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Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Aspect of history in the United States}}
{{Economy of the United States sidebar|expanded=history}}
The '''history of agriculture in the United States''' covers the period from the first English settlers to the present day. In [[Colonial America]], [[agriculture]] was the primary livelihood for 90% of the population, and most towns were shipping points for the export of agricultural products. Most farms were geared toward subsistence production for family use. The rapid growth of population and the [[Territorial evolution of the United States|expansion of the frontier]] opened up large numbers of new farms, and clearing the land was a major preoccupation of farmers. After 1800, cotton became the chief crop in [[Plantation complexes in the Southern United States|southern plantations]], and the chief American export. After 1840, [[Industrial Revolution in the United States|industrialization]] and [[Urbanization in the United States|urbanization]] opened up lucrative domestic markets. The number of farms grew from 1.4 million in 1850, to 4.0 million in 1880, and 6.4 million in 1910; then started to fall, dropping to 5.6 million in 1950 and 2.2 million in 2008.<ref>US Bureau of the Census, ''Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2010'' (2010) [https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2010/tables/10s0800.pdf Table 800]</ref>
[[File:Paul Sample's America, its soil LOC 2012588336.jpg|thumb|1946 Pictorial map, represent wealth of the United States soil]]
==Pre-Colonial era==
{{see|Eastern Agricultural Complex|Agriculture in the prehistoric Southwest|Agriculture on the prehistoric Great Plains}}
Prior to the arrival of Europeans in North America, the continent supported a diverse range of indigenous cultures. While some populations were primarily [[hunter-gatherer]]s, other populations relied on agriculture. Native Americans farmed domesticated crops in the Eastern Woodlands, the Great Plains, and the American Southwest.
== {{anchor|Colonial farming: 1610 - 1775}}Colonial farming: 1610–1775 ==
Beginning in 1620, the first settlers in [[Plymouth Colony]] planted [[barley]] and [[pea]]s from [[Kingdom of England|England]] but their most important crop was Indian corn ([[maize]]) which they were shown how to cultivate by the native [[Squanto]]. To fertilize this crop, they used small fish which they called herrings or [[shad]]s.<ref>{{citation |title=In the days of the Pilgrim Fathers |page=114 |author=Mary Caroline Crawford |year=1970}}</ref>
Beginning in 1619, Southern plantation agriculture, using [[Slavery in the colonial history of the United States|slaves]], developed in [[Colony of Virginia|Virginia]] and [[Province of Maryland|Maryland]] (where tobacco was grown), and [[Province of South Carolina|South Carolina]] (where indigo and rice was grown). Cotton became a major plantation crop after 1800 in the "[[Black Belt (geological formation)|Black Belt]]," and throughout the region from North Carolina in an arc through Texas where the climate allowed for cotton cultivation.<ref> Jack P. Greene, Rosemary Brana-Shute, and Randy J. Sparks, eds. ''Money, Trade, and Power: The Evolution of Colonial South Carolina's Plantation Society'' (Univ of South Carolina Press, 2021).</ref>
Apart from the tobacco and rice plantations, the great majority of farms were subsistence, producing food for the family and some for trade and taxes. Throughout the colonial period, subsistence farming was pervasive. Farmers supplemented their income with sales of surplus crops or animals in the local market, or by exports to the slave colonies in the [[British West Indies]]. Logging, hunting and fishing supplemented the family economy.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Gary M. Walton|author2=James F. Shepherd|title=The Economic Rise of Early America|url=https://archive.org/details/economicriseofea00walt|url-access=registration|year=1979|publisher=Cambridge UP|page=[https://archive.org/details/economicriseofea00walt/page/42 42]}}</ref>
===Ethnic farming styles===
Ethnicity made a difference in agricultural practice. [[German Americans]] brought with them practices and traditions that were quite different from those of the [[English Americans|English]] and [[Scottish Americans|Scots]]. They adapted Old World techniques to a much more abundant land supply. For example, they generally preferred oxen to horses for plowing. Furthermore, the Germans showed a long-term tendency to keep the farm in the family and to avoid having their children move to towns.<ref>Richard H. Shryock, "British versus German traditions in colonial agriculture," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' (1939) 26#1 pp. 39–54. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1893205 in JSTOR]</ref><ref>James T. Lemon, "The agricultural practices of national groups in eighteenth-century southeastern Pennsylvania." ''Geographical Review'' (1966): 467–496. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/213054 in JSTOR]</ref> The [[Scots-Irish American|Scots Irish]] built their livelihoods on some farming but more herding (of hogs and cattle). In the American colonies, the Scots-Irish focused on mixed farming. Using this technique, they grew corn for human consumption and for livestock feed, especially for hogs. Many improvement-minded farmers of different backgrounds began using new agricultural practices to increase their output. During the 1750s, these agricultural innovators replaced the hand sickles and scythes used to harvest hay, wheat, and barley with the cradle scythe, a tool with wooden fingers that arranged the stalks of grain for easy collection. This tool was able to triple the amount of work done by a farmer in one day. A few scientifically informed farmers (mostly wealthy planters like [[George Washington]]) began fertilizing their fields with dung and lime and rotating their crops to keep the soil fertile.
Before 1720, most colonists in the [[Middle Colonies|mid-Atlantic region]] worked in small-scale farming and paid for imported manufactures by supplying the West Indies with corn and flour. In [[Province of New York|New York]], a fur-pelt export trade to Europe flourished and added additional wealth to the region. After 1720, mid-Atlantic farming was stimulated by the international demand for wheat. A massive population explosion in Europe drove wheat prices up. By 1770, a bushel of wheat cost twice as much as it did in 1720.<ref>{{cite book|author=James L. Roark|display-authors=etal|title=The American Promise, Volume I: To 1877: A History of the United States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7SsVAAAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's|page=134|isbn=9781457605611}}</ref> Farmers also expanded their production of flaxseed and corn since flax was in high demand in the Irish linen industry and a demand for corn existed in the West Indies.
Many poor German immigrants and [[Scotch-Irish Americans|Scots-Irish settlers]] began their careers as agricultural wage laborers. Merchants and artisans hired teen-aged [[Indentured servitude in British America|indentured servants]], paying the transportation over from Europe, as workers for a domestic system for the manufacture of cloth and other goods. Merchants often bought wool and flax from farmers and employed newly arrived immigrants who had been textile workers in Ireland and Germany to work in their homes spinning the materials into yarn and cloth.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} Large farmers and merchants became wealthy, while farmers with smaller farms and artisans only made enough for subsistence.
==New nation: 1776–1860==
The U.S. economy was primarily agricultural in the early 19th century.<ref>Curtis P. Nettels, ''The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815 ''(1962)</ref><ref>[[Paul Wallace Gates|Paul W. Gates]], ''The Farmers' Age: Agriculture, 1815–1860'' (1960)</ref> Westward expansion, including the [[Louisiana Purchase]] and American victory in the [[War of 1812]] plus the building of canals and the introduction of steamboats opened up new areas for agriculture. Most farming was designed to produce food for the family, and service small local markets. In times of rapid economic growth, a farmer could still improve the land for far more than he paid for it, and then move further west to repeat the process. While the land was cheap and fertile the process of clearing it and building farmsteads wasn't. Frontier life wasn't new for Americans but presented new challenges for farm families who faced the challenges of bringing their produce to market across vast distances.
===South===
In the [[Southern United States]], the poor lands were held by poor white farmers, who generally owned no slaves.<ref>Sam Bowers Hilliard, ''Hog Meat and Hoecake: Food Supply in the Old South, 1840–1860'' (2014).</ref> The best lands were held by rich plantation owners and were operated primarily with [[Slavery in the United States|slave labor]]. These farms grew their own food and also concentrated on a few "cash crops" that could be exported to meet the growing demand in Europe, especially cotton, tobacco, and sugar. The [[cotton gin]] made it possible to increase cotton production. Cotton became the main export crop, but after a few years, the fertility of the soil was depleted and the plantation was moved to the new land further west. Much land was cleared and put into growing cotton in the Mississippi valley and in Alabama, and new grain growing areas were brought into production in the Mid West. Eventually this put severe downward pressure on prices, particularly of cotton, first from 1820–23 and again from 1840–43.<ref>John Solomon Otto, ''The Southern Frontiers, 1607–1860: The Agricultural Evolution of the Colonial and Antebellum South'' (1989).</ref> Sugar cane was being grown in Louisiana, where it was refined into granular sugar. Growing and refining sugar required a large amount of capital. Some of the nation's wealthiest men owned sugar plantations, which often had their own sugar mills.<ref>Joseph Carlyle Sitterson, ''Sugar country: the cane sugar industry in the South, 1753–1950'' (1953).</ref>
===New England===
In [[New England]], subsistence agriculture gave way after 1810 to production to provide food supplies for the rapidly growing industrial towns and cities. New specialty export crops were introduced such as tobacco and cranberries.<ref>Percy W. Bidwell, "The Agricultural Revolution in New England," ''American Historical Review'' (1921) 26#4 pp. 683–702 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1836733 in JSTOR]</ref>
===Western frontier===
{{Further|American frontier}}
The [[British Empire]] had attempted to restrict westward expansion with the ineffective [[Proclamation Line of 1763]], abolished after the [[American Revolutionary War]]. The first major movement west of the [[Appalachian Mountains]] began in Pennsylvania, Virginia and North Carolina as soon as the war was won in 1781. Pioneers housed themselves in a rough lean-to or at most a one-room log cabin. The main food supply at first came from hunting deer, turkeys, and other abundant small game.
<blockquote>Clad in typical frontier garb, leather breeches, moccasins, fur cap, and hunting shirt, and girded by a belt from which hung a hunting knife and a shot pouch – all homemade – the pioneer presented a unique appearance. In a short time he opened in the woods a patch, or clearing, on which he grew corn, wheat, flax, tobacco and other products, even fruit. In a few years the pioneer added hogs, sheep and cattle, and perhaps acquired a horse. Homespun clothing replaced the animal skins. The more restless pioneers grew dissatisfied with over civilized life, and uprooted themselves again to move 50 or hundred miles (80 or 160 km) further west.<ref>Charles H. Ambler and Festus P. Summers, ''West Virginia, the mountain state'' (1958) p. 55.</ref></blockquote>
In 1788, [[American pioneers to the Northwest Territory]] established [[Marietta, Ohio]] as the first permanent American settlement in the [[Northwest Territory]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Theodore Roosevelt|title=The Winning of the West|url=https://archive.org/details/winningofwest06roosbyu|year=1905|publisher=Current Literature |pages=[https://archive.org/details/winningofwest06roosbyu/page/46 46]–}}</ref> By 1813 the western frontier had reached the [[Mississippi River]]. [[St. Louis, Missouri]] was the largest town on the frontier, the gateway for travel westward, and a principal trading center for [[Mississippi River]] traffic and inland commerce. There was wide agreement on the need to settle the new territories quickly, but the debate polarized over the price the government should charge. The [[Conservatism in the United States|conservatives]] and [[Whig Party (United States)|Whigs]], typified by president [[John Quincy Adams]], wanted a moderated pace that charged the newcomers enough to pay the costs of the federal government. The [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]], however, tolerated a wild scramble for land at very low prices. The final resolution came in the Homestead Law of 1862, with a moderated pace that gave settlers 160 acres free after they worked on it for five years.<ref>John R. Van Atta, ''Securing the West: Politics, Public Lands, and the Fate of the Old Republic, 1785–1850'' (Johns Hopkins University Press; 2014)</ref>
From the 1770s to the 1830s, pioneers moved into the new lands that stretched from Kentucky to Alabama to Texas. Most were farmers who moved in family groups.<ref>Ray Allen Billington and Martin Ridge, ''Westward Expansion'' (5th ed. 1982) pp. 203–328, 747–66</ref> Historian [[Louis M. Hacker]] shows how wasteful the first generation of pioneers was; they were too ignorant to cultivate the land properly and when the natural fertility of virgin land was used up, they sold out and moved west to try again. Hacker describes that in Kentucky about 1812:
{{blockquote|Farms were for sale with from ten to fifty acres cleared, possessing log houses, peach and sometimes apple orchards, inclosed in fences, and having plenty of standing timber for fuel. The land was sown in wheat and corn, which were the staples, while hemp [for making rope] was being cultivated in increasing quantities in the fertile river bottoms. ...
