies of [[Demetrius I of Macedon|Demetrius]], [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]], [[Agis IV|Agis]] and [[Cleomenes III|Cleomenes]], [[Aratus]] and [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes]], [[Philopoemen]], [[Marcus Furius Camillus|Camillus]], [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]], [[Flamininus]], [[Aemilius Paulus]], [[Galba]] and [[Otho]], [[Theseus]], [[Romulus]], [[Numa Pompilius]] and [[Poplicola]]. It completes the translation of the known remaining biographies. In the introduction to the third volume Halevy explains that originally the Bialik Institute intended to publish only a selection of biographies, leaving out mythological figures and biographies that had no parallels. Thus, to match the first volume in scope the second volume followed the same path and the third volume was required.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}

==Pseudo-Plutarch==

{{Main|Pseudo-Plutarch}}

Some editions of the ''Moralia'' include several works now known to have been [[Pseudepigrapha|falsely attributed]] to Plutarch. Among these are the ''Lives of the Ten Orators'', a series of biographies of the [[Attic orators]] based on [[Caecilius of Calacte]]; ''On the Opinions of the Philosophers'', ''On Fate'', and ''On Music''.<ref name=Blank>{{cite book| last= Blank| first= D.| year= 2011| title= 'Plutarch' and the Sophistry of 'Noble Lineage'| editor-first= J. |editor-last= Martínez | work= Fakes and Forgers of Classical Literature| place= Madrid| publisher= Ediciones Clásicas| pages= 33–60}}</ref> These works are all attributed to a single, unknown author, referred to as "[[Pseudo-Plutarch]]".<ref name="Blank"/> Pseudo-Plutarch lived sometime between the third and fourth centuries AD. Despite being falsely attributed, the works are still considered to possess historical value.<ref>{{cite book| first= Don E.| last= Marietta| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Gz-8PsrT32AC |title= Introduction to Ancient Philosophy| publisher= M.E. Sharpe| year= 1998| page= 190 |number= 11| isbn= 978-0765602169}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Middle Platonism]]

* [[Numenius of Apamea]]

* [[6615 Plutarchos]]

* [[Plutarchia (wasp)|''Plutarchia'' (wasp)]]

* [[Plutarchia (plant)|''Plutarchia'' (plant)]] (named after Plutarch)

==Notes==

{{notelist}}

==References==

{{Reflist}}

==Sources==

* {{cite book|last=Blackburn|first=Simon|title=Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|year=1994 }}

* {{cite book|last=Russell|first=D.A.|title=Plutarch|publisher=Duckworth Publishing|orig-year=1972|year=2001|isbn=978-1-85399-620-7}}

* {{cite book|last=Duff|first=Timothy|title=Plutarch's Lives: Exploring Virtue and Vice|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=UK|orig-year=1999|year=2002|isbn=978-0-19-925274-9 }}

* {{cite book|last=Hamilton|first=Edith|title=The Echo of Greece|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=1957|page=[https://archive.org/details/echoofgreece00edit/page/194 194]|isbn=0-393-00231-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/echoofgreece00edit/page/194}}

* Honigmann, E.A.J. "Shakespeare's Plutarch." ''[[Shakespeare Quarterly]]'', 1959: 25–33.

* {{Cite book |last=Pelling |first=Christopher |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50552352 |title=Plutarch and History: Eighteen Studies |date=2002 |publisher=Classical Press of Wales |isbn=0-7156-3128-4 |location=Swansea |oclc=50552352}}

* {{Cite encyclopedia |last=Russell |first=Donald |title=Plutarch |encyclopedia=The Oxford classical dictionary |year=2012 |editor-first1=Simon |editor-last1=Hornblower |editor-first2=Antony |editor-last2=Spawforth |editor-first3=Esther |editor-last3=Eidinow |isbn=978-0-19-954556-8 |edition=4th |location=Oxford |oclc=959667246 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=1165–66 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5141 }}

* {{cite book |last=Stadter |first=Philip A |chapter=Plutarch and Rome |title=A companion to Plutarch |year=2014 |pages=13–31 |editor-last=Beck |editor-first=Mark |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |series=Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World |isbn=978-1-4051-9431-0 |lccn=2013028283 }}

* {{cite book|last=Wardman|first=Alan|title=Plutarch's "Lives" |publisher=Elek|year=1974|page=274|isbn=0-236-17622-6}}

* [[John M. Dillon]] ( 1996).''The Middle Platonists: 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'', Cornell University Press, {{ISBN|978-0801483165}}

* <ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=C. P. |title=Plutarch and Rome |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1971 |isbn=9780198143635 |location=Oxford}}</ref>

==Further reading==

*Beck, Mark. 2000. "Anecdote and the representation of Plutarch’s ethos." In ''Rhetorical theory and praxis in Plutarch: Acta of the IVth international congress of the International Plutarch Society, Leuven, 3–6 July 1996.'' Edited by Luc van der Stockt, 15–32. Collection d’Études Classiques 11. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.

*--, ed. 2014. ''A companion to Plutarch.'' Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell.

*Beneker, Jeffrey. 2012. ''The passionate statesman:'' Eros ''and politics in Plutarch’s Lives.'' Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*Duff, Timothy E. 1999. ''Plutarch’s Lives: Exploring virtues and vice.'' Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*Georgiadou, Aristoula. 1992. "Idealistic and realistic portraiture in the Lives of Plutarch." In ''Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung.'' Vol. 2.33.6, ''Sprache und Literatur: Allgemeines zur Literatur des 2. Jahrhunderts und einzelne Autoren der trajanischen und frühhadrianischen Zeit.'' Edited by Wolfgang Haase, 4616–23. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

*Gill, Christopher. 1983. "The question of character-development: Plutarch and Tacitus." ''Classical Quarterly'' 33. no. 2: 469–87.

*Humble, Noreen, ed. 2010. ''Plutarch’s Lives: Parallelism and purpose.'' Swansea: Classical Press of Wales.

*McInerney, Jeremy. 2003. "Plutarch’s manly women." In Andreia'': Studies in manliness and courage in classical Athens.'' Edited by Ralph M. Rosen and Ineke Sluiter, 319–44. Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava, Supplementum 238. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill.

*Mossman, Judith. 2015. "Dressed for success? Clothing in Plutarch’s Demetrius." In ''Fame and infamy: Essays for Christopher Pelling on characterization and Roman biography and historiography.'' Edited by Rhiannon Ash, Judith Mossman, and Frances B. Titchener, 149–60. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*Nikolaidis, Anastasios G., ed. 2008. ''The unity of Plutarch’s work:'' Moralia ''themes in the'' Lives'', features of the'' Lives'' in the'' Moralia. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

*Pelling, Christopher. 2002. ''Plutarch and history: Eighteen studies.'' Swansea: Classical Press of Wales.

*{{cite book |last1=Roskam |first1=Geert |title=Plutarch |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9781009108225}}

*Scardigli, Barbara, ed. 1995. ''Essays on Plutarch’s Lives.'' Oxford: Clarendon.

*Stadter, Philip. 1996. "Anecdotes and the thematic structure of Plutarchean biography." In ''Estudios sobre Plutarco: Aspectos formales; Actas del IV Simposio español sobre Plutarco, Salamanca, 26 a 28 de mayo de 1994.'' Edited by José Antonio Fernández Delgado and Francisca Pordomingo Pardo, 291–303. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas.

*Stadter, Philip.. 2015. "The rhetoric of virtue in Plutarch’s Lives." In ''Plutarch and his Roman readers.'' By Philip A. Stadter, 231–45. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*[[Lieve Van Hoof|Van Hoof, Lieve]]. 2010. ''Plutarch's practical ethics: the social dynamics of philosophy'' Oxford: Oxford University Press.

*Wardman, Alan E. 1967. "Description of personal appearance in Plutarch and Suetonius: The use of statues as evidence." ''Classical Quarterly'' 17, no. 2: 414–20.

*Zadorojnyi, Alexei V. 2012. "Mimesis and the (plu)past in Plutarch’s Lives." In ''Time and narrative in ancient historiography: The “plupast” from Herodotus to Appian.'' Edited by Jonas Grethlein and Christopher B. Krebs, 175–98. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

==External links==

{{wikiquote}}

{{wikisource author}}

{{commons category}}

{{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Plutarch

|viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}

;Plutarch's works

* {{Gutenberg author | id=342 | name=Plutarch}}

* {{Internet Archive author |search=("Plutarch" OR "Plutarchus")}}

* {{Librivox author |id=13}}

* [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/collection?collection=Perseus:collection:Greco-Roman Perseus Digital Library]

* Plutarch on [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/home.html LacusCurtius]

* Didot edition of Plutarch's works in Greek, with Latin translation (1857–1876): [https://archive.org/details/plutarchivitaep00doehgoog vol. 1 (Lives, pt. 1)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=OUYJAQAAIAAJ vol. 2 (Lives, pt. 2)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ee1DAAAAYAAJ vol. 3 (Moralia, pt. 1)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=s56zAAAAMAAJ vol. 4 (Moralia, pt. 2)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=txNgAAAAMAAJ vol. 5 (fragmenta et spuria)] (also [http://gallica.bnf.fr/Search?adva=1&adv=1&tri=title_sort&t_relation=%22Notice+d%27ensemble+%3A+http%3A%2F%2Fcatalogue.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fcb37341822f%22&q=plutarchi+vitae&lang=en via BNF])

;Secondary material

* {{cite SEP |url-id=plutarch |title=Plutarch |last=Karamanolis |first=George}}

* [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/plutarch/ Plutarch of Chaeronea] by Jona Lendering at Livius

* [http://www.usu.edu/history/ploutarchos/index.htm The International Plutarch Society] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511164545/http://www.usu.edu/history/ploutarchos/index.htm |date=11 May 2008 }}

* [http://bennozuiddam.com/Plutarch%20and%20God-eclipse%20in%20Christian%20Theology,%20Ploutarchos%202008,2009.pdf The relevance of Plutarch's book ''De Defectu Oraculorum'' for Christian Theology (Ploutarchos, Journal of the International Plutarch Society)]

{{Plutarch}}

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{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Plutarch| ]]

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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}

{{Other uses}}

{{distinguish|Plutocracy{{!}}Plutarchy}}

{{Short description|Greek philosopher and historian (c. AD 46 – after AD 119)}}

{{Infobox philosopher

| name = Plutarch

| image = Plutarch of Chaeronea-03 (cropped).jpg

| caption = Modern portrait at [[Chaeronea]], based on a bust from Delphi tentatively identified as Plutarch. <!--discussed on Talk: see also File:Head of a philosopher - Archaeological Museum of Delphi.jpg -->

| birth_date = {{circa|AD 46}}

| birth_place = [[Chaeronea]], [[Boeotia]]

| death_date = after AD 119 (aged 73–74)

| death_place = [[Delphi]], [[Phocis (ancient region)|Phocis]]

| occupation = Biographer, [[essay]]ist, [[philosopher]], [[priest]], [[ambassador]], [[magistrate]]

|school_tradition = [[Middle Platonism]]

|notable_works = ''[[Parallel Lives]]''<br>''[[Moralia]]''

|region = [[Ancient philosophy]]

|era = [[Hellenistic philosophy]]

|main_interests = [[Epistemology]], [[Ethics]], [[History]], [[Metaphysics]]

|influences = {{flatlist|

*[[Plato]]

*[[Xenocrates]]d

d

d

d

d

d

d

ad

asfsdaf;jdashkpfjasdlkjgslkjdagkjlsdghksdkjglsdkfb

*[[Aristotle]]joe

*[[Arcesilaus]]

*[[Carneades]]

*[[Philo of Larissa|Philo]]

*[[Antiochus of Ascalon|Antiochus]]

*[[Cicero]]

*[[Ammonius of Athens|Ammonius]]

}}

|influenced = {{flatlist|

* [[Alcinous (philosopher)|Alcinous]]

* [[Arrian]]

* [[Aristides]]

* [[Atticus (philosopher)|Atticus]]

* [[Basil of Caesarea]]

* [[Beethoven]]

* [[Clement of Alexandria]]

* [[Cyril of Alexandria]]

* [[R. W. Emerson|Emerson]]

* [[Eusebius]]

* [[Favorinus]]

* [[Goethe]]

* [[Jean Paul]]

* [[Marcus Aurelius]]

* [[Montaigne]]

* [[Nietzsche]]

* [[Numenius of Apamea]]

* [[Plotinus]]

* [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]]

* [[Proclus]]

* [[Schiller]]

* [[Sextus of Chaeronea]]

* [[Shakespeare]]

}}

}}

'''Plutarch''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|l|uː|t|ɑr|k}}; {{lang-grc-gre|Πλούταρχος}}, ''Ploútarchos''; {{IPA-el|ˈplutarkʰos|koine}}; {{circa|AD&nbsp;46}} – after AD&nbsp;119)<ref name=eb>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle= Plutarch | volume= 21 | pages = 857&ndash;860 |last1= Paley |first1= Frederick Apthorp |author1-link= Frederick Apthorp Paley|last2= Mitchell |first2= John Malcolm |short=1}}</ref> was a [[Greek people|Greek]] [[Middle Platonism|Middle Platonist]] [[philosopher]],<ref>Dillon, John M. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aJQ9dvgh6BwC&dq=Plutarch+middle+platonist&source=gbs_navlinks_s|The Middle Platonists: 80 BC to AD 220]''. Cornell University Press, 1996. pp. 184 ff.</ref> [[historian]], [[Biography|biographer]], [[essay]]ist, and priest at the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo]] in [[Delphi]]. He is known primarily for his ''[[Parallel Lives]]'', a series of biographies of illustrious Greeks and Romans, and ''[[Moralia]]'', a collection of essays and speeches.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy|title=Plutarch }}</ref> Upon becoming a [[Roman citizenship|Roman citizen]], he was possibly named '''Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus''' ({{lang|grc|Λούκιος Μέστριος Πλούταρχος}}).{{sfn|Russell|2012}}{{efn|The name Mestrius or Lucius Mestrius was taken by Plutarch, as was common Roman practice, from his patron for [[Roman citizenship|citizenship]] in the empire.{{cn|date=March 2022}}}}

==Life==

===Early life===

Plutarch was born to a prominent family in the small town of [[Chaeronea]],{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=13}} about {{convert|30|km}} east of [[Delphi]], in the Greek region of [[Boeotia]]. His family was long established in the town; his father was named Autobulus and his grandfather was named [[Lamprias]].{{sfn|Russell|2012}}

His name is a compound of the Greek words {{LSJ|plou=tos|πλοῦτος}}, "wealthy" and {{LSJ|a)rxo/s|ἀρχός}} , "leader." In the [[Ancient Greek personal names|traditional aspirational Greek naming convention]] the whole name means something like "prosperous leader."

His brothers, Timon and Lamprias, are frequently mentioned in his essays and dialogues, which speak of Timon in particular in the most affectionate terms. [[Joannes Rualdus|Rualdus]], in his 1624 work ''Life of Plutarchus'', recovered the name of Plutarch's wife, Timoxena, from internal evidence afforded by his writings. A letter is still extant, addressed by Plutarch to his wife, bidding her not to grieve too much at the death of their two-year-old daughter, who was named Timoxena after her mother. He hinted at a belief in [[reincarnation]] in that letter of consolation.<ref>{{cite book |author=Plutarch |translator-first1=Phillip H |translator-last1=De Lacy |translator-first2=Benedict |translator-last2=Einarson |chapter=Consolatio ad Uxorem |title=Moralia |year=1959 |pages=575–605 |series=Loeb Classical Library |publisher=Harvard University Press |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Consolatio_ad_uxorem*.html |via=LacusCurtius |access-date=17 March 2018}}</ref>

Plutarch studied [[mathematics]] and [[philosophy]] in [[Athens]] under [[Ammonius of Athens|Ammonius]] from AD&nbsp;66 to 67.<ref name=eb/> He attended the games of Delphi where the emperor [[Nero]] competed and possibly met prominent Romans, including future emperor [[Vespasian]].{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=14}}

Plutarch and Timoxena had at least four sons and one daughter, though two died in childhood. The loss of his daughter and a young son, Chaeron, are mentioned in the his letter to Timoxena.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plutarch, Consolatio ad uxorem, section 5 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0310:section=5 |access-date=15 January 2023 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> Two sons, named Autoboulos and Plutarch, appear in a number of Plutarch's works; Plutarch's treatise on Plato's [[Timaeus]] is dedicated to them.{{sfn|Jones|1971|p=11}} It's likely that a third son, named Soklaros after Plutarch's confidant Soklaros of Tithora, survived to adulthood as well although he is not mentioned in Plutarch's later works: a Lucius Mestrius Soclarus, who shares Plutarch's Latin family name, appears in an inscription in Boeotia from the time of Trajan.<ref>The inscription is in [https://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/42003?bookid=8&location=1698 ''Inscriptiones Graecae'', 9.1.61], see the note in Jones, ''Plutarch and Rome'', 22. Older scholarship tended assume Soklaros was not a son or died young, because he didn't appear in any dedications.</ref> Traditionally the surviving catalog of Plutarch's works is ascribed to another son, named Lamprias after Plutarch's grandfather.<ref>See for example the entry for [http://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/lambda/96 Lamprias] in the [[Suda]]. </ref> However most modern scholars believe this tradition is a later interpolation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ziegler |first=Konrat |title=Plutarchos von Chaironeia |publisher=Alfred Druckenmuller |year=1964 |location=Stuttgart |pages=60 |language=de}}</ref> Plutarch's treatise on marriage questions, addressed to Eurydice and Pollianus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plutarch • Conjugalia Praecepta |url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Coniugalia_praecepta*.html |access-date=15 January 2023 |website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref> seems to speak of the former as having recently lived in his house, but without any clear evidence on whether she was his daughter or not.<ref name=Stewart-Long>{{cite book |last1=Stewart |first1=Aubrey |last2=Long |title=Plutarch's Lives |volume=1 |year=1894 |chapter=Life of Plutarch |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14033/14033.txt |publisher=George Bell & Sons |via=Gutenberg |access-date=3 January 2007}}</ref>

Plutarch was either the uncle or grandfather of [[Sextus of Chaeronea]], who was one of the teachers of [[Marcus Aurelius]], and who may have been the same person as the philosopher [[Sextus Empiricus]]. His family remained in Greece down to at least the fourth century, producing a number of philosophers and authors.{{sfn|Jones|1971|p=11}} [[Apuleius]], the author of [[The Golden Ass]], made his fictional protagonist a descendant of Plutarch.

[[File:Delfi Apollons tempel.jpg|thumb|right|Ruins of the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo at Delphi]], where Plutarch served as one of the priests responsible for interpreting the predictions of the [[Pythia]].]]

Plutarch was a [[Vegetarianism|vegetarian]], though how long and how strictly he adhered to this diet is unclear.<ref name="chrysopoulos">{{Cite web|url=https://greece.greekreporter.com/2016/03/16/ancient-greek-historian-plutarch-might-have-been-the-first-vegetarian/|title=Ancient Greek Historian Plutarch Might Have Been the First Vegetarian|first=Philip|last=Chrysopoulos|website=Greek Reporter|access-date=5 September 2020}}</ref><ref name="newmyer">{{cite journal |last=Newmyer |first=Stephen |date=1992 |title=Plutarch on Justice Toward Animals: Ancient Insights on a Modern Debate |url=https://journals.co.za/content/scholia/1/1/EJC128293 |journal=Scholia: Studies in Classical Antiquity |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=38–54 |access-date=5 September 2020}}</ref> He wrote about the [[ethics]] of meat-eating in two discourses in ''Moralia''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Plutarch |title=Moralia |url=https://www.loebclassics.com/view/plutarch-eating_flesh/1957/pb_LCL406.539.xml |chapter=On the Eating of Flesh}}</ref>

At some point, Plutarch received [[Roman citizenship]]. His sponsor was [[Lucius Mestrius Florus]], who was an associate of the new emperor Vespasian, as evidenced by his new name, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus.{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=14}} As a Roman citizen, Plutarch would have been of the [[Equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] order, he visited Rome some time {{circa|AD 70}} with Florus, who served also as a historical source for his ''Life of Otho''.<ref>Plutarch, ''Otho'' 14.1</ref>{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=14}} Plutarch was on familiar terms with a number of Roman nobles, particularly the consulars [[Quintus Sosius Senecio]], [[Titus Avidius Quietus]], and [[Arulenus Rusticus]], all of whom appear in his works.{{sfn|Jones|1971|p=20-27}}

He lived most of his life at Chaeronea, and was initiated into the [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mysteries]] of the Greek god [[Apollo]]. He probably took part in the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/32/the-eleusinian-mysteries-the-rites-of-demeter/|title=The Eleusinian Mysteries: The Rites of Demeter|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=27 April 2019}}</ref> During his visit to Rome he may have been part of a municipal embassy for [[Delphi]]: around the same time, Vespasian granted Delphi various municipal rights and privileges.{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=15}}

===Work as magistrate and ambassador===

In addition to his duties as a priest of the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Delphic temple]], Plutarch was also a [[magistrate]] at Chaeronea and he represented his home town on various missions to foreign countries during his early adult years. Plutarch held the office of [[archon]] in his native municipality, probably only an annual one which he likely served more than once.<ref>{{cite book|title=Plutarch's Lives|last=Clough|first=Arthur Hugh|year=1864|publisher=Liberty Library of Constitutional Classics|chapter-url=http://www.constitution.org/rom/plutarch/intro.htm|chapter=Introduction }}</ref>

Plutarch was [[epimeletes]] (manager) of the [[Amphictyonic League]] for at least five terms, from 107 to 127, in which role he was responsible for organising the [[Pythian Games]]. He mentions this service in his work, ''Whether an Old Man Should Engage in Public Affairs'' (17 = ''Moralia'' 792f).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=West |first1=Allen B. |title=Notes on Achaean Prosopography and Chronology |journal=Classical Philology |date=1928 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=262–267|doi=10.1086/361044 |jstor=263715 |s2cid=161334831 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/263715 |issn=0009-837X}}</ref>

The ''[[Suda]]'', a [[medieval]] Greek encyclopedia, states that [[Trajan]] made Plutarch [[Procurator (Roman)|procurator]] of [[Illyria]]. However, most historians consider this unlikely, since Illyria was not a procuratorial province.<ref>Gianakaris, C. J. ''Plutarch''. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1970.</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2022}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Suda Online, Pi 1793 |url=http://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/pi/1793 |access-date=15 January 2023 |website=www.cs.uky.edu}}</ref>

According to the 8th/9th-century historian [[George Syncellus]], late in Plutarch's life, Emperor [[Hadrian]] appointed him nominal [[Procurator (Roman)|procurator]] of [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]] – which entitled him to wear the vestments and ornaments of a consul.<ref>Russell, D. A. ''Plutarch''. New York: Scribner, 1973.</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2022}}

===Late period: Priest at Delphi===

[[File:Plutarch and herm.jpg|thumb|Portrait of a philosopher, and a [[Herm_(sculpture)|hermaic]] [[stele]] at the [[Delphi Archaeological Museum]]]]

Some time {{circa|AD 95}}, Plutarch was made one of the two sanctuary priests for the temple of Apollo at Delphi; the site had declined considerably since the classical Greek period. Around the same time in the 90s, Delphi experienced a construction boom, financed by Greek patrons and possible imperial support.{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=20}} His priestly duties connected part of his literary work with the Pythian oracle at Delphia: one of his most important works is the "Why Pythia does not give oracles in verse".<ref>{{cite book |author=Plutarch |title=[[Moralia]] |at=11}}</ref>({{math|“Περὶ τοῦ μὴ χρᾶν ἔμμετρα νῦν τὴν Πυθίαν”}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%BC%CE%B7_%CF%87%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD_%CE%AD%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1_%CE%BD%CF%85%CE%BD_%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD_%CE%A0%CF%85%CE%B8%CE%AF%CE%B1%CE%BD_(%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%82) |title=Περί του μη χραν έμμετρα νυν την Πυθίαν (Πλούταρχος) - Βικιθήκη |website=el.wikisource.org |access-date=17 March 2018}}</ref> Even more important is the dialogue “On the ‘E’ at Delphi” ({{math|“Περὶ τοῦ Εἶ τοῦ ἐν Δελφοῖς”}}),<ref>{{cite book |author=Plutarch |title=Moralia |chapter=On the ‘E’ at “Delphi” |language=ancient Greek |url=https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%95%CE%B9_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%B5%CE%BD_%CE%94%CE%B5%CE%BB%CF%86%CE%BF%CE%AF%CF%82}}

</ref> which features [[Ammonius of Athens|Ammonius]], a Platonic philosopher and teacher of Plutarch, and Lambrias, Plutarch's brother.

