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'{{Short description|Social system in South Asia}}{{MI| {{Copy edit|date=January 2023}} {{Cleanup lang|article|date=February 2023}} }} [[Muslim]] communities in [[South Asia]] apply a system of [[social stratification]].<ref>{{Cite news |author=Pratik Patnaik |title=Caste Among Indian Muslims Is a Real Issue. So Why Deny Them Reservation? |url=https://thewire.in/caste/caste-among-indian-muslims-real-why-deny-reservation |date=December 2, 2020 |newspaper=The Wire}}</ref> The stratification that operates among Muslims arises from concerns other than in the concepts of ''pure'' and ''impure'' that are integral to the Indian caste system.{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=120-121}}<ref name="Webner">{{Cite book |title=The Migration Process: Capital, Gifts and Offerings among British Pakistanis |last1=Webner |first1=Pnina |date=2007 |access-date=30 October 2016 |isbn=9781472518477 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1O2kBgAAQBAJ&q=caste+purity+among+Muslims&pg=PT84}}</ref> It developed as a result of relations between the foreign conquerors and Upper caste Hindus who converted to Islam (''[[Ashraf#Usage in South Asia|Ashraf]]'') (also known as ''tabqa-i ashrafiyya''{{sfn|Julien Levesque|2020|p=4}}) and the local lower caste converts (''Ajlaf'') as well as the continuation of the [[Indian caste system]] among local converts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gautier |first1=Laurence |last2=Levesque |first2=Julien |date=July 2020 |title=Introduction: Historicizing Sayyid-ness: Social Status and Muslim Identity in South Asia |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |language=en |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=383–393 |doi=10.1017/S1356186320000139 |issn=1356-1863 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Non-Ashrafs are lower caste converts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ashraf: Islamic Caste Group |publisher=Britannica |year=2021 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/ashraf-Islamic-caste-group}}</ref> The [[neologism]]{{clarify|date=February 2023|reason=A "neologism" is a "new term"; this seems to be a "novel CONCEPT", hard to see how this is relevant. Can "Pasmandas" be defined? Next sentence says what it includes, but not what is IS.}} Pasmandas include Ajlaf and Arzal Muslims, and Ajlafs' statuses are defined by them being descendants of converts to Islam and are also defined by their ''pesha'' (profession).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} These terms are not used in local sociological vocabulary in places such as [[Kashmir]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]], and therefore tell us very little about the functioning of Muslim society.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}{{clarify|date=February 2023|reason=They're not used in Kashmir, UP, so? Is this meant to say "tell us very little about the functioning" in those specific places?}} The [[Baradari (brotherhood)|Biradari]] System is how social stratification manifests itself in [[Pakistan]], and to an extent also [[India]].<ref name="nihcr.edu.pk">{{citation |author=Mughees Ahmed |year=2009 |title=Local-bodies or local biradari system: An analysis of the role of biradaries in the local bodies system of the Punjab |journal=Pakistan Journal of History and Culture |volume=30 |number=1 |pages=81–92 |url=http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/Latest_English_Journal/Local-Bodies.pdf }}</ref> The South Asian Muslim caste system also includes hierarchical classifications of khandan (dynasty, family, or lineage descent) and nasab (a group based on blood ties and lineage).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} == Historical development == While [[Islam]] requires [[egalitarian]]ism and does not recognize any [[castes]], only [[socio-economic]] [[Social class|classes]],{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=27}} when it came to [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Persia]] and India, the existing divisions in these regions were adopted among the local Muslim societies. Evidence of social stratification can be found in several later Persian works, such as {{transl|fa|[[Siyasatnama]]}} of [[Nizam al-Mulk]] (11th century), {{transl|fa|[[Akhlaq-i Nasiri]]}} of [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] (13th century), and {{transl|fa|Jam-i-Mufidi}} (17th century).{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=29}} After Muhammad died in the 7th century, there was the war of succession which had tribes and families fighting each other.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} After this, a determinant for social stratification in Arab society included being part of the close family of Muhammad ({{transl|ar|ahl al-bayt}}).