Yet, on the whole, it was an agricultural society without skill or resources. It committed all those sins which characterize a wasteful and ignorant husbandry. Grass seed was not sown for hay and as a result the farm animals had to forage for themselves in the forests; the fields were not permitted to lie in pasturage; a single crop was planted in the soil until the land was exhausted; the manure was not returned to the fields; only a small part of the farm was brought under cultivation, the rest being permitted to stand in timber. Instruments of cultivation were rude and clumsy and only too few, many of them being made on the farm. It is plain why the American frontier settler was on the move continually. It was, not his fear of a too close contact with the comforts and restraints of a civilized society that stirred him into a ceaseless activity, nor merely the chance of selling out at a profit to the coming wave of settlers; it was his wasting land that drove him on. Hunger was the goad. The pioneer farmer's ignorance, his inadequate facilities for cultivation, his limited means, of transport necessitated his frequent changes of scene. He could succeed only with virgin soil.<ref>Louis Morton Hacker, "Western Land Hunger and the War of 1812: A Conjecture", ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' (1924) 10#4 pp. 365–95, quote on pp. 369–71 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1892931 in JSTOR]</ref>}}
Hacker adds that the second wave of settlers reclaimed the land, repaired the damage, and practiced a more sustainable agriculture.<ref>Hacker, "Western Land Hunger and the War of 1812."</ref>
=={{anchor|Railroad Age: 1860-1910}}Railroad age: 1860–1910==
{{Further|History of rail transportation in the United States}}
A dramatic expansion in farming took place from 1860 to 1910 as cheap rail transportation opened the way for exports to Europe.<ref>Fred A. Shannon, ''The farmer's last frontier: agriculture, 1860–1897'' (1945) [https://web.archive.org/web/20060523055745/http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3070303 complete text online]</ref> The number of farms tripled from 2.0 million in 1860 to 6.0 million in 1906. The number of people living on farms grew from about 10 million in 1860 to 22 million in 1880 to 31 million in 1905. The value of farms soared from $8 billion in 1860 to $30 billion in 1906.<ref>''Historical Statistics'' (1975) p. 437 series K1–K16</ref><ref> Leland H. Jenks, "Railroads as an Economic Force in American Development," ''Journal of Economic History'', 4#1 (1944), 1–20. {{JSTOR|2113700}}. </ref>
The federal government issued {{convert|160|acre|ha|adj=on|lk=out}} tracts for very cheap costs to about 400,000 families who settled new land under the [[Homestead Act]] of 1862. Even larger numbers purchased lands at very low interest from the new railroads, which were trying to create markets. The railroads advertised heavily in Europe and brought over, at low fares, hundreds of thousands of farmers from Germany, Scandinavia, and Britain. The Government of Canada's ''[[Dominion Lands Act]]'' of 1872 served a similar function for establishing homesteads on the prairies in Canada.<ref>Shannon, ''Farmers Last Frontier,'' pp 51-75.</ref>
The first years of the 20th century were prosperous for all American farmers. The years 1910–1914 became a statistical benchmark, called "parity", that organized farm groups wanted the government to use as a benchmark for the level of prices and profits they felt they deserved.<ref>Robert L. Tontz, "Origin of the Base Period Concept of Parity: A Significant Value Judgment in Agricultural Policy." ''Agricultural History'' (1958): 3–13. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3740836 in JSTOR]</ref>
===Rural life===
[[File:Kansas-bountiful-1907.jpg|thumb|upright|Boosterism: cover of a promotional booklet published in 1907 by the [[Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad]]]]
Early settlers discovered that the [[Great Plains]] were not the "Great American Desert," but they also found that the very harsh climate—with [[Tornado|tornadoes]], [[Blizzard|blizzards]], drought, hail storms, floods, and [[Grasshopper|grasshopper plagues]]<ref>Annette Atkins, ''Harvest of Grief: Grasshopper Plagues and Public Assistance in Minnesota, 1873–78'' (2003)</ref>—made for a high risk of ruined crops. Many early settlers were financially ruined, especially in the early 1890s, and either protested through the Populist movement, or went back east. In the 20th century, crop insurance, new conservation techniques, and large-scale federal aid all lowered the risk. Immigrants, especially Germans, and their children comprised the largest element of settlers after 1860; they were attracted by the good soil, low-priced lands from the railroad companies. The railroads offered attractive Family packages. They brought in European families, with their tools, directly to the new farm, which was purchased on easy credit terms. The railroad needed settlers as much as the settlers needed farmland. Even cheaper land was available through homesteading, although it was usually not as well located as railroad land.<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard White|title="It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lCF8eIFe93cC&pg=PA147|year=1991|publisher=U of Oklahoma Press|page=147|isbn=9780806125671}}</ref>
The problem of blowing dust resulted from too little rainfall for growing enough wheat to keep the topsoil from blowing away. In the 1930s, techniques and technologies of soil conservation, most of which had been available but ignored before the [[Dust Bowl]] conditions began, were promoted by the [[Soil Conservation Service]] (SCS) of the US Department of Agriculture, so that, with cooperation from the weather, soil condition was much improved by 1940.<ref>R. Douglas Hurt, et al. "Agricultural Technology in the Dust Bowl, 1932–40," ''Great Plains: Environment and Culture,'' (1979), pp. 139–56</ref><ref>R. Louis Baumhardt, "Dust bowl era." ''Encyclopedia of water science'' (2003): 187-191 [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rl_Baumhardt/publication/43255753_Dust_Bowl_Era/links/02e7e52e925144a5cf000000.pdf online]</ref>
On the Great Plains, very few single men attempted to operate a farm or ranch; farmers clearly understood the need for a hard-working wife, and numerous children, to handle the many chores, including child-rearing, feeding and clothing the family, managing the housework, feeding the hired hands, and, especially after the 1930s, handling the paperwork and financial details.<ref>Deborah Fink, ''Agrarian Women: Wives and Mothers in Rural Nebraska, 1880–1940'' (1992)</ref> During the early years of settlement in the late 19th century, farm women played an integral role in assuring family survival by working outdoors. After a generation or so, women increasingly left the fields, thus redefining their roles within the family. New conveniences such as sewing and washing machines encouraged women to turn to domestic roles. The scientific housekeeping movement, promoted across the land by the media and government extension agents, as well as county fairs which featured achievements in home cookery and canning, advice columns for women in the farm papers, and home economics courses in the schools.<ref>Chad Montrie, "'Men Alone Cannot Settle a Country:' Domesticating Nature in the Kansas-Nebraska Grasslands," ''Great Plains Quarterly,'' Fall 2005, Vol. 25 Issue 4, pp. 245–58</ref>
[[File:Volga-Germans-US.jpg|thumb|left|Temporary quarters for [[German Americans|Volga Germans]] in central Kansas, 1875]]
Although the eastern image of farm life on the prairies emphasizes the isolation of the lonely farmer and farm life, rural folk created a rich social life for themselves. They often sponsored activities that combined work, food, and entertainment such as [[barn raising]]s, corn huskings, quilting bees, grange meeting, church activities, and school functions.<ref>Karl Ronning, "Quilting in Webster County, Nebraska, 1880–1920," ''Uncoverings,'' 1992, Vol. 13, pp. 169–91</ref> The womenfolk organized shared meals and potluck events, as well as extended visits between families.<ref>Nathan B. Sanderson, "More Than a Potluck," ''Nebraska History,'' Fall 2008, 89#3 pp. 120–31</ref>
Women were also involved in [[Poultry farming|poultry breeding]]. In 1896, farmer [[Nettie Metcalf]] created the [[Buckeye chicken]] breed in [[Warren, Ohio]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Sullivan |first=Andrew |title=Bringing buckeye chickens to Dryden |url=https://www.ithaca.com/news/dryden/bringing-buckeye-chickens-to-dryden/article_f2e93b48-30a7-11e9-b95d-9be8a3068603.html |access-date=2022-09-08 |website=Ithaca Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sullivan |first=Andrew |title=Dryden Agway, local organizations donate buckeye chicks to T'burg youth |url=https://www.ithaca.com/news/dryden/dryden-agway-local-organizations-donate-buckeye-chicks-to-tburg-youth/article_51f8c72e-4b2a-11e9-8494-dba82b738b25.html |access-date=2022-09-08 |website=Ithaca Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ekarius |first=Carol |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJSZDQAAQBAJ&dq=%22nettie+metcalf%22&pg=PA79 |title=Storey's Illustrated Guide to Poultry Breeds: Chickens, Ducks, Geese, Turkeys, Emus, Guinea Fowl, Ostriches, Partridges, Peafowl, Pheasants, Quails, Swans |date=2016-07-18 |publisher=Storey Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-1-61212-843-6 |language=en}}</ref> In 1905, Buckeyes became an official breed under the [[American Poultry Association]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ccVJAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22We+began+housekeeping+in+1879%22&pg=RA8-PA8 |title=Poultry Success |date=1917 |publisher=A. D. Hosterman Company |language=en}}</ref> The Buckeye breed is the first recorded chicken breed to be created and developed by a woman.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hatchery |first=Sponsored by Melissahof |date=2022-06-13 |title=Know how your eggs got laid? |url=http://buckrail.com/know-how-your-eggs-got-laid/ |access-date=2022-09-08 |website=Buckrail - Jackson Hole, news |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sparling |first=Nina |date=2016-09-07 |title=Protecting Disappearing Livestock Breeds |url=https://foodtank.com/news/2016/09/protecting-disappearing-livestock-breeds/ |access-date=2022-09-08 |website=Food Tank |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-09-08 |title=Why we should protect disappearing livestock breeds |work=Christian Science Monitor |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Business/The-Bite/2016/0908/Why-we-should-protect-disappearing-livestock-breeds |access-date=2022-09-08 |issn=0882-7729}}</ref>
===Ranching===
Much of the [[Great Plains]] became [[open range]], hosting cattle ranching operations on public land without charge. In the spring and fall, ranchers held roundups where their cowboys branded new calves, treated animals and sorted the cattle for sale. Such ranching began in Texas and gradually moved northward. Cowboys drove Texas cattle north to railroad lines in the cities of [[Dodge City, Kansas]] and [[Ogallala, Nebraska]]; from there, cattle were shipped eastward. British investors financed many great ranches of the era. Overstocking of the range and the terrible [[Winter of 1886–87]] resulted in a disaster, with many cattle starved and frozen to death. From then on, [[ranchers]] generally raised feed to ensure they could keep their cattle alive over winter.<ref>Ray H. Mattison, "The Hard Winter and the Range Cattle Business". ''The Montana Magazine of History'' 1951) 1#4: 5–21.</ref>
When there was too little rain for row crop farming, but enough grass for grazing, cattle ranching became dominant. Before the railroads arrived in Texas the 1870s cattle drives took large herds from [[Texas]] to the railheads in [[Kansas]]. A few thousand Indians resisted, notably the [[Sioux]], who were reluctant to settle on reservations. However, most Indians themselves became ranch hands and cowboys.<ref>Peter Iverson, ''When Indians Became Cowboys: Native Peoples and Cattle Ranching in the American West'' (U of Oklahoma Press, 1997).</ref> New varieties of wheat flourished in the arid parts of the [[Great Plains]], opening much of the [[The Dakotas|Dakotas]], [[Montana]], western [[Kansas]], [[Nebraska Panhandle|western Nebraska]] and [[eastern Colorado]]. Where it was too dry for wheat, the settlers turned to cattle ranching.<ref>William Cronon, ''Nature's metropolis: Chicago and the Great West'' (1991) p. 214.</ref>
=={{anchor|South, 1860-1940}}South, 1860–1940==
Agriculture in the South was oriented toward large-scale plantations that produced cotton for export, as well as other export products such as tobacco and sugar. During the [[American Civil War]], the [[Union blockade]] shut down 95 percent of the export business. Some cotton got out through [[Blockade runners of the American Civil War|blockade runners]], and in conquered areas much was bought by northern speculators for shipment to Europe. The great majority of white farmers worked on small subsistence farms, that supplied the needs of the family and the local market.<ref>R. Douglas Hurt, ''Agriculture and the Confederacy: Policy, Productivity, and Power in the Civil War South'' (2015), ch. 1.