According to Ammonius, the letter ‘E’ written on the temple of Apollo in Delphi originated from the following fact: The [[Seven Sages of Greece]], whose [[Delphic maxims|maxims]] were also written on the walls of the vestibule of the temple, were not seven but actually five: [[Chilon]], [[Solon]], [[Thales]], [[Bias of Priene|Bias]], and [[Pittakos]]. However, the tyrants [[Cleobulus|Cleobulos]] and [[Periandros]] used their political power to be incorporated in the list. Thus, the ‘E’, which was [[Greek numerals|used to represent the number]]&nbsp;5, constituted an acknowledgement that the Delphic maxims actually originated from only five genuine wise men.

=== Portrait ===

There was a portrait bust dedicated to Plutarch for his efforts in helping to revive the Delphic shrines.{{sfn|Russell|2012}}

The portrait of a philosopher exhibited at the exit of the [[Delphi Archaeological Museum|Archaeological Museum of Delphi]], dates to the 2nd&nbsp;century; due to its inscription, in the past it had been identified with Plutarch. The man, although bearded, is depicted at a relatively young age: His hair and beard are rendered in coarse volumes and thin incisions. The gaze is deep, due to the heavy eyelids and the incised pupils.<ref>{{cite web |title=SELECTED EXHIBITS - Archaeological Site of Delphi - Museum of Delphi |url=https://delphi.culture.gr/museum/selected-exhibits/ |website=Delphi.culture.gr |publisher=Delphi Archaeological Museum |access-date=26 October 2022 |date=11 December 2019}}</ref>

But a fragmentary [[Herm_(sculpture)|hermaic]] [[stele]] ''next'' to the portrait probably did once bear a portrait of Plutarch, since it is inscribed, "The Delphians, along with the Chaeroneans, dedicated this (image of) Plutarch, following the precepts of the Amphictyony" ({{math|"Δελφοὶ Χαιρωνεῦσιν ὁμοῦ Πλούταρχον ἔθηκαν}} | {{math|τοῖς Ἀμφικτυόνων δόγμασι πειθόμενοι"}}.<ref>''Syll.''³ 843=''CID'' 4, no.&nbsp;151 {{full citation|date=July 2021}}</ref>

==Works==

Plutarch's surviving works were intended for Greek speakers throughout the Roman Empire, not just Greeks.<ref>

{{cite book

|last1= Stadter

|first1= Philip A.

|title= Plutarch and His Roman Readers

|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ExCaBQAAQBAJ

|publisher= Oxford University Press

|publication-date= 2015

|page= 69

|isbn= 978-0198718338

|access-date= 4 February 2015

|quote= Although Plutarch wrote in Greek and with a Greek point of view, [...] he was thinking of a Roman as well as a Greek audience.

|year= 2015

}}

</ref>

===Lives of the Roman emperors===

[[File:Nuremberg_chronicles_f_111r_3.png|thumb|left|Plutarch in the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' ]]

Plutarch's first biographical works were the Lives of the Roman Emperors from [[Augustus]] to [[Vitellius]]. Of these, only the Lives of [[Galba]] and [[Otho]] survive. The Lives of [[Tiberius]] and [[Nero]] are extant only as fragments, provided by Damascius (Life of Tiberius, cf. his Life of Isidore)<ref>Ziegler, Konrad, Plutarchos von Chaironeia (Stuttgart 1964), 258. Citation translated by the author.</ref> and Plutarch himself (Life of Nero, cf. Galba 2.1), respectively. These early emperors’ biographies were probably published under the [[Flavian dynasty]] or during the reign of Nerva (AD 96–98).

There is reason to believe that the two Lives still extant, those of Galba and Otho, "ought to be considered as a single work."<ref>Cf. among others, Holzbach, M.-C.(2006). Plutarch: Galba-Otho und die Apostelgeschichte : ein Gattungsvergleich. Religion and Biography, 14 (ed. by Detlev Dormeyer et al.). Berlin London: LIT, p. 13</ref> Therefore, they do not form a part of the Plutarchian canon of single biographies – as represented by the Life of [[Aratus of Sicyon]] and the Life of [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] (the biographies of [[Hesiod]], [[Pindar]], [[Crates (comic poet)|Crates]] and Daiphantus were lost). Unlike in these biographies, in ''Galba-Otho'' the individual characters of the persons portrayed are not depicted for their own sake but instead serve as an illustration of an abstract principle; namely the adherence or non-adherence to Plutarch's morally founded ideal of governing as a [[Princeps]] (cf. Galba 1.3; Moralia 328D–E).<ref name="Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24, 67–83">Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24, 67–83</ref>

Arguing from the perspective of Platonic political philosophy (cf. Republic 375E, 410D-E, 411E-412A, 442B-C), in ''Galba-Otho'' Plutarch reveals the constitutional principles of the [[Principate]] in the time of the civil war after Nero's death. While morally questioning the behavior of the autocrats, he also gives an impression of their tragic destinies, ruthlessly competing for the throne and finally destroying each other.<ref name="Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24, 67–83"/> "The Caesars' house in Rome, the Palatium, received in a shorter space of time no less than four Emperors", Plutarch writes, "passing, as it were, across the stage, and one making room for another to enter" (Galba 1).<ref>The citation from Galba was extracted from the Dryden translation as given at the [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/galba.html MIT Internet Classics Archive]</ref>

''Galba-Otho'' was handed down through different channels. It can be found in the appendix to Plutarch's ''Parallel Lives'' as well as in various Moralia manuscripts, most prominently in [[Maximus Planudes]]' edition where Galba and Otho appear as ''Opera'' XXV and XXVI. Thus it seems reasonable to maintain that ''Galba-Otho'' was from early on considered as an illustration of a moral-ethical approach, possibly even by Plutarch himself.<ref>Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24</ref>

===''Parallel Lives''===

{{Main|Parallel Lives}}

[[File:Plutarch Han.jpg|thumb|right|A page from the 1470 [[Ulrich Han]] printing of Plutarch's ''[[Parallel Lives]]'']]

Plutarch's best-known work is the ''[[Parallel Lives]]'', a series of [[biography|biographies]] of illustrious Greeks and Romans, arranged in pairs to illuminate their common [[morality|moral]] virtues and vices, thus it being more of an insight into human nature than a [[History|historical]] account.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Plutarch|title=The life of Alexander|pages=1}}</ref> The surviving ''Lives'' contain 23 pairs, each with one Greek life and one Roman life, as well as four unpaired single lives.

As is explained in the opening paragraph of his ''Life of Alexander'', Plutarch was not concerned with history so much as the influence of character, good or bad, on the lives and destinies of men. Whereas sometimes he barely touched on epoch-making events, he devoted much space to charming anecdote and incidental triviality, reasoning that this often said far more for his subjects than even their most famous accomplishments. He sought to provide rounded portraits, likening his craft to that of a painter; indeed, he went to tremendous lengths (often leading to tenuous comparisons) to draw [[Physiognomy|parallels between physical appearance]] and [[moral character]]. In many ways, he must be counted amongst the earliest [[ethics|moral philosophers]].{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

Some of the ''Lives'', such as those of [[Heracles]], [[Philip II of Macedon]], [[Epaminondas]], [[Scipio Africanus]], [[Scipio Aemilianus]] and possibly [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus]] no longer exist; many of the remaining ''Lives'' are truncated, contain obvious [[lacuna (manuscripts)|lacunae]] or have been tampered with by later writers. Extant ''Lives'' include those on [[Solon]], [[Themistocles]], [[Aristides]], [[Agesilaus II]], [[Pericles]], [[Alcibiades]], [[Nicias]], [[Demosthenes]], [[Pelopidas]], [[Philopoemen]], [[Timoleon]], [[Dion of Syracuse]], [[Eumenes]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]], [[Romulus]], [[Numa Pompilius]], [[Gaius Marcius Coriolanus|Coriolanus]], [[Theseus]], [[Aemilius Paullus]], [[Tiberius Gracchus]], [[Gaius Gracchus]], [[Gaius Marius]], [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]], [[Sertorius]], [[Lucullus]], [[Pompey]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Cicero]], [[Cato the Elder]], [[Mark Antony]], and [[Marcus Junius Brutus]].

====''Life of Alexander''====

Plutarch's ''Life of Alexander'', written as a parallel to that of Julius Caesar, is one of five extant tertiary sources on the Macedonian conqueror [[Alexander the Great]]. It includes [[anecdote]]s and descriptions of events that appear in no other source, just as Plutarch's portrait of [[Numa Pompilius]], the putative second king of Rome, holds much that is unique on the early [[Roman calendar]].

Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander's drive and desire, and strives to determine how much of it was presaged in his youth. He also draws extensively on the work of [[Lysippus]], Alexander's favourite [[sculptor]], to provide what is probably the fullest and most accurate description of the conqueror's physical appearance. When it comes to his character, Plutarch emphasizes his unusual degree of self-control and scorn for luxury: "He desired not pleasure or wealth, but only excellence and glory." As the narrative progresses, however, the subject incurs less admiration from his biographer and the deeds that it recounts become less savoury. The murder of [[Cleitus the Black]], which Alexander instantly and deeply regretted, is commonly cited to this end.

====''Life of Caesar''====

Together with [[Suetonius]]'s ''[[The Twelve Caesars]]'', and [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]]'s own works [[Commentarii de Bello Gallico|''de Bello Gallico'']] and ''[[Commentarii de Bello Civili|de Bello Civili]]'', the ''Life of Caesar'' is the main account of [[Julius Caesar]]'s feats by ancient historians. Plutarch starts by telling of the audacity of Caesar and his refusal to dismiss [[Lucius Cornelius Cinna|Cinna's]] daughter, [[Cornelia (wife of Caesar)|Cornelia]]. Other important parts are those containing his military deeds, accounts of battles and Caesar's capacity of inspiring the soldiers.

{{quotation|His soldiers showed such good will and zeal in his service that those who in their previous campaigns had been in no way superior to others were invincible and irresistible in confronting every danger to enhance Caesar's fame. Such a man, for instance, was Acilius, who, in the sea-fight at Massalia, boarded a hostile ship and had his right hand cut off with a sword, but clung with the other hand to his shield, and dashing it into the faces of his foes, routed them all and got possession of the vessel. Such a man, again, was Cassius Scaeva, who, in the battle at Dyrrhachium, had his eye struck out with an arrow, his shoulder transfixed with one javelin and his thigh with another, and received on his shield the blows of one hundred and thirty missiles. In this plight, he called the enemy to him as though he would surrender. Two of them, accordingly, coming up, he lopped off the shoulder of one with his sword, smote the other in the face and put him to flight, and came off safely himself with the aid of his comrades. Again, in Britain, when the enemy had fallen upon the foremost centurions, who had plunged into a watery marsh, a soldier, while Caesar in person was watching the battle, dashed into the midst of the fight, displayed many conspicuous deeds of daring, and rescued the centurions, after the Barbarians had been routed. Then he himself, making his way with difficulty after all the rest, plunged into the muddy current, and at last, without his shield, partly swimming and partly wading, got across. Caesar and his company were amazed and came to meet the soldier with cries of joy; but he, in great dejection, and with a burst of tears, cast himself at Caesar's feet, begging pardon for the loss of his shield. Again, in Africa, Scipio captured a ship of Caesar's in which Granius Petro, who had been appointed quaestor, was sailing. Of the rest of the passengers Scipio made booty, but told the quaestor that he offered him his life. Granius, however, remarking that it was the custom with Caesar's soldiers not to receive but to offer mercy, killed himself with a blow of his sword.|''Life of Caesar'', XVI}}

However, Plutarch's life shows few differences from Suetonius' work and Caesar's own works (see ''[[De Bello Gallico]]'' and ''[[De Bello Civili]]''). Sometimes, Plutarch quotes directly from the ''De Bello Gallico'' and even tells us of the moments when Caesar was dictating his works.

In the final part of this life, Plutarch recounts details of [[Assassination of Julius Caesar|Caesar's assassination]]. It ends by telling the destiny of his murderers, just after a detailed account of the scene when a [[Ghost|phantom]] appeared to [[Marcus Junius Brutus|Brutus]] at night.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Plutarch|title=The life of Caesar}}</ref>

====''Life of Pyrrhus''====

Plutarch's ''Life of Pyrrhus'' is a key text because it is the main historical account on Roman history for the period from 293 to 264&nbsp;BCE, for which both [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus|Dionysius]]’ and [[Livy]]’s texts are lost.<ref name=TJCornell>{{cite book |last=Cornell |first=T.J. |year=1995 |title=The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c.&nbsp;1000–264&nbsp;BC) |publisher=Routledge |page=3 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref>

{{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=30em

|"It is not ''histories'' I am writing, but ''lives''; and in the most glorious deeds there is not always an indication of virtue or vice, indeed a small thing like a phrase or a jest often makes a greater revelation of a character than battles where thousands die."|''Life of Alexander'' }}

===''Moralia''===

{{Main|Moralia}}

[[Image:Plutarchus - Moralia. De placitis philosophorum, 1531 - 3020537.tif|thumb|''Moralia'', 1531]]

The remainder of Plutarch's surviving work is collected under the title of the ''[[Moralia]]'' (loosely translated as ''Customs and Mores''). It is an eclectic collection of seventy-eight essays and transcribed speeches, including ''On Fraternal Affection''—a discourse on honour and affection of siblings toward each other, ''On the Fortune or the Virtue of [[Alexander the Great]]''—an important adjunct to his Life of the great king, ''On the Worship of [[Isis]] and [[Osiris]]'' (a crucial source of information on [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] religious rites),<ref>(but which according to Erasmus referred to the Thessalonians){{cite web|url=http://altreligion.about.com/library/texts/bl_isisandosiris.htm|title=Isis and Osiris|access-date=10 December 2006|last=Plutarch|others=Frank Cole Babbitt (trans.)}}</ref> along with more philosophical treatises, such as ''On the Decline of the Oracles'', ''On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance'', ''On Peace of Mind'' and lighter fare, such as ''[[Odysseus]] and Gryllus'', a humorous [[dialogue]] between [[Homer]]'s Odysseus and one of [[Circe]]'s enchanted pigs. The ''Moralia'' was composed first, while writing the Lives occupied much of the last two decades of Plutarch's own life.

====Spartan lives and sayings====

Since Spartans wrote no history prior to the Hellenistic period – their only extant literature is fragments of 7th-century lyrics – Plutarch's five Spartan lives and ''Sayings of Spartans'' and ''Sayings of Spartan Women'', rooted in sources that have since disappeared, are some of the richest sources for historians of [[Laconia (ancient region)|Lacedaemonia]].<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999">Pomeroy, Sarah B.; Burstein, Stanley M.; Donlan, Walter; and Tolbert Roberts, Jennifer (1999). ''Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-509742-4}}. {{OCLC|38504496}}.{{page needed|date=May 2019}}</ref> But while they are important, they are also controversial. Plutarch lived centuries after the Sparta he writes about (and a full millennium separates him from the earliest events he records) and even though he visited Sparta, many of the ancient customs he reports had been long abandoned, so he never actually saw of what he wrote.<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/> Plutarch's sources themselves can be problematic. As the historians [[Sarah B. Pomeroy|Sarah Pomeroy]], [[Stanley M. Burstein|Stanley Burstein]], Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts have written, "Plutarch was influenced by histories written after the decline of Sparta and marked by nostalgia for a happier past, real or imagined."<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/> Turning to Plutarch himself, they write, "the admiration writers like Plutarch and Xenophon felt for Spartan society led them to exaggerate its monolithic nature, minimizing departures from ideals of equality and obscuring patterns of historical change."<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/> Thus the Spartan egalitarianism and superhuman immunity to pain that have seized the popular imagination are likely myths, and their main architect is Plutarch. While flawed, Plutarch is nonetheless indispensable as one of the only ancient sources of information on Spartan life. Pomeroy et al. conclude that Plutarch's works on Sparta, while they must be treated with skepticism, remain valuable for their "large quantities of information" and these historians concede that "Plutarch's writings on Sparta, more than those of any other ancient author, have shaped later views of Sparta", despite their potential to misinform. He was also referenced in saying unto Sparta, "The beast will feed again."<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/>

====''Questions''====

Book IV of the ''Moralia'' contains the ''Roman and Greek Questions'' (Αἰτίαι Ῥωμαϊκαί and Αἰτίαι Ἑλλήνων). The customs of Romans and Greeks are illuminated in little essays that pose questions such as "Why were patricians not permitted to live on the Capitoline?" (no. 91)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Roman_Questions*/E.html#91|title=Plutarch • Roman Questions, 90‑113|work=uchicago.edu}}</ref> and then suggests answers to them.

====''On the Malice of Herodotus''====

[[File:Herodotus Massimo Inv124478.jpg|thumb|left|A bust of the early Greek historian [[Herodotus]], whom Plutarch criticized in ''On the Malice of Herodotus'']]

In ''[[On the Malice of Herodotus]]'', Plutarch criticizes the historian [[Herodotus]] for all manner of prejudice and misrepresentation. It has been called the "first instance in literature of the slashing review".<ref name=NewCriterion/> The 19th&nbsp;century English historian [[George Grote]] considered this essay a serious attack upon the works of Herodotus, and speaks of the "honourable frankness which Plutarch calls his malignity".<ref>{{cite book |last=Grote |first=George |title=A History of Greece: From the time of Solon to 403&nbsp;B.C. |orig-year=1830 |publisher=Routledge |date=19 October 2000 |page=203}}</ref>

Plutarch makes some palpable hits, catching Herodotus out in various errors, but it is also probable that it was merely a rhetorical exercise, in which Plutarch plays [[wikt:devil's advocate|devil's advocate]] to see what could be said against so favourite and well-known a writer.<ref name=Stewart-Long/> According to Barrow (1967), Herodotus' real failing in Plutarch's eyes was to advance ''any criticism at all'' of the city-states that saved Greece from Persia. Barrow concluded that ''"Plutarch is fanatically biased in favor of the Greek cities; they can do no wrong."''<ref>{{cite book |last=Barrow |first=R.H. |title=Plutarch and his Times |orig-year=1967 |year=1979}}</ref>

=== Other works ===

''Symposiacs''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/symposiacs/ |title=Plutarch: Symposiacs, in ''The complete works of Plutarch: essays and miscellanies'', New York: Crowell, 1909. Vol. III. |access-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419132530/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/symposiacs/ |archive-date=19 April 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> (Συμποσιακά); ''[[Convivium Septem Sapientium]]''.

''Dialogue on Love'' (Ερωτικος); Latin name = ''Amatorius''.

===Lost works===

The [[Lost work#Classical world|lost works]] of Plutarch are determined by references in his own texts to them and from other authors' references over time. Parts of the ''Lives'' and what would be considered parts of the ''Moralia'' have been lost. The 'Catalogue of Lamprias', an ancient list of works attributed to Plutarch, lists 227 works, of which 78 have come down to us.<ref>Russell, D.A.F.M. (1970) ''The Oxford Classical Dictionary'', Clarendon Press, Oxford, p. 849</ref>

The Romans loved the ''Lives''. Enough copies were written out over the centuries so that a copy of most of the lives has survived to the present day, but there are traces of twelve more Lives that are now lost.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Parallel Lives|publisher=Loeb Classical Library Edition|edition=Vol. I|year=1914|chapter=Translator's Introduction|chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Introduction*.html }}</ref> Plutarch's general procedure for the ''Lives'' was to write the life of a prominent Greek, then cast about for a suitable Roman parallel, and end with a brief comparison of the Greek and Roman lives. Currently, only 19 of the parallel lives end with a comparison, while possibly they all did at one time. Also missing are many of his ''Lives'' which appear in a list of his writings: those of Hercules, the first pair of ''Parallel Lives'', [[Scipio Africanus]] and [[Epaminondas]], and the companions to the four solo biographies. Even the lives of such important figures as [[Augustus]], [[Claudius]] and [[Nero]] have not been found and may be lost forever.<ref name=NewCriterion>{{cite web|last=Kimball|first=Roger|title=Plutarch & the issue of character|url=http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/19/dec00/plutarch.htm|publisher=The New Criterion Online|access-date=11 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116200602/http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/19/dec00/plutarch.htm|archive-date=16 November 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.e-classics.com/plutarch.htm|title=Plutarch - His Life and Legacy|access-date=10 December 2006|last=McCutchen|first=Wilmot H.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061205061217/http://e-classics.com/plutarch.htm|archive-date=5 December 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Lost works that would have been part of the ''Moralia'' include "Whether One Who [[epoche|Suspends Judgment on Everything]] Is Condemned to Inaction", "On [[Pyrrho]]’s Ten Modes", and "On the Difference between the [[Pyrrhonism|Pyrrhonians]] and the [[Academic Skepticism|Academics]]".<ref>Mauro Bonazzi, "Plutarch on the Differences Between the Pyrrhonists and Academics", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, 2012 https://www.academia.edu/2362682/Plutarch_on_the_Difference_between_Academics_and_Pyrrhonists_in_Oxford_Studies_in_Ancient_Philosophy_43_2012_pp._271-298</ref>

==Philosophy==

{{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=30em

|"The [[soul]], being eternal, after [[death]] is like a caged bird that has been released. If it has been a long time in the body, and has become tame by many affairs and long habit, the soul will immediately take another body and once again become involved in the troubles of the world. The worst thing about old age is that the soul's memory of the other world grows dim, while at the same time its attachment to things of this world becomes so strong that the soul tends to retain the form that it had in the body. But that soul which remains only a short time within a body, until liberated by the higher powers, quickly recovers its fire and goes on to higher things."

|Plutarch ("The Consolation", ''Moralia'')

}}

Plutarch was a [[Middle Platonism|Platonist]], but was open to the influence of the [[Peripatetics]], and in some details even to [[Stoicism]] despite his criticism of their principles.<ref name="zeller306">Eduard Zeller, ''Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy'', 13th edition, p. 306</ref> He rejected only [[Epicureanism]] absolutely.<ref name="zeller306"/> He attached little importance to theoretical questions and doubted the possibility of ever solving them.<ref name="zeller307">Eduard Zeller, ''Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy'', 13th edition, p. 307</ref> He was more interested in moral and religious questions.<ref name="zeller307"/>

In opposition to Stoic materialism and Epicurean atheism he cherished a pure idea of [[God]] that was more in accordance with [[Plato]].<ref name="zeller307"/> He adopted a second principle (''[[Dyad (Greek philosophy)|Dyad]]'') in order to explain the phenomenal world.<ref name="zeller307"/> This principle he sought, however, not in any indeterminate matter but in the evil [[Anima mundi|world-soul]] which has from the beginning been bound up with matter, but in the creation was filled with reason and arranged by it.<ref name="zeller307"/> Thus it was transformed into the divine soul of the world, but continued to operate as the source of all evil.<ref name="zeller307"/> He elevated God above the finite world, and thus [[Daemon (mythology)|daemons]] became for him agents of God's influence on the world. He strongly defends freedom of the will, and the immortality of the soul.<ref name="zeller307"/>