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} This alleged {{transl|ar|ahl al-bayt}} determinant had its presence in ancient [[South Asia]] among Muslims since the 8th century, and then this allegedly led to a further hierarchical determinant, which was Arabs versus non-Arabs.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} Later on, among non-Arabs, further divisions took place, between Muslims who were converted in early Islamization campaigns ({{transl|ar|khadim-al islam}}) and Muslims who converted more recently ({{transl|ar|jadid-al islam}}).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} Today, [[South Asian]] Muslims are divided by the aforementioned classifications that have resulted in Arab-origin higher castes ({{transl|ur|unch zat}}) and those that are descendants of lower castes converts ({{transl|ur|nich zat}}).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} The Sultans during the Mughal Empire were all high caste.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} The Muslims who came to the subcontinent during the 12th century [[Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent]] were allegedly already divided into vocation based social "classes" , including priests, nobles and others. Further, a racial segregation demarcated the local Muslim converts from foreign origin Muslims . The foreigners claimed a superior status as they were associated with the conquerors and categorized themselves as [[Ashraf]] ("noble").{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=30}} Over time, the Indian Muslim society also allegedly split on the basis of the existing [[Hindu caste system]].{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=30}} According to [[M. N. Srinivas]] (1986) and R.K. Bhattacharya, Indian Hindu converts to Islam brought their original caste system to the Muslim society in the region.{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=116}} On the other hand, [[Louis Dumont]] (1957) believes that the Islamic conquerors consciously adopted the Hindu caste system "as a compromise which they had to make in a predominantly Hindu environment."{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=115-116}} [[Ziauddin Barani]], an ethnic Indian 14th century political thinker of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], recommended that the "sons of Mohamed" (i.e. Ashrafs) be given a higher social status than the low-born (i.e. Ajlaf). His most significant contribution in the [[fatwa]] was his analysis of the castes with respect to Islam. His assertion was that castes would be mandated through state laws or "Zawabi" and would carry precedence over [[Sharia]] law whenever they were in conflict. According to Barani, every act which is "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominity, comes elegantly [from the Ajlaf]". Barani also developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of Imperial officers ("[[Vizier|Wazirs]]") that was primarily based on their caste.<ref>{{cite book |quote= Barani never called himself Turk for one intention that he wanted to be an Indian than anything else |title=Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatawa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rXmCAAAAMAAJ&q=Barani+never+called+himself+Turk+for+one+intention+that+he+wanted+to+be+an+Indian+than+anything+else |page=144 |author= Arbind Das · |date=1996 |isbn=9788185268453 }}</ref><ref name="Das">Das, Arbind, Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatwa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barrani: an analysis, Pratibha Publications, Delhi 1996, {{ISBN|81-85268-45-2}} pp. 124-143</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Sikand |first=Yoginder |title=Sacred Spaces: Exploring Traditions of Shared Faith in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RBkwnoDPKgUC&pg=PA7 |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-302931-1 |pages=7–}}</ref> His opinions were not followed by his own Sultanate, as he accuses the Tughlaq Sultans of appointing "low-born" people to high offices, including [[Muhammad bin Tughlaq|Sultan Muhammad Shah]],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) - Part One |author= Satish Chandra |date=2004 |page=99 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=9788124110645 }}</ref> and Barani's own patron [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq|Sultan Firuz Shah]] in [[Delhi]], who appointed a former slave captured and converted from [[Telangana]] as his [[Grand Vizier]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&dq=firuz+shah+khan+jahan+convert&pg=RA1-PA4 |title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture|id=Three-volume set |editor1=Jonathan Bloom|editor2=Sheila Blair|editor3=Sheila S. Blair |date=2009 |page=4 |publisher=Oup USA |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 }}</ref> Historically, many Muslims from the julaha or weaver caste began to identify as "Ansaris", the butchers as "Quereshis", and the sanitation and ''bhishti'' caste Muslims as "Sheikh".