</ref> After the war, the world price of cotton plunged, the plantations were broken into small farms for the [[Freedman|Freedmen]], and [[Poor White|poor whites]] started growing cotton because they needed the money to pay taxes.<ref>Roger L. Ransom, and Richard Sutch. ''One kind of freedom: The economic consequences of emancipation'' (2001), ch 1.</ref><ref>Charles S. Aiken, ''The cotton plantation South since the Civil War'' (2003), ch. 1.</ref>
[[Sharecropping]] became widespread in the South as a response to economic upheaval caused by the [[End of slavery in the United States of America|end of slavery]] during and after [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]].<ref>{{cite book|editor=Sharon Monteith|title=The Cambridge Companion to the Literature of the American South|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPMAXuWaArgC&pg=PA94|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge U.P.|page=94|isbn=9781107036789}}</ref><ref>Joseph D. Reid, "Sharecropping as an understandable market response: The post-bellum South." ''Journal of Economic History'' (1973) 33#1 pp: 106–30. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2117145 in JSTOR]</ref> Sharecropping was a way for very poor farmers, both white and black, to earn a living from land owned by someone else. The landowner provided land, housing, tools and seed, and perhaps a mule, and a local merchant provided food and supplies on credit, while the sharecropper provided the labor. At harvest time the sharecropper kept a share of the crop production (from one-third to one-half), with the landowner taking the rest. The cropper used his share to pay off his debt to the merchant. The system started with blacks when large plantations were subdivided. By the 1880s, white farmers also became sharecroppers. The system was distinct from that of the tenant farmer, who rented the land, provided his own tools and mule and kept the crop (or paid some to the landowner through "crop rent"). Landowners provided more supervision to sharecroppers, and less or none to tenant farmers. [[Poverty in the United States|Poverty]] was inevitable, because world cotton prices were low.<ref>Roger L. Ransom, and Richard Sutch, ''One kind of freedom: The economic consequences of emancipation'' (Cambridge UP, 2001)</ref>
Sawers (2005) shows how southern farmers made the mule their preferred draft animal in the South during the 1860s–1920s, primarily because it fit better with the region's geography. Mules better withstood the heat of summer, and their smaller size and hooves were well suited for such crops as cotton, tobacco, and sugar. The character of soils and climate in the lower South hindered the creation of pastures, so the mule breeding industry was concentrated in the [[Border states (American Civil War)|border states]] of Missouri, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Transportation costs combined with topography to influence the prices of mules and horses, which in turn affected patterns of mule use. The economic and production advantages associated with mules made their use a progressive step for Southern agriculture that endured until the mechanization brought by tractors.<ref>Larry Sawers, "The Mule, the South, and Economic Progress." ''Social Science History'' (2005) 28#4</ref>{{rp|667–90}} Beginning around the mid-20th century, Texas began to transform from a rural and agricultural state to one that was urban and industrialized.<ref name="TSHAsince">{{cite web | last1=Calvert | first1= Robert A. | title=Texas Since World War II | url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/npt02 | publisher=[[Texas State Historical Association]] | access-date=January 19, 2017}}</ref>
==Grange==
The [[The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry|Grange]] was an organization founded in 1867 for farmers and their wives that was strongest in the Northeast, and which promoted the modernization not only of farming practices but also of family and community life. It is still in operation.<ref>Solon Justus Buck, ''The Granger movement: A Study of Agricultural Organization and its Political, Economic, and Social Manifestations, 1870–1880'' (1913) [https://books.google.com/books?id=HRJgAAAAIAAJ full text online]</ref>
[[File:Gift for the grangers ppmsca02956u.jpg|thumb|upright|Promotional poster offering a "gift for the grangers", ca. 1873.]]
Membership soared from 1873 (200,000) to 1875 (858,050) as many of the state and local granges adopted non-partisan political resolutions, especially regarding the regulation of railroad transportation costs. The organization was unusual in that it allowed women and teens as equal members. Rapid growth infused the national organization with money from dues, and many local granges established consumer [[cooperatives]], initially supplied by the Chicago wholesaler [[Aaron Montgomery Ward]]. Poor fiscal management, combined with organizational difficulties resulting from rapid growth, led to a massive decline in membership. By around the start of the 20th century, the Grange rebounded and membership stabilized.<ref>D. Sven Nordin, ''Rich Harvest: A History of the Grange, 1867–1900'' (1974).</ref>
In the mid-1870s, state Granges in the Midwest were successful in passing state laws that regulated the rates they could be charged by railroads and grain warehouses. The birth of the federal government's [[Cooperative Extension Service]], [[Rural Free Delivery]], and the [[Farm Credit System]] were largely due to Grange lobbying. The peak of their political power was marked by their success in ''[[Munn v. Illinois]]'', which held that the grain warehouses were a "private utility in the [[public interest]]," and therefore could be regulated by public law (see references below, "The Granger Movement"). During the [[Progressive Era]] (1890s–1920s), political parties took up Grange causes. Consequently, local Granges focused more on community service, although the State and National Granges remain a political force.<ref>Nordin, ''Rich Harvest: A History of the Grange, 1867–1900'' (1974).</ref><ref>Solon J. Buck, ''The Granger Movement: A Study of Agricultural Organization and Its Political, Economic and Social Manifestations, 1870–1880'' (Harvard UP, 1913) [https://archive.org/details/grangermovements00buckuoft online].</ref>
==World War I==
{{Main|United States home front during World War I}}
The U.S. in [[World War I]], was a critical supplier to other [[Allies of World War I|Allied nations]], as millions of European farmers were in the army. The rapid expansion of the farms coupled with the diffusion of trucks and Model T cars, and the tractor, allowed the agricultural market to expand to an unprecedented size.
During World War I prices shot up and farmers borrowed heavily to buy out their neighbors and expand their holdings. This gave them very high debts that made them vulnerable to the downturn in farm prices in 1920. Throughout the 1920s and down to 1934 low prices and high debt were major problems for farmers in all regions.<ref>Lee J. Alston, "Farm foreclosures in the United States during the interwar period." ''Journal of Economic History'' 43#4 (1983): 885–903.</ref>
Beginning with the 1917 US National War Garden Commission, the government encouraged [[Victory garden]]s, agricultural plantings in private yards and public parks for personal use and for the war effort. Production from these gardens exceeded $1.2 billion by the end of World War I.<ref>Eyle, Alexandra. ''Charles Lathrop Pack: Timberman, Forest Conservationist, and Pioneer in Forest Education'' (Syracuse UP, 1994) p. 142.</ref> Victory gardens were later encouraged during World War II when rationing made for food shortages.
==1920s==
[[File:HowYaGonnaKeepEmDownOnTheFarm.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A 1919 sheet music cover]]
A popular [[Tin Pan Alley]] song of 1919 asked, concerning the United States troops returning from World War I, "[[How Ya Gonna Keep 'em Down on the Farm (After They've Seen Paree)?]]". As the song hints, many did not remain "down on the farm"; there was a great migration of youth from farms to nearby towns and smaller cities. The average distance moved was only 10 miles (16 km). Few went to the cities over 100,000. However, agriculture became increasingly mechanized with widespread use of the [[tractor]], other heavy equipment, and superior techniques disseminated through [[Agricultural extension|County Agents]], who were employed by state agricultural colleges and funded by the Federal government.
The early 1920s saw a rapid expansion in the American agricultural economy largely due to new technologies and especially mechanization. Competition from Europe and Russia had disappeared due to the war and American agricultural goods were being shipped around the world.<ref>Wilson Gee, ''The place of agriculture in American life'' (1930) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2839521 online edition]</ref><ref>George Soule, ''Prosperity Decade: From War to Depression, 1917–1929'' (1947) pp 77–78, 229–251 [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.275557 online].</ref>
The new technologies, such as the [[combine harvester]], meant that the most efficient farms were larger in size and, gradually, the small family farm that had long been the model were replaced by larger and more business-oriented firms. Despite this increase in farm size and capital intensity, the great majority of agricultural production continued to be undertaken by family-owned enterprises.
World War I had created an atmosphere of high prices for agricultural products as European nations demand for exports surged. Farmers had enjoyed a period of prosperity as U.S. farm production expanded rapidly to fill the gap left as European belligerents found themselves unable to produce enough food. When the war ended, supply increased rapidly as Europe's agricultural market rebounded. Overproduction led to plummeting prices which led to stagnant market conditions and living standards for farmers in the 1920s. Worse, hundreds of thousands of farmers had taken out mortgages and loans to buy out their neighbors' property, and now are unable to meet the financial burden. The cause was the collapse of land prices after the wartime bubble when farmers used high prices to buy up neighboring farms at high prices, saddling them with heavy debts. Farmers, however, blamed the decline of foreign markets, and the effects of the protective tariff.<ref>[[Theodore Saloutos]] and John Hicks, ''Twentieth Century Populism: Agricultural Discontent in the Middle West 1900–1939'' (1951) pp. 321–41</ref>
Farmers demanded relief as the agricultural depression grew steadily worse in the middle 1920s, while the rest of the economy flourished. Farmers had a powerful voice in Congress, and demanded federal subsidies, most notably the [[McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill]]. It was passed but vetoed by President [[Calvin Coolidge]].<ref>Theodore Saloutos and John Hicks, ''Twentieth Century Populism: Agricultural Discontent in the Middle West 1900–1939'' (1951) pp. 372–403</ref> Coolidge instead supported the alternative program of Commerce Secretary [[Herbert Hoover]] and Agriculture Secretary [[William M. Jardine]] to modernize farming, by bringing in more electricity, more efficient equipment, better seeds and breeds, more rural education, and better business practices. Hoover advocated the creation of a [[Federal Farm Board]] which was dedicated to restriction of crop production to domestic demand, behind a tariff wall, and maintained that the farmer's ailments were due to defective distribution. In 1929, the Hoover plan was adopted.<ref>Gary H. Koerselman, "Secretary Hoover and National Farm Policy: Problems of Leadership," ''Agricultural History'' 1977 51(2): 378–95</ref>
==1930s==
===New Deal farm and rural programs===
{{Further| Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt#Agriculture}}
[[File:Langechildren2.jpg|right|thumb|upright|A migrant farm family in California, March 1935. Photo by [[Dorothea Lange]].]]