Platonic-Peripatetic [[ethics]] were upheld by Plutarch against the opposing theories of the Stoics and Epicureans.<ref name="zeller307"/> The most characteristic feature of Plutarch's ethics is, however, its close connection with religion.<ref name="zeller308">Eduard Zeller, ''Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy'', 13th edition, p. 308</ref> However pure Plutarch's idea of God is, and however vivid his description of the vice and corruption which superstition causes, his warm religious feelings and his distrust of human powers of knowledge led him to believe that God comes to our aid by direct revelations, which we perceive the more clearly the more completely that we refrain in "enthusiasm" from all action; this made it possible for him to justify popular belief in [[divination]] in the way which had long been usual among the Stoics.<ref name="zeller308"/>

His attitude to popular religion was similar. The gods of different peoples are merely different names for one and the same divine Being and the powers that serve it.<ref name="zeller308"/> The [[Greek mythology|myths]] contain philosophical truths which can be interpreted allegorically.<ref name="zeller308"/> Thus Plutarch sought to combine the philosophical and religious conception of things and to remain as close as possible to tradition.<ref name="zeller308"/>

Plutarch was the teacher of [[Favorinus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Richter |first1=Daniel S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZ47DwAAQBAJ |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Second Sophistic |last2=Johnson |first2=William Allen |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-983747-2 |pages=552 |language=en}}</ref>

==Influence==

{{external media|width=210px|align=right

|headerimage=[[File:North's translation of Plutarch.jpg|210px]]

|video1=[https://vimeo.com/161028814 Shakespeare: Metamorphosis – Plutarch’s “Lives” (1579)], [[Senate House Library]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Shakespeare: Metamorphosis – Plutarch's "Lives" (1579)|publisher=[[Senate House Library]] at [[Vimeo]]|url=https://vimeo.com/161028814|access-date=9 May 2016|date=31 March 2016}}</ref>}}

Plutarch's writings had an enormous influence on [[English Literature|English]] and [[French literature]]. [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] paraphrased parts of [[Thomas North]]'s translation of selected ''Lives'' in [[Shakespeare's plays|his plays]], and occasionally quoted from them verbatim.<ref>Honigmann 1959.</ref>

[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] quotes from Plutarch in the 1762 ''[[Emile, or On Education]]'', a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. Rousseau introduces a passage from Plutarch in support of his position against eating meat: {{"'}}You ask me', said Plutarch, 'why [[Pythagoras]] abstained from eating the flesh of beasts...{{'"}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Emile, or On Education|last=Rousseau|first=Jean-Jacques|publisher=JM Dent & Sons / EP Dutton & Co|year=1911|url=http://lf-oll.s3.amazonaws.com/titles/2256/Rousseau_1499_Bk.pdf|page=118|translator-last=Foxley|translator-first=Barbara}}</ref>

[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] and the [[Transcendentalism|Transcendentalists]] were greatly influenced by the ''Moralia'' and in his glowing introduction to the five-volume, 19th-century edition, he called the ''Lives'' "a bible for heroes".<ref>{{cite book|last=Emerson|first=Ralph Waldo|editor=William W. Goodwin|title=Plutarch's Morals|year=1870|publisher=Sampson, Low|location=London|page=xxi|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> He also opined that it was impossible to "read Plutarch without a tingling of the blood; and I accept the saying of the Chinese [[Mencius]]: 'A sage is the instructor of a hundred ages. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become intelligent, and the wavering, determined.{{'"}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Emerson|first=Ralph Waldo|title=Representative Men|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/representativeme1850emer|year=1850|chapter=Uses of Great Men}}</ref>

[[Michel de Montaigne|Montaigne]]'s ''[[Essays (Montaigne)|Essays]]'' draw extensively on Plutarch's ''Moralia'' and are consciously modelled on the Greek's easygoing and discursive inquiries into science, manners, customs and beliefs. ''Essays'' contains more than 400 references to Plutarch and his works.<ref name=NewCriterion/>

[[James Boswell]] quoted Plutarch on writing lives, rather than biographies, in the introduction to his own ''[[Life of Samuel Johnson]]''. Other admirers included [[Ben Jonson]], [[John Dryden]], [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[John Milton]], [[Edmund Burke]], [[Joseph De Maistre]], [[Mark Twain]], [[Louis L'amour]], and [[Francis Bacon]], as well as such disparate figures as [[Cotton Mather]] and [[Robert Browning]].

Plutarch's influence declined in the 19th and 20th centuries, but it remains embedded in the popular ideas of Greek and Roman history. One of his most famous quotes was one that he included in one of his earliest works. "The world of man is best captured through the lives of the men who created history."

==Translations of ''Lives'' and ''Moralia''==

There are translations, from the original [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], in [[Latin]], [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Polish language|Polish]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].

British classical scholar H. J. Rose writes "One advantage to a modern reader who is not well acquainted with Greek is, that being but a moderate stylist, Plutarch is almost as good in a translation as in the original."<ref>[[H. J. Rose]]. ''A Handbook of Greek Literature: From Homer to the Age of Lucian.''. New York: Dutton, 1960. p. 409.</ref>

===French translations===

[[Jacques Amyot]]'s translations brought Plutarch's works to Western Europe. He went to Italy and studied the Vatican text of Plutarch, from which he published a French translation of the ''Lives'' in 1559 and ''Moralia'' in 1572, which were widely read by educated Europe.<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle= Amyot, Jacques | volume= 01 | page = 901 |quote= He was thus enabled to go to Italy to study the Vatican text of Plutarch, on the translation on whose Lives (1559; 1565) he had been some time engaged.}}</ref> Amyot's translations had as deep an impression in England as France, because Thomas North later published his English translation of the ''Lives'' in 1579 based on Amyot's French translation instead of the original Greek.

===English translations===

Plutarch's ''Lives'' were translated into English, from Amyot's version, by [[Sir Thomas North]] in 1579. The complete ''Moralia'' was first translated into English from the original Greek by [[Philemon Holland]] in 1603.

In 1683, [[John Dryden]] began a life of Plutarch and oversaw a translation of the ''Lives'' by several hands and based on the original Greek. This translation has been reworked and revised several times, most recently in the 19th century by the English poet and classicist [[Arthur Hugh Clough]] (first published in 1859). One contemporary publisher of this version is [[Modern Library]]. Another is Encyclopædia Britannica in association with the University of Chicago, {{ISBN|0-85229-163-9}}, 1952, {{LCCN|5510323}}.

In 1770, English brothers [[John Langhorne (poet)|John]] and [[William Langhorne (clergyman)|William Langhorne]] published "Plutarch's ''Lives'' from the original Greek, with notes critical and historical, and a new life of Plutarch" in 6 volumes and dedicated to Lord Folkestone. Their translation was re-edited by Archdeacon Wrangham in the year 1819.

From 1901 to 1912, an American classicist, [[Bernadotte Perrin]],<ref>{{cite document|title=Bernadotte Perrin Papers (MS 1018) |publisher=Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library|hdl = 10079/fa/mssa.ms.1018}}</ref> produced a new translation of the ''Lives'' for the [[Loeb Classical Library]]. The ''Moralia'' is also included in the Loeb series, translated by various authors.

[[Penguin Classics]] began a series of translations by various scholars in 1958 with ''The Fall of the Roman Republic'', which contained six Lives and was translated by Rex Warner.<ref>''The Age of Alexander'', rev. ed. (Penguin, 2012), "Penguin Plutarch".</ref> Penguin continues to revise the volumes.

===Italian translations===

Note: only the main translations from the second half of 15th century are given.<ref>Virgilio Costa, ''[https://www.academia.edu/4825458/Sulle_prime_traduzioni_italiane_a_stampa_delle_opere_di_Plutarco_secc._XV-XVI_ Sulle prime traduzioni italiane a stampa delle opere di Plutarco (secc. XV–XVI)]''</ref>

*Battista Alessandro Iaconelli, ''Vite di Plutarcho traducte de Latino in vulgare in Aquila'', L’Aquila, 1482.

*Dario Tiberti, ''Le Vite di Plutarco ridotte in compendio, per M. Dario Tiberto da Cesena, e tradotte alla commune utilità di ciascuno per L. Fauno, in buona lingua volgare'', Venice, 1543.

*[[Lodovico Domenichi]], ''Vite di Plutarco. Tradotte da m. Lodouico Domenichi, con gli suoi sommarii posti dinanzi a ciascuna vita...'', Venice, 1560.

*[[Francesco Sansovino]], ''Le vite de gli huomini illustri greci e romani, di Plutarco Cheroneo sommo filosofo et historico, tradotte nuovamente da M. Francesco Sansovino...'', Venice, 1564.

*Marcello Adriani il Giovane, ''Opuscoli morali di Plutarco volgarizzati da Marcello Adriani il giovane'', Florence, 1819–1820.

*Girolamo Pompei, ''Le Vite Di Plutarco'', Verona, 1772–1773.

===Latin translations===

There are multiple translations of ''Parallel Lives'' into Latin, most notably the one titled "Pour le Dauphin" (French for "for the Prince") written by a scribe in the court of [[Louis XV of France]] and a 1470 [[Ulrich Han]] translation.

===German translations===

====Hieronymus Emser====

In 1519, Hieronymus Emser translated ''De capienda ex inimicis utilitate'' (''wie ym eyner seinen veyndt nutz machen kan'', Leipzig).

====Gottlob Benedict von Schirach====

The biographies were translated by Gottlob Benedict von Schirach (1743–1804) and printed in Vienna by Franz Haas (1776–1780).

====Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser====

Plutarch's ''Lives'' and ''Moralia'' were translated into German by [[Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser]]:

* ''Vitae parallelae. Vergleichende Lebensbeschreibungen''. 10 Bände. Magdeburg 1799–1806.

* ''Moralia. Moralische Abhandlungen''. 9 Bde. Frankfurt a.M. 1783–1800.

====Subsequent German translations====

* ''Lives''

** ''Große Griechen und Römer''. {{Interlanguage link multi|Konrat Ziegler|de}}, 6 vols. Zürich 1954–1965. (''Bibliothek der alten Welt'').

* ''Moralia''

** ''Plutarch. Über Gott und Vorsehung, Dämonen und Weissagung'', Zürich: Konrat Ziegler, 1952. (''Bibliothek der alten Welt'')

** ''Plutarch. Von der Ruhe des Gemüts – und andere Schriften'', Zürich: Bruno Snell, 1948. (''Bibliothek der alten Welt'')

** ''Plutarch. Moralphilosophische Schriften'', Stuttgart: [[Hans-Josef Klauck]], 1997. (''Reclams Universal-Bibliothek'')

** ''Plutarch. Drei Religionsphilosophische Schriften'', Düsseldorf: [[Herwig Görgemanns]], 2003. (''Tusculum'')

===Hebrew translations===

Following some Hebrew translations of selections from Plutarch's ''Parallel Lives'' published in the 1920s and the 1940s, a complete translation was published in three volumes by the [[Bialik Institute]] in 1954, 1971 and 1973. The first volume, ''Roman Lives'', first published in 1954, presents the translations of Joseph G. Liebes to the biographies of [[Coriolanus]], [[Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus|Fabius Maximus]], [[Tiberius Gracchus]] and [[Gaius Gracchus]], [[Cato the Elder]] and [[Cato the Younger]], [[Gaius Marius]], [[Sulla]], [[Sertorius]], [[Lucullus]], [[Pompey]], [[Crassus]], [[Cicero]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Brutus]] and [[Mark Antony|Mark Anthony]].

The second volume, ''Greek Lives'', first published in 1971 presents A. A. Halevy's translations of the biographies of [[Lycurgus of Sparta|Lycurgus]], [[Aristides]], [[Cimon]], [[Pericles]], [[Nicias]], [[Lysander]], [[Agesilaus]], [[Pelopidas]], [[Dion of Syracuse|Dion]], [[Timoleon]], [[Demosthenes]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[Eumenes]] and [[Phocion]]. Three more biographies presented in this volume, those of [[Solon]], [[Themistocles]] and [[Alcibiades]] were translated by M. H. Ben-Shamai.

The third volume, ''Greek and Roman Lives'', published in 1973, presented the remaining biographies and parallels as translated by Halevy. Included are the biographies of [[Demetrius I of Macedon|Demetrius]], [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]], [[Agis IV|Agis]] and [[Cleomenes III|Cleomenes]], [[Aratus]] and [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes]], [[Philopoemen]], [[Marcus Furius Camillus|Camillus]], [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]], [[Flamininus]], [[Aemilius Paulus]], [[Galba]] and [[Otho]], [[Theseus]], [[Romulus]], [[Numa Pompilius]] and [[Poplicola]]. It completes the translation of the known remaining biographies. In the introduction to the third volume Halevy explains that originally the Bialik Institute intended to publish only a selection of biographies, leaving out mythological figures and biographies that had no parallels. Thus, to match the first volume in scope the second volume followed the same path and the third volume was required.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}

==Pseudo-Plutarch==

{{Main|Pseudo-Plutarch}}

Some editions of the ''Moralia'' include several works now known to have been [[Pseudepigrapha|falsely attributed]] to Plutarch. Among these are the ''Lives of the Ten Orators'', a series of biographies of the [[Attic orators]] based on [[Caecilius of Calacte]]; ''On the Opinions of the Philosophers'', ''On Fate'', and ''On Music''.<ref name=Blank>{{cite book| last= Blank| first= D.| year= 2011| title= 'Plutarch' and the Sophistry of 'Noble Lineage'| editor-first= J. |editor-last= Martínez | work= Fakes and Forgers of Classical Literature| place= Madrid| publisher= Ediciones Clásicas| pages= 33–60}}</ref> These works are all attributed to a single, unknown author, referred to as "[[Pseudo-Plutarch]]".<ref name="Blank"/> Pseudo-Plutarch lived sometime between the third and fourth centuries AD. Despite being falsely attributed, the works are still considered to possess historical value.<ref>{{cite book| first= Don E.| last= Marietta| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Gz-8PsrT32AC |title= Introduction to Ancient Philosophy| publisher= M.E. Sharpe| year= 1998| page= 190 |number= 11| isbn= 978-0765602169}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Middle Platonism]]

* [[Numenius of Apamea]]

* [[6615 Plutarchos]]

* [[Plutarchia (wasp)|''Plutarchia'' (wasp)]]

* [[Plutarchia (plant)|''Plutarchia'' (plant)]] (named after Plutarch)

==Notes==

{{notelist}}

==References==

{{Reflist}}

==Sources==

* {{cite book|last=Blackburn|first=Simon|title=Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|year=1994 }}

* {{cite book|last=Russell|first=D.A.|title=Plutarch|publisher=Duckworth Publishing|orig-year=1972|year=2001|isbn=978-1-85399-620-7}}

* {{cite book|last=Duff|first=Timothy|title=Plutarch's Lives: Exploring Virtue and Vice|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=UK|orig-year=1999|year=2002|isbn=978-0-19-925274-9 }}

* {{cite book|last=Hamilton|first=Edith|title=The Echo of Greece|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=1957|page=[https://archive.org/details/echoofgreece00edit/page/194 194]|isbn=0-393-00231-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/echoofgreece00edit/page/194}}

* Honigmann, E.A.J. "Shakespeare's Plutarch." ''[[Shakespeare Quarterly]]'', 1959: 25–33.

* {{Cite book |last=Pelling |first=Christopher |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50552352 |title=Plutarch and History: Eighteen Studies |date=2002 |publisher=Classical Press of Wales |isbn=0-7156-3128-4 |location=Swansea |oclc=50552352}}

* {{Cite encyclopedia |last=Russell |first=Donald |title=Plutarch |encyclopedia=The Oxford classical dictionary |year=2012 |editor-first1=Simon |editor-last1=Hornblower |editor-first2=Antony |editor-last2=Spawforth |editor-first3=Esther |editor-last3=Eidinow |isbn=978-0-19-954556-8 |edition=4th |location=Oxford |oclc=959667246 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=1165–66 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5141 }}

* {{cite book |last=Stadter |first=Philip A |chapter=Plutarch and Rome |title=A companion to Plutarch |year=2014 |pages=13–31 |editor-last=Beck |editor-first=Mark |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |series=Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World |isbn=978-1-4051-9431-0 |lccn=2013028283 }}

* {{cite book|last=Wardman|first=Alan|title=Plutarch's "Lives" |publisher=Elek|year=1974|page=274|isbn=0-236-17622-6}}

* [[John M. Dillon]] ( 1996).''The Middle Platonists: 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'', Cornell University Press, {{ISBN|978-0801483165}}

* <ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=C. P. |title=Plutarch and Rome |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1971 |isbn=9780198143635 |location=Oxford}}</ref>

==Further reading==

*Beck, Mark. 2000. "Anecdote and the representation of Plutarch’s ethos." In ''Rhetorical theory and praxis in Plutarch: Acta of the IVth international congress of the International Plutarch Society, Leuven, 3–6 July 1996.'' Edited by Luc van der Stockt, 15–32. Collection d’Études Classiques 11. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.

*--, ed. 2014. ''A companion to Plutarch.'' Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell.

*Beneker, Jeffrey. 2012. ''The passionate statesman:'' Eros ''and politics in Plutarch’s Lives.'' Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*Duff, Timothy E. 1999. ''Plutarch’s Lives: Exploring virtues and vice.'' Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*Georgiadou, Aristoula. 1992. "Idealistic and realistic portraiture in the Lives of Plutarch." In ''Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung.'' Vol. 2.33.6, ''Sprache und Literatur: Allgemeines zur Literatur des 2. Jahrhunderts und einzelne Autoren der trajanischen und frühhadrianischen Zeit.'' Edited by Wolfgang Haase, 4616–23. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

*Gill, Christopher. 1983. "The question of character-development: Plutarch and Tacitus." ''Classical Quarterly'' 33. no. 2: 469–87.

*Humble, Noreen, ed. 2010. ''Plutarch’s Lives: Parallelism and purpose.'' Swansea: Classical Press of Wales.

*McInerney, Jeremy. 2003. "Plutarch’s manly women." In Andreia'': Studies in manliness and courage in classical Athens.'' Edited by Ralph M. Rosen and Ineke Sluiter, 319–44. Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava, Supplementum 238. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill.

*Mossman, Judith. 2015. "Dressed for success? Clothing in Plutarch’s Demetrius." In ''Fame and infamy: Essays for Christopher Pelling on characterization and Roman biography and historiography.'' Edited by Rhiannon Ash, Judith Mossman, and Frances B. Titchener, 149–60. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*Nikolaidis, Anastasios G., ed. 2008. ''The unity of Plutarch’s work:'' Moralia ''themes in the'' Lives'', features of the'' Lives'' in the'' Moralia. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

*Pelling, Christopher. 2002. ''Plutarch and history: Eighteen studies.'' Swansea: Classical Press of Wales.

*{{cite book |last1=Roskam |first1=Geert |title=Plutarch |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9781009108225}}

*Scardigli, Barbara, ed. 1995. ''Essays on Plutarch’s Lives.'' Oxford: Clarendon.

*Stadter, Philip. 1996. "Anecdotes and the thematic structure of Plutarchean biography." In ''Estudios sobre Plutarco: Aspectos formales; Actas del IV Simposio español sobre Plutarco, Salamanca, 26 a 28 de mayo de 1994.'' Edited by José Antonio Fernández Delgado and Francisca Pordomingo Pardo, 291–303. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas.

*Stadter, Philip.. 2015. "The rhetoric of virtue in Plutarch’s Lives." In ''Plutarch and his Roman readers.'' By Philip A. Stadter, 231–45. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*[[Lieve Van Hoof|Van Hoof, Lieve]]. 2010. ''Plutarch's practical ethics: the social dynamics of philosophy'' Oxford: Oxford University Press.

*Wardman, Alan E. 1967. "Description of personal appearance in Plutarch and Suetonius: The use of statues as evidence." ''Classical Quarterly'' 17, no. 2: 414–20.

*Zadorojnyi, Alexei V. 2012. "Mimesis and the (plu)past in Plutarch’s Lives." In ''Time and narrative in ancient historiography: The “plupast” from Herodotus to Appian.'' Edited by Jonas Grethlein and Christopher B. Krebs, 175–98. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

==External links==

{{wikiquote}}

{{wikisource author}}

{{commons category}}

{{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Plutarch

|viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}

;Plutarch's works

* {{Gutenberg author | id=342 | name=Plutarch}}

* {{Internet Archive author |search=("Plutarch" OR "Plutarchus")}}

* {{Librivox author |id=13}}

* [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/collection?collection=Perseus:collection:Greco-Roman Perseus Digital Library]

* Plutarch on [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/home.html LacusCurtius]

* Didot edition of Plutarch's works in Greek, with Latin translation (1857–1876): [https://archive.org/details/plutarchivitaep00doehgoog vol. 1 (Lives, pt. 1)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=OUYJAQAAIAAJ vol. 2 (Lives, pt. 2)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ee1DAAAAYAAJ vol. 3 (Moralia, pt. 1)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=s56zAAAAMAAJ vol. 4 (Moralia, pt. 2)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=txNgAAAAMAAJ vol. 5 (fragmenta et spuria)] (also [http://gallica.bnf.fr/Search?adva=1&adv=1&tri=title_sort&t_relation=%22Notice+d%27ensemble+%3A+http%3A%2F%2Fcatalogue.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fcb37341822f%22&q=plutarchi+vitae&lang=en via BNF])

;Secondary material

* {{cite SEP |url-id=plutarch |title=Plutarch |last=Karamanolis |first=George}}

* [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/plutarch/ Plutarch of Chaeronea] by Jona Lendering at Livius

* [http://www.usu.edu/history/ploutarchos/index.htm The International Plutarch Society] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511164545/http://www.usu.edu/history/ploutarchos/index.htm |date=11 May 2008 }}

* [http://bennozuiddam.com/Plutarch%20and%20God-eclipse%20in%20Christian%20Theology,%20Ploutarchos%202008,2009.pdf The relevance of Plutarch's book ''De Defectu Oraculorum'' for Christian Theology (Ploutarchos, Journal of the International Plutarch Society)]

{{Plutarch}}

{{Platonists}}

{{Ancient Greece topics}}

{{Ancient Rome topics}}

{{Social and political philosophy}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Plutarch| ]]

[[Category:46 births]]

[[Category:120 deaths]]

[[Category:1st-century Romans]]

[[Category:2nd-century Romans]]

[[Category:1st-century philosophers]]

[[Category:2nd-century philosophers]]

[[Category:1st-century historians]]

[[Category:2nd-century historians]]

[[Category:Ancient Roman antiquarians]]

[[Category:Ancient Greek biographers]]

[[Category:Ancient Greek essayists]]

[[Category:Roman-era biographers]]

[[Category:Greek-language historians from the Roman Empire]]

[[Category:Ancient Boeotians]]

[[Category:Middle Platonists]]

[[Category:Sources of ancient Iranian religion]adfafasdfafsdafjfjflkjdsalk;sdfhfhfhfhkfhhfhfhfhfhfhfhfhfhfhfrhfhfhfhdflhdsflkhsdfj]

[[Category:Ancient Roman philosophers]]

[[Category:Roman-era Greek priests]]

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[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]

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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}

{{Other uses}}

{{distinguish|Plutocracy{{!}}Plutarchy}}

{{Short description|Greek philosopher and historian (c. AD 46 – after AD 119)}}

{{Infobox philosopher

| name = Plutarch

| image = Plutarch of Chaeronea-03 (cropped).jpg

| caption = Modern portrait at [[Chaeronea]], based on a bust from Delphi tentatively identified as Plutarch. <!--discussed on Talk: see also File:Head of a philosopher - Archaeological Museum of Delphi.jpg -->

| birth_date = {{circa|AD 46}}

| birth_place = [[Chaeronea]], [[Boeotia]]

| death_date = after AD 119 (aged 73–74)

| death_place = [[Delphi]], [[Phocis (ancient region)|Phocis]]

| occupation = Biographer, [[essay]]ist, [[philosopher]], [[priest]], [[ambassador]], [[magistrate]]

|school_tradition = [[Middle Platonism]]

|notable_works = ''[[Parallel Lives]]''<br>''[[Moralia]]''

|region = [[Ancient philosophy]]

|era = [[Hellenistic philosophy]]

|main_interests = [[Epistemology]], [[Ethics]], [[History]], [[Metaphysics]]

|influences = {{flatlist|

*[[Plato]]

*[[Xenocrates]]d

d

d

d

d

d

d

ad

asfsdaf;jdashkpfjasdlkjgslkjdagkjlsdghksdkjglsdkfb

*[[Aristotle]]joe

*[[Arcesilaus]]

*[[Carneades]]

*[[Philo of Larissa|Philo]]

*[[Antiochus of Ascalon|Antiochus]]

*[[Cicero]]

*[[Ammonius of Athens|Ammonius]]

}}

|influenced = {{flatlist|

* [[Alcinous (philosopher)|Alcinous]]

* [[Arrian]]

* [[Aristides]]

* [[Atticus (philosopher)|Atticus]]

* [[Basil of Caesarea]]

* [[Beethoven]]

* [[Clement of Alexandria]]

* [[Cyril of Alexandria]]

* [[R. W. Emerson|Emerson]]

* [[Eusebius]]

* [[Favorinus]]

* [[Goethe]]

* [[Jean Paul]]

* [[Marcus Aurelius]]

* [[Montaigne]]

* [[Nietzsche]]

* [[Numenius of Apamea]]

* [[Plotinus]]

* [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]]

* [[Proclus]]

* [[Schiller]]

* [[Sextus of Chaeronea]]

* [[Shakespeare]]

}}

}}

'''Plutarch''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|l|uː|t|ɑr|k}}; {{lang-grc-gre|Πλούταρχος}}, ''Ploútarchos''; {{IPA-el|ˈplutarkʰos|koine}}; {{circa|AD&nbsp;46}} – after AD&nbsp;119)<ref name=eb>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle= Plutarch | volume= 21 | pages = 857&ndash;860 |last1= Paley |first1= Frederick Apthorp |author1-link= Frederick Apthorp Paley|last2= Mitchell |first2= John Malcolm |short=1}}</ref> was a [[Greek people|Greek]] [[Middle Platonism|Middle Platonist]] [[philosopher]],<ref>Dillon, John M. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aJQ9dvgh6BwC&dq=Plutarch+middle+platonist&source=gbs_navlinks_s|The Middle Platonists: 80 BC to AD 220]''. Cornell University Press, 1996. pp. 184 ff.</ref> [[historian]], [[Biography|biographer]], [[essay]]ist, and priest at the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo]] in [[Delphi]]. He is known primarily for his ''[[Parallel Lives]]'', a series of biographies of illustrious Greeks and Romans, and ''[[Moralia]]'', a collection of essays and speeches.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy|title=Plutarch }}</ref> Upon becoming a [[Roman citizenship|Roman citizen]], he was possibly named '''Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus''' ({{lang|grc|Λούκιος Μέστριος Πλούταρχος}}).{{sfn|Russell|2012}}{{efn|The name Mestrius or Lucius Mestrius was taken by Plutarch, as was common Roman practice, from his patron for [[Roman citizenship|citizenship]] in the empire.{{cn|date=March 2022}}}}

==Life==

===Early life===

Plutarch was born to a prominent family in the small town of [[Chaeronea]],{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=13}} about {{convert|30|km}} east of [[Delphi]], in the Greek region of [[Boeotia]]. His family was long established in the town; his father was named Autobulus and his grandfather was named [[Lamprias]].{{sfn|Russell|2012}}

His name is a compound of the Greek words {{LSJ|plou=tos|πλοῦτος}}, "wealthy" and {{LSJ|a)rxo/s|ἀρχός}} , "leader." In the [[Ancient Greek personal names|traditional aspirational Greek naming convention]] the whole name means something like "prosperous leader."