<ref name="Sanober"/> The Muslim concept of ''kafa'a/kufu/kafa'ah'', which ulama use to support endogamy, provides a justification for South Asian Muslim caste practices.{{sfn|Julien Levesque|2020|p=14}} Kafa'ah is hereditary.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} === Ashrafization and Syedization === Ashrafization includes adopting upper caste Muslims' practices to achieve social climbing.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Collective and Elective Ethnicity: Caste among Urban Muslims in India |first=Syed |last= Ali |date=December 2002 |journal=Sociological Forum |volume=17 |number=4 |publisher=Springer |page=602 |jstor=3070361 |doi=10.1023/A:1021077323866|s2cid=146701489 }}</ref> The [[Sayyid Dynasty]] of [[Khizr Khan]] of the Delhi Sultanate was founded by a [[Punjabi Muslims|Punjabi Muslim]], who claimed Sayyid descent based on unsubtantiated evidence.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHbiAAAAMAAJ&q=and+rested+chiefly+on+its+causal+recognition+by+the+famous+saint+Sayyid+Jal%C3%A1l|title=The Cambridge History of India|date=1958|publisher=S. Chand|location=The claim of Khizr Khān , who founded the dynasty known as the Sayyids , to descent from the prophet of Arabia was dubious , and rested chiefly on its causal recognition by the famous saint Sayyid Jalāl - ud - dīn of Bukhārā .|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765 |author= Richard M. Eaton |year= 2019 | isbn=978-0520325128 |page=117|language=en|quote=The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan...}}</ref> The [[Sayyid Brothers|Barha Syeds]] who rose as [[Kingmaker|king-makers]] of the [[Mughal Empire]], originated from a marginal Indian peasant community of [[Muzaffarnagar]] who claimed Sayyid ancestry, although their claim to be true Syeds was generally not admitted. The Mughal Emperor [[Jahangir]] wrote that "some people make remarks about their lineage, but their bravery is a convincing proof of their being Sayyids". This showed that they had assimilated into Sayyid identity merely due to military service rather than through true descent.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SrdiVPsFRYIC&dq=barha+peasant+syeds&pg=PA18 |title=Naukar, Rajput, and Sepoy:The Ethnohistory of the Military Labour Market of Hindustan, 1450-1850 |page=18 |author= Dirk H. A. Kolff |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521523059 }}</ref> ==== Caste Associations ==== Another type of Ashrafization is the establishment of caste associations to promote a community's interests and for, especially, social support.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} These {{transliteration|fa|anjuman}} ('forum', 'society') are commonly termed {{transliteration|fa|jama'at}} ({{lang|fa|جماعت}}{{hairspace}}; 'congregation', 'group', 'community'), replacing in the associations' names the use of {{transliteration|ur|zat}}, which signifies 'birth or origin group'.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} The Khoja caste, who are Ismaili Shias found particularly in Karachi and Sindh, are prominent in this regard.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} Other prominent Muslim caste associations are those of the Memons and the Bohras in Sindh and Gujarat.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} === History of research === There are various definitions of the term ''caste'', and therefore, various contested opinions on whether this term can be used to denote [[social stratification]] among non-Hindu communities, (e.g. [[Hindu]] [[Varna (Hinduism)|Varna]] or [[classification]]s of the [[British Raj]]). Ghaus Ansari (1960) uses the term "caste" to describe the Muslim social groups with following characteristics: [[endogamy]] within a given social group, hierarchical gradation of social groups, determination of the group membership by birth, and, in some cases, association of an occupation with the social group.{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=22}} Beginning in the [[19th century]], Western [[Indologist]]s first catalogued the various Muslim castes:{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=22}} * [[Henry Miers Elliot]]'s ''Supplement to the glossary of Indian terms'' (1844), later amplified into ''Memoirs on the history, folk-lore, and distribution of the Races of the North Western Provinces of India'' * John Charles Williams's ''The Report on the Census of Oudh'' (1869) * [[Denzil Ibbetson]]'s Census Report of Punjab (1883), later adapted into ''[[Panjab Castes]]'' * [[John Nesfield]]'s ''Brief View of the Caste System of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh'' (1885) * [[Herbert Hope Risley]]'s ''Tribes and castes of Bengal'' (1893) * [[William Crooke]]'s ''The tribes and castes of the North-western Provinces and Oudh'' (1896) Nelson's book, in particular, included a whole chapter dedicated to the primarily [[British Raj]] [[Indologist]] derived [[neologism]] of Muslim "castes". In 20th-century British India, a number of works included the Muslim social groups in their descriptions of the Indian castes. These included [[H. A. Rose]]'s ''[[A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province]]'' (1911).