President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], a liberal Democrat, was keenly interested in farm issues and believed that true prosperity would not return until farming was prosperous.<ref>Roger Biles, ''A New Deal for the American people'' (1991) pp. 57–77.</ref><ref>Anthony J. Badger, ''The New Deal: the depression years 1933–1940'' (1989) pp. 147–89.</ref> Many different [[New Deal]] programs were directed at farmers.<ref>Broadus Mitchell, ''The Depression Decade: From New Era Through New Deal, 1929-41: From New Era Through New Deal, 1929-41'' (1947) pp 179-227. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.223789 online]</ref><ref>Theodore Saloutos, ''The American Farmer and the New Deal'' (1982)</ref> Farming reached its low point in 1932, but even then millions of unemployed people were returning to the family farm having given up hope for a job in the cities. The main New Deal strategy was to reduce the supply of commodities, thereby raising the prices a little to the consumer, and a great deal to the farmer. Marginal farmers produce too little to be helped by the strategy; specialized relief programs were developed for them. Prosperity largely returned to the farm by 1936.<ref>Peter Fearon, ''War, prosperity and depression: the US economy 1917–45'' (1987) pp. 176–94.</ref>
Roosevelt's "First Hundred Days" produced the Farm Security Act to raise farm incomes by raising the prices farmers received, which was achieved by reducing total farm output. In May 1933 the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] created the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA). The act reflected the demands of leaders of major farm organizations, especially the [[Farm Bureau]], and reflected debates among Roosevelt's farm advisers such as Secretary of Agriculture [[Henry A. Wallace]], M.L. Wilson,<ref>See [http://mobile.lib.montana.edu/collect/spcoll/findaid/acc00003.html M. L. Wilson Collection, 1935–1960]</ref> [[Rexford Tugwell]], and [[George Peek]].<ref>Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., ''The Coming of the New Deal'' (1958) pp. 27–84</ref>
The aim of the AAA was to raise prices for commodities through artificial scarcity. The AAA used a system of "domestic allotments", setting total output of corn, cotton, dairy products, hogs, rice, tobacco, and wheat. The farmers themselves had a voice in the process of using government to benefit their incomes. The AAA paid land owners subsidies for leaving some of their land idle with funds provided by a new tax on food processing. The goal was to force up farm prices to the point of "parity", an index based on 1910–1914 prices. To meet 1933 goals, {{convert|10|e6acre|km2}} of growing cotton was plowed up, bountiful crops were left to rot, and six million piglets were killed and discarded.<ref>Ronald L. Heinemann, ''Depression and New Deal in Virginia.'' (1983) p. 107</ref> The idea was the less produced, the higher the wholesale price and the higher income to the farmer. Farm incomes increased significantly in the first three years of the New Deal, as prices for commodities rose. Food prices remained well below 1929 levels.<ref>Anthony Badger, ''The New Deal: The Depression Years, 1933–1940'' (2002) pp. 89, 153–57</ref><ref>''Statistical Abstract 1940'' [https://www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/statab1901-1950.htm online]</ref>
The AAA established a long-lasting federal role in the planning of the entire agricultural sector of the economy, and was the first program on such a scale on behalf of the troubled agricultural economy. The original AAA did not provide for any [[sharecroppers]] or [[tenants]] or farm laborers who might become unemployed, but there were other New Deal programs especially for them, such as the [[Farm Security Administration]].<ref>Charles Kenneth Roberts, ''Farm Security Administration and Rural Rehabilitation in the South'' (University of Tennessee Press, 2015)</ref>
In 1936, the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] declared the AAA to be unconstitutional for technical reasons; it was replaced by a similar program that did win Court approval. Instead of paying farmers for letting fields lie barren, the new program instead subsidized them for planting soil enriching crops such as [[alfalfa]] that would not be sold on the market. Federal regulation of agricultural production has been modified many times since then, but together with large subsidies the basic philosophy of subsidizing farmers is still in effect in 2015.<ref>James L. Novak, James W. Pease, and Larry D. Sanders. ''Agricultural Policy in the United States: Evolution and Economics'' (Routledge, 2015)</ref>
===Rural relief===
[[File:Pumping water in Wilder, Fentress County TN 1942.gif|thumb|Modern methods had not reached the backwoods such as Wilder, Tennessee (Tennessee Valley Authority, 1942)]]
Many rural people lived in severe poverty, especially in the South. Major programs addressed to their needs included the [[Resettlement Administration]] (RA), the [[Rural Electrification Administration]] (REA), rural welfare projects sponsored by the WPA, NYA, Forest Service and CCC, including school lunches, building new schools, opening roads in remote areas, reforestation, and purchase of marginal lands to enlarge national forests. In 1933, the Administration launched the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]], a project involving dam construction planning on an unprecedented scale in order to curb flooding, generate electricity, and modernize the very poor farms in the [[Tennessee Valley]] region of the [[Southern United States]].<ref>Roger Biles, ''The South and the New Deal'' (2006).</ref><ref>Ronald C. Tobey, ''Technology as freedom: The New Deal and the electrical modernization of the American home'' (1996).</ref>
For the first time, there was a national program to help migrant and marginal farmers, through programs such as the [[Resettlement Administration]] and the [[Farm Security Administration]]. Their plight gained national attention through the 1939 novel and film ''[[The Grapes of Wrath]]''. The New Deal thought there were too many farmers, and resisted demands of the poor for loans to buy farms.<ref>Rexford G. Tugwell, "The resettlement idea." ''Agricultural History'' (1959) pp. 159–64. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3740911 in JSTOR]</ref> However, it made a major effort to upgrade the health facilities available to a sickly population.<ref>Michael R. Grey, ''New Deal Medicine: The Rural Health Programs of the Farm Security Administration'' (2002).</ref>
===Economics and Labor===
In the 1930s, during the [[Great Depression]], farm labor organized a number of strikes in various states. 1933 was a particularly active year with strikes including the [[California agricultural strikes of 1933]], the [[1933 Yakima Valley strike]] in Washington, and the [[1933 Wisconsin milk strike]].
Agriculture was prosperous during [[World War II]], even as rationing and price controls limited the availability of meat and other foods in order to guarantee its availability to the American And Allied armed forces. During World War II, farmers were not drafted, but surplus labor, especially in the southern cotton fields, voluntarily relocated to war jobs in the cities.<ref>Fearon, ''War, prosperity and depression: the US economy 1917–45'' (1987) pp. 266–72.</ref><ref>Walter W. Wilcox, ''Farmer in the Second World War'' (1947)</ref>
During World War II, [[victory garden]]s planted at private residences and public parks were an important source of fresh produce. These gardens were encouraged by the [[United States Department of Agriculture]]. Around one third of the vegetables produced by the United States came from victory gardens.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kallen|first=Stuart A.|title=The War at Home|date=2000|publisher=Lucent Books|location=San Diego|isbn=1-56006-531-1}}</ref><ref>see [http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/80400530/pdf/hist/bhnhe_1944_misc_pub_550.pdf for detail]</ref>
==Since 1945==
===Government policies===
{{main|United States farm bill}}
The New Deal era farm programs were continued into the 1940s and 1950s, with the goal of supporting the prices received by farmers. Typical programs involved farm loans, commodity subsidies, and price supports.<ref>Carl Zulauf and David Orden. "80 Years of Farm Bills – Evolutionary Reform." ''Choices'' (2016) [http://www.choicesmagazine.org/UserFiles/file/cmsarticle_551.pdf online]</ref> The rapid decline in the farm population led to a smaller voice in Congress. So the well-organized Farm Bureau and other lobbyists, worked in the 1970s to appeal to urban Congressman through food stamp programs for the poor. By 2000, the food stamp program was the largest component of the farm bill. In 2010, the [[Tea Party movement]] brought in many Republicans committed to cutting all federal subsidies, including those agriculture. Meanwhile, urban Democrats strongly opposed reductions, pointing to the severe hardships caused by the 2008–10 economic recession. Though the [[Agricultural Act of 2014]] saw many rural Republican Congressman voting against the program, it passed with bipartisan support.<ref>Christopher Bosso, ''Framing the Farm Bill: Interests, Ideology, and Agricultural Act of 2014'' (2017).</ref><ref>Carl Zulauf and David Orden, "The US Agricultural Act of 2014: Overview and Analysis." (International Food Policy Research Institute discussion paper 01393, 2014) [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David_Orden2/publication/308138378_The_US_Agricultural_Act_of_2014/links/57dae99e08ae5292a3768d07.pdf online].</ref><ref>David Orden and Carl Zulauf, "Political economy of the 2014 farm bill." ''American Journal of Agricultural Economics'' 97.5 (2015): 1298–311. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160401131433/http://ajae.oxfordjournals.org/content/97/5/1298.full online]</ref>
===Changing technology===
Ammonia from plants built during World War II to make explosives became available for making fertilizers, leading to a permanent decline in real fertilizer prices and expanded use.<ref>Alexander J. Field, ''A Great Leap Forward: 1930s Depression and U.S. Economic Growth'' (2011) pp. 22–23.</ref> The early 1950s was the peak period for tractor sales in the U.S. as the few remaining mules and work horses were sold for dog food. The horsepower of farm machinery underwent a large expansion.<ref name="Tractors">{{Cite web
|last1=White
|first1=William J.
|title=Economic History of Tractors in the United States
|url=http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/white.tractors.history.us
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024041712/http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/white.tractors.history.us
|archive-date=2013-10-24
}}</ref> A successful cotton picking machine was introduced in 1949. The machine could do the work of 50 men picking by hand. The great majority of unskilled farm laborers move to urban areas.<ref>{{cite book| author = Rifkin, Jeremy | title = The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post-Market Era | publisher = Putnam Publishing Group | year = 1995 | isbn = 0-87477-779-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mjperry.blogspot.com/2011/11/corn-yields-have-increased-six-times.html|title = CARPE DIEM: U.S. Corn Yields Have Increased Six Times Since the 1930s and Are Estimated to Double by 2030}}</ref>
Research on plant breeding produced varieties of grain crops that could produce high yields with heavy fertilizer input. This resulted in the [[Green revolution]], beginning in the 1940s.<ref>{{cite book |title= Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production|last=Smil|first=Vaclav |year=2004 |publisher= MIT Press|isbn= 0262693135 }}</ref> By 2000 yields of corn (maize) had risen by a factor of over four. Wheat and soybean yields also rose significantly.<ref>[http://quickstats.nass.usda.gov/?long_desc__LIKE=Corn&x=20&y=6#E3D0B839-C2EE-39DE-8335-CE17EE5D0823 USDA Statistics]</ref><ref>[http://www.agry.purdue.edu/ext/corn/news/timeless/yieldtrends.html Purdue University Dept. Agronomy]</ref>
===Economics and labor===
After 1945, a continued annual 2% increase in productivity (as opposed to 1% from 1835–1935)<ref name=Conkin>{{cite book|last1=Conkin|first1=Paul|title=Revolution Down on the Farm: The Transformation of American Agriculture since 1929|date=2008|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|isbn=978-0813173153|edition=first}}</ref>{{rp|97}} led to further increases in farm size and corresponding reductions in the number of farms.<ref name=Conkin/>{{rp|99}} Many farmers sold out and moved to nearby towns and cities. Others switched to part-time operation, supported by off-farm employment.