His brothers, Timon and Lamprias, are frequently mentioned in his essays and dialogues, which speak of Timon in particular in the most affectionate terms. [[Joannes Rualdus|Rualdus]], in his 1624 work ''Life of Plutarchus'', recovered the name of Plutarch's wife, Timoxena, from internal evidence afforded by his writings. A letter is still extant, addressed by Plutarch to his wife, bidding her not to grieve too much at the death of their two-year-old daughter, who was named Timoxena after her mother. He hinted at a belief in [[reincarnation]] in that letter of consolation.<ref>{{cite book |author=Plutarch |translator-first1=Phillip H |translator-last1=De Lacy |translator-first2=Benedict |translator-last2=Einarson |chapter=Consolatio ad Uxorem |title=Moralia |year=1959 |pages=575–605 |series=Loeb Classical Library |publisher=Harvard University Press |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Consolatio_ad_uxorem*.html |via=LacusCurtius |access-date=17 March 2018}}</ref>

Plutarch studied [[mathematics]] and [[philosophy]] in [[Athens]] under [[Ammonius of Athens|Ammonius]] from AD&nbsp;66 to 67.<ref name=eb/> He attended the games of Delphi where the emperor [[Nero]] competed and possibly met prominent Romans, including future emperor [[Vespasian]].{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=14}}

Plutarch and Timoxena had at least four sons and one daughter, though two died in childhood. The loss of his daughter and a young son, Chaeron, are mentioned in the his letter to Timoxena.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plutarch, Consolatio ad uxorem, section 5 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0310:section=5 |access-date=15 January 2023 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> Two sons, named Autoboulos and Plutarch, appear in a number of Plutarch's works; Plutarch's treatise on Plato's [[Timaeus]] is dedicated to them.{{sfn|Jones|1971|p=11}} It's likely that a third son, named Soklaros after Plutarch's confidant Soklaros of Tithora, survived to adulthood as well although he is not mentioned in Plutarch's later works: a Lucius Mestrius Soclarus, who shares Plutarch's Latin family name, appears in an inscription in Boeotia from the time of Trajan.<ref>The inscription is in [https://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/42003?bookid=8&location=1698 ''Inscriptiones Graecae'', 9.1.61], see the note in Jones, ''Plutarch and Rome'', 22. Older scholarship tended assume Soklaros was not a son or died young, because he didn't appear in any dedications.</ref> Traditionally the surviving catalog of Plutarch's works is ascribed to another son, named Lamprias after Plutarch's grandfather.<ref>See for example the entry for [http://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/lambda/96 Lamprias] in the [[Suda]]. </ref> However most modern scholars believe this tradition is a later interpolation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ziegler |first=Konrat |title=Plutarchos von Chaironeia |publisher=Alfred Druckenmuller |year=1964 |location=Stuttgart |pages=60 |language=de}}</ref> Plutarch's treatise on marriage questions, addressed to Eurydice and Pollianus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plutarch • Conjugalia Praecepta |url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Coniugalia_praecepta*.html |access-date=15 January 2023 |website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref> seems to speak of the former as having recently lived in his house, but without any clear evidence on whether she was his daughter or not.<ref name=Stewart-Long>{{cite book |last1=Stewart |first1=Aubrey |last2=Long |title=Plutarch's Lives |volume=1 |year=1894 |chapter=Life of Plutarch |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14033/14033.txt |publisher=George Bell & Sons |via=Gutenberg |access-date=3 January 2007}}</ref>

Plutarch was either the uncle or grandfather of [[Sextus of Chaeronea]], who was one of the teachers of [[Marcus Aurelius]], and who may have been the same person as the philosopher [[Sextus Empiricus]]. His family remained in Greece down to at least the fourth century, producing a number of philosophers and authors.{{sfn|Jones|1971|p=11}} [[Apuleius]], the author of [[The Golden Ass]], made his fictional protagonist a descendant of Plutarch.

[[File:Delfi Apollons tempel.jpg|thumb|right|Ruins of the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo at Delphi]], where Plutarch served as one of the priests responsible for interpreting the predictions of the [[Pythia]].]]

Plutarch was a [[Vegetarianism|vegetarian]], though how long and how strictly he adhered to this diet is unclear.<ref name="chrysopoulos">{{Cite web|url=https://greece.greekreporter.com/2016/03/16/ancient-greek-historian-plutarch-might-have-been-the-first-vegetarian/|title=Ancient Greek Historian Plutarch Might Have Been the First Vegetarian|first=Philip|last=Chrysopoulos|website=Greek Reporter|access-date=5 September 2020}}</ref><ref name="newmyer">{{cite journal |last=Newmyer |first=Stephen |date=1992 |title=Plutarch on Justice Toward Animals: Ancient Insights on a Modern Debate |url=https://journals.co.za/content/scholia/1/1/EJC128293 |journal=Scholia: Studies in Classical Antiquity |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=38–54 |access-date=5 September 2020}}</ref> He wrote about the [[ethics]] of meat-eating in two discourses in ''Moralia''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Plutarch |title=Moralia |url=https://www.loebclassics.com/view/plutarch-eating_flesh/1957/pb_LCL406.539.xml |chapter=On the Eating of Flesh}}</ref>

At some point, Plutarch received [[Roman citizenship]]. His sponsor was [[Lucius Mestrius Florus]], who was an associate of the new emperor Vespasian, as evidenced by his new name, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus.{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=14}} As a Roman citizen, Plutarch would have been of the [[Equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] order, he visited Rome some time {{circa|AD 70}} with Florus, who served also as a historical source for his ''Life of Otho''.<ref>Plutarch, ''Otho'' 14.1</ref>{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=14}} Plutarch was on familiar terms with a number of Roman nobles, particularly the consulars [[Quintus Sosius Senecio]], [[Titus Avidius Quietus]], and [[Arulenus Rusticus]], all of whom appear in his works.{{sfn|Jones|1971|p=20-27}}

He lived most of his life at Chaeronea, and was initiated into the [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mysteries]] of the Greek god [[Apollo]]. He probably took part in the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/32/the-eleusinian-mysteries-the-rites-of-demeter/|title=The Eleusinian Mysteries: The Rites of Demeter|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=27 April 2019}}</ref> During his visit to Rome he may have been part of a municipal embassy for [[Delphi]]: around the same time, Vespasian granted Delphi various municipal rights and privileges.{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=15}}

===Work as magistrate and ambassador===

In addition to his duties as a priest of the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Delphic temple]], Plutarch was also a [[magistrate]] at Chaeronea and he represented his home town on various missions to foreign countries during his early adult years. Plutarch held the office of [[archon]] in his native municipality, probably only an annual one which he likely served more than once.<ref>{{cite book|title=Plutarch's Lives|last=Clough|first=Arthur Hugh|year=1864|publisher=Liberty Library of Constitutional Classics|chapter-url=http://www.constitution.org/rom/plutarch/intro.htm|chapter=Introduction }}</ref>

Plutarch was [[epimeletes]] (manager) of the [[Amphictyonic League]] for at least five terms, from 107 to 127, in which role he was responsible for organising the [[Pythian Games]]. He mentions this service in his work, ''Whether an Old Man Should Engage in Public Affairs'' (17 = ''Moralia'' 792f).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=West |first1=Allen B. |title=Notes on Achaean Prosopography and Chronology |journal=Classical Philology |date=1928 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=262–267|doi=10.1086/361044 |jstor=263715 |s2cid=161334831 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/263715 |issn=0009-837X}}</ref>

The ''[[Suda]]'', a [[medieval]] Greek encyclopedia, states that [[Trajan]] made Plutarch [[Procurator (Roman)|procurator]] of [[Illyria]]. However, most historians consider this unlikely, since Illyria was not a procuratorial province.<ref>Gianakaris, C. J. ''Plutarch''. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1970.</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2022}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Suda Online, Pi 1793 |url=http://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/pi/1793 |access-date=15 January 2023 |website=www.cs.uky.edu}}</ref>

According to the 8th/9th-century historian [[George Syncellus]], late in Plutarch's life, Emperor [[Hadrian]] appointed him nominal [[Procurator (Roman)|procurator]] of [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]] – which entitled him to wear the vestments and ornaments of a consul.<ref>Russell, D. A. ''Plutarch''. New York: Scribner, 1973.</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2022}}

===Late period: Priest at Delphi===

[[File:Plutarch and herm.jpg|thumb|Portrait of a philosopher, and a [[Herm_(sculpture)|hermaic]] [[stele]] at the [[Delphi Archaeological Museum]]]]

Some time {{circa|AD 95}}, Plutarch was made one of the two sanctuary priests for the temple of Apollo at Delphi; the site had declined considerably since the classical Greek period. Around the same time in the 90s, Delphi experienced a construction boom, financed by Greek patrons and possible imperial support.{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=20}} His priestly duties connected part of his literary work with the Pythian oracle at Delphia: one of his most important works is the "Why Pythia does not give oracles in verse".<ref>{{cite book |author=Plutarch |title=[[Moralia]] |at=11}}</ref>({{math|“Περὶ τοῦ μὴ χρᾶν ἔμμετρα νῦν τὴν Πυθίαν”}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%BC%CE%B7_%CF%87%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD_%CE%AD%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1_%CE%BD%CF%85%CE%BD_%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD_%CE%A0%CF%85%CE%B8%CE%AF%CE%B1%CE%BD_(%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%82) |title=Περί του μη χραν έμμετρα νυν την Πυθίαν (Πλούταρχος) - Βικιθήκη |website=el.wikisource.org |access-date=17 March 2018}}</ref> Even more important is the dialogue “On the ‘E’ at Delphi” ({{math|“Περὶ τοῦ Εἶ τοῦ ἐν Δελφοῖς”}}),<ref>{{cite book |author=Plutarch |title=Moralia |chapter=On the ‘E’ at “Delphi” |language=ancient Greek |url=https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%95%CE%B9_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%B5%CE%BD_%CE%94%CE%B5%CE%BB%CF%86%CE%BF%CE%AF%CF%82}}

</ref> which features [[Ammonius of Athens|Ammonius]], a Platonic philosopher and teacher of Plutarch, and Lambrias, Plutarch's brother.

According to Ammonius, the letter ‘E’ written on the temple of Apollo in Delphi originated from the following fact: The [[Seven Sages of Greece]], whose [[Delphic maxims|maxims]] were also written on the walls of the vestibule of the temple, were not seven but actually five: [[Chilon]], [[Solon]], [[Thales]], [[Bias of Priene|Bias]], and [[Pittakos]]. However, the tyrants [[Cleobulus|Cleobulos]] and [[Periandros]] used their political power to be incorporated in the list. Thus, the ‘E’, which was [[Greek numerals|used to represent the number]]&nbsp;5, constituted an acknowledgement that the Delphic maxims actually originated from only five genuine wise men.

=== Portrait ===

There was a portrait bust dedicated to Plutarch for his efforts in helping to revive the Delphic shrines.{{sfn|Russell|2012}}

The portrait of a philosopher exhibited at the exit of the [[Delphi Archaeological Museum|Archaeological Museum of Delphi]], dates to the 2nd&nbsp;century; due to its inscription, in the past it had been identified with Plutarch. The man, although bearded, is depicted at a relatively young age: His hair and beard are rendered in coarse volumes and thin incisions. The gaze is deep, due to the heavy eyelids and the incised pupils.<ref>{{cite web |title=SELECTED EXHIBITS - Archaeological Site of Delphi - Museum of Delphi |url=https://delphi.culture.gr/museum/selected-exhibits/ |website=Delphi.culture.gr |publisher=Delphi Archaeological Museum |access-date=26 October 2022 |date=11 December 2019}}</ref>

But a fragmentary [[Herm_(sculpture)|hermaic]] [[stele]] ''next'' to the portrait probably did once bear a portrait of Plutarch, since it is inscribed, "The Delphians, along with the Chaeroneans, dedicated this (image of) Plutarch, following the precepts of the Amphictyony" ({{math|"Δελφοὶ Χαιρωνεῦσιν ὁμοῦ Πλούταρχον ἔθηκαν}} | {{math|τοῖς Ἀμφικτυόνων δόγμασι πειθόμενοι"}}.<ref>''Syll.''³ 843=''CID'' 4, no.&nbsp;151 {{full citation|date=July 2021}}</ref>

==Works==

Plutarch's surviving works were intended for Greek speakers throughout the Roman Empire, not just Greeks.<ref>

{{cite book

|last1= Stadter

|first1= Philip A.

|title= Plutarch and His Roman Readers

|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ExCaBQAAQBAJ

|publisher= Oxford University Press

|publication-date= 2015

|page= 69

|isbn= 978-0198718338

|access-date= 4 February 2015

|quote= Although Plutarch wrote in Greek and with a Greek point of view, [...] he was thinking of a Roman as well as a Greek audience.

|year= 2015

}}

</ref>

===Lives of the Roman emperors===

[[File:Nuremberg_chronicles_f_111r_3.png|thumb|left|Plutarch in the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' ]]

Plutarch's first biographical works were the Lives of the Roman Emperors from [[Augustus]] to [[Vitellius]]. Of these, only the Lives of [[Galba]] and [[Otho]] survive. The Lives of [[Tiberius]] and [[Nero]] are extant only as fragments, provided by Damascius (Life of Tiberius, cf. his Life of Isidore)<ref>Ziegler, Konrad, Plutarchos von Chaironeia (Stuttgart 1964), 258. Citation translated by the author.</ref> and Plutarch himself (Life of Nero, cf. Galba 2.1), respectively. These early emperors’ biographies were probably published under the [[Flavian dynasty]] or during the reign of Nerva (AD 96–98).

There is reason to believe that the two Lives still extant, those of Galba and Otho, "ought to be considered as a single work."<ref>Cf. among others, Holzbach, M.-C.(2006). Plutarch: Galba-Otho und die Apostelgeschichte : ein Gattungsvergleich. Religion and Biography, 14 (ed. by Detlev Dormeyer et al.). Berlin London: LIT, p. 13</ref> Therefore, they do not form a part of the Plutarchian canon of single biographies – as represented by the Life of [[Aratus of Sicyon]] and the Life of [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] (the biographies of [[Hesiod]], [[Pindar]], [[Crates (comic poet)|Crates]] and Daiphantus were lost). Unlike in these biographies, in ''Galba-Otho'' the individual characters of the persons portrayed are not depicted for their own sake but instead serve as an illustration of an abstract principle; namely the adherence or non-adherence to Plutarch's morally founded ideal of governing as a [[Princeps]] (cf. Galba 1.3; Moralia 328D–E).<ref name="Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24, 67–83">Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24, 67–83</ref>

Arguing from the perspective of Platonic political philosophy (cf. Republic 375E, 410D-E, 411E-412A, 442B-C), in ''Galba-Otho'' Plutarch reveals the constitutional principles of the [[Principate]] in the time of the civil war after Nero's death. While morally questioning the behavior of the autocrats, he also gives an impression of their tragic destinies, ruthlessly competing for the throne and finally destroying each other.<ref name="Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24, 67–83"/> "The Caesars' house in Rome, the Palatium, received in a shorter space of time no less than four Emperors", Plutarch writes, "passing, as it were, across the stage, and one making room for another to enter" (Galba 1).<ref>The citation from Galba was extracted from the Dryden translation as given at the [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/galba.html MIT Internet Classics Archive]</ref>

''Galba-Otho'' was handed down through different channels. It can be found in the appendix to Plutarch's ''Parallel Lives'' as well as in various Moralia manuscripts, most prominently in [[Maximus Planudes]]' edition where Galba and Otho appear as ''Opera'' XXV and XXVI. Thus it seems reasonable to maintain that ''Galba-Otho'' was from early on considered as an illustration of a moral-ethical approach, possibly even by Plutarch himself.<ref>Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24</ref>

===''Parallel Lives''===

{{Main|Parallel Lives}}

[[File:Plutarch Han.jpg|thumb|right|A page from the 1470 [[Ulrich Han]] printing of Plutarch's ''[[Parallel Lives]]'']]

Plutarch's best-known work is the ''[[Parallel Lives]]'', a series of [[biography|biographies]] of illustrious Greeks and Romans, arranged in pairs to illuminate their common [[morality|moral]] virtues and vices, thus it being more of an insight into human nature than a [[History|historical]] account.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Plutarch|title=The life of Alexander|pages=1}}</ref> The surviving ''Lives'' contain 23 pairs, each with one Greek life and one Roman life, as well as four unpaired single lives.

As is explained in the opening paragraph of his ''Life of Alexander'', Plutarch was not concerned with history so much as the influence of character, good or bad, on the lives and destinies of men. Whereas sometimes he barely touched on epoch-making events, he devoted much space to charming anecdote and incidental triviality, reasoning that this often said far more for his subjects than even their most famous accomplishments. He sought to provide rounded portraits, likening his craft to that of a painter; indeed, he went to tremendous lengths (often leading to tenuous comparisons) to draw [[Physiognomy|parallels between physical appearance]] and [[moral character]]. In many ways, he must be counted amongst the earliest [[ethics|moral philosophers]].{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

Some of the ''Lives'', such as those of [[Heracles]], [[Philip II of Macedon]], [[Epaminondas]], [[Scipio Africanus]], [[Scipio Aemilianus]] and possibly [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus]] no longer exist; many of the remaining ''Lives'' are truncated, contain obvious [[lacuna (manuscripts)|lacunae]] or have been tampered with by later writers. Extant ''Lives'' include those on [[Solon]], [[Themistocles]], [[Aristides]], [[Agesilaus II]], [[Pericles]], [[Alcibiades]], [[Nicias]], [[Demosthenes]], [[Pelopidas]], [[Philopoemen]], [[Timoleon]], [[Dion of Syracuse]], [[Eumenes]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]], [[Romulus]], [[Numa Pompilius]], [[Gaius Marcius Coriolanus|Coriolanus]], [[Theseus]], [[Aemilius Paullus]], [[Tiberius Gracchus]], [[Gaius Gracchus]], [[Gaius Marius]], [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]], [[Sertorius]], [[Lucullus]], [[Pompey]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Cicero]], [[Cato the Elder]], [[Mark Antony]], and [[Marcus Junius Brutus]].

====''Life of Alexander''====

Plutarch's ''Life of Alexander'', written as a parallel to that of Julius Caesar, is one of five extant tertiary sources on the Macedonian conqueror [[Alexander the Great]]. It includes [[anecdote]]s and descriptions of events that appear in no other source, just as Plutarch's portrait of [[Numa Pompilius]], the putative second king of Rome, holds much that is unique on the early [[Roman calendar]].

Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander's drive and desire, and strives to determine how much of it was presaged in his youth. He also draws extensively on the work of [[Lysippus]], Alexander's favourite [[sculptor]], to provide what is probably the fullest and most accurate description of the conqueror's physical appearance. When it comes to his character, Plutarch emphasizes his unusual degree of self-control and scorn for luxury: "He desired not pleasure or wealth, but only excellence and glory." As the narrative progresses, however, the subject incurs less admiration from his biographer and the deeds that it recounts become less savoury. The murder of [[Cleitus the Black]], which Alexander instantly and deeply regretted, is commonly cited to this end.

====''Life of Caesar''====

Together with [[Suetonius]]'s ''[[The Twelve Caesars]]'', and [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]]'s own works [[Commentarii de Bello Gallico|''de Bello Gallico'']] and ''[[Commentarii de Bello Civili|de Bello Civili]]'', the ''Life of Caesar'' is the main account of [[Julius Caesar]]'s feats by ancient historians. Plutarch starts by telling of the audacity of Caesar and his refusal to dismiss [[Lucius Cornelius Cinna|Cinna's]] daughter, [[Cornelia (wife of Caesar)|Cornelia]]. Other important parts are those containing his military deeds, accounts of battles and Caesar's capacity of inspiring the soldiers.