{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=2}} In independent India, Ghaus Ansari (1960) initiated academic discussion over the [[neologism]] of Muslim "caste" system. Subsequently, Imtiaz Ahmed elaborated the topic in his ''Caste and Social Stratification among the Muslims'' (1973).{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|p=115}} About 1915, Mirza Muhammad Hassan Qatil wrote about the four {{lang|und|firqa}} (classes) of the Ashraf.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}} He describes how people are considered to be {{lang|und|paji}} (contemptible) in the following occupations: elephant caretaking, bread business, perfume business, and businesses in bazaars.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}} == Syedism, Ashrafism, Biradarism, Zatism, Sharifism, Arab Supremacy, and Divisions == Zat is sometimes considered a broader category than Biradari. In Pakistani Punjab, being relatives is the main criterion to comprise a Biradari. The ranking, from highest to lowest, of Ashraf castes is the following: Syed, [[Garha|Gaur Muslims]], and Mughals. {{see also|List of Muslim Other Backward Classes communities in India}} Ghaus Ansari (1960) named the following four broad categories of Muslim social divisions in India: *''Ashraf'', who claim foreign-origin descent. **e.g. [[Sayyid]], [[Mughal tribe|Mughal]] *Converts from [[Forward caste|upper castes]] or [[Varna (Hinduism)|Swarna]]. **e.g. [[Garha|Gaur Muslims]] , [[Muslim Rajputs|Rajput Muslims]] [[Muslim Jats]] *Converts from other Indian [[Tribes]]. **e.g. [[Darzi]], [[Muslim Dhobi|Dhobi]], Mansoori, [[Muslim Gaddi|Gaddi]], [[Faqir (clan)|Faqir]], [[Hajjam]] (Nai), [[Julaha]], [[Kabaria]], [[Kumhar]], [[Kunjra]], [[Mirasi]], and [[Muslim Teli|Teli]] *Converts from [[untouchability|untouchable]] castes. **e.g. [[Mochi (Muslim)|Muslim Mochi]], [[Bhangi]] There is a hierarchy among Ashrafs that is determined by the degree of nearness to Muhammad and which country they originate from; accordingly the Syeds (who trace descent from Fatima, Muhammad's daughter) have the highest status.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=887}} The non-Ashrafs are categorized as ''Ajlaf''. The untouchable Hindu converts are also categorized as ''Arzal'' ("degraded").<ref name="Ambedkar">{{cite book |last=Ambedkar |first=Bhimrao |author-link=B.R. Ambedkar |title=Pakistan or the Partition of India |publisher= Thackers Publishers }}</ref><ref name="Ambedkaronline">[http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_partition/410.html Web resource for ''Pakistan or the Partition of India'']</ref>{{better source needed|date=February 2023|reason=Need peer-revewed content}} They are relegated to menial professions such as scavenging and carrying [[night soil]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/dereserve-these-myths/12109/ |title=Dereserve these myths - Indian Express |website=archive.indianexpress.com |language=en-gb |access-date=2017-09-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Falahi |first1=Masood |title=Caste and caste based discrimination s Among Indian Muslims' |url=http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/5664/1/AHRC_16,_Caste_and_Caste_Based_Discriminations_Among_Indian_Muslims.pdf |website=SAS |access-date=5 January 2015}}</ref> [[B.R. Ambedkar]], citing the Superintendent of the Census for 1901 for the Province of Bengal, mentions that the Ajlaf primarily include: * Cultivating Sheikhs, and others who were originally Hindus but who do not belong to any functional group, and have not gained admittance to the Ashraf Community, e.g. Pirali and Thakrai. * Darzi, Jolaha, Fakir, and Rangrez. * Barhi, Bhalhiara, Chik, Churihar, Dai, Dhawa, Dhunia, Gaddi, Kalal, Kasai, Kula Kunjara, Laheri, Mahifarosh, Mallah, Naliya, Nikari. * Abdal, Bako, Bediya, Bhal, Chamba, Dafali, Dhobi, Hajjam, Mucho, Nagarchi, Nal, Panwaria, Madaria, Tunlia. For the Arzal, the following castes are mentioned by the Superintendent of the Census: Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_partition/410.html#part_2 |title=410}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=February 2023|reason=Need peer-revewed content}} In [[Pakistan]], various social groups (called {{transliteration|ur|quoms}}) display a social stratification comparable to the Indian caste system. The various {{transliteration|ur|quoms}} differ widely in power, privilege and wealth. Both ethnic affiliation (e.g. [[Pashtuns|Pathan]], [[Sindhis|Sindhi]], [[Baloch people|Baloch]], [[Punjabis|Punjabi]], etc.) and membership of specific [[biraderi]]s or {{transliteration|ur|zaat/quoms}} are additional integral components of social identity.