The 1960s and 1970s saw major [[farm worker]] strikes including the 1965 [[Delano grape strike]] and the 1970 [[Salad Bowl strike]]. In 1975, the [[California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975]] was enacted,<ref name="GovSigns">"Governor Signs Historic Farm Labor Legislation." ''Los Angeles Times.'' June 5, 1975.</ref> establishing the right to [[collective bargaining]] for [[farmworker]]s in California, a first in U.S. history.<ref name="Hurt">Hurt, R. Douglas. ''American Agriculture: A Brief History.'' Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 2002. {{ISBN|1-55753-281-8}}</ref> Individuals with prominent roles in farm worker organizing in this period include [[Cesar Chavez]], [[Dolores Huerta]], [[Larry Itliong]], and [[Philip Vera Cruz]]. Chavez mobilized California workers into the [[United Farm Workers]] organization.<ref>Stephen H. Sosnick, ''Hired Hands: Seasonal Farm Workers In The United States'' (1978) pp. 301–02</ref>
In 1990, undocumented workers made up an estimated 14 percent of the farm workforce. By the year 2000, the percentage had grown to over 50%, and has remained around 50% in the 2000-2020 period.<ref>{{cite web |title=Economic Research Service - Farm Labor |url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-economy/farm-labor/#demographic |website=USDA Economic Research Service |publisher=USDA |access-date=3 November 2021}}</ref>
In 2015, grain farmers started taking "an extreme step, one not widely seen since the 1980s" by breaching lease contracts with their landowners, reducing the amount of land they sow and risking long legal battles with landlords.<ref name=reuters>{{cite news|author1=Jo Winterbottom and P.J. Huffstutter|title=Rent walkouts point to strains in U.S. farm economy|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-grains-rents-insight-idUSKBN0LR0EX20150223|access-date=24 February 2015|work=Reuters|date=23 February 2015}}</ref>
===Technology===
New machinery—especially large self-propelled combines and mechanical [[cotton picker]]s—sharply reduced labor requirements in harvesting.<ref name=Conkin/>
In addition, electric motors and irrigation pumps opened up new ways to be efficient.<ref name=Conkin/>{{rp|107}} Electricity also played a role in making major innovations in [[animal husbandry]] possible, especially modern milking parlors, [[grain elevator]]s, and [[CAFOs]] (confined animal-feeding operations).<ref name=Conkin/> Advances in [[fertilizers]],<ref name=Conkin/>{{rp|109–12}} [[herbicides]],<ref name=Conkin/>{{rp|109–112}} [[insecticides]] and [[fungicides]],<ref name=Conkin/>{{rp|115–16}} the [[antibiotic use in livestock|use of antibiotics]]<ref name=Conkin/>{{rp|116–17}} and [[Growth hormone#Use of GH in Production of Meat and Milk|growth hormones]].<ref name=Conkin/>{{rp|118–19}} Significant advances occurred in [[plant breeding]] and [[animal breeding]], such as crop hybridization, [[GMOs]] (genetically modified organisms), and artificial insemination of livestock. Post-harvest innovations occurred in [[food processing]] and [[food distribution]] (e.g. frozen foods).<ref name=Conkin/>
==Crops==
===Wheat===
{{main|Wheat production in the United States}}
Wheat, used for white bread, pastries, pasta, and pizza, has been the principal cereal crop since the 18th century. It was introduced by the first English colonists and quickly became the main cash crop of farmers who sold it to urban populations and exporters. In colonial times its culture became concentrated in the [[Middle Colonies]], which became known as the "bread colonies". In the mid-18th century, wheat culture spread to the tidewaters of Maryland and Virginia, where George Washington was a prominent grower as he diversified away from tobacco. The crop moved west, with Ohio as the center in 1840 and Illinois in 1860.<ref>Paul W. Gates, ''The Farmers' Age: Agriculture, 1815–1860'' (1960) pp. 156–59, 183–86</ref> Illinois replaced its wheat with corn (which was used locally to feed hogs). The invention of mechanical harvesters, drawn first by horses and then tractors, made larger farms much more efficient than small ones. The farmers had to borrow money to buy land and equipment and had to specialize in wheat, which made them highly vulnerable to price fluctuations and gave them an incentive to ask for government help to stabilize or raise prices.<ref>Peter Fearon, "Mechanisation and Risk: Kansas Wheat Growers 1915–1930," ''Rural History,'' Oct 1995, Vol. 6 Issue 2, pp. 229–50</ref> Wheat farming depended on significant labor input only during planting, and especially at harvest time. Therefore, successful farmers, especially on the Great Plains, bought up as much land as possible, purchased very expensive mechanical equipment, and depended on migrating hired laborers at harvesting time. The migrant families tended to be social outcasts without local roots and mostly lived near the poverty line, except in the harvesting season.<ref>Toby Higbie, "Indispensable Outcasts: Harvest Laborers in the Wheat Belt of the Middle West, 1890–1925" ''Labor History,'' Fall 1997, Vol. 38#4 pp. 393–412</ref> From 1909 to today, North Dakota and Kansas have vied for first place in wheat production, followed by Oklahoma and Montana.
[[File:McCormick Twine Binder 1884.jpg|thumb|McCormick [[reaper-binder|reaper and twine binder]] in 1884]]
In the colonial era, wheat was sown by broadcasting, reaped by sickles, and threshed by flails. The kernels were then taken to a grist mill for grinding into flour. In 1830, it took four people and two oxen, working 10 hours a day, to produce 200 bushels.<ref name="ShannonThe">Shannon, ''The Farmers Last Frontier'', p. 410</ref> New technology greatly increased productivity in the 19th century, as sowing with drills replaced broadcasting, cradles took the place of sickles, and the cradles in turn were replaced by reapers and binders. Steam-powered threshing machines superseded flails. By 1895, in Bonanza farms in the Dakotas, it took six people and 36 horses pulling huge harvesters, working 10 hours a day, to produce 20,000 bushels.<ref name="ShannonThe" /> In the 1930s the gasoline powered [[Combine harvester|"combine"]] combined reaping and threshing into one operation that took one person to operate. Production grew from 85 million bushels in 1839, 500 million in 1880, 600 million in 1900, and peaked at 1.0 billion bushels in 1915. Prices fluctuated erratically, with a downward trend in the 1890s that caused great distress in the Plains states.<ref>Bureau of the Census, ''Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970'' (1976) series K: 507–08</ref>
[[File:Wallis tractor-001.jpg|thumb|A 1928 ''Wallis'' tractor made by [[Massey Ferguson]]]]
The marketing of wheat was modernized as well, as the cost of transportation steadily fell and more and more distant markets opened up. Before 1850, the crop was sacked, shipped by wagon or canal boat, and stored in warehouses. With the rapid growth of the nation's railroad network in the 1850s–1870s, farmers took their harvest by wagon for sale to the nearest country elevators. The wheat moved to terminal elevators, where it was sold through grain exchanges to flour millers and exporters. Since the elevators and railroads generally had a local monopoly, farmers soon had targets besides the weather for their complaints. They sometimes accused the elevator men of undergrading, shortweighting, and excessive dockage. Scandinavian immigrants in the Midwest took control over marketing through the organization of cooperatives.<ref>Shannon, ''The Farmers Last Frontier'', pp. 179–83</ref>
====Varieties====
[[File:Batteuse 1881.jpg|thumb|left|The horse-powered thresher; it removes the inedible [[chaff]] from the wheat kernels]]
Following the invention of the steel roller mill in 1878, hard varieties of wheat such as Turkey Red became more popular than soft, which had been previously preferred because they were easier for grist mills to grind.<ref>Karl S. Quisenberry, and L. P. Reitz "Turkey wheat: The cornerstone of an empire." ''Agricultural History'' 48.1 (1974): 98–110. [http://213.232.8.204/EN/dosya/1-120/h/turkeywheatthecornerstoneofanempire.pdf online]</ref>
Wheat production witnessed major changes in varieties and cultural practices since 1870. Thanks to these innovations, vast expanses of the wheat belt now support commercial production, and yields have resisted the negative impact of insects, diseases, and weeds. Biological innovations contributed roughly half of labor-productivity growth between 1839 and 1909.<ref>Alan L. Olmstead, and Paul W. Rhode, "The Red Queen and the Hard Reds: Productivity Growth in American Wheat, 1800–1940," ''Journal of Economic History,'' Dec 2002, Vol. 62 Issue 4, pp. 929–66</ref>
In the late 19th century, hardy new wheat varieties from the Russian steppes were introduced on the Great Plains by the [[Volga Germans]] who settled in [[North Dakota]], [[Kansas]], [[Montana]] and neighboring states.<ref>David Moon, "In the Russians' steppes: the introduction of Russian wheat on the Great Plains of the United States of America," ''Journal of Global History,'' July 2008, Vol. 3 Issue 2, pp. 203–25</ref> Legend credits the miller [[Warkentin House|Bernhard Warkentin]] (1847–1908), a German [[Mennonite]] from Russia for introducing the "Turkey red" variety from Russia.<ref>Karen Penner, "Bernhard Warkentin: Kansas Miller and Promoter Of Turkey Red Wheat," ''Journal of the American Historical Society of Germans from Russia,'' Fall 2007, Vol. 30 Issue 3, pp. 27–34</ref> More exactly, in the 1880s numerous millers and government agricultural agents worked to create "Turkey red" and make Kansas the "Wheat State".<ref>Norman E. Saul, "Myth and History: Turkey Red Wheat and the 'Kansas Miracle,'" ''Heritage of the Great Plains,'' Summer 1989, Vol. 22#3 pp. 1–13</ref> The U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, and the state experiment stations, have developed many new varieties, and taught farmers how to plant them.<ref>[[Jim Sherow#Personal life|Bonnie Lynn-Sherow]], "Beyond Winter Wheat: The USDA Extension Service and Kansas Wheat Production In The Twentieth Century," ''Kansas History,'' March 2000, Vol. 23 Issue 1, pp. 100–11</ref> Similar varieties now dominate in the arid regions of the [[Great Plains]].
====Exports====
Wheat farmers have always produced a surplus for export. The exports were small-scale until the 1860s, when bad crops in Europe, and lower costs due to cheaper railroads and ocean transport, opened the European markets to cheap American wheat. The British in particular depended on American wheat during the 1860s for a fourth of their food supply, making the government reluctant to risk a cutoff if it supported the Confederacy. By 1880, 150,000,000 bushels were exported to the value of $190,000,000. World War I saw large numbers of young European farmers conscripted into the armies, so Allied countries, particularly France and Italy depended on American shipments,<ref>Hardach, Gerd. The First World War, 1914–1918. University of California Press, 1977. pp. 124, 130–36.</ref> which ranged from 100,000,000 to 260,000,000 bushels a year. American farmers reacted to the heavy demand and high prices by expanding their production, many taking out mortgages to buy out their neighbors farms. This led to a large surplus in the 1920s. The resulting low prices prompted growers to seek government support of prices, first through the [[McNary-Haugen bill]]s, which failed in Congress, and later in the [[New Deal]] through the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] of 1933 and its many versions.<ref>Bureau of the Census, ''Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970'' (1976) series U: 279–80</ref>
World War II brought an enormous expansion of production, topping off at a billion bushels in 1944. During the war and after large-scale wheat and flour exports were part of [[Lend Lease]] and the foreign assistance programs. In 1966 exports reached 860 million bushels of which 570 million were given away as food aid. A major drought in the [[Soviet Union]] in 1972 led to the sale of 390 million bushels and an agreement was assigned in 1975 under the détente policy to supply the Soviets with grain over a five-year period.
====Marketing====
By 1900 private grain exchanges settled the daily prices for North American wheat. Santon (2010) explains how the AAA programs set wheat prices in the U.S. after 1933, and the Canadians established a wheat board to do the same there. The Canadian government required prairie farmers to deliver all their grain to the [[Canadian Wheat Board]] (CWB), a single-selling-desk agency that supplanted private wheat marketing in western Canada. Meanwhile, the United States government subsidized farm incomes with domestic-use taxes and import tariffs, but otherwise preserved private wheat marketing.<ref>Joseph M. Santos, "Going Against the Grain: Why Do Canada and the United States Market Wheat So Differently?" ''American Review of Canadian Studies,'' Spring 2010, Vol. 40 Issue 1, pp. 104–17</ref>
===Cotton===
{{Main|Cotton production in the United States}}
In the colonial era, small amounts of high quality [[long-staple cotton]] were produced in the [[Sea Islands]] off the coast of South Carolina. Inland, only short-staple [[cotton]] could be grown but it was full of seeds and very hard to process into fiber. The invention of the [[cotton gin]] in the late 1790s for the first time made short-staple cotton usable. It was generally produced on plantations ranging from South Carolina westward, with the work done by slaves. Simultaneously, the rapid growth of the [[industrial revolution]] in Britain, focused on textiles, created a major demand for the fiber. Cotton quickly exhausts the soil, so planters used their large profits to buy fresh land to the west, and purchase more slaves from the border states to operate their new plantations. After 1810, the emerging textile mills in New England also produced a heavy demand. By 1820, over 250,000 bales (of 500 pounds each) were exported to Europe, with a value of $22 million. By 1840, exports reached 1.5 million bales valued at $64 million, two thirds of all American exports. Cotton prices kept going up as the South remained the main supplier in the world. In 1860, the US shipped 3.5 million bales worth $192 million.<ref>[[Paul Wallace Gates|Paul W. Gates]], ''The Farmers' Age: Agriculture, 1815–1860'' (1960) pp. 7–10, 134–55</ref><ref>Sven Beckert, "Emancipation and empire: Reconstructing the worldwide web of cotton production in the age of the American Civil War." ''American Historical Review'' 109.5 (2004): 1405-1438 [https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/3207344/Beckert_EmancipationEmpire.pdf?sequence=2 online].</ref>
After the [[American Civil War]], cotton production expanded to small farms, operated by white and black tenant farmers and [[Sharecropping|sharecroppers]].<ref name="ShannonThe"/>{{rp|76–117}} The quantity exported held steady, at 3,000,000 bales, but prices on the world market fell.<ref>Bureau of the Census, ''Historical Statistics of the United States,'' series U: 275–76</ref> Although there was some work involved in planting the seeds, and cultivating or holding out the weeds, the critical labor input for cotton was in the picking. How much a cotton operation could produce depended on how many hands (men women and children) were available. Finally in the 1950s, new mechanical harvesters allowed a handful of workers to pick as much as 100 had done before. The result was a large-scale exodus of the white and black cotton farmers from the south. By the 1970s, most cotton was grown in large automated farms in the Southwest.<ref>[[Stephen Yafa]], ''Cotton: The Biography of a Revolutionary Fiber'' (2004)</ref><ref>D. Clayton Brown, ''King Cotton in Modern America: A Cultural, Political, and Economic History since 1945'' (2010).</ref>
==See also==
*[[Agriculture in the United States]]
*[[Cotton production in the United States]]
*[[Corn production in the United States]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
===Surveys===
* Cochrane, Willard W. ''The Development of American Agriculture: A Historical Analysis'' (1993)
* [[David B. Danbom|Danbom, David B.]] ''Born in the Country: A History of Rural America'' (1997)
* [[Gilbert Fite|Fite, Gilbert C.]] ''American Farmers: The New Minority'' (Indiana U. Press, 1981) [https://archive.org/details/americanfarmersn0000fite online]
* Goreham, Gary. ''Encyclopedia of rural America'' (Grey House Publishing, 2 vol 2008). 232 essays
* Gras, Norman. ''A history of agriculture in Europe and America,'' (1925). [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2845579 online edition]
* Hart, John Fraser. ''The Changing Scale of American Agriculture.'' U. of Virginia Press, 2004. 320 pp.