{{quotation|His soldiers showed such good will and zeal in his service that those who in their previous campaigns had been in no way superior to others were invincible and irresistible in confronting every danger to enhance Caesar's fame. Such a man, for instance, was Acilius, who, in the sea-fight at Massalia, boarded a hostile ship and had his right hand cut off with a sword, but clung with the other hand to his shield, and dashing it into the faces of his foes, routed them all and got possession of the vessel. Such a man, again, was Cassius Scaeva, who, in the battle at Dyrrhachium, had his eye struck out with an arrow, his shoulder transfixed with one javelin and his thigh with another, and received on his shield the blows of one hundred and thirty missiles. In this plight, he called the enemy to him as though he would surrender. Two of them, accordingly, coming up, he lopped off the shoulder of one with his sword, smote the other in the face and put him to flight, and came off safely himself with the aid of his comrades. Again, in Britain, when the enemy had fallen upon the foremost centurions, who had plunged into a watery marsh, a soldier, while Caesar in person was watching the battle, dashed into the midst of the fight, displayed many conspicuous deeds of daring, and rescued the centurions, after the Barbarians had been routed. Then he himself, making his way with difficulty after all the rest, plunged into the muddy current, and at last, without his shield, partly swimming and partly wading, got across. Caesar and his company were amazed and came to meet the soldier with cries of joy; but he, in great dejection, and with a burst of tears, cast himself at Caesar's feet, begging pardon for the loss of his shield. Again, in Africa, Scipio captured a ship of Caesar's in which Granius Petro, who had been appointed quaestor, was sailing. Of the rest of the passengers Scipio made booty, but told the quaestor that he offered him his life. Granius, however, remarking that it was the custom with Caesar's soldiers not to receive but to offer mercy, killed himself with a blow of his sword.|''Life of Caesar'', XVI}}

However, Plutarch's life shows few differences from Suetonius' work and Caesar's own works (see ''[[De Bello Gallico]]'' and ''[[De Bello Civili]]''). Sometimes, Plutarch quotes directly from the ''De Bello Gallico'' and even tells us of the moments when Caesar was dictating his works.

In the final part of this life, Plutarch recounts details of [[Assassination of Julius Caesar|Caesar's assassination]]. It ends by telling the destiny of his murderers, just after a detailed account of the scene when a [[Ghost|phantom]] appeared to [[Marcus Junius Brutus|Brutus]] at night.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Plutarch|title=The life of Caesar}}</ref>

====''Life of Pyrrhus''====

Plutarch's ''Life of Pyrrhus'' is a key text because it is the main historical account on Roman history for the period from 293 to 264&nbsp;BCE, for which both [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus|Dionysius]]’ and [[Livy]]’s texts are lost.<ref name=TJCornell>{{cite book |last=Cornell |first=T.J. |year=1995 |title=The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c.&nbsp;1000–264&nbsp;BC) |publisher=Routledge |page=3 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref>

{{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=30em

|"It is not ''histories'' I am writing, but ''lives''; and in the most glorious deeds there is not always an indication of virtue or vice, indeed a small thing like a phrase or a jest often makes a greater revelation of a character than battles where thousands die."|''Life of Alexander'' }}

===''Moralia''===

{{Main|Moralia}}

[[Image:Plutarchus - Moralia. De placitis philosophorum, 1531 - 3020537.tif|thumb|''Moralia'', 1531]]

The remainder of Plutarch's surviving work is collected under the title of the ''[[Moralia]]'' (loosely translated as ''Customs and Mores''). It is an eclectic collection of seventy-eight essays and transcribed speeches, including ''On Fraternal Affection''—a discourse on honour and affection of siblings toward each other, ''On the Fortune or the Virtue of [[Alexander the Great]]''—an important adjunct to his Life of the great king, ''On the Worship of [[Isis]] and [[Osiris]]'' (a crucial source of information on [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] religious rites),<ref>(but which according to Erasmus referred to the Thessalonians){{cite web|url=http://altreligion.about.com/library/texts/bl_isisandosiris.htm|title=Isis and Osiris|access-date=10 December 2006|last=Plutarch|others=Frank Cole Babbitt (trans.)}}</ref> along with more philosophical treatises, such as ''On the Decline of the Oracles'', ''On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance'', ''On Peace of Mind'' and lighter fare, such as ''[[Odysseus]] and Gryllus'', a humorous [[dialogue]] between [[Homer]]'s Odysseus and one of [[Circe]]'s enchanted pigs. The ''Moralia'' was composed first, while writing the Lives occupied much of the last two decades of Plutarch's own life.

====Spartan lives and sayings====

Since Spartans wrote no history prior to the Hellenistic period – their only extant literature is fragments of 7th-century lyrics – Plutarch's five Spartan lives and ''Sayings of Spartans'' and ''Sayings of Spartan Women'', rooted in sources that have since disappeared, are some of the richest sources for historians of [[Laconia (ancient region)|Lacedaemonia]].<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999">Pomeroy, Sarah B.; Burstein, Stanley M.; Donlan, Walter; and Tolbert Roberts, Jennifer (1999). ''Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-509742-4}}. {{OCLC|38504496}}.{{page needed|date=May 2019}}</ref> But while they are important, they are also controversial. Plutarch lived centuries after the Sparta he writes about (and a full millennium separates him from the earliest events he records) and even though he visited Sparta, many of the ancient customs he reports had been long abandoned, so he never actually saw of what he wrote.<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/> Plutarch's sources themselves can be problematic. As the historians [[Sarah B. Pomeroy|Sarah Pomeroy]], [[Stanley M. Burstein|Stanley Burstein]], Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts have written, "Plutarch was influenced by histories written after the decline of Sparta and marked by nostalgia for a happier past, real or imagined."<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/> Turning to Plutarch himself, they write, "the admiration writers like Plutarch and Xenophon felt for Spartan society led them to exaggerate its monolithic nature, minimizing departures from ideals of equality and obscuring patterns of historical change."<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/> Thus the Spartan egalitarianism and superhuman immunity to pain that have seized the popular imagination are likely myths, and their main architect is Plutarch. While flawed, Plutarch is nonetheless indispensable as one of the only ancient sources of information on Spartan life. Pomeroy et al. conclude that Plutarch's works on Sparta, while they must be treated with skepticism, remain valuable for their "large quantities of information" and these historians concede that "Plutarch's writings on Sparta, more than those of any other ancient author, have shaped later views of Sparta", despite their potential to misinform. He was also referenced in saying unto Sparta, "The beast will feed again."<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/>

====''Questions''====

Book IV of the ''Moralia'' contains the ''Roman and Greek Questions'' (Αἰτίαι Ῥωμαϊκαί and Αἰτίαι Ἑλλήνων). The customs of Romans and Greeks are illuminated in little essays that pose questions such as "Why were patricians not permitted to live on the Capitoline?" (no. 91)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Roman_Questions*/E.html#91|title=Plutarch • Roman Questions, 90‑113|work=uchicago.edu}}</ref> and then suggests answers to them.

====''On the Malice of Herodotus''====

[[File:Herodotus Massimo Inv124478.jpg|thumb|left|A bust of the early Greek historian [[Herodotus]], whom Plutarch criticized in ''On the Malice of Herodotus'']]

In ''[[On the Malice of Herodotus]]'', Plutarch criticizes the historian [[Herodotus]] for all manner of prejudice and misrepresentation. It has been called the "first instance in literature of the slashing review".<ref name=NewCriterion/> The 19th&nbsp;century English historian [[George Grote]] considered this essay a serious attack upon the works of Herodotus, and speaks of the "honourable frankness which Plutarch calls his malignity".<ref>{{cite book |last=Grote |first=George |title=A History of Greece: From the time of Solon to 403&nbsp;B.C. |orig-year=1830 |publisher=Routledge |date=19 October 2000 |page=203}}</ref>

Plutarch makes some palpable hits, catching Herodotus out in various errors, but it is also probable that it was merely a rhetorical exercise, in which Plutarch plays [[wikt:devil's advocate|devil's advocate]] to see what could be said against so favourite and well-known a writer.<ref name=Stewart-Long/> According to Barrow (1967), Herodotus' real failing in Plutarch's eyes was to advance ''any criticism at all'' of the city-states that saved Greece from Persia. Barrow concluded that ''"Plutarch is fanatically biased in favor of the Greek cities; they can do no wrong."''<ref>{{cite book |last=Barrow |first=R.H. |title=Plutarch and his Times |orig-year=1967 |year=1979}}</ref>

=== Other works ===

''Symposiacs''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/symposiacs/ |title=Plutarch: Symposiacs, in ''The complete works of Plutarch: essays and miscellanies'', New York: Crowell, 1909. Vol. III. |access-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419132530/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/symposiacs/ |archive-date=19 April 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> (Συμποσιακά); ''[[Convivium Septem Sapientium]]''.

''Dialogue on Love'' (Ερωτικος); Latin name = ''Amatorius''.

===Lost works===

The [[Lost work#Classical world|lost works]] of Plutarch are determined by references in his own texts to them and from other authors' references over time. Parts of the ''Lives'' and what would be considered parts of the ''Moralia'' have been lost. The 'Catalogue of Lamprias', an ancient list of works attributed to Plutarch, lists 227 works, of which 78 have come down to us.<ref>Russell, D.A.F.M. (1970) ''The Oxford Classical Dictionary'', Clarendon Press, Oxford, p. 849</ref>

The Romans loved the ''Lives''. Enough copies were written out over the centuries so that a copy of most of the lives has survived to the present day, but there are traces of twelve more Lives that are now lost.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Parallel Lives|publisher=Loeb Classical Library Edition|edition=Vol. I|year=1914|chapter=Translator's Introduction|chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Introduction*.html }}</ref> Plutarch's general procedure for the ''Lives'' was to write the life of a prominent Greek, then cast about for a suitable Roman parallel, and end with a brief comparison of the Greek and Roman lives. Currently, only 19 of the parallel lives end with a comparison, while possibly they all did at one time. Also missing are many of his ''Lives'' which appear in a list of his writings: those of Hercules, the first pair of ''Parallel Lives'', [[Scipio Africanus]] and [[Epaminondas]], and the companions to the four solo biographies. Even the lives of such important figures as [[Augustus]], [[Claudius]] and [[Nero]] have not been found and may be lost forever.<ref name=NewCriterion>{{cite web|last=Kimball|first=Roger|title=Plutarch & the issue of character|url=http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/19/dec00/plutarch.htm|publisher=The New Criterion Online|access-date=11 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116200602/http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/19/dec00/plutarch.htm|archive-date=16 November 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.e-classics.com/plutarch.htm|title=Plutarch - His Life and Legacy|access-date=10 December 2006|last=McCutchen|first=Wilmot H.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061205061217/http://e-classics.com/plutarch.htm|archive-date=5 December 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Lost works that would have been part of the ''Moralia'' include "Whether One Who [[epoche|Suspends Judgment on Everything]] Is Condemned to Inaction", "On [[Pyrrho]]’s Ten Modes", and "On the Difference between the [[Pyrrhonism|Pyrrhonians]] and the [[Academic Skepticism|Academics]]".<ref>Mauro Bonazzi, "Plutarch on the Differences Between the Pyrrhonists and Academics", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, 2012 https://www.academia.edu/2362682/Plutarch_on_the_Difference_between_Academics_and_Pyrrhonists_in_Oxford_Studies_in_Ancient_Philosophy_43_2012_pp._271-298</ref>

==Philosophy==

{{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=30em

|"The [[soul]], being eternal, after [[death]] is like a caged bird that has been released. If it has been a long time in the body, and has become tame by many affairs and long habit, the soul will immediately take another body and once again become involved in the troubles of the world. The worst thing about old age is that the soul's memory of the other world grows dim, while at the same time its attachment to things of this world becomes so strong that the soul tends to retain the form that it had in the body. But that soul which remains only a short time within a body, until liberated by the higher powers, quickly recovers its fire and goes on to higher things."

|Plutarch ("The Consolation", ''Moralia'')

}}

Plutarch was a [[Middle Platonism|Platonist]], but was open to the influence of the [[Peripatetics]], and in some details even to [[Stoicism]] despite his criticism of their principles.<ref name="zeller306">Eduard Zeller, ''Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy'', 13th edition, p. 306</ref> He rejected only [[Epicureanism]] absolutely.<ref name="zeller306"/> He attached little importance to theoretical questions and doubted the possibility of ever solving them.<ref name="zeller307">Eduard Zeller, ''Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy'', 13th edition, p. 307</ref> He was more interested in moral and religious questions.<ref name="zeller307"/>

In opposition to Stoic materialism and Epicurean atheism he cherished a pure idea of [[God]] that was more in accordance with [[Plato]].<ref name="zeller307"/> He adopted a second principle (''[[Dyad (Greek philosophy)|Dyad]]'') in order to explain the phenomenal world.<ref name="zeller307"/> This principle he sought, however, not in any indeterminate matter but in the evil [[Anima mundi|world-soul]] which has from the beginning been bound up with matter, but in the creation was filled with reason and arranged by it.<ref name="zeller307"/> Thus it was transformed into the divine soul of the world, but continued to operate as the source of all evil.<ref name="zeller307"/> He elevated God above the finite world, and thus [[Daemon (mythology)|daemons]] became for him agents of God's influence on the world. He strongly defends freedom of the will, and the immortality of the soul.<ref name="zeller307"/>

Platonic-Peripatetic [[ethics]] were upheld by Plutarch against the opposing theories of the Stoics and Epicureans.<ref name="zeller307"/> The most characteristic feature of Plutarch's ethics is, however, its close connection with religion.<ref name="zeller308">Eduard Zeller, ''Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy'', 13th edition, p. 308</ref> However pure Plutarch's idea of God is, and however vivid his description of the vice and corruption which superstition causes, his warm religious feelings and his distrust of human powers of knowledge led him to believe that God comes to our aid by direct revelations, which we perceive the more clearly the more completely that we refrain in "enthusiasm" from all action; this made it possible for him to justify popular belief in [[divination]] in the way which had long been usual among the Stoics.<ref name="zeller308"/>

His attitude to popular religion was similar. The gods of different peoples are merely different names for one and the same divine Being and the powers that serve it.<ref name="zeller308"/> The [[Greek mythology|myths]] contain philosophical truths which can be interpreted allegorically.<ref name="zeller308"/> Thus Plutarch sought to combine the philosophical and religious conception of things and to remain as close as possible to tradition.<ref name="zeller308"/>

Plutarch was the teacher of [[Favorinus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Richter |first1=Daniel S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZ47DwAAQBAJ |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Second Sophistic |last2=Johnson |first2=William Allen |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-983747-2 |pages=552 |language=en}}</ref>

==Influence==

{{external media|width=210px|align=right

|headerimage=[[File:North's translation of Plutarch.jpg|210px]]

|video1=[https://vimeo.com/161028814 Shakespeare: Metamorphosis – Plutarch’s “Lives” (1579)], [[Senate House Library]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Shakespeare: Metamorphosis – Plutarch's "Lives" (1579)|publisher=[[Senate House Library]] at [[Vimeo]]|url=https://vimeo.com/161028814|access-date=9 May 2016|date=31 March 2016}}</ref>}}

Plutarch's writings had an enormous influence on [[English Literature|English]] and [[French literature]]. [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] paraphrased parts of [[Thomas North]]'s translation of selected ''Lives'' in [[Shakespeare's plays|his plays]], and occasionally quoted from them verbatim.<ref>Honigmann 1959.</ref>

[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] quotes from Plutarch in the 1762 ''[[Emile, or On Education]]'', a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. Rousseau introduces a passage from Plutarch in support of his position against eating meat: {{"'}}You ask me', said Plutarch, 'why [[Pythagoras]] abstained from eating the flesh of beasts...{{'"}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Emile, or On Education|last=Rousseau|first=Jean-Jacques|publisher=JM Dent & Sons / EP Dutton & Co|year=1911|url=http://lf-oll.s3.amazonaws.com/titles/2256/Rousseau_1499_Bk.pdf|page=118|translator-last=Foxley|translator-first=Barbara}}</ref>

[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] and the [[Transcendentalism|Transcendentalists]] were greatly influenced by the ''Moralia'' and in his glowing introduction to the five-volume, 19th-century edition, he called the ''Lives'' "a bible for heroes".<ref>{{cite book|last=Emerson|first=Ralph Waldo|editor=William W. Goodwin|title=Plutarch's Morals|year=1870|publisher=Sampson, Low|location=London|page=xxi|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> He also opined that it was impossible to "read Plutarch without a tingling of the blood; and I accept the saying of the Chinese [[Mencius]]: 'A sage is the instructor of a hundred ages. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become intelligent, and the wavering, determined.{{'"}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Emerson|first=Ralph Waldo|title=Representative Men|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/representativeme1850emer|year=1850|chapter=Uses of Great Men}}</ref>

[[Michel de Montaigne|Montaigne]]'s ''[[Essays (Montaigne)|Essays]]'' draw extensively on Plutarch's ''Moralia'' and are consciously modelled on the Greek's easygoing and discursive inquiries into science, manners, customs and beliefs. ''Essays'' contains more than 400 references to Plutarch and his works.<ref name=NewCriterion/>

[[James Boswell]] quoted Plutarch on writing lives, rather than biographies, in the introduction to his own ''[[Life of Samuel Johnson]]''. Other admirers included [[Ben Jonson]], [[John Dryden]], [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[John Milton]], [[Edmund Burke]], [[Joseph De Maistre]], [[Mark Twain]], [[Louis L'amour]], and [[Francis Bacon]], as well as such disparate figures as [[Cotton Mather]] and [[Robert Browning]].

Plutarch's influence declined in the 19th and 20th centuries, but it remains embedded in the popular ideas of Greek and Roman history. One of his most famous quotes was one that he included in one of his earliest works. "The world of man is best captured through the lives of the men who created history."

==Translations of ''Lives'' and ''Moralia''==

There are translations, from the original [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], in [[Latin]], [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Polish language|Polish]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].

British classical scholar H. J. Rose writes "One advantage to a modern reader who is not well acquainted with Greek is, that being but a moderate stylist, Plutarch is almost as good in a translation as in the original."<ref>[[H. J. Rose]]. ''A Handbook of Greek Literature: From Homer to the Age of Lucian.''. New York: Dutton, 1960. p. 409.</ref>

===French translations===

[[Jacques Amyot]]'s translations brought Plutarch's works to Western Europe. He went to Italy and studied the Vatican text of Plutarch, from which he published a French translation of the ''Lives'' in 1559 and ''Moralia'' in 1572, which were widely read by educated Europe.<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle= Amyot, Jacques | volume= 01 | page = 901 |quote= He was thus enabled to go to Italy to study the Vatican text of Plutarch, on the translation on whose Lives (1559; 1565) he had been some time engaged.}}</ref> Amyot's translations had as deep an impression in England as France, because Thomas North later published his English translation of the ''Lives'' in 1579 based on Amyot's French translation instead of the original Greek.

===English translations===

Plutarch's ''Lives'' were translated into English, from Amyot's version, by [[Sir Thomas North]] in 1579. The complete ''Moralia'' was first translated into English from the original Greek by [[Philemon Holland]] in 1603.

In 1683, [[John Dryden]] began a life of Plutarch and oversaw a translation of the ''Lives'' by several hands and based on the original Greek. This translation has been reworked and revised several times, most recently in the 19th century by the English poet and classicist [[Arthur Hugh Clough]] (first published in 1859). One contemporary publisher of this version is [[Modern Library]]. Another is Encyclopædia Britannica in association with the University of Chicago, {{ISBN|0-85229-163-9}}, 1952, {{LCCN|5510323}}.

In 1770, English brothers [[John Langhorne (poet)|John]] and [[William Langhorne (clergyman)|William Langhorne]] published "Plutarch's ''Lives'' from the original Greek, with notes critical and historical, and a new life of Plutarch" in 6 volumes and dedicated to Lord Folkestone. Their translation was re-edited by Archdeacon Wrangham in the year 1819.

From 1901 to 1912, an American classicist, [[Bernadotte Perrin]],<ref>{{cite document|title=Bernadotte Perrin Papers (MS 1018) |publisher=Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library|hdl = 10079/fa/mssa.ms.1018}}</ref> produced a new translation of the ''Lives'' for the [[Loeb Classical Library]]. The ''Moralia'' is also included in the Loeb series, translated by various authors.

[[Penguin Classics]] began a series of translations by various scholars in 1958 with ''The Fall of the Roman Republic'', which contained six Lives and was translated by Rex Warner.<ref>''The Age of Alexander'', rev. ed. (Penguin, 2012), "Penguin Plutarch".</ref> Penguin continues to revise the volumes.

===Italian translations===

Note: only the main translations from the second half of 15th century are given.<ref>Virgilio Costa, ''[https://www.academia.edu/4825458/Sulle_prime_traduzioni_italiane_a_stampa_delle_opere_di_Plutarco_secc._XV-XVI_ Sulle prime traduzioni italiane a stampa delle opere di Plutarco (secc. XV–XVI)]''</ref>

*Battista Alessandro Iaconelli, ''Vite di Plutarcho traducte de Latino in vulgare in Aquila'', L’Aquila, 1482.

*Dario Tiberti, ''Le Vite di Plutarco ridotte in compendio, per M. Dario Tiberto da Cesena, e tradotte alla commune utilità di ciascuno per L. Fauno, in buona lingua volgare'', Venice, 1543.

*[[Lodovico Domenichi]], ''Vite di Plutarco. Tradotte da m. Lodouico Domenichi, con gli suoi sommarii posti dinanzi a ciascuna vita...'', Venice, 1560.

*[[Francesco Sansovino]], ''Le vite de gli huomini illustri greci e romani, di Plutarco Cheroneo sommo filosofo et historico, tradotte nuovamente da M. Francesco Sansovino...'', Venice, 1564.

*Marcello Adriani il Giovane, ''Opuscoli morali di Plutarco volgarizzati da Marcello Adriani il giovane'', Florence, 1819–1820.

*Girolamo Pompei, ''Le Vite Di Plutarco'', Verona, 1772–1773.

===Latin translations===

There are multiple translations of ''Parallel Lives'' into Latin, most notably the one titled "Pour le Dauphin" (French for "for the Prince") written by a scribe in the court of [[Louis XV of France]] and a 1470 [[Ulrich Han]] translation.

===German translations===

====Hieronymus Emser====

In 1519, Hieronymus Emser translated ''De capienda ex inimicis utilitate'' (''wie ym eyner seinen veyndt nutz machen kan'', Leipzig).

====Gottlob Benedict von Schirach====

The biographies were translated by Gottlob Benedict von Schirach (1743–1804) and printed in Vienna by Franz Haas (1776–1780).

====Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser====

Plutarch's ''Lives'' and ''Moralia'' were translated into German by [[Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser]]:

* ''Vitae parallelae. Vergleichende Lebensbeschreibungen''. 10 Bände. Magdeburg 1799–1806.

* ''Moralia. Moralische Abhandlungen''. 9 Bde. Frankfurt a.M. 1783–1800.

====Subsequent German translations====

* ''Lives''

** ''Große Griechen und Römer''. {{Interlanguage link multi|Konrat Ziegler|de}}, 6 vols. Zürich 1954–1965. (''Bibliothek der alten Welt'').

* ''Moralia''

** ''Plutarch. Über Gott und Vorsehung, Dämonen und Weissagung'', Zürich: Konrat Ziegler, 1952. (''Bibliothek der alten Welt'')

** ''Plutarch. Von der Ruhe des Gemüts – und andere Schriften'', Zürich: Bruno Snell, 1948. (''Bibliothek der alten Welt'')

** ''Plutarch. Moralphilosophische Schriften'', Stuttgart: [[Hans-Josef Klauck]], 1997. (''Reclams Universal-Bibliothek'')

** ''Plutarch. Drei Religionsphilosophische Schriften'', Düsseldorf: [[Herwig Görgemanns]], 2003. (''Tusculum'')

===Hebrew translations===

Following some Hebrew translations of selections from Plutarch's ''Parallel Lives'' published in the 1920s and the 1940s, a complete translation was published in three volumes by the [[Bialik Institute]] in 1954, 1971 and 1973. The first volume, ''Roman Lives'', first published in 1954, presents the translations of Joseph G. Liebes to the biographies of [[Coriolanus]], [[Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus|Fabius Maximus]], [[Tiberius Gracchus]] and [[Gaius Gracchus]], [[Cato the Elder]] and [[Cato the Younger]], [[Gaius Marius]], [[Sulla]], [[Sertorius]], [[Lucullus]], [[Pompey]], [[Crassus]], [[Cicero]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Brutus]] and [[Mark Antony|Mark Anthony]].