<ref name="barth">{{cite book |last=Barth |first=Fredrik |editor=E. R. Leach |title=The System Of Social Stratification In Swat, North Pakistan (Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon, and North-West Pakistan) |url= https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=2995517 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=113 |year=1962 }}</ref> Within the bounds of endogamy defined by the above parameters, close [[cousin marriage|consanguineous unions]] are preferred due to a congruence of key features of group- and individual-level background factors as well as affinities. McKim Marriott adds that a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous, and hereditary is widely prevalent, particularly in western parts of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Ecologic Relationships of Ethnic Groups in Swat, North Pakistan |author=Fredrick Barth |journal=American Anthropologist |doi=10.1525/aa.1956.58.6.02a00080 |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=1079–1089 |date=December 1956 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{sfn|Zeyauddin Ahmad|2011}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Caste ranking and community structure in five regions of India and Pakistan |author=McKim Marriott |year=1960 |publisher=Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute |oclc=186146571}}</ref> The numerically and socially influential tribes in Pakistani Punjab includes the agricultural tribes of [[Arain]], [[Awan (tribe)|Awan]], [[Jat Muslim]] and [[Gujjar]] as well as Rajput.<ref name="nihcr.edu.pk"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Punjab Province, Pakistan |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |id=483579 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Punjab-province-Pakistan |access-date=22 March 2022}}h</ref> In [[Nepal]], the castes of Muslims rank differs according to the criteria applied.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of the World Muslims: Tribes, Castes and Communities, Volume 1 |author=Nagendra Kr Singh, Abdul Mabud Khan |page=1124 |publisher=Global Vision Pub House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zzfs_G7QHoAC&pg=PA1124 |isbn=9788187746072 |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic Culture - Volume 52 |page=207 |author=Marmaduke William Pickthall, Muhammad Asad |year=1978}}</ref> In India the Ajlaf comprise Qureshis, Ansaris, Saifis, and other groups of lower occupation. The majority of ulemas (theologians/doctors of the law) are part of the Syed, and many Ashrafs are businessmen, landowners, and traders.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} A "marriage circle" can be formed over an area, over which a zat panchayat (caste council) can have the authority, and where marriage alliances occur. {{citation needed|date=July 2022}}{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} A Syed's status is sometimes based more on male descendants and hypergamous marriage than bloodline purity.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} The early Turks had subdivisions.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} In the ''Rasum-i Hind'', a textbook that was compiled by Master Pyare Lal in 1862, the four ''firqa'' (or subdivisions of the Ashraf) are explained, and ''nasl'' (lineage/pedigree) is elaborated:{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}} * The ancestors of the Mughal caste are said to be descended from the Biblical Noah.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}} * The ancestors of the Pathans are said to be Israelites from when Solomon was alive.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}} In the ruling class of the Mughal Empire, Muslims were classified as native [[Hindustan]]i, Afghan, Turani, and Irani.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}} === Pakistani Punjab === ==== Zamindars, Kammis, and the Seyp System ==== Zamindars, which are landowning class, and Kammis, which are service providing castes, are status groups that are caste based that are found in a hierarchical system in Pakistani Punjabi villages.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=ii}} Kammi Quoms and Zamindar Quoms are rigid birth-based groups that are based on parentage occupations.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=ii}} In the Seyp System, which is contractual labor, the Kammis provide labor and services, and they receive favors, food, money, crops, and grains.