* Hurt, R. Douglas. ''American Agriculture: A Brief History'' (2002)
* [[Yair Mundlak|Mundlak, Yair]]. "Economic Growth: Lessons from Two Centuries of American Agriculture." ''[[Journal of Economic Literature]]'' 2005 43(4): 989–1024. {{JSTOR|4129381}}
* Ogle, Maureen. ''In meat we trust: An unexpected history of carnivore America'' (2013).
* Robert, Joseph C. ''The story of tobacco in America (1949) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3136323 online edition]
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===Before 1775===
* Anderson, Virginia DeJohn, "Thomas Minor's World: Agrarian Life in Seventeenth-Century New England," ''Agricultural History,'' 82 (Fall 2008), 496–518.
* Bidwell, Percy and Falconer, John I. ''History of Agriculture in the Northern United States 1620–1860'' (1941) [https://archive.org/details/historyofagricul0000bidw online]
* Galenson, David. "The Settlement and Growth of the Colonies," in Stanley L. Engerman and Robert E. Gallman (eds.), ''The Cambridge Economic History of the United States: Volume I, The Colonial Era'' (1996).
* Kulikoff, Allan. ''From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers'' (1992) [https://archive.org/details/agrarianoriginso00kuli online]
* Kulikoff, Allan. ''Tobacco and slaves: the development of southern cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680-1800'' (1986) [https://archive.org/details/tobaccoslaves00kuli online]
* [[McCusker, John J.]] ed. ''Economy of British America, 1607–1789'' (1991), 540pp [https://archive.org/details/economyofbritish00mccu online]
* Russell, Howard. ''A Long Deep Furrow: Three Centuries of Farming In New England'' (1981)
* Weeden, William Babcock ''Economic and Social History of New England, 1620–1789'' (1891) 964 pages; [https://books.google.com/books?id=JUJaNzIMr44C&pg=PA1 online edition]
===1775–1860===
====North====
* Bidwell, Percy and Falconer, John I. ''History of Agriculture in the Northern United States 1620–1860'' (1941) [https://archive.org/details/historyofagricul0000bidw online]
* [[Paul Wallace Gates|Gates, Paul W.]] ''The Farmers' Age: Agriculture, 1815–1860'' (1960) [https://archive.org/details/farmersageagricu0003gate online]
==== South ====
* Craven, Avery Odelle. ''Soil exhaustion as a factor in the agricultural history of Virginia and Maryland, 1606–1860'' (1926) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2886532 online edition]
* Gray, Lewis Cecil. ''History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860.'' 2 vol (1933), classic in-depth history [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/c/chla/browse/title/2944804.html online edition]
* Genovese, Eugene. ''Roll, Jordan Roll'' (1967), the history of plantation slavery
* Olmstead, Alan L., and Paul W. Rhode, "Biological Innovation and Productivity Growth in the Antebellum Cotton Economy," ''Journal of Economic History,'' 68 (Dec. 2008), 1123–71.
* Phillips, Ulrich B. "The Economic Cost of Slaveholding in the Cotton Belt," ''Political Science Quarterly'' 20#2 (Jun., 1905), pp. 257–75 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2140400 in JSTOR]
* Phillips, Ulrich B. "The Origin and Growth of the Southern Black Belts." ''American Historical Review,'' 11 (July, 1906): 798–816. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1832229 in JSTOR]
* Phillips, Ulrich B. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1011487 "The Decadence of the Plantation System." ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences,'' 35 (January, 1910): 37–41. in JSTOR]
* Phillips, Ulrich B. "Plantations with Slave Labor and Free." ''American Historical Review,'' 30 (July 1925): 738–53. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1835667 in JSTOR]
===1860-present, national===
* ''Cyclopedia of American agriculture; a popular survey of agricultural conditions,'' ed by L. H. Bailey, 4 vol 1907–1909. [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/c/chla/browse/title/2949859.html online edition] highly useful compendium.
* Bosso, Christopher J. ''Framing the Farm Bill: Interests, Ideology, and Agricultural Act of 2014'' (University Press of Kansas, 2017).
* Brunner, Edmund de Schweinitz. ''Rural social trends'' (1933) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2908213 online edition]
* Conkin, Paul K. ''A Revolution Down on the Farm: The Transformation of American Agriculture since 1929'' (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0813192420/ excerpt and text search]
* Dean, Virgil W. ''An Opportunity Lost: The Truman Administration and the Farm Policy Debate.'' U. of Missouri Press, 2006. 275 pp.
* Friedberger, Mark. '' Farm Families and Change in 20th Century America'' (2014)
* Gardner, Bruce L. "Changing Economic Perspectives on the Farm Problem." ''Journal of Economic Literature'' (1992) 30#1 62–101. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2727879 in JSTOR]
* Gardner, Bruce L. ''American Agriculture in the Twentieth Century: How it Flourished and What it Cost'' (Harvard UP, 2002).
* Gates, Paul W. ''Agriculture and the Civil War'' (1985) [https://archive.org/details/agriculturecivil0000unse online]
* Gee, Wilson. ''The place of agriculture in American life'' (1930) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2839521 online edition]
* Lord, Russell. ''The Wallaces of Iowa'' (1947) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3077039 online edition]
* Lyon-Jenness, Cheryl. "Planting a seed: the nineteenth-century horticultural boom in America." ''Business History Review'' 78.3 (2004): 381–421.
* Mayer, Oscar Gottfried. ''America's meat packing industry; a brief survey of its development and economics.'' (1939) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2822158 online edition]
* McCormick, Cyrus. ''The century of the reaper; an account of Cyrus Hall McCormick, the inventor'' (1931) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3081839 online edition]
* Mullendore, William Clinton. ''History of the United States Food Administration, 1917–1919'' (1941) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2932544 online edition]
* Nourse, Edwin Griswold. ''Three years of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration'' (1937) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2758781 online edition]
* Perren, Richard, "Farmers and Consumers under Strain: Allied Meat Supplies in the First World War," ''Agricultural History Review'' (Oxford), 53 (part II, 2005), 212–28.
* Sanderson, Ezra Dwight. ''Research memorandum on rural life in the depression'' (1937) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2737279 online edition]
* Schultz, Theodore W. '' Agriculture in an Unstable Economy.'' (1945) by Nobel-prize winning conservative [https://www.questia.com/read/9105343?title=Agriculture%20in%20an%20Unstable%20Economy online edition]
* Shannon, Fred Albert. ''Farmer's Last Frontier: Agriculture, 1860–1897'' (1945) [https://archive.org/details/farmerslastfront00shan online edition] comprehensive survey
* Wilcox, Walter W. ''The farmer in the second world war'' (1947) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2944025 online edition]
* Zulauf, Carl, and David Orden. "80 Years of Farm Bills – Evolutionary Reform." ''Choices'' (2016) 31#4 pp. 1–7 [http://www.choicesmagazine.org/UserFiles/file/cmsarticle_551.pdf online]
===1860-present, regional studies===
* ''Cyclopedia of American agriculture; a popular survey of agricultural conditions,'' ed by L. H. Bailey, 4 vol 1907–1909. [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/c/chla/browse/title/2949859.html online edition] highly useful compendium
* Black, John D. ''The Rural Economy of New England: A regional study'' (1950) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2931364 online edition]
* Cannon, Brian Q., "Homesteading Remembered: A Sesquicentennial Perspective," ''Agricultural History,'' 87 (Winter 2013), 1–29.
* Clawson, Marion. ''The Western range livestock industry,'' (1950) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2905020 online edition]
* Dale, Edward Everett. ''The range cattle industry'' (1930) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2892747 online edition]
* Danbom, David B. ''Sod Busting: How families made farms on the 19th-century Plains '' (2014)
* Fite, Gilbert C. ''The Farmers' Frontier: 1865–1900'' (1966), the west
* Friedberger, Mark. "The Transformation of the Rural Midwest, 1945–1985," ''Old Northwest,'' 1992, Vol. 16 Issue 1, pp. 13–36
* Friedberger, Mark W. "Handing Down the Home Place: Farm Inheritance Strategies in Iowa" ''Annals of Iowa'' 47.6 (1984): 518–36. [https://ir.uiowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=9073&context=annals-of-iowa online]
* Friedberger, Mark. "The Farm Family and the Inheritance Process: Evidence from the Corn Belt, 1870–1950." ''Agricultural History'' 57.1 (1983): 1–13. uses Iowa census and sales data
* Friedberger, Mark. ''Shake-Out: Iowa Farm Families in the 1980s'' (1989)
* Fry, John J. "" Good Farming-Clear Thinking-Right Living": Midwestern Farm Newspapers, Social Reform, and Rural Readers in the Early Twentieth Century." Agricultural History (2004): 34–49.
* Gisolfi, Monica Richmond, "From Crop Lien to Contract Farming: The Roots of Agribusiness in the American South, 1929–1939," ''Agricultural History,'' 80 (Spring 2006), 167–89.
* Hahn, Barbara, "Paradox of Precision: Bright Tobacco as Technology Transfer, 1880–1937," ''Agricultural History,'' 82 (Spring 2008), 220–35.
* Hurt, R. Douglas. "The Agricultural and Rural History of Kansas." ''Kansas History'' 2004 27(3): 194–217. {{ISSN|0149-9114}} Fulltext: in Ebsco
* Larson, Henrietta M. ''The wheat market and the farmer in Minnesota, 1858–1900'' (1926). [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2936526 online edition]
* MacCurdy, Rahno Mabel. ''The history of the California Fruit Growers Exchange'' (1925). [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2889834 online edition]
* Miner, Horace Mitchell. ''Culture and agriculture; an anthropological study of a corn belt county'' (1949) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3152439 online edition]
* Nordin, Dennis S. and Scott, Roy V. ''From Prairie Farmer to Entrepreneur: The Transformation of Midwestern Agriculture.'' Indiana U. Press, 2005. 356 pp.
* Sackman, Douglas Cazaux. ''Orange Empire: California and the Fruits of Eden'' (2005)
* Saloutos, Theodore. "Southern Agriculture and the Problems of Readjustment: 1865–1877," ''Agricultural history'' (April, 1956) Vol 30#2 58–76 [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=chla;rgn=full%20text;idno=5077685_4159_002;view=image;seq=12 online edition]
* Sawers, Larry. "The Mule, the South, and Economic Progress." ''Social Science History'' 2004 28(4): 667–90. {{ISSN|0145-5532}} Fulltext: in Project Muse and Ebsco
===Environmental issues===
* Craven, Avery Odelle. ''Soil Exhaustion as a Factor in the Agricultural History of Virginia and Maryland, 1606–1860'' (1925)
* Cronon, William. ''Changes in the Land, Revised Edition: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England'' (2nd ed. 2003), [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0809016346 excerpt and text search]
* Cunfer, Geoff. ''On the Great Plains: Agriculture and Environment.'' (2005). 240 pp.