The second volume, ''Greek Lives'', first published in 1971 presents A. A. Halevy's translations of the biographies of [[Lycurgus of Sparta|Lycurgus]], [[Aristides]], [[Cimon]], [[Pericles]], [[Nicias]], [[Lysander]], [[Agesilaus]], [[Pelopidas]], [[Dion of Syracuse|Dion]], [[Timoleon]], [[Demosthenes]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[Eumenes]] and [[Phocion]]. Three more biographies presented in this volume, those of [[Solon]], [[Themistocles]] and [[Alcibiades]] were translated by M. H. Ben-Shamai.

The third volume, ''Greek and Roman Lives'', published in 1973, presented the remaining biographies and parallels as translated by Halevy. Included are the biographies of [[Demetrius I of Macedon|Demetrius]], [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]], [[Agis IV|Agis]] and [[Cleomenes III|Cleomenes]], [[Aratus]] and [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes]], [[Philopoemen]], [[Marcus Furius Camillus|Camillus]], [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]], [[Flamininus]], [[Aemilius Paulus]], [[Galba]] and [[Otho]], [[Theseus]], [[Romulus]], [[Numa Pompilius]] and [[Poplicola]]. It completes the translation of the known remaining biographies. In the introduction to the third volume Halevy explains that originally the Bialik Institute intended to publish only a selection of biographies, leaving out mythological figures and biographies that had no parallels. Thus, to match the first volume in scope the second volume followed the same path and the third volume was required.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}

==Pseudo-Plutarch==

{{Main|Pseudo-Plutarch}}

Some editions of the ''Moralia'' include several works now known to have been [[Pseudepigrapha|falsely attributed]] to Plutarch. Among these are the ''Lives of the Ten Orators'', a series of biographies of the [[Attic orators]] based on [[Caecilius of Calacte]]; ''On the Opinions of the Philosophers'', ''On Fate'', and ''On Music''.<ref name=Blank>{{cite book| last= Blank| first= D.| year= 2011| title= 'Plutarch' and the Sophistry of 'Noble Lineage'| editor-first= J. |editor-last= Martínez | work= Fakes and Forgers of Classical Literature| place= Madrid| publisher= Ediciones Clásicas| pages= 33–60}}</ref> These works are all attributed to a single, unknown author, referred to as "[[Pseudo-Plutarch]]".<ref name="Blank"/> Pseudo-Plutarch lived sometime between the third and fourth centuries AD. Despite being falsely attributed, the works are still considered to possess historical value.<ref>{{cite book| first= Don E.| last= Marietta| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Gz-8PsrT32AC |title= Introduction to Ancient Philosophy| publisher= M.E. Sharpe| year= 1998| page= 190 |number= 11| isbn= 978-0765602169}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Middle Platonism]]

* [[Numenius of Apamea]]

* [[6615 Plutarchos]]

* [[Plutarchia (wasp)|''Plutarchia'' (wasp)]]

* [[Plutarchia (plant)|''Plutarchia'' (plant)]] (named after Plutarch)

==Notes==

{{notelist}}

==References==

{{Reflist}}

==Sources==

* {{cite book|last=Blackburn|first=Simon|title=Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|year=1994 }}

* {{cite book|last=Russell|first=D.A.|title=Plutarch|publisher=Duckworth Publishing|orig-year=1972|year=2001|isbn=978-1-85399-620-7}}

* {{cite book|last=Duff|first=Timothy|title=Plutarch's Lives: Exploring Virtue and Vice|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=UK|orig-year=1999|year=2002|isbn=978-0-19-925274-9 }}

* {{cite book|last=Hamilton|first=Edith|title=The Echo of Greece|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=1957|page=[https://archive.org/details/echoofgreece00edit/page/194 194]|isbn=0-393-00231-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/echoofgreece00edit/page/194}}

* Honigmann, E.A.J. "Shakespeare's Plutarch." ''[[Shakespeare Quarterly]]'', 1959: 25–33.

* {{Cite book |last=Pelling |first=Christopher |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50552352 |title=Plutarch and History: Eighteen Studies |date=2002 |publisher=Classical Press of Wales |isbn=0-7156-3128-4 |location=Swansea |oclc=50552352}}

* {{Cite encyclopedia |last=Russell |first=Donald |title=Plutarch |encyclopedia=The Oxford classical dictionary |year=2012 |editor-first1=Simon |editor-last1=Hornblower |editor-first2=Antony |editor-last2=Spawforth |editor-first3=Esther |editor-last3=Eidinow |isbn=978-0-19-954556-8 |edition=4th |location=Oxford |oclc=959667246 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=1165–66 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5141 }}

* {{cite book |last=Stadter |first=Philip A |chapter=Plutarch and Rome |title=A companion to Plutarch |year=2014 |pages=13–31 |editor-last=Beck |editor-first=Mark |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |series=Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World |isbn=978-1-4051-9431-0 |lccn=2013028283 }}

* {{cite book|last=Wardman|first=Alan|title=Plutarch's "Lives" |publisher=Elek|year=1974|page=274|isbn=0-236-17622-6}}

* [[John M. Dillon]] ( 1996).''The Middle Platonists: 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'', Cornell University Press, {{ISBN|978-0801483165}}

* <ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=C. P. |title=Plutarch and Rome |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1971 |isbn=9780198143635 |location=Oxford}}</ref>

==Further reading==

*Beck, Mark. 2000. "Anecdote and the representation of Plutarch’s ethos." In ''Rhetorical theory and praxis in Plutarch: Acta of the IVth international congress of the International Plutarch Society, Leuven, 3–6 July 1996.'' Edited by Luc van der Stockt, 15–32. Collection d’Études Classiques 11. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.

*--, ed. 2014. ''A companion to Plutarch.'' Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell.

*Beneker, Jeffrey. 2012. ''The passionate statesman:'' Eros ''and politics in Plutarch’s Lives.'' Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*Duff, Timothy E. 1999. ''Plutarch’s Lives: Exploring virtues and vice.'' Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*Georgiadou, Aristoula. 1992. "Idealistic and realistic portraiture in the Lives of Plutarch." In ''Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung.'' Vol. 2.33.6, ''Sprache und Literatur: Allgemeines zur Literatur des 2. Jahrhunderts und einzelne Autoren der trajanischen und frühhadrianischen Zeit.'' Edited by Wolfgang Haase, 4616–23. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

*Gill, Christopher. 1983. "The question of character-development: Plutarch and Tacitus." ''Classical Quarterly'' 33. no. 2: 469–87.

*Humble, Noreen, ed. 2010. ''Plutarch’s Lives: Parallelism and purpose.'' Swansea: Classical Press of Wales.

*McInerney, Jeremy. 2003. "Plutarch’s manly women." In Andreia'': Studies in manliness and courage in classical Athens.'' Edited by Ralph M. Rosen and Ineke Sluiter, 319–44. Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava, Supplementum 238. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill.

*Mossman, Judith. 2015. "Dressed for success? Clothing in Plutarch’s Demetrius." In ''Fame and infamy: Essays for Christopher Pelling on characterization and Roman biography and historiography.'' Edited by Rhiannon Ash, Judith Mossman, and Frances B. Titchener, 149–60. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*Nikolaidis, Anastasios G., ed. 2008. ''The unity of Plutarch’s work:'' Moralia ''themes in the'' Lives'', features of the'' Lives'' in the'' Moralia. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

*Pelling, Christopher. 2002. ''Plutarch and history: Eighteen studies.'' Swansea: Classical Press of Wales.

*{{cite book |last1=Roskam |first1=Geert |title=Plutarch |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9781009108225}}

*Scardigli, Barbara, ed. 1995. ''Essays on Plutarch’s Lives.'' Oxford: Clarendon.

*Stadter, Philip. 1996. "Anecdotes and the thematic structure of Plutarchean biography." In ''Estudios sobre Plutarco: Aspectos formales; Actas del IV Simposio español sobre Plutarco, Salamanca, 26 a 28 de mayo de 1994.'' Edited by José Antonio Fernández Delgado and Francisca Pordomingo Pardo, 291–303. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas.

*Stadter, Philip.. 2015. "The rhetoric of virtue in Plutarch’s Lives." In ''Plutarch and his Roman readers.'' By Philip A. Stadter, 231–45. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*[[Lieve Van Hoof|Van Hoof, Lieve]]. 2010. ''Plutarch's practical ethics: the social dynamics of philosophy'' Oxford: Oxford University Press.

*Wardman, Alan E. 1967. "Description of personal appearance in Plutarch and Suetonius: The use of statues as evidence." ''Classical Quarterly'' 17, no. 2: 414–20.

*Zadorojnyi, Alexei V. 2012. "Mimesis and the (plu)past in Plutarch’s Lives." In ''Time and narrative in ancient historiography: The “plupast” from Herodotus to Appian.'' Edited by Jonas Grethlein and Christopher B. Krebs, 175–98. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

==External links==

{{wikiquote}}

{{wikisource author}}

{{commons category}}

{{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Plutarch

|viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}

;Plutarch's works

* {{Gutenberg author | id=342 | name=Plutarch}}

* {{Internet Archive author |search=("Plutarch" OR "Plutarchus")}}

* {{Librivox author |id=13}}

* [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/collection?collection=Perseus:collection:Greco-Roman Perseus Digital Library]

* Plutarch on [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/home.html LacusCurtius]

* Didot edition of Plutarch's works in Greek, with Latin translation (1857–1876): [https://archive.org/details/plutarchivitaep00doehgoog vol. 1 (Lives, pt. 1)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=OUYJAQAAIAAJ vol. 2 (Lives, pt. 2)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ee1DAAAAYAAJ vol. 3 (Moralia, pt. 1)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=s56zAAAAMAAJ vol. 4 (Moralia, pt. 2)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=txNgAAAAMAAJ vol. 5 (fragmenta et spuria)] (also [http://gallica.bnf.fr/Search?adva=1&adv=1&tri=title_sort&t_relation=%22Notice+d%27ensemble+%3A+http%3A%2F%2Fcatalogue.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fcb37341822f%22&q=plutarchi+vitae&lang=en via BNF])

;Secondary material

* {{cite SEP |url-id=plutarch |title=Plutarch |last=Karamanolis |first=George}}

* [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/plutarch/ Plutarch of Chaeronea] by Jona Lendering at Livius

* [http://www.usu.edu/history/ploutarchos/index.htm The International Plutarch Society] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511164545/http://www.usu.edu/history/ploutarchos/index.htm |date=11 May 2008 }}

* [http://bennozuiddam.com/Plutarch%20and%20God-eclipse%20in%20Christian%20Theology,%20Ploutarchos%202008,2009.pdf The relevance of Plutarch's book ''De Defectu Oraculorum'' for Christian Theology (Ploutarchos, Journal of the International Plutarch Society)]

{{Plutarch}}

{{Platonists}}

{{Ancient Greece topics}}

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{{Social and political philosophy}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Plutarch| ]]

[[Category:46 births]]

[[Category:120 deaths]]

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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}

{{Other uses}}

{{distinguish|Plutocracy{{!}}Plutarchy}}

{{Short description|Greek philosopher and historian (c. AD 46 – after AD 119)}}

{{Infobox philosopher

| name = Plutarch

| image = Plutarch of Chaeronea-03 (cropped).jpg

| caption = Modern portrait at [[Chaeronea]], based on a bust from Delphi tentatively identified as Plutarch. <!--discussed on Talk: see also File:Head of a philosopher - Archaeological Museum of Delphi.jpg -->

| birth_date = {{circa|AD 46}}

| birth_place = [[Chaeronea]], [[Boeotia]]

| death_date = after AD 119 (aged 73–74)

| death_place = [[Delphi]], [[Phocis (ancient region)|Phocis]]

| occupation = Biographer, [[essay]]ist, [[philosopher]], [[priest]], [[ambassador]], [[magistrate]]

|school_tradition = [[Middle Platonism]]

|notable_works = ''[[Parallel Lives]]''<br>''[[Moralia]]''

|region = [[Ancient philosophy]]

|era = [[Hellenistic philosophy]]

|main_interests = [[Epistemology]], [[Ethics]], [[History]], [[Metaphysics]]

|influences = {{flatlist|

*[[Plato]]

*[[Xenocrates]]d

d

d

d

d

d

d

ad

asfsdaf;jdashkpfjasdlkjgslkjdagkjlsdghksdkjglsdkfb

*[[Aristotle]]joe

*[[Arcesilaus]]

*[[Carneades]]

*[[Philo of Larissa|Philo]]

*[[Antiochus of Ascalon|Antiochus]]

*[[Cicero]]

*[[Ammonius of Athens|Ammonius]]

}}

|influenced = {{flatlist|

* [[Alcinous (philosopher)|Alcinous]]

* [[Arrian]]

* [[Aristides]]

* [[Atticus (philosopher)|Atticus]]

* [[Basil of Caesarea]]

* [[Beethoven]]

* [[Clement of Alexandria]]

* [[Cyril of Alexandria]]

* [[R. W. Emerson|Emerson]]

* [[Eusebius]]

* [[Favorinus]]

* [[Goethe]]

* [[Jean Paul]]

* [[Marcus Aurelius]]

* [[Montaigne]]

* [[Nietzsche]]

* [[Numenius of Apamea]]

* [[Plotinus]]

* [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]]

* [[Proclus]]

* [[Schiller]]

* [[Sextus of Chaeronea]]

* [[Shakespeare]]

}}

}}

'''Plutarch''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|l|uː|t|ɑr|k}}; {{lang-grc-gre|Πλούταρχος}}, ''Ploútarchos''; {{IPA-el|ˈplutarkʰos|koine}}; {{circa|AD&nbsp;46}} – after AD&nbsp;119)<ref name=eb>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle= Plutarch | volume= 21 | pages = 857&ndash;860 |last1= Paley |first1= Frederick Apthorp |author1-link= Frederick Apthorp Paley|last2= Mitchell |first2= John Malcolm |short=1}}</ref> was a [[Greek people|Greek]] [[Middle Platonism|Middle Platonist]] [[philosopher]],<ref>Dillon, John M. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aJQ9dvgh6BwC&dq=Plutarch+middle+platonist&source=gbs_navlinks_s|The Middle Platonists: 80 BC to AD 220]''. Cornell University Press, 1996. pp. 184 ff.</ref> [[historian]], [[Biography|biographer]], [[essay]]ist, and priest at the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo]] in [[Delphi]]. He is known primarily for his ''[[Parallel Lives]]'', a series of biographies of illustrious Greeks and Romans, and ''[[Moralia]]'', a collection of essays and speeches.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy|title=Plutarch }}</ref> Upon becoming a [[Roman citizenship|Roman citizen]], he was possibly named '''Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus''' ({{lang|grc|Λούκιος Μέστριος Πλούταρχος}}).{{sfn|Russell|2012}}{{efn|The name Mestrius or Lucius Mestrius was taken by Plutarch, as was common Roman practice, from his patron for [[Roman citizenship|citizenship]] in the empire.{{cn|date=March 2022}}}}

==Life==

===Early life===

Plutarch was born to a prominent family in the small town of [[Chaeronea]],{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=13}} about {{convert|30|km}} east of [[Delphi]], in the Greek region of [[Boeotia]]. His family was long established in the town; his father was named Autobulus and his grandfather was named [[Lamprias]].{{sfn|Russell|2012}}

His name is a compound of the Greek words {{LSJ|plou=tos|πλοῦτος}}, "wealthy" and {{LSJ|a)rxo/s|ἀρχός}} , "leader." In the [[Ancient Greek personal names|traditional aspirational Greek naming convention]] the whole name means something like "prosperous leader."

His brothers, Timon and Lamprias, are frequently mentioned in his essays and dialogues, which speak of Timon in particular in the most affectionate terms. [[Joannes Rualdus|Rualdus]], in his 1624 work ''Life of Plutarchus'', recovered the name of Plutarch's wife, Timoxena, from internal evidence afforded by his writings. A letter is still extant, addressed by Plutarch to his wife, bidding her not to grieve too much at the death of their two-year-old daughter, who was named Timoxena after her mother. He hinted at a belief in [[reincarnation]] in that letter of consolation.<ref>{{cite book |author=Plutarch |translator-first1=Phillip H |translator-last1=De Lacy |translator-first2=Benedict |translator-last2=Einarson |chapter=Consolatio ad Uxorem |title=Moralia |year=1959 |pages=575–605 |series=Loeb Classical Library |publisher=Harvard University Press |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Consolatio_ad_uxorem*.html |via=LacusCurtius |access-date=17 March 2018}}</ref>

Plutarch studied [[mathematics]] and [[philosophy]] in [[Athens]] under [[Ammonius of Athens|Ammonius]] from AD&nbsp;66 to 67.<ref name=eb/> He attended the games of Delphi where the emperor [[Nero]] competed and possibly met prominent Romans, including future emperor [[Vespasian]].{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=14}}

Plutarch and Timoxena had at least four sons and one daughter, though two died in childhood. The loss of his daughter and a young son, Chaeron, are mentioned in the his letter to Timoxena.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plutarch, Consolatio ad uxorem, section 5 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0310:section=5 |access-date=15 January 2023 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> Two sons, named Autoboulos and Plutarch, appear in a number of Plutarch's works; Plutarch's treatise on Plato's [[Timaeus]] is dedicated to them.{{sfn|Jones|1971|p=11}} It's likely that a third son, named Soklaros after Plutarch's confidant Soklaros of Tithora, survived to adulthood as well although he is not mentioned in Plutarch's later works: a Lucius Mestrius Soclarus, who shares Plutarch's Latin family name, appears in an inscription in Boeotia from the time of Trajan.<ref>The inscription is in [https://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/42003?bookid=8&location=1698 ''Inscriptiones Graecae'', 9.1.61], see the note in Jones, ''Plutarch and Rome'', 22. Older scholarship tended assume Soklaros was not a son or died young, because he didn't appear in any dedications.</ref> Traditionally the surviving catalog of Plutarch's works is ascribed to another son, named Lamprias after Plutarch's grandfather.<ref>See for example the entry for [http://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/lambda/96 Lamprias] in the [[Suda]]. </ref> However most modern scholars believe this tradition is a later interpolation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ziegler |first=Konrat |title=Plutarchos von Chaironeia |publisher=Alfred Druckenmuller |year=1964 |location=Stuttgart |pages=60 |language=de}}</ref> Plutarch's treatise on marriage questions, addressed to Eurydice and Pollianus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plutarch • Conjugalia Praecepta |url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Coniugalia_praecepta*.html |access-date=15 January 2023 |website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref> seems to speak of the former as having recently lived in his house, but without any clear evidence on whether she was his daughter or not.<ref name=Stewart-Long>{{cite book |last1=Stewart |first1=Aubrey |last2=Long |title=Plutarch's Lives |volume=1 |year=1894 |chapter=Life of Plutarch |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14033/14033.txt |publisher=George Bell & Sons |via=Gutenberg |access-date=3 January 2007}}</ref>

Plutarch was either the uncle or grandfather of [[Sextus of Chaeronea]], who was one of the teachers of [[Marcus Aurelius]], and who may have been the same person as the philosopher [[Sextus Empiricus]]. His family remained in Greece down to at least the fourth century, producing a number of philosophers and authors.{{sfn|Jones|1971|p=11}} [[Apuleius]], the author of [[The Golden Ass]], made his fictional protagonist a descendant of Plutarch.

[[File:Delfi Apollons tempel.jpg|thumb|right|Ruins of the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo at Delphi]], where Plutarch served as one of the priests responsible for interpreting the predictions of the [[Pythia]].]]

Plutarch was a [[Vegetarianism|vegetarian]], though how long and how strictly he adhered to this diet is unclear.<ref name="chrysopoulos">{{Cite web|url=https://greece.greekreporter.com/2016/03/16/ancient-greek-historian-plutarch-might-have-been-the-first-vegetarian/|title=Ancient Greek Historian Plutarch Might Have Been the First Vegetarian|first=Philip|last=Chrysopoulos|website=Greek Reporter|access-date=5 September 2020}}</ref><ref name="newmyer">{{cite journal |last=Newmyer |first=Stephen |date=1992 |title=Plutarch on Justice Toward Animals: Ancient Insights on a Modern Debate |url=https://journals.co.za/content/scholia/1/1/EJC128293 |journal=Scholia: Studies in Classical Antiquity |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=38–54 |access-date=5 September 2020}}</ref> He wrote about the [[ethics]] of meat-eating in two discourses in ''Moralia''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Plutarch |title=Moralia |url=https://www.loebclassics.com/view/plutarch-eating_flesh/1957/pb_LCL406.539.xml |chapter=On the Eating of Flesh}}</ref>

At some point, Plutarch received [[Roman citizenship]]. His sponsor was [[Lucius Mestrius Florus]], who was an associate of the new emperor Vespasian, as evidenced by his new name, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus.{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=14}} As a Roman citizen, Plutarch would have been of the [[Equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] order, he visited Rome some time {{circa|AD 70}} with Florus, who served also as a historical source for his ''Life of Otho''.<ref>Plutarch, ''Otho'' 14.1</ref>{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=14}} Plutarch was on familiar terms with a number of Roman nobles, particularly the consulars [[Quintus Sosius Senecio]], [[Titus Avidius Quietus]], and [[Arulenus Rusticus]], all of whom appear in his works.{{sfn|Jones|1971|p=20-27}}

He lived most of his life at Chaeronea, and was initiated into the [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mysteries]] of the Greek god [[Apollo]]. He probably took part in the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/32/the-eleusinian-mysteries-the-rites-of-demeter/|title=The Eleusinian Mysteries: The Rites of Demeter|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=27 April 2019}}</ref> During his visit to Rome he may have been part of a municipal embassy for [[Delphi]]: around the same time, Vespasian granted Delphi various municipal rights and privileges.{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=15}}

===Work as magistrate and ambassador===

In addition to his duties as a priest of the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Delphic temple]], Plutarch was also a [[magistrate]] at Chaeronea and he represented his home town on various missions to foreign countries during his early adult years. Plutarch held the office of [[archon]] in his native municipality, probably only an annual one which he likely served more than once.<ref>{{cite book|title=Plutarch's Lives|last=Clough|first=Arthur Hugh|year=1864|publisher=Liberty Library of Constitutional Classics|chapter-url=http://www.constitution.org/rom/plutarch/intro.htm|chapter=Introduction }}</ref>

Plutarch was [[epimeletes]] (manager) of the [[Amphictyonic League]] for at least five terms, from 107 to 127, in which role he was responsible for organising the [[Pythian Games]]. He mentions this service in his work, ''Whether an Old Man Should Engage in Public Affairs'' (17 = ''Moralia'' 792f).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=West |first1=Allen B. |title=Notes on Achaean Prosopography and Chronology |journal=Classical Philology |date=1928 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=262–267|doi=10.1086/361044 |jstor=263715 |s2cid=161334831 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/263715 |issn=0009-837X}}</ref>

The ''[[Suda]]'', a [[medieval]] Greek encyclopedia, states that [[Trajan]] made Plutarch [[Procurator (Roman)|procurator]] of [[Illyria]]. However, most historians consider this unlikely, since Illyria was not a procuratorial province.<ref>Gianakaris, C. J. ''Plutarch''. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1970.</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2022}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Suda Online, Pi 1793 |url=http://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/pi/1793 |access-date=15 January 2023 |website=www.cs.uky.edu}}</ref>

According to the 8th/9th-century historian [[George Syncellus]], late in Plutarch's life, Emperor [[Hadrian]] appointed him nominal [[Procurator (Roman)|procurator]] of [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]] – which entitled him to wear the vestments and ornaments of a consul.<ref>Russell, D. A. ''Plutarch''. New York: Scribner, 1973.</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2022}}

===Late period: Priest at Delphi===

[[File:Plutarch and herm.jpg|thumb|Portrait of a philosopher, and a [[Herm_(sculpture)|hermaic]] [[stele]] at the [[Delphi Archaeological Museum]]]]

Some time {{circa|AD 95}}, Plutarch was made one of the two sanctuary priests for the temple of Apollo at Delphi; the site had declined considerably since the classical Greek period. Around the same time in the 90s, Delphi experienced a construction boom, financed by Greek patrons and possible imperial support.{{sfn|Stadter|2014|p=20}} His priestly duties connected part of his literary work with the Pythian oracle at Delphia: one of his most important works is the "Why Pythia does not give oracles in verse".<ref>{{cite book |author=Plutarch |title=[[Moralia]] |at=11}}</ref>({{math|“Περὶ τοῦ μὴ χρᾶν ἔμμετρα νῦν τὴν Πυθίαν”}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%BC%CE%B7_%CF%87%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD_%CE%AD%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1_%CE%BD%CF%85%CE%BD_%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD_%CE%A0%CF%85%CE%B8%CE%AF%CE%B1%CE%BD_(%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%82) |title=Περί του μη χραν έμμετρα νυν την Πυθίαν (Πλούταρχος) - Βικιθήκη |website=el.wikisource.org |access-date=17 March 2018}}</ref> Even more important is the dialogue “On the ‘E’ at Delphi” ({{math|“Περὶ τοῦ Εἶ τοῦ ἐν Δελφοῖς”}}),<ref>{{cite book |author=Plutarch |title=Moralia |chapter=On the ‘E’ at “Delphi” |language=ancient Greek |url=https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%95%CE%B9_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%B5%CE%BD_%CE%94%CE%B5%CE%BB%CF%86%CE%BF%CE%AF%CF%82}}

</ref> which features [[Ammonius of Athens|Ammonius]], a Platonic philosopher and teacher of Plutarch, and Lambrias, Plutarch's brother.