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=5}} Zamindars are considered to be a dominant caste, and leaders in the village and people who dominate affairs of the village tend to be Zamindars.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=5}} Social, political, and economic affairs of the village are dominated by Zamindar Quoms in Pakistan, and land is controlled by Zamindar Quoms,{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=5}} while Kammi Quoms are socially marginalized and discriminated.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=8}} Inter-Quom endogamy is found between Kammi Quoms and Zamindar Quoms.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=4}} Ancestral land ownership and a parentage job being cultivation are what Punjabi Pakistanis ascribe to the Zamindar status.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=10}} "Zamindars", in modern-day Pakistani Punjabi villages, typically refer to a Quom that owns land and has an occupation of agriculture - Zamindari.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=6}} There are some castes that are higher than the service providing castes and below the landowning castes.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=74}} Caste endogamy is found in Pakistan, with members of a Quom tending to marry within the Quom.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=17}} In the rural parts of Pakistani Punjab, the lack of marriages between Kammi and Zamindar Quoms is vital to the caste system.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=17}} Kammis include artisan, laborer, and service providing Quoms (such as barbers, cobblers, and carpenters).{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=18}} A Kammi woman remarked how:{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=136}} {{blockquote|Even if a Kammi acquires 100 acres of land, he remains Kammi and Zamindars will always consider him lower. A Zamindar who owns one acre of land would think "if a Kammi has bought 2 acres, so what after all he remains a Kammi". They do not accept us as equals.}} Quoms are highly influential in marriage practices.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=18}} However, different Zamindar Quoms sometimes intermarry, and this may constitute a Biradari.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=139}} A large majority of Kammis perform daily wage labour or low ranking tasks.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=140}} A study in a Pakistani Punjabi village found that in the ''Seyp'' (contractual relationships) between a ''Zamindar'' (landholding) family and ''Kammi'' (artisan castes) families, Kammi families give goods and perform services to the Zamindars, which give the Kammis grain; the Kammi families also perform some customary and ritual tasks: for example, the barber cooks in the Zamindar's house on special events and performs circumcisions.{{sfn|Julien Levesque|2020|p=10}} ===== Elections ===== People also exhibit loyalty to their Quoms in elections.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=18}} In Pakistani Punjab, Biradaris are the sole criteria in local bodies' elections.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=160}} There are more Zamindars than Kammis in Pakistani Punjab.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=139}} Including because of the high financial costs of running in an election, Kammis do not generally run in elections.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=161}} === Bengal === There are around 35 Muslim castes in Bengal.{{sfn|Chowdhury|2009|p=8}} Muslim society is historically divided into 3 large groupings in Bengal, with the Sharif/Ashraf at the top, followed by the ''Atraf'' (low-born), and with the Arzal or Ajlaf at the bottom.{{sfn|Chowdhury|2009|p=8}} Other Muslim castes historically do not associate with Arzal castes.{{sfn|Chowdhury|2009|p=10}} Lower castes historically are not allowed to enter mosques or be buried in the public burial ground.{{sfn|Chowdhury|2009|p=10}} === Sharifism === Sharifism refers to the special status given to claimants of prophetic ''nasab'' (also ''qarabah''), which means "closeness", or being descended from Muhammad, Muhammad's Quraysh tribe, or Muhammad's family.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies: Selected Writings |publisher=Ashgate Publisher, Ltd. |year=2010 |page=30}}</ref> == Discrimination == === Representation === In 20th century India, the upper-class (''Ashraf'') Muslims dominated the government jobs and parliamentary representation. As a result, there have been campaigns to include lower social classes among the groups eligible for [[reservation in India|affirmative action in India]] under ''SC and STs provision act''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.milligazette.com/Archives/2004/01-15Sep04-Print-Edition/011509200449.htm |title=On reservation for Muslims |author=Asghar Ali Engineer |work=The Milli Gazette |publisher=Pharos |access-date=2004-09-01 }}</ref> === Burial === In India's [[Bihar]] state, higher caste Muslims have opposed lower caste Muslims being buried in the same graveyard.