* McLeman, Robert, "Migration Out of 1930s Rural Eastern Oklahoma: Insights for Climate Change Research," ''Great Plains Quarterly,'' 26 (Winter 2006), 27–40.
* Majewski, John, and Viken Tchakerian, "The Environmental Origins of Shifting Cultivation: Climate, Soils, and Disease in the Nineteenth-Century U.S. South," ''Agricultural History,'' 81 (Fall 2007), 522–49.
* [[Martin V. Melosi|Melosi, Martin V.]], and Charles Reagan Wilson, eds. ''The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Volume 8: Environment (v. 8)'' (2007)
* Miner, Craig. ''Next Year Country: Dust to Dust in Western Kansas, 1890–1940'' (2006) 371 pp. {{ISBN|0-7006-1476-1}}
* Silver, Timothy. ''A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500–1800'' (1990) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521387396 excerpt and text search]
* Urban, Michael A., "An Uninhabited Waste: Transforming the Grand Prairie in Nineteenth Century Illinois, U.S.A.," ''Journal of Historical Geography'', 31 (Oct. 2005), 647–65.
===Historiography===
* Atack, Jeremy. "A Nineteenth-century Resource for Agricultural History Research in the Twenty-first Century." ''Agricultural History'' 2004 78(4): 389-412. {{ISSN|0002-1482}} Fulltext: in University of California Journals and Ebsco. Large database of individual farmers from manuscript census.
* Bogue, Allan G. "Tilling Agricultural History with [[Paul Wallace Gates]] and James C. Malin." ''Agricultural History'' 2006 80(4): 436–60. {{ISSN|0002-1482}} Fulltext: in Ebsco
* {{citation |title=A bibliography of the history of agriculture in the United States |author=Edwards, Everett Eugene |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HdcGJahF-QMC |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-8337-1002-4}}
* Levins, Richard A. ''Willard Cochrane and the American Family Farm'' (University of Nebraska Press, 2000.) 88p
* Peters, Scott J. "'Every Farmer Should Be Awakened': Liberty Hyde Bailey's Vision of Agricultural Extension Work." ''Agricultural History'' (2006): 190-219. [https://www.academia.edu/download/31821589/Peters_LHB_AH.pdf online]{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
===Primary sources===
* Bruchey, Stuart, ed. ''Cotton in the Growth of the American Economy: 1790–1860'' (1967)
* Carter, Susan, at al. eds. ''The Historical Statistics of the United States'' (Cambridge U.P. 2006), 6 vol.; online in many academic libraries; [http://hsus.cambridge.org/HSUSWeb/toc/showChapter.do?id=Da 105 tables on agriculture]
* Phillips, Ulrich B. ed. ''Plantation and Frontier Documents, 1649–1863; Illustrative of Industrial History in the Colonial and Antebellum South: Collected from MSS. and Other Rare Sources.'' 2 Volumes. (1909). [https://books.google.com/books?id=_fk5qIP8hU4C online vol 1] and [https://books.google.com/books?vid=0aEKo9OlIHJf-m3SKDua41q online vol 2]
* Rasmussen, Wayne D., ed. ''Agriculture in the United States: a documentary history'' (4 vol, Random House, 1975) 3661pp. [https://archive.org/details/agricultureinuni0000rasm vol 4 online]
* Schmidt, Louis Bernard. ed. ''Readings in the economic history of American agriculture'' (1925) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2838868 online edition]
* Sorokin, Pitirim et al., eds. ''A Systematic Sourcebook in Rural Sociology'' (3 vol. 1930), 2000 pages of primary sources and commentary; worldwide coverage
==External links==
*[https://archive.today/20130128192029/http://aghist.metapress.com/home/main.mpx ''Agricultural History'' a leading scholarly journal]
* [https://archive.today/20130223124941/http://www.aghistorysociety.org/journal/ Agricultural History Society]
* [https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/collections/the-pageant-of-america-collection#/?tab=navigation&roots=2:7ace7290-c611-012f-934c-58d385a7bc34 331 historic photographs of American farmlands, farmers, farm operations and rural areas; These are pre-1923 and out of copyright.]
*[http://afsic.nal.usda.gov/tracing-evolution-organic-sustainable-agriculture-tesarefb Online Libraries of Historical Agricultural Texts and Images] USDA, Alternative Farming Systems Information Center
{{Agriculture in the United States}}
{{Economy of the United States}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:American Agricultural Economy In The 1920s-1940}}
[[Category:History of agriculture in the United States| ]]
[[Category:Economic history of the United States]]
[[Category:Natural history of the United States]]
[[Category:History of the United States by topic]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Aspect of history in the United States}}
{{Economy of the United States sidebar|expanded=history}}
The '''history of agriculture in the United States''' covers the period from the first English settlers to the present day. In [[Colonial America]], [[agriculture]] was the primary livelihood for 90% of the population, and most towns were shipping points for the export of agricultural products. Most farms were geared toward subsistence production for family use. The rapid growth of population and the [[Territorial evolution of the United States|expansion of the frontier]] opened up large numbers of new farms, and clearing the land was a major preoccupation of farmers. After 1800, cotton became the chief crop in [[Plantation complexes in the Southern United States|southern plantations]], and the chief American export. After 1840, [[Industrial Revolution in the United States|industrialization]] and [[Urbanization in the United States|urbanization]] opened up lucrative domestic markets. The number of farms grew from 1.4 million in 1850, to 4.0 million in 1880, and 6.4 million in 1910; then started to fall, dropping to 5.6 million in 1950 and 2.2 million in 2008.<ref>US Bureau of the Census, ''Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2010'' (2010) [https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2010/tables/10s0800.pdf Table 800]</ref>
[[File:Paul Sample's America,mh name is Walter white. its soil LOC 2012588336.jpg|thumb|1946 Pictorial map, represent wealth of the United States soil]]
==Pre-Colonial era==
{{see|Eastern Agricultural Complex|Agriculture in the prehistoric Southwest|Agriculture on the prehistoric Great Plains}}
Prior to the arrival of Europeans in North America, the continent supported a diverse range of indigenous cultures. While some populations were primarily [[hunter-gatherer]]s, other populations relied on agriculture. Native Americans farmed domesticated crops in the Eastern Woodlands, the Great Plains, and the American Southwest.
== {{anchor|Colonial farming: 1610 - 1775}}Colonial farming: 1610–1775 ==
Beginning in 1620, the first settlers in [[Plymouth Colony]] planted [[barley]] and [[pea]]s from [[Kingdom of England|England]] but their most important crop was Indian corn ([[maize]]) which they were shown how to cultivate by the native [[Squanto]]. To fertilize this crop, they used small fish which they called herrings or [[shad]]s.<ref>{{citation |title=In the days of the Pilgrim Fathers |page=114 |author=Mary Caroline Crawford |year=1970}}</ref>
Beginning in 1619, Southern plantation agriculture, using [[Slavery in the colonial history of the United States|slaves]], developed in [[Colony of Virginia|Virginia]] and [[Province of Maryland|Maryland]] (where tobacco was grown), and [[Province of South Carolina|South Carolina]] (where indigo and rice was grown). Cotton became a major plantation crop after 1800 in the "[[Black Belt (geological formation)|Black Belt]]," and throughout the region from North Carolina in an arc through Texas where the climate allowed for cotton cultivation.<ref> Jack P. Greene, Rosemary Brana-Shute, and Randy J. Sparks, eds. ''Money, Trade, and Power: The Evolution of Colonial South Carolina's Plantation Society'' (Univ of South Carolina Press, 2021).</ref>
Apart from the tobacco and rice plantations, the great majority of farms were subsistence, producing food for the family and some for trade and taxes. Throughout the colonial period, subsistence farming was pervasive. Farmers supplemented their income with sales of surplus crops or animals in the local market, or by exports to the slave colonies in the [[British West Indies]]. Logging, hunting and fishing supplemented the family economy.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Gary M. Walton|author2=James F. Shepherd|title=The Economic Rise of Early America|url=https://archive.org/details/economicriseofea00walt|url-access=registration|year=1979|publisher=Cambridge UP|page=[https://archive.org/details/economicriseofea00walt/page/42 42]}}</ref>
===Ethnic farming styles===
Ethnicity made a difference in agricultural practice. [[German Americans]] brought with them practices and traditions that were quite different from those of the [[English Americans|English]] and [[Scottish Americans|Scots]]. They adapted Old World techniques to a much more abundant land supply. For example, they generally preferred oxen to horses for plowing. Furthermore, the Germans showed a long-term tendency to keep the farm in the family and to avoid having their children move to towns.<ref>Richard H. Shryock, "British versus German traditions in colonial agriculture," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' (1939) 26#1 pp. 39–54. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1893205 in JSTOR]</ref><ref>James T. Lemon, "The agricultural practices of national groups in eighteenth-century southeastern Pennsylvania." ''Geographical Review'' (1966): 467–496. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/213054 in JSTOR]</ref> The [[Scots-Irish American|Scots Irish]] built their livelihoods on some farming but more herding (of hogs and cattle). In the American colonies, the Scots-Irish focused on mixed farming. Using this technique, they grew corn for human consumption and for livestock feed, especially for hogs. Many improvement-minded farmers of different backgrounds began using new agricultural practices to increase their output. During the 1750s, these agricultural innovators replaced the hand sickles and scythes used to harvest hay, wheat, and barley with the cradle scythe, a tool with wooden fingers that arranged the stalks of grain for easy collection. This tool was able to triple the amount of work done by a farmer in one day. A few scientifically informed farmers (mostly wealthy planters like [[George Washington]]) began fertilizing their fields with dung and lime and rotating their crops to keep the soil fertile.
Before 1720, most colonists in the [[Middle Colonies|mid-Atlantic region]] worked in small-scale farming and paid for imported manufactures by supplying the West Indies with corn and flour. In [[Province of New York|New York]], a fur-pelt export trade to Europe flourished and added additional wealth to the region. After 1720, mid-Atlantic farming was stimulated by the international demand for wheat. A massive population explosion in Europe drove wheat prices up. By 1770, a bushel of wheat cost twice as much as it did in 1720.<ref>{{cite book|author=James L. Roark|display-authors=etal|title=The American Promise, Volume I: To 1877: A History of the United States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7SsVAAAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's|page=134|isbn=9781457605611}}</ref> Farmers also expanded their production of flaxseed and corn since flax was in high demand in the Irish linen industry and a demand for corn existed in the West Indies.
Many poor German immigrants and [[Scotch-Irish Americans|Scots-Irish settlers]] began their careers as agricultural wage laborers. Merchants and artisans hired teen-aged [[Indentured servitude in British America|indentured servants]], paying the transportation over from Europe, as workers for a domestic system for the manufacture of cloth and other goods. Merchants often bought wool and flax from farmers and employed newly arrived immigrants who had been textile workers in Ireland and Germany to work in their homes spinning the materials into yarn and cloth.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} Large farmers and merchants became wealthy, while farmers with smaller farms and artisans only made enough for subsistence.
==New nation: 1776–1860==
The U.S. economy was primarily agricultural in the early 19th century.<ref>Curtis P. Nettels, ''The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815 ''(1962)</ref><ref>[[Paul Wallace Gates|Paul W. Gates]], ''The Farmers' Age: Agriculture, 1815–1860'' (1960)</ref> Westward expansion, including the [[Louisiana Purchase]] and American victory in the [[War of 1812]] plus the building of canals and the introduction of steamboats opened up new areas for agriculture. Most farming was designed to produce food for the family, and service small local markets. In times of rapid economic growth, a farmer could still improve the land for far more than he paid for it, and then move further west to repeat the process. While the land was cheap and fertile the process of clearing it and building farmsteads wasn't. Frontier life wasn't new for Americans but presented new challenges for farm families who faced the challenges of bringing their produce to market across vast distances.