According to Ammonius, the letter ‘E’ written on the temple of Apollo in Delphi originated from the following fact: The [[Seven Sages of Greece]], whose [[Delphic maxims|maxims]] were also written on the walls of the vestibule of the temple, were not seven but actually five: [[Chilon]], [[Solon]], [[Thales]], [[Bias of Priene|Bias]], and [[Pittakos]]. However, the tyrants [[Cleobulus|Cleobulos]] and [[Periandros]] used their political power to be incorporated in the list. Thus, the ‘E’, which was [[Greek numerals|used to represent the number]]&nbsp;5, constituted an acknowledgement that the Delphic maxims actually originated from only five genuine wise men.

=== Portrait ===

There was a portrait bust dedicated to Plutarch for his efforts in helping to revive the Delphic shrines.{{sfn|Russell|2012}}

The portrait of a philosopher exhibited at the exit of the [[Delphi Archaeological Museum|Archaeological Museum of Delphi]], dates to the 2nd&nbsp;century; due to its inscription, in the past it had been identified with Plutarch. The man, although bearded, is depicted at a relatively young age: His hair and beard are rendered in coarse volumes and thin incisions. The gaze is deep, due to the heavy eyelids and the incised pupils.<ref>{{cite web |title=SELECTED EXHIBITS - Archaeological Site of Delphi - Museum of Delphi |url=https://delphi.culture.gr/museum/selected-exhibits/ |website=Delphi.culture.gr |publisher=Delphi Archaeological Museum |access-date=26 October 2022 |date=11 December 2019}}</ref>

But a fragmentary [[Herm_(sculpture)|hermaic]] [[stele]] ''next'' to the portrait probably did once bear a portrait of Plutarch, since it is inscribed, "The Delphians, along with the Chaeroneans, dedicated this (image of) Plutarch, following the precepts of the Amphictyony" ({{math|"Δελφοὶ Χαιρωνεῦσιν ὁμοῦ Πλούταρχον ἔθηκαν}} | {{math|τοῖς Ἀμφικτυόνων δόγμασι πειθόμενοι"}}.<ref>''Syll.''³ 843=''CID'' 4, no.&nbsp;151 {{full citation|date=July 2021}}</ref>

==Works==

Plutarch's surviving works were intended for Greek speakers throughout the Roman Empire, not just Greeks.<ref>

{{cite book

|last1= Stadter

|first1= Philip A.

|title= Plutarch and His Roman Readers

|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ExCaBQAAQBAJ

|publisher= Oxford University Press

|publication-date= 2015

|page= 69

|isbn= 978-0198718338

|access-date= 4 February 2015

|quote= Although Plutarch wrote in Greek and with a Greek point of view, [...] he was thinking of a Roman as well as a Greek audience.

|year= 2015

}}

</ref>

===Lives of the Roman emperors===

[[File:Nuremberg_chronicles_f_111r_3.png|thumb|left|Plutarch in the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' ]]

Plutarch's first biographical works were the Lives of the Roman Emperors from [[Augustus]] to [[Vitellius]]. Of these, only the Lives of [[Galba]] and [[Otho]] survive. The Lives of [[Tiberius]] and [[Nero]] are extant only as fragments, provided by Damascius (Life of Tiberius, cf. his Life of Isidore)<ref>Ziegler, Konrad, Plutarchos von Chaironeia (Stuttgart 1964), 258. Citation translated by the author.</ref> and Plutarch himself (Life of Nero, cf. Galba 2.1), respectively. These early emperors’ biographies were probably published under the [[Flavian dynasty]] or during the reign of Nerva (AD 96–98).

There is reason to believe that the two Lives still extant, those of Galba and Otho, "ought to be considered as a single work."<ref>Cf. among others, Holzbach, M.-C.(2006). Plutarch: Galba-Otho und die Apostelgeschichte : ein Gattungsvergleich. Religion and Biography, 14 (ed. by Detlev Dormeyer et al.). Berlin London: LIT, p. 13</ref> Therefore, they do not form a part of the Plutarchian canon of single biographies – as represented by the Life of [[Aratus of Sicyon]] and the Life of [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] (the biographies of [[Hesiod]], [[Pindar]], [[Crates (comic poet)|Crates]] and Daiphantus were lost). Unlike in these biographies, in ''Galba-Otho'' the individual characters of the persons portrayed are not depicted for their own sake but instead serve as an illustration of an abstract principle; namely the adherence or non-adherence to Plutarch's morally founded ideal of governing as a [[Princeps]] (cf. Galba 1.3; Moralia 328D–E).<ref name="Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24, 67–83">Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24, 67–83</ref>

Arguing from the perspective of Platonic political philosophy (cf. Republic 375E, 410D-E, 411E-412A, 442B-C), in ''Galba-Otho'' Plutarch reveals the constitutional principles of the [[Principate]] in the time of the civil war after Nero's death. While morally questioning the behavior of the autocrats, he also gives an impression of their tragic destinies, ruthlessly competing for the throne and finally destroying each other.<ref name="Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24, 67–83"/> "The Caesars' house in Rome, the Palatium, received in a shorter space of time no less than four Emperors", Plutarch writes, "passing, as it were, across the stage, and one making room for another to enter" (Galba 1).<ref>The citation from Galba was extracted from the Dryden translation as given at the [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/galba.html MIT Internet Classics Archive]</ref>

''Galba-Otho'' was handed down through different channels. It can be found in the appendix to Plutarch's ''Parallel Lives'' as well as in various Moralia manuscripts, most prominently in [[Maximus Planudes]]' edition where Galba and Otho appear as ''Opera'' XXV and XXVI. Thus it seems reasonable to maintain that ''Galba-Otho'' was from early on considered as an illustration of a moral-ethical approach, possibly even by Plutarch himself.<ref>Cf. Holzbach, op. cit., 24</ref>

===''Parallel Lives''===

{{Main|Parallel Lives}}

[[File:Plutarch Han.jpg|thumb|right|A page from the 1470 [[Ulrich Han]] printing of Plutarch's ''[[Parallel Lives]]'']]

Plutarch's best-known work is the ''[[Parallel Lives]]'', a series of [[biography|biographies]] of illustrious Greeks and Romans, arranged in pairs to illuminate their common [[morality|moral]] virtues and vices, thus it being more of an insight into human nature than a [[History|historical]] account.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Plutarch|title=The life of Alexander|pages=1}}</ref> The surviving ''Lives'' contain 23 pairs, each with one Greek life and one Roman life, as well as four unpaired single lives.

As is explained in the opening paragraph of his ''Life of Alexander'', Plutarch was not concerned with history so much as the influence of character, good or bad, on the lives and destinies of men. Whereas sometimes he barely touched on epoch-making events, he devoted much space to charming anecdote and incidental triviality, reasoning that this often said far more for his subjects than even their most famous accomplishments. He sought to provide rounded portraits, likening his craft to that of a painter; indeed, he went to tremendous lengths (often leading to tenuous comparisons) to draw [[Physiognomy|parallels between physical appearance]] and [[moral character]]. In many ways, he must be counted amongst the earliest [[ethics|moral philosophers]].{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

Some of the ''Lives'', such as those of [[Heracles]], [[Philip II of Macedon]], [[Epaminondas]], [[Scipio Africanus]], [[Scipio Aemilianus]] and possibly [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus]] no longer exist; many of the remaining ''Lives'' are truncated, contain obvious [[lacuna (manuscripts)|lacunae]] or have been tampered with by later writers. Extant ''Lives'' include those on [[Solon]], [[Themistocles]], [[Aristides]], [[Agesilaus II]], [[Pericles]], [[Alcibiades]], [[Nicias]], [[Demosthenes]], [[Pelopidas]], [[Philopoemen]], [[Timoleon]], [[Dion of Syracuse]], [[Eumenes]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]], [[Romulus]], [[Numa Pompilius]], [[Gaius Marcius Coriolanus|Coriolanus]], [[Theseus]], [[Aemilius Paullus]], [[Tiberius Gracchus]], [[Gaius Gracchus]], [[Gaius Marius]], [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]], [[Sertorius]], [[Lucullus]], [[Pompey]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Cicero]], [[Cato the Elder]], [[Mark Antony]], and [[Marcus Junius Brutus]].

====''Life of Alexander''====

Plutarch's ''Life of Alexander'', written as a parallel to that of Julius Caesar, is one of five extant tertiary sources on the Macedonian conqueror [[Alexander the Great]]. It includes [[anecdote]]s and descriptions of events that appear in no other source, just as Plutarch's portrait of [[Numa Pompilius]], the putative second king of Rome, holds much that is unique on the early [[Roman calendar]].

Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander's drive and desire, and strives to determine how much of it was presaged in his youth. He also draws extensively on the work of [[Lysippus]], Alexander's favourite [[sculptor]], to provide what is probably the fullest and most accurate description of the conqueror's physical appearance. When it comes to his character, Plutarch emphasizes his unusual degree of self-control and scorn for luxury: "He desired not pleasure or wealth, but only excellence and glory." As the narrative progresses, however, the subject incurs less admiration from his biographer and the deeds that it recounts become less savoury. The murder of [[Cleitus the Black]], which Alexander instantly and deeply regretted, is commonly cited to this end.

====''Life of Caesar''====

Together with [[Suetonius]]'s ''[[The Twelve Caesars]]'', and [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]]'s own works [[Commentarii de Bello Gallico|''de Bello Gallico'']] and ''[[Commentarii de Bello Civili|de Bello Civili]]'', the ''Life of Caesar'' is the main account of [[Julius Caesar]]'s feats by ancient historians. Plutarch starts by telling of the audacity of Caesar and his refusal to dismiss [[Lucius Cornelius Cinna|Cinna's]] daughter, [[Cornelia (wife of Caesar)|Cornelia]]. Other important parts are those containing his military deeds, accounts of battles and Caesar's capacity of inspiring the soldiers.

{{quotation|His soldiers showed such good will and zeal in his service that those who in their previous campaigns had been in no way superior to others were invincible and irresistible in confronting every danger to enhance Caesar's fame. Such a man, for instance, was Acilius, who, in the sea-fight at Massalia, boarded a hostile ship and had his right hand cut off with a sword, but clung with the other hand to his shield, and dashing it into the faces of his foes, routed them all and got possession of the vessel. Such a man, again, was Cassius Scaeva, who, in the battle at Dyrrhachium, had his eye struck out with an arrow, his shoulder transfixed with one javelin and his thigh with another, and received on his shield the blows of one hundred and thirty missiles. In this plight, he called the enemy to him as though he would surrender. Two of them, accordingly, coming up, he lopped off the shoulder of one with his sword, smote the other in the face and put him to flight, and came off safely himself with the aid of his comrades. Again, in Britain, when the enemy had fallen upon the foremost centurions, who had plunged into a watery marsh, a soldier, while Caesar in person was watching the battle, dashed into the midst of the fight, displayed many conspicuous deeds of daring, and rescued the centurions, after the Barbarians had been routed. Then he himself, making his way with difficulty after all the rest, plunged into the muddy current, and at last, without his shield, partly swimming and partly wading, got across. Caesar and his company were amazed and came to meet the soldier with cries of joy; but he, in great dejection, and with a burst of tears, cast himself at Caesar's feet, begging pardon for the loss of his shield. Again, in Africa, Scipio captured a ship of Caesar's in which Granius Petro, who had been appointed quaestor, was sailing. Of the rest of the passengers Scipio made booty, but told the quaestor that he offered him his life. Granius, however, remarking that it was the custom with Caesar's soldiers not to receive but to offer mercy, killed himself with a blow of his sword.|''Life of Caesar'', XVI}}

However, Plutarch's life shows few differences from Suetonius' work and Caesar's own works (see ''[[De Bello Gallico]]'' and ''[[De Bello Civili]]''). Sometimes, Plutarch quotes directly from the ''De Bello Gallico'' and even tells us of the moments when Caesar was dictating his works.

In the final part of this life, Plutarch recounts details of [[Assassination of Julius Caesar|Caesar's assassination]]. It ends by telling the destiny of his murderers, just after a detailed account of the scene when a [[Ghost|phantom]] appeared to [[Marcus Junius Brutus|Brutus]] at night.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Plutarch|title=The life of Caesar}}</ref>

====''Life of Pyrrhus''====

Plutarch's ''Life of Pyrrhus'' is a key text because it is the main historical account on Roman history for the period from 293 to 264&nbsp;BCE, for which both [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus|Dionysius]]’ and [[Livy]]’s texts are lost.<ref name=TJCornell>{{cite book |last=Cornell |first=T.J. |year=1995 |title=The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c.&nbsp;1000–264&nbsp;BC) |publisher=Routledge |page=3 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref>

{{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=30em

|"It is not ''histories'' I am writing, but ''lives''; and in the most glorious deeds there is not always an indication of virtue or vice, indeed a small thing like a phrase or a jest often makes a greater revelation of a character than battles where thousands die."|''Life of Alexander'' }}

===''Moralia''===

{{Main|Moralia}}

[[Image:Plutarchus - Moralia. De placitis philosophorum, 1531 - 3020537.tif|thumb|''Moralia'', 1531]]

The remainder of Plutarch's surviving work is collected under the title of the ''[[Moralia]]'' (loosely translated as ''Customs and Mores''). It is an eclectic collection of seventy-eight essays and transcribed speeches, including ''On Fraternal Affection''—a discourse on honour and affection of siblings toward each other, ''On the Fortune or the Virtue of [[Alexander the Great]]''—an important adjunct to his Life of the great king, ''On the Worship of [[Isis]] and [[Osiris]]'' (a crucial source of information on [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] religious rites),<ref>(but which according to Erasmus referred to the Thessalonians){{cite web|url=http://altreligion.about.com/library/texts/bl_isisandosiris.htm|title=Isis and Osiris|access-date=10 December 2006|last=Plutarch|others=Frank Cole Babbitt (trans.)}}</ref> along with more philosophical treatises, such as ''On the Decline of the Oracles'', ''On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance'', ''On Peace of Mind'' and lighter fare, such as ''[[Odysseus]] and Gryllus'', a humorous [[dialogue]] between [[Homer]]'s Odysseus and one of [[Circe]]'s enchanted pigs. The ''Moralia'' was composed first, while writing the Lives occupied much of the last two decades of Plutarch's own life.

====Spartan lives and sayings====

Since Spartans wrote no history prior to the Hellenistic period – their only extant literature is fragments of 7th-century lyrics – Plutarch's five Spartan lives and ''Sayings of Spartans'' and ''Sayings of Spartan Women'', rooted in sources that have since disappeared, are some of the richest sources for historians of [[Laconia (ancient region)|Lacedaemonia]].<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999">Pomeroy, Sarah B.; Burstein, Stanley M.; Donlan, Walter; and Tolbert Roberts, Jennifer (1999). ''Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-509742-4}}. {{OCLC|38504496}}.{{page needed|date=May 2019}}</ref> But while they are important, they are also controversial. Plutarch lived centuries after the Sparta he writes about (and a full millennium separates him from the earliest events he records) and even though he visited Sparta, many of the ancient customs he reports had been long abandoned, so he never actually saw of what he wrote.<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/> Plutarch's sources themselves can be problematic. As the historians [[Sarah B. Pomeroy|Sarah Pomeroy]], [[Stanley M. Burstein|Stanley Burstein]], Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts have written, "Plutarch was influenced by histories written after the decline of Sparta and marked by nostalgia for a happier past, real or imagined."<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/> Turning to Plutarch himself, they write, "the admiration writers like Plutarch and Xenophon felt for Spartan society led them to exaggerate its monolithic nature, minimizing departures from ideals of equality and obscuring patterns of historical change."<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/> Thus the Spartan egalitarianism and superhuman immunity to pain that have seized the popular imagination are likely myths, and their main architect is Plutarch. While flawed, Plutarch is nonetheless indispensable as one of the only ancient sources of information on Spartan life. Pomeroy et al. conclude that Plutarch's works on Sparta, while they must be treated with skepticism, remain valuable for their "large quantities of information" and these historians concede that "Plutarch's writings on Sparta, more than those of any other ancient author, have shaped later views of Sparta", despite their potential to misinform. He was also referenced in saying unto Sparta, "The beast will feed again."<ref name="Pomeroy, Sarah B. 1999"/>

====''Questions''====

Book IV of the ''Moralia'' contains the ''Roman and Greek Questions'' (Αἰτίαι Ῥωμαϊκαί and Αἰτίαι Ἑλλήνων). The customs of Romans and Greeks are illuminated in little essays that pose questions such as "Why were patricians not permitted to live on the Capitoline?" (no. 91)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Roman_Questions*/E.html#91|title=Plutarch • Roman Questions, 90‑113|work=uchicago.edu}}</ref> and then suggests answers to them.

====''On the Malice of Herodotus''====

[[File:Herodotus Massimo Inv124478.jpg|thumb|left|A bust of the early Greek historian [[Herodotus]], whom Plutarch criticized in ''On the Malice of Herodotus'']]

In ''[[On the Malice of Herodotus]]'', Plutarch criticizes the historian [[Herodotus]] for all manner of prejudice and misrepresentation. It has been called the "first instance in literature of the slashing review".<ref name=NewCriterion/> The 19th&nbsp;century English historian [[George Grote]] considered this essay a serious attack upon the works of Herodotus, and speaks of the "honourable frankness which Plutarch calls his malignity".<ref>{{cite book |last=Grote |first=George |title=A History of Greece: From the time of Solon to 403&nbsp;B.C. |orig-year=1830 |publisher=Routledge |date=19 October 2000 |page=203}}</ref>

Plutarch makes some palpable hits, catching Herodotus out in various errors, but it is also probable that it was merely a rhetorical exercise, in which Plutarch plays [[wikt:devil's advocate|devil's advocate]] to see what could be said against so favourite and well-known a writer.<ref name=Stewart-Long/> According to Barrow (1967), Herodotus' real failing in Plutarch's eyes was to advance ''any criticism at all'' of the city-states that saved Greece from Persia. Barrow concluded that ''"Plutarch is fanatically biased in favor of the Greek cities; they can do no wrong."''<ref>{{cite book |last=Barrow |first=R.H. |title=Plutarch and his Times |orig-year=1967 |year=1979}}</ref>

=== Other works ===

''Symposiacs''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/symposiacs/ |title=Plutarch: Symposiacs, in ''The complete works of Plutarch: essays and miscellanies'', New York: Crowell, 1909. Vol. III. |access-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419132530/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/symposiacs/ |archive-date=19 April 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> (Συμποσιακά); ''[[Convivium Septem Sapientium]]''.

''Dialogue on Love'' (Ερωτικος); Latin name = ''Amatorius''.

===Lost works===

The [[Lost work#Classical world|lost works]] of Plutarch are determined by references in his own texts to them and from other authors' references over time. Parts of the ''Lives'' and what would be considered parts of the ''Moralia'' have been lost. The 'Catalogue of Lamprias', an ancient list of works attributed to Plutarch, lists 227 works, of which 78 have come down to us.<ref>Russell, D.A.F.M. (1970) ''The Oxford Classical Dictionary'', Clarendon Press, Oxford, p. 849</ref>

The Romans loved the ''Lives''. Enough copies were written out over the centuries so that a copy of most of the lives has survived to the present day, but there are traces of twelve more Lives that are now lost.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Parallel Lives|publisher=Loeb Classical Library Edition|edition=Vol. I|year=1914|chapter=Translator's Introduction|chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Introduction*.html }}</ref> Plutarch's general procedure for the ''Lives'' was to write the life of a prominent Greek, then cast about for a suitable Roman parallel, and end with a brief comparison of the Greek and Roman lives. Currently, only 19 of the parallel lives end with a comparison, while possibly they all did at one time. Also missing are many of his ''Lives'' which appear in a list of his writings: those of Hercules, the first pair of ''Parallel Lives'', [[Scipio Africanus]] and [[Epaminondas]], and the companions to the four solo biographies. Even the lives of such important figures as [[Augustus]], [[Claudius]] and [[Nero]] have not been found and may be lost forever.<ref name=NewCriterion>{{cite web|last=Kimball|first=Roger|title=Plutarch & the issue of character|url=http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/19/dec00/plutarch.htm|publisher=The New Criterion Online|access-date=11 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116200602/http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/19/dec00/plutarch.htm|archive-date=16 November 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.e-classics.com/plutarch.htm|title=Plutarch - His Life and Legacy|access-date=10 December 2006|last=McCutchen|first=Wilmot H.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061205061217/http://e-classics.com/plutarch.htm|archive-date=5 December 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Lost works that would have been part of the ''Moralia'' include "Whether One Who [[epoche|Suspends Judgment on Everything]] Is Condemned to Inaction", "On [[Pyrrho]]’s Ten Modes", and "On the Difference between the [[Pyrrhonism|Pyrrhonians]] and the [[Academic Skepticism|Academics]]".<ref>Mauro Bonazzi, "Plutarch on the Differences Between the Pyrrhonists and Academics", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, 2012 https://www.academia.edu/2362682/Plutarch_on_the_Difference_between_Academics_and_Pyrrhonists_in_Oxford_Studies_in_Ancient_Philosophy_43_2012_pp._271-298</ref>

==Philosophy==

{{quote box|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=30em

|"The [[soul]], being eternal, after [[death]] is like a caged bird that has been released. If it has been a long time in the body, and has become tame by many affairs and long habit, the soul will immediately take another body and once again become involved in the troubles of the world. The worst thing about old age is that the soul's memory of the other world grows dim, while at the same time its attachment to things of this world becomes so strong that the soul tends to retain the form that it had in the body. But that soul which remains only a short time within a body, until liberated by the higher powers, quickly recovers its fire and goes on to higher things."

|Plutarch ("The Consolation", ''Moralia'')

}}

Plutarch was a [[Middle Platonism|Platonist]], but was open to the influence of the [[Peripatetics]], and in some details even to [[Stoicism]] despite his criticism of their principles.<ref name="zeller306">Eduard Zeller, ''Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy'', 13th edition, p. 306</ref> He rejected only [[Epicureanism]] absolutely.<ref name="zeller306"/> He attached little importance to theoretical questions and doubted the possibility of ever solving them.<ref name="zeller307">Eduard Zeller, ''Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy'', 13th edition, p. 307</ref> He was more interested in moral and religious questions.<ref name="zeller307"/>