<ref name="rediff_burial">{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/mar/06bihar.htm |title=Backward Muslims protest denial of burial |author=Anand Mohan Sahay |work=[[Rediff.com]] |access-date=2003-03-06 }}</ref><ref>Ahmad, I., 2010. "Can There Be a Category Called Dalit Muslims?". ''Studies in Inequality and Social Justice'', p.79</ref> === Racial and historical === Barani also explained at one point how Turkish sultans discriminated against Muslims of local descent.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} He explains how Iltutmish discriminated against low birth Muslims by letting go 33 of them from the government.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} Additionally, Iltutmish appointed Jamal Marzuq to the post of Mutassarif of Kanauj; Aziz Bahruz disagreed due to low birth status, which resulted in Marzuq no longer being the Mutassarif.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} Low born people were not allowed to be in the post of mudabbiri or khwajgi, and they also could not be eligible for an iqta recommendation.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} Balban prevented low-birth people from being in important offices, and he also criticized how Kamal Mohiyar was selected for mutassarif of Amroaha.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} A letter by Sayyid Ashraf Jahangiri explains how Balban thoroughly researched the ancestry of every single one of his government servants and officers; he had genealogists meet in Delhi to ascertain these ancestries.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} Tughlaq had a policy of giving "preference to foreign born Muslims in administration and government" and "systematically ignored the claims of Indian Muslims".{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} Sayyid Ashraf Jahangiri explains how:{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} {{blockquote|The Sultan went to the extent of offering the most responsible and distinguished offices of the kingdom — for instance those of a Wazir, a Dabir, a military commander, a judge, a professor of theology, or a Shaikhul-Islam — to almost any foreigner of some learning. Foreigners coming to India were collectively known as 'the Honourables' (A'izza)}} Historians and Urdu writers (including Masood Alam Falahi) have explained how discrimination of Ashraf Muslims towards lower caste Muslims and Dalit Muslims was often disguised under claims of class and "{{transl|ur|khandaani}}" (family line) values among Uttar Pradesh Muslims.<ref name="Sanober">{{cite journal |title= The Identity of Language and the Language of Erasure: Urdu and the Racialized-Decastification of the "Backward Musalmaan" in India |first=Sanober |last=Umar |publisher=[[Brandeis University]] |journal=Caste: A Global Journal on Social Exclusion |date=14 February 2020 |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.26812/caste.v1i1.29 |page=187|doi-access=free }}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|Islam}} *[[Caste system among South Asian Christians]] *[[Caste system in India]] *[[Islam in India]] *[[Pasmanda Muslim Mahaz]] *[[Social class in the United Kingdom]] *[[Social class in the United States]] == References == === Citations === {{reflist|30em}} === Bibliography === {{refbegin}} * {{cite journal |author=Imtiaz Ahmed |title=Ashraf and Ajlaf Categories in Indo-Muslim Society |date=May 13, 1967 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=2 |issue=19 |pages=887–891 |jstor=4357934}} * {{cite book |last=Anis Ansari |first=Khalid |chapter=Pluralism and the Post-Minority Condition |editor1=Boaventura De Sousa Santos |editor2=Bruno Sena Martins |date=2021 |title=The Pluriverse of Human Rights: The Diversity of Struggles for Dignity: The Diversity of Struggles for Dignity |publisher=Routledge |pages=|isbn=978-1-00-039570-9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m8cqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT86}} * {{cite book |author=Ghaus Ansari |title=Muslim Caste in Uttar Pradesh: A Study of Culture Contact |publisher=Ethnographic and Folk Culture Society |year=1960 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0HRAAAAMAAJ |oclc=1104993 }} * {{cite book |author=Fredrik Barth |author-link=Fredrik Barth |editor=Edmund Leach |title=Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon and North-West Pakistan |publisher=CUP Archive |year=1960 