In opposition to Stoic materialism and Epicurean atheism he cherished a pure idea of [[God]] that was more in accordance with [[Plato]].<ref name="zeller307"/> He adopted a second principle (''[[Dyad (Greek philosophy)|Dyad]]'') in order to explain the phenomenal world.<ref name="zeller307"/> This principle he sought, however, not in any indeterminate matter but in the evil [[Anima mundi|world-soul]] which has from the beginning been bound up with matter, but in the creation was filled with reason and arranged by it.<ref name="zeller307"/> Thus it was transformed into the divine soul of the world, but continued to operate as the source of all evil.<ref name="zeller307"/> He elevated God above the finite world, and thus [[Daemon (mythology)|daemons]] became for him agents of God's influence on the world. He strongly defends freedom of the will, and the immortality of the soul.<ref name="zeller307"/>

Platonic-Peripatetic [[ethics]] were upheld by Plutarch against the opposing theories of the Stoics and Epicureans.<ref name="zeller307"/> The most characteristic feature of Plutarch's ethics is, however, its close connection with religion.<ref name="zeller308">Eduard Zeller, ''Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy'', 13th edition, p. 308</ref> However pure Plutarch's idea of God is, and however vivid his description of the vice and corruption which superstition causes, his warm religious feelings and his distrust of human powers of knowledge led him to believe that God comes to our aid by direct revelations, which we perceive the more clearly the more completely that we refrain in "enthusiasm" from all action; this made it possible for him to justify popular belief in [[divination]] in the way which had long been usual among the Stoics.<ref name="zeller308"/>

His attitude to popular religion was similar. The gods of different peoples are merely different names for one and the same divine Being and the powers that serve it.<ref name="zeller308"/> The [[Greek mythology|myths]] contain philosophical truths which can be interpreted allegorically.<ref name="zeller308"/> Thus Plutarch sought to combine the philosophical and religious conception of things and to remain as close as possible to tradition.<ref name="zeller308"/>

Plutarch was the teacher of [[Favorinus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Richter |first1=Daniel S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZ47DwAAQBAJ |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Second Sophistic |last2=Johnson |first2=William Allen |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-983747-2 |pages=552 |language=en}}</ref>

==Influence==

{{external media|width=210px|align=right

|headerimage=[[File:North's translation of Plutarch.jpg|210px]]

|video1=[https://vimeo.com/161028814 Shakespeare: Metamorphosis – Plutarch’s “Lives” (1579)], [[Senate House Library]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Shakespeare: Metamorphosis – Plutarch's "Lives" (1579)|publisher=[[Senate House Library]] at [[Vimeo]]|url=https://vimeo.com/161028814|access-date=9 May 2016|date=31 March 2016}}</ref>}}

Plutarch's writings had an enormous influence on [[English Literature|English]] and [[French literature]]. [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] paraphrased parts of [[Thomas North]]'s translation of selected ''Lives'' in [[Shakespeare's plays|his plays]], and occasionally quoted from them verbatim.<ref>Honigmann 1959.</ref>

[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] quotes from Plutarch in the 1762 ''[[Emile, or On Education]]'', a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. Rousseau introduces a passage from Plutarch in support of his position against eating meat: {{"'}}You ask me', said Plutarch, 'why [[Pythagoras]] abstained from eating the flesh of beasts...{{'"}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Emile, or On Education|last=Rousseau|first=Jean-Jacques|publisher=JM Dent & Sons / EP Dutton & Co|year=1911|url=http://lf-oll.s3.amazonaws.com/titles/2256/Rousseau_1499_Bk.pdf|page=118|translator-last=Foxley|translator-first=Barbara}}</ref>

[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] and the [[Transcendentalism|Transcendentalists]] were greatly influenced by the ''Moralia'' and in his glowing introduction to the five-volume, 19th-century edition, he called the ''Lives'' "a bible for heroes".<ref>{{cite book|last=Emerson|first=Ralph Waldo|editor=William W. Goodwin|title=Plutarch's Morals|year=1870|publisher=Sampson, Low|location=London|page=xxi|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> He also opined that it was impossible to "read Plutarch without a tingling of the blood; and I accept the saying of the Chinese [[Mencius]]: 'A sage is the instructor of a hundred ages. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become intelligent, and the wavering, determined.{{'"}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Emerson|first=Ralph Waldo|title=Representative Men|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/representativeme1850emer|year=1850|chapter=Uses of Great Men}}</ref>

[[Michel de Montaigne|Montaigne]]'s ''[[Essays (Montaigne)|Essays]]'' draw extensively on Plutarch's ''Moralia'' and are consciously modelled on the Greek's easygoing and discursive inquiries into science, manners, customs and beliefs. ''Essays'' contains more than 400 references to Plutarch and his works.<ref name=NewCriterion/>

[[James Boswell]] quoted Plutarch on writing lives, rather than biographies, in the introduction to his own ''[[Life of Samuel Johnson]]''. Other admirers included [[Ben Jonson]], [[John Dryden]], [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[John Milton]], [[Edmund Burke]], [[Joseph De Maistre]], [[Mark Twain]], [[Louis L'amour]], and [[Francis Bacon]], as well as such disparate figures as [[Cotton Mather]] and [[Robert Browning]].

Plutarch's influence declined in the 19th and 20th centuries, but it remains embedded in the popular ideas of Greek and Roman history. One of his most famous quotes was one that he included in one of his earliest works. "The world of man is best captured through the lives of the men who created history."

==Translations of ''Lives'' and ''Moralia''==

There are translations, from the original [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], in [[Latin]], [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Polish language|Polish]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].

British classical scholar H. J. Rose writes "One advantage to a modern reader who is not well acquainted with Greek is, that being but a moderate stylist, Plutarch is almost as good in a translation as in the original."<ref>[[H. J. Rose]]. ''A Handbook of Greek Literature: From Homer to the Age of Lucian.''. New York: Dutton, 1960. p. 409.</ref>

===French translations===

[[Jacques Amyot]]'s translations brought Plutarch's works to Western Europe. He went to Italy and studied the Vatican text of Plutarch, from which he published a French translation of the ''Lives'' in 1559 and ''Moralia'' in 1572, which were widely read by educated Europe.<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle= Amyot, Jacques | volume= 01 | page = 901 |quote= He was thus enabled to go to Italy to study the Vatican text of Plutarch, on the translation on whose Lives (1559; 1565) he had been some time engaged.}}</ref> Amyot's translations had as deep an impression in England as France, because Thomas North later published his English translation of the ''Lives'' in 1579 based on Amyot's French translation instead of the original Greek.

===English translations===

Plutarch's ''Lives'' were translated into English, from Amyot's version, by [[Sir Thomas North]] in 1579. The complete ''Moralia'' was first translated into English from the original Greek by [[Philemon Holland]] in 1603.

In 1683, [[John Dryden]] began a life of Plutarch and oversaw a translation of the ''Lives'' by several hands and based on the original Greek. This translation has been reworked and revised several times, most recently in the 19th century by the English poet and classicist [[Arthur Hugh Clough]] (first published in 1859). One contemporary publisher of this version is [[Modern Library]]. Another is Encyclopædia Britannica in association with the University of Chicago, {{ISBN|0-85229-163-9}}, 1952, {{LCCN|5510323}}.

In 1770, English brothers [[John Langhorne (poet)|John]] and [[William Langhorne (clergyman)|William Langhorne]] published "Plutarch's ''Lives'' from the original Greek, with notes critical and historical, and a new life of Plutarch" in 6 volumes and dedicated to Lord Folkestone. Their translation was re-edited by Archdeacon Wrangham in the year 1819.

From 1901 to 1912, an American classicist, [[Bernadotte Perrin]],<ref>{{cite document|title=Bernadotte Perrin Papers (MS 1018) |publisher=Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library|hdl = 10079/fa/mssa.ms.1018}}</ref> produced a new translation of the ''Lives'' for the [[Loeb Classical Library]]. The ''Moralia'' is also included in the Loeb series, translated by various authors.

[[Penguin Classics]] began a series of translations by various scholars in 1958 with ''The Fall of the Roman Republic'', which contained six Lives and was translated by Rex Warner.<ref>''The Age of Alexander'', rev. ed. (Penguin, 2012), "Penguin Plutarch".</ref> Penguin continues to revise the volumes.

===Italian translations===

Note: only the main translations from the second half of 15th century are given.<ref>Virgilio Costa, ''[https://www.academia.edu/4825458/Sulle_prime_traduzioni_italiane_a_stampa_delle_opere_di_Plutarco_secc._XV-XVI_ Sulle prime traduzioni italiane a stampa delle opere di Plutarco (secc. XV–XVI)]''</ref>

*Battista Alessandro Iaconelli, ''Vite di Plutarcho traducte de Latino in vulgare in Aquila'', L’Aquila, 1482.

*Dario Tiberti, ''Le Vite di Plutarco ridotte in compendio, per M. Dario Tiberto da Cesena, e tradotte alla commune utilità di ciascuno per L. Fauno, in buona lingua volgare'', Venice, 1543.

*[[Lodovico Domenichi]], ''Vite di Plutarco. Tradotte da m. Lodouico Domenichi, con gli suoi sommarii posti dinanzi a ciascuna vita...'', Venice, 1560.

*[[Francesco Sansovino]], ''Le vite de gli huomini illustri greci e romani, di Plutarco Cheroneo sommo filosofo et historico, tradotte nuovamente da M. Francesco Sansovino...'', Venice, 1564.

*Marcello Adriani il Giovane, ''Opuscoli morali di Plutarco volgarizzati da Marcello Adriani il giovane'', Florence, 1819–1820.

*Girolamo Pompei, ''Le Vite Di Plutarco'', Verona, 1772–1773.

===Latin translations===

There are multiple translations of ''Parallel Lives'' into Latin, most notably the one titled "Pour le Dauphin" (French for "for the Prince") written by a scribe in the court of [[Louis XV of France]] and a 1470 [[Ulrich Han]] translation.

===German translations===

====Hieronymus Emser====

In 1519, Hieronymus Emser translated ''De capienda ex inimicis utilitate'' (''wie ym eyner seinen veyndt nutz machen kan'', Leipzig).

====Gottlob Benedict von Schirach====

The biographies were translated by Gottlob Benedict von Schirach (1743–1804) and printed in Vienna by Franz Haas (1776–1780).

====Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser====

Plutarch's ''Lives'' and ''Moralia'' were translated into German by [[Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser]]:

* ''Vitae parallelae. Vergleichende Lebensbeschreibungen''. 10 Bände. Magdeburg 1799–1806.

* ''Moralia. Moralische Abhandlungen''. 9 Bde. Frankfurt a.M. 1783–1800.

====Subsequent German translations====

* ''Lives''

** ''Große Griechen und Römer''. {{Interlanguage link multi|Konrat Ziegler|de}}, 6 vols. Zürich 1954–1965. (''Bibliothek der alten Welt'').

* ''Moralia''

** ''Plutarch. Über Gott und Vorsehung, Dämonen und Weissagung'', Zürich: Konrat Ziegler, 1952. (''Bibliothek der alten Welt'')

** ''Plutarch. Von der Ruhe des Gemüts – und andere Schriften'', Zürich: Bruno Snell, 1948. (''Bibliothek der alten Welt'')

** ''Plutarch. Moralphilosophische Schriften'', Stuttgart: [[Hans-Josef Klauck]], 1997. (''Reclams Universal-Bibliothek'')

** ''Plutarch. Drei Religionsphilosophische Schriften'', Düsseldorf: [[Herwig Görgemanns]], 2003. (''Tusculum'')

===Hebrew translations===

Following some Hebrew translations of selections from Plutarch's ''Parallel Lives'' published in the 1920s and the 1940s, a complete translation was published in three volumes by the [[Bialik Institute]] in 1954, 1971 and 1973. The first volume, ''Roman Lives'', first published in 1954, presents the translations of Joseph G. Liebes to the biographies of [[Coriolanus]], [[Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus|Fabius Maximus]], [[Tiberius Gracchus]] and [[Gaius Gracchus]], [[Cato the Elder]] and [[Cato the Younger]], [[Gaius Marius]], [[Sulla]], [[Sertorius]], [[Lucullus]], [[Pompey]], [[Crassus]], [[Cicero]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Brutus]] and [[Mark Antony|Mark Anthony]].

The second volume, ''Greek Lives'', first published in 1971 presents A. A. Halevy's translations of the biographies of [[Lycurgus of Sparta|Lycurgus]], [[Aristides]], [[Cimon]], [[Pericles]], [[Nicias]], [[Lysander]], [[Agesilaus]], [[Pelopidas]], [[Dion of Syracuse|Dion]], [[Timoleon]], [[Demosthenes]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[Eumenes]] and [[Phocion]]. Three more biographies presented in this volume, those of [[Solon]], [[Themistocles]] and [[Alcibiades]] were translated by M. H. Ben-Shamai.

The third volume, ''Greek and Roman Lives'', published in 1973, presented the remaining biographies and parallels as translated by Halevy. Included are the biographies of [[Demetrius I of Macedon|Demetrius]], [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]], [[Agis IV|Agis]] and [[Cleomenes III|Cleomenes]], [[Aratus]] and [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes]], [[Philopoemen]], [[Marcus Furius Camillus|Camillus]], [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]], [[Flamininus]], [[Aemilius Paulus]], [[Galba]] and [[Otho]], [[Theseus]], [[Romulus]], [[Numa Pompilius]] and [[Poplicola]]. It completes the translation of the known remaining biographies. In the introduction to the third volume Halevy explains that originally the Bialik Institute intended to publish only a selection of biographies, leaving out mythological figures and biographies that had no parallels. Thus, to match the first volume in scope the second volume followed the same path and the third volume was required.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}}

==Pseudo-Plutarch==

{{Main|Pseudo-Plutarch}}

Some editions of the ''Moralia'' include several works now known to have been [[Pseudepigrapha|falsely attributed]] to Plutarch. Among these are the ''Lives of the Ten Orators'', a series of biographies of the [[Attic orators]] based on [[Caecilius of Calacte]]; ''On the Opinions of the Philosophers'', ''On Fate'', and ''On Music''.<ref name=Blank>{{cite book| last= Blank| first= D.| year= 2011| title= 'Plutarch' and the Sophistry of 'Noble Lineage'| editor-first= J. |editor-last= Martínez | work= Fakes and Forgers of Classical Literature| place= Madrid| publisher= Ediciones Clásicas| pages= 33–60}}</ref> These works are all attributed to a single, unknown author, referred to as "[[Pseudo-Plutarch]]".<ref name="Blank"/> Pseudo-Plutarch lived sometime between the third and fourth centuries AD. Despite being falsely attributed, the works are still considered to possess historical value.<ref>{{cite book| first= Don E.| last= Marietta| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Gz-8PsrT32AC |title= Introduction to Ancient Philosophy| publisher= M.E. Sharpe| year= 1998| page= 190 |number= 11| isbn= 978-0765602169}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Middle Platonism]]

* [[Numenius of Apamea]]

* [[6615 Plutarchos]]

* [[Plutarchia (wasp)|''Plutarchia'' (wasp)]]

* [[Plutarchia (plant)|''Plutarchia'' (plant)]] (named after Plutarch)

==Notes==

{{notelist}}

==References==

{{Reflist}}

==Sources==

* {{cite book|last=Blackburn|first=Simon|title=Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|year=1994 }}

* {{cite book|last=Russell|first=D.A.|title=Plutarch|publisher=Duckworth Publishing|orig-year=1972|year=2001|isbn=978-1-85399-620-7}}

* {{cite book|last=Duff|first=Timothy|title=Plutarch's Lives: Exploring Virtue and Vice|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=UK|orig-year=1999|year=2002|isbn=978-0-19-925274-9 }}

* {{cite book|last=Hamilton|first=Edith|title=The Echo of Greece|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=1957|page=[https://archive.org/details/echoofgreece00edit/page/194 194]|isbn=0-393-00231-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/echoofgreece00edit/page/194}}

* Honigmann, E.A.J. "Shakespeare's Plutarch." ''[[Shakespeare Quarterly]]'', 1959: 25–33.

* {{Cite book |last=Pelling |first=Christopher |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50552352 |title=Plutarch and History: Eighteen Studies |date=2002 |publisher=Classical Press of Wales |isbn=0-7156-3128-4 |location=Swansea |oclc=50552352}}

* {{Cite encyclopedia |last=Russell |first=Donald |title=Plutarch |encyclopedia=The Oxford classical dictionary |year=2012 |editor-first1=Simon |editor-last1=Hornblower |editor-first2=Antony |editor-last2=Spawforth |editor-first3=Esther |editor-last3=Eidinow |isbn=978-0-19-954556-8 |edition=4th |location=Oxford |oclc=959667246 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=1165–66 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5141 }}

* {{cite book |last=Stadter |first=Philip A |chapter=Plutarch and Rome |title=A companion to Plutarch |year=2014 |pages=13–31 |editor-last=Beck |editor-first=Mark |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |series=Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World |isbn=978-1-4051-9431-0 |lccn=2013028283 }}

* {{cite book|last=Wardman|first=Alan|title=Plutarch's "Lives" |publisher=Elek|year=1974|page=274|isbn=0-236-17622-6}}

* [[John M. Dillon]] ( 1996).''The Middle Platonists: 80 B.C. to A.D. 220'', Cornell University Press, {{ISBN|978-0801483165}}

* <ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=C. P. |title=Plutarch and Rome |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1971 |isbn=9780198143635 |location=Oxford}}</ref>

==Further reading==

*Beck, Mark. 2000. "Anecdote and the representation of Plutarch’s ethos." In ''Rhetorical theory and praxis in Plutarch: Acta of the IVth international congress of the International Plutarch Society, Leuven, 3–6 July 1996.'' Edited by Luc van der Stockt, 15–32. Collection d’Études Classiques 11. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.

*--, ed. 2014. ''A companion to Plutarch.'' Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell.

*Beneker, Jeffrey. 2012. ''The passionate statesman:'' Eros ''and politics in Plutarch’s Lives.'' Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*Duff, Timothy E. 1999. ''Plutarch’s Lives: Exploring virtues and vice.'' Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*Georgiadou, Aristoula. 1992. "Idealistic and realistic portraiture in the Lives of Plutarch." In ''Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung.'' Vol. 2.33.6, ''Sprache und Literatur: Allgemeines zur Literatur des 2. Jahrhunderts und einzelne Autoren der trajanischen und frühhadrianischen Zeit.'' Edited by Wolfgang Haase, 4616–23. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

*Gill, Christopher. 1983. "The question of character-development: Plutarch and Tacitus." ''Classical Quarterly'' 33. no. 2: 469–87.

*Humble, Noreen, ed. 2010. ''Plutarch’s Lives: Parallelism and purpose.'' Swansea: Classical Press of Wales.

*McInerney, Jeremy. 2003. "Plutarch’s manly women." In Andreia'': Studies in manliness and courage in classical Athens.'' Edited by Ralph M. Rosen and Ineke Sluiter, 319–44. Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava, Supplementum 238. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill.

*Mossman, Judith. 2015. "Dressed for success? Clothing in Plutarch’s Demetrius." In ''Fame and infamy: Essays for Christopher Pelling on characterization and Roman biography and historiography.'' Edited by Rhiannon Ash, Judith Mossman, and Frances B. Titchener, 149–60. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*Nikolaidis, Anastasios G., ed. 2008. ''The unity of Plutarch’s work:'' Moralia ''themes in the'' Lives'', features of the'' Lives'' in the'' Moralia. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

*Pelling, Christopher. 2002. ''Plutarch and history: Eighteen studies.'' Swansea: Classical Press of Wales.

*{{cite book |last1=Roskam |first1=Geert |title=Plutarch |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9781009108225}}

*Scardigli, Barbara, ed. 1995. ''Essays on Plutarch’s Lives.'' Oxford: Clarendon.

*Stadter, Philip. 1996. "Anecdotes and the thematic structure of Plutarchean biography." In ''Estudios sobre Plutarco: Aspectos formales; Actas del IV Simposio español sobre Plutarco, Salamanca, 26 a 28 de mayo de 1994.'' Edited by José Antonio Fernández Delgado and Francisca Pordomingo Pardo, 291–303. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas.

*Stadter, Philip.. 2015. "The rhetoric of virtue in Plutarch’s Lives." In ''Plutarch and his Roman readers.'' By Philip A. Stadter, 231–45. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

*[[Lieve Van Hoof|Van Hoof, Lieve]]. 2010. ''Plutarch's practical ethics: the social dynamics of philosophy'' Oxford: Oxford University Press.

*Wardman, Alan E. 1967. "Description of personal appearance in Plutarch and Suetonius: The use of statues as evidence." ''Classical Quarterly'' 17, no. 2: 414–20.

*Zadorojnyi, Alexei V. 2012. "Mimesis and the (plu)past in Plutarch’s Lives." In ''Time and narrative in ancient historiography: The “plupast” from Herodotus to Appian.'' Edited by Jonas Grethlein and Christopher B. Krebs, 175–98. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

==External links==

{{wikiquote}}

{{wikisource author}}

{{commons category}}

{{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Plutarch

|viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}

;Plutarch's works

* {{Gutenberg author | id=342 | name=Plutarch}}

* {{Internet Archive author |search=("Plutarch" OR "Plutarchus")}}

* {{Librivox author |id=13}}

* [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/collection?collection=Perseus:collection:Greco-Roman Perseus Digital Library]

* Plutarch on [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/home.html LacusCurtius]

* Didot edition of Plutarch's works in Greek, with Latin translation (1857–1876): [https://archive.org/details/plutarchivitaep00doehgoog vol. 1 (Lives, pt. 1)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=OUYJAQAAIAAJ vol. 2 (Lives, pt. 2)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ee1DAAAAYAAJ vol. 3 (Moralia, pt. 1)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=s56zAAAAMAAJ vol. 4 (Moralia, pt. 2)], [https://books.google.com/books?id=txNgAAAAMAAJ vol. 5 (fragmenta et spuria)] (also [http://gallica.bnf.fr/Search?adva=1&adv=1&tri=title_sort&t_relation=%22Notice+d%27ensemble+%3A+http%3A%2F%2Fcatalogue.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fcb37341822f%22&q=plutarchi+vitae&lang=en via BNF])

;Secondary material

* {{cite SEP |url-id=plutarch |title=Plutarch |last=Karamanolis |first=George}}

* [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/plutarch/ Plutarch of Chaeronea] by Jona Lendering at Livius

* [http://www.usu.edu/history/ploutarchos/index.htm The International Plutarch Society] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511164545/http://www.usu.edu/history/ploutarchos/index.htm |date=11 May 2008 }}

* [http://bennozuiddam.com/Plutarch%20and%20God-eclipse%20in%20Christian%20Theology,%20Ploutarchos%202008,2009.pdf The relevance of Plutarch's book ''De Defectu Oraculorum'' for Christian Theology (Ploutarchos, Journal of the International Plutarch Society)]

{{Plutarch}}

{{Platonists}}

{{Ancient Greece topics}}

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{{Social and political philosophy}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Plutarch| ]]

[[Category:46 births]]

[[Category:120 deaths]]

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[[Category:Ancient Roman philosophers]]

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[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]

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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}

{{Other uses}}

{{distinguish|Plutocracy{{!}}Plutarchy}}

{{Short description|Greek philosopher and historian (c. AD 46 – after AD 119)}}

{{Infobox philosopher

| name = Plutarch

| image = Plutarch of Chaeronea-03 (cropped).jpg

| caption = Modern portrait at [[Chaeronea]], based on a bust from Delphi tentatively identified as Plutarch. <!--discussed on Talk: see also File:Head of a philosopher - Archaeological Museum of Delphi.jpg -->

| birth_date = {{circa|AD 46}}

| birth_place = [[Chaeronea]], [[Boeotia]]

| death_date = after AD 119 (aged 73–74)

| death_place = [[Delphi]], [[Phocis (ancient region)|Phocis]]

| occupation = Biographer, [[essay]]ist, [[philosopher]], [[priest]], [[ambassador]], [[magistrate]]

|school_tradition = [[Middle Platonism]]

|notable_works = ''[[Parallel Lives]]''<br>''[[Moralia]]''

|region = [[Ancient philosophy]]