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OlU7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA113 |isbn=9780521096645 }} * {{cite journal |last=Berreman |first=Gerald D. |date=June 1972 |title=Social Categories and Social Interaction in Urban India |journal=American Anthropologist |volume =74 |issue=3 |pages=567–586 |issn=0002-7294 |doi =10.1525/aa.1972.74.3.02a00220 |doi-access=free }} * {{cite journal |first=Iftekhar Uddin |last=Chowdhury |title=Caste-based Discrimination in South Asia: A Study of Bangladesh |publisher=Indian Institute of Dalit Studies |journal=Working Paper Series |volume=III |number=7 |date=November 7, 2009}} * {{cite journal |author=Remy Delage |title=Muslim Castes in India |journal=Books & Ideas |date=29 September 2014 |publisher=College De France |url=https://booksandideas.net/Muslim-Castes-in-India.html}} * {{cite book |author=Azra Khanam |title=Muslim Backward Classes: A Sociological Perspective |publisher=SAGE |year=2013 |isbn=9788132116509 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sdz9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 }} * {{cite web |author=Julien Levesque |title=Debates on Muslim Caste in North India and Pakistan |year=2020 |publisher=HAL |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02697381}} * {{cite web |author=David Lelyveld |title=Article on "Ashraf" in "Keywords in South Asian Studies" |editor=Rachel Dwyer |publisher=School of Oriental and African Studies |year=2005 |url=https://www.soas.ac.uk/south-asia-institute/keywords/file24799.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227045820/https://www.soas.ac.uk/south-asia-institute/keywords/file24799.pdf |archive-date=December 27, 2020}} * {{cite book |author=Robert W. Stern |title=Changing India: Bourgeois Revolution on the Subcontinent |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-00912-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kb_z1KghC1oC&pg=PA76}} * {{cite thesis |author=Ahmed Usman |title=Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence |type=PhD |url=https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/21130/1/582096.pdf |publisher=The University of Leeds |year=2011}} * {{cite book |title=Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies: Selected Writings |publisher=Ashgate Publisher, Ltd. |year=2010}} {{refend}} ==Notes== :A.{{Note|NoteA||This source used gets the quotation from the following source: E A Gait, 'Census of India' 1901: Bengal Report 6 (1), Bengal Secretariat Press. 1902, p 439; the description in 'Imperial Gazetteer of India', v. 2, pp 329}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book |author=Imtiaz Ahmad |title=Caste and social stratification among Muslims in India |year=1978 |publisher=Manohar |location=New Delhi |oclc=5147249 }} * {{cite book |author=Zeyauddin Ahmad |chapter=Caste Elements Among the Muslims of Bihar |editor=Kenneth David |date=2011 |title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=337–356 |isbn=978-3-11-080775-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_la9QMGIQC&pg=PA337}} * {{cite book |last=Imam Ali |first=A.F. |title=Changing Social Stratification in Rural Bangladesh |date=September 1993 |publisher=South Asia Books |isbn=978-81-7169-267-5 }} * {{cite journal |author=Syed Ali |date=December 2002 |title=Collective and Elective Ethnicity: Caste Among Urban Muslims in India |journal=Sociological Forum |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=593–620 |issn=0884-8971 |doi=10.1023/A:1021077323866 |s2cid=146701489 }} * {{cite book |last=Sikand |first=Yoginder |title= Islam, Caste and Muslim Relations in India |year=2004 |publisher= Global Media Publications |isbn=978-81-88869-06-0 }} * {{cite journal |last=Ahmad |first=S. Shamim |author2=A. K. Chakravarti |date=January 1981 |title=Some regional characteristics of Muslim caste systems in India |journal=GeoJournal |volume =5 |issue=1 |pages=55–60 |issn=0343-2521 |doi=10.1007/BF00185243 |s2cid=153606947 }} * {{cite journal |last=Berreman |first=Gerald D. |date=June 1972 |title=Social Categories and Social Interaction in Urban India |journal=American Anthropologist |volume =74 |issue=3 |pages=567–586 |issn=0002-7294 |doi =10.1525/aa.1972.74.3.02a00220 |doi-access=free }} {{Segregation by type|state=collapsed}} {{Discrimination}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Caste System Among South Asian Muslims}} [[Category:Caste system in India|Muslims]] [[Category:Islam in India]] [[Category:Islam in Pakistan]] [[Category:Islam in South Asia]] [[Category:Islam in Nepal]] [[Category:Social class in India]] [[Category:Discrimination in India]] [[Category:Discrimination in Pakistan]] [[Category:Discrimination in Bangladesh]] [[Category:Discrimination in Nepal]] [[Category:Discrimination in Sri Lanka]] [[Category:Caste-related violence in India]] [[Category:Caste system in Nepal]] [[Category:Caste]]'