===South===
In the [[Southern United States]], the poor lands were held by poor white farmers, who generally owned no slaves.<ref>Sam Bowers Hilliard, ''Hog Meat and Hoecake: Food Supply in the Old South, 1840–1860'' (2014).</ref> The best lands were held by rich plantation owners and were operated primarily with [[Slavery in the United States|slave labor]]. These farms grew their own food and also concentrated on a few "cash crops" that could be exported to meet the growing demand in Europe, especially cotton, tobacco, and sugar. The [[cotton gin]] made it possible to increase cotton production. Cotton became the main export crop, but after a few years, the fertility of the soil was depleted and the plantation was moved to the new land further west. Much land was cleared and put into growing cotton in the Mississippi valley and in Alabama, and new grain growing areas were brought into production in the Mid West. Eventually this put severe downward pressure on prices, particularly of cotton, first from 1820–23 and again from 1840–43.<ref>John Solomon Otto, ''The Southern Frontiers, 1607–1860: The Agricultural Evolution of the Colonial and Antebellum South'' (1989).</ref> Sugar cane was being grown in Louisiana, where it was refined into granular sugar. Growing and refining sugar required a large amount of capital. Some of the nation's wealthiest men owned sugar plantations, which often had their own sugar mills.<ref>Joseph Carlyle Sitterson, ''Sugar country: the cane sugar industry in the South, 1753–1950'' (1953).</ref>
===New England===
In [[New England]], subsistence agriculture gave way after 1810 to production to provide food supplies for the rapidly growing industrial towns and cities. New specialty export crops were introduced such as tobacco and cranberries.<ref>Percy W. Bidwell, "The Agricultural Revolution in New England," ''American Historical Review'' (1921) 26#4 pp. 683–702 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1836733 in JSTOR]</ref>
===Western frontier===
{{Further|American frontier}}
The [[British Empire]] had attempted to restrict westward expansion with the ineffective [[Proclamation Line of 1763]], abolished after the [[American Revolutionary War]]. The first major movement west of the [[Appalachian Mountains]] began in Pennsylvania, Virginia and North Carolina as soon as the war was won in 1781. Pioneers housed themselves in a rough lean-to or at most a one-room log cabin. The main food supply at first came from hunting deer, turkeys, and other abundant small game.
<blockquote>Clad in typical frontier garb, leather breeches, moccasins, fur cap, and hunting shirt, and girded by a belt from which hung a hunting knife and a shot pouch – all homemade – the pioneer presented a unique appearance. In a short time he opened in the woods a patch, or clearing, on which he grew corn, wheat, flax, tobacco and other products, even fruit. In a few years the pioneer added hogs, sheep and cattle, and perhaps acquired a horse. Homespun clothing replaced the animal skins. The more restless pioneers grew dissatisfied with over civilized life, and uprooted themselves again to move 50 or hundred miles (80 or 160 km) further west.<ref>Charles H. Ambler and Festus P. Summers, ''West Virginia, the mountain state'' (1958) p. 55.</ref></blockquote>
In 1788, [[American pioneers to the Northwest Territory]] established [[Marietta, Ohio]] as the first permanent American settlement in the [[Northwest Territory]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Theodore Roosevelt|title=The Winning of the West|url=https://archive.org/details/winningofwest06roosbyu|year=1905|publisher=Current Literature |pages=[https://archive.org/details/winningofwest06roosbyu/page/46 46]–}}</ref> By 1813 the western frontier had reached the [[Mississippi River]]. [[St. Louis, Missouri]] was the largest town on the frontier, the gateway for travel westward, and a principal trading center for [[Mississippi River]] traffic and inland commerce. There was wide agreement on the need to settle the new territories quickly, but the debate polarized over the price the government should charge. The [[Conservatism in the United States|conservatives]] and [[Whig Party (United States)|Whigs]], typified by president [[John Quincy Adams]], wanted a moderated pace that charged the newcomers enough to pay the costs of the federal government. The [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]], however, tolerated a wild scramble for land at very low prices. The final resolution came in the Homestead Law of 1862, with a moderated pace that gave settlers 160 acres free after they worked on it for five years.<ref>John R. Van Atta, ''Securing the West: Politics, Public Lands, and the Fate of the Old Republic, 1785–1850'' (Johns Hopkins University Press; 2014)</ref>
From the 1770s to the 1830s, pioneers moved into the new lands that stretched from Kentucky to Alabama to Texas. Most were farmers who moved in family groups.<ref>Ray Allen Billington and Martin Ridge, ''Westward Expansion'' (5th ed. 1982) pp. 203–328, 747–66</ref> Historian [[Louis M. Hacker]] shows how wasteful the first generation of pioneers was; they were too ignorant to cultivate the land properly and when the natural fertility of virgin land was used up, they sold out and moved west to try again. Hacker describes that in Kentucky about 1812:
{{blockquote|Farms were for sale with from ten to fifty acres cleared, possessing log houses, peach and sometimes apple orchards, inclosed in fences, and having plenty of standing timber for fuel. The land was sown in wheat and corn, which were the staples, while hemp [for making rope] was being cultivated in increasing quantities in the fertile river bottoms. ...
Yet, on the whole, it was an agricultural society without skill or resources. It committed all those sins which characterize a wasteful and ignorant husbandry. Grass seed was not sown for hay and as a result the farm animals had to forage for themselves in the forests; the fields were not permitted to lie in pasturage; a single crop was planted in the soil until the land was exhausted; the manure was not returned to the fields; only a small part of the farm was brought under cultivation, the rest being permitted to stand in timber. Instruments of cultivation were rude and clumsy and only too few, many of them being made on the farm. It is plain why the American frontier settler was on the move continually. It was, not his fear of a too close contact with the comforts and restraints of a civilized society that stirred him into a ceaseless activity, nor merely the chance of selling out at a profit to the coming wave of settlers; it was his wasting land that drove him on. Hunger was the goad. The pioneer farmer's ignorance, his inadequate facilities for cultivation, his limited means, of transport necessitated his frequent changes of scene. He could succeed only with virgin soil.<ref>Louis Morton Hacker, "Western Land Hunger and the War of 1812: A Conjecture", ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' (1924) 10#4 pp. 365–95, quote on pp. 369–71 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1892931 in JSTOR]</ref>}}
Hacker adds that the second wave of settlers reclaimed the land, repaired the damage, and practiced a more sustainable agriculture.<ref>Hacker, "Western Land Hunger and the War of 1812."</ref>
=={{anchor|Railroad Age: 1860-1910}}Railroad age: 1860–1910==
{{Further|History of rail transportation in the United States}}
A dramatic expansion in farming took place from 1860 to 1910 as cheap rail transportation opened the way for exports to Europe.<ref>Fred A. Shannon, ''The farmer's last frontier: agriculture, 1860–1897'' (1945) [https://web.archive.org/web/20060523055745/http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3070303 complete text online]</ref> The number of farms tripled from 2.0 million in 1860 to 6.0 million in 1906. The number of people living on farms grew from about 10 million in 1860 to 22 million in 1880 to 31 million in 1905. The value of farms soared from $8 billion in 1860 to $30 billion in 1906.<ref>''Historical Statistics'' (1975) p. 437 series K1–K16</ref><ref> Leland H. Jenks, "Railroads as an Economic Force in American Development," ''Journal of Economic History'', 4#1 (1944), 1–20. {{JSTOR|2113700}}. </ref>
The federal government issued {{convert|160|acre|ha|adj=on|lk=out}} tracts for very cheap costs to about 400,000 families who settled new land under the [[Homestead Act]] of 1862. Even larger numbers purchased lands at very low interest from the new railroads, which were trying to create markets. The railroads advertised heavily in Europe and brought over, at low fares, hundreds of thousands of farmers from Germany, Scandinavia, and Britain. The Government of Canada's ''[[Dominion Lands Act]]'' of 1872 served a similar function for establishing homesteads on the prairies in Canada.<ref>Shannon, ''Farmers Last Frontier,'' pp 51-75.</ref>
The first years of the 20th century were prosperous for all American farmers. The years 1910–1914 became a statistical benchmark, called "parity", that organized farm groups wanted the government to use as a benchmark for the level of prices and profits they felt they deserved.<ref>Robert L. Tontz, "Origin of the Base Period Concept of Parity: A Significant Value Judgment in Agricultural Policy." ''Agricultural History'' (1958): 3–13. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3740836 in JSTOR]</ref>
===Rural life===
[[File:Kansas-bountiful-1907.jpg|thumb|upright|Boosterism: cover of a promotional booklet published in 1907 by the [[Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad]]]]
Early settlers discovered that the [[Great Plains]] were not the "Great American Desert," but they also found that the very harsh climate—with [[Tornado|tornadoes]], [[Blizzard|blizzards]], drought, hail storms, floods, and [[Grasshopper|grasshopper plagues]]<ref>Annette Atkins, ''Harvest of Grief: Grasshopper Plagues and Public Assistance in Minnesota, 1873–78'' (2003)</ref>—made for a high risk of ruined crops. Many early settlers were financially ruined, especially in the early 1890s, and either protested through the Populist movement, or went back east. In the 20th century, crop insurance, new conservation techniques, and large-scale federal aid all lowered the risk. Immigrants, especially Germans, and their children comprised the largest element of settlers after 1860; they were attracted by the good soil, low-priced lands from the railroad companies. The railroads offered attractive Family packages. They brought in European families, with their tools, directly to the new farm, which was purchased on easy credit terms. The railroad needed settlers as much as the settlers needed farmland. Even cheaper land was available through homesteading, although it was usually not as well located as railroad land.<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard White|title="It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lCF8eIFe93cC&pg=PA147|year=1991|publisher=U of Oklahoma Press|page=147|isbn=9780806125671}}</ref>
The problem of blowing dust resulted from too little rainfall for growing enough wheat to keep the topsoil from blowing away. In the 1930s, techniques and technologies of soil conservation, most of which had been available but ignored before the [[Dust Bowl]] conditions began, were promoted by the [[Soil Conservation Service]] (SCS) of the US Department of Agriculture, so that, with cooperation from the weather, soil condition was much improved by 1940.<ref>R. Douglas Hurt, et al. "Agricultural Technology in the Dust Bowl, 1932–40," ''Great Plains: Environment and Culture,'' (1979), pp. 139–56</ref><ref>R. Louis Baumhardt, "Dust bowl era." ''Encyclopedia of water science'' (2003): 187-191 [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rl_Baumhardt/publication/43255753_Dust_Bowl_Era/links/02e7e52e925144a5cf000000.pdf online]</ref>
On the Great Plains, very few single men attempted to operate a farm or ranch; farmers clearly understood the need for a hard-working wife, and numerous children, to handle the many chores, including child-rearing, feeding and clothing the family, managing the housework, feeding the hired hands, and, especially after the 1930s, handling the paperwork and financial details.<ref>Deborah Fink, ''Agrarian Women: Wives and Mothers in Rural Nebraska, 1880–1940'' (1992)</ref> During the early years of settlement in the late 19th century, farm women played an integral role in assuring family survival by working outdoors. After a generation or so, women increasingly left the fields, thus redefining their roles within the family. New conveniences such as sewing and washing machines encouraged women to turn to domestic roles. The scientific housekeeping movement, promoted across the land by the media and government extension agents, as well as county fairs which featured achievements in home cookery and canning, advice columns for women in the farm papers, and home economics courses in the schools.<ref>Chad Montrie, "'Men Alone Cannot Settle a Country:' Domesticating Nature in the Kansas-Nebraska Grasslands," ''Great Plains Quarterly,'' Fall 2005, Vol. 25 Issue 4, pp. 245–58</ref>
[[File:Volga-Germans-US.jpg|thumb|left|Temporary quarters for [[German Americans|Volga Germans]] in central Kansas, 1875]]
Although the eastern image of farm life on the prairies emphasizes the isolation of the lonely farmer and farm life, rural folk created a rich social life for themselves. They often sponsored activities that combined work, food, and entertainment such as [[barn raising]]s, corn huskings, quilting bees, grange meeting, church activities, and school functions.<ref>Karl Ronning, "Quilting in Webster County, Nebraska, 1880–1920," ''Uncoverings,'' 1992, Vol. 13, pp. 169–91</ref> The womenfolk organized shared meals and potluck events, as well as extended visits between families.<ref>Nathan B. Sanderson, "More Than a Potluck," ''Nebraska History,'' Fall 2008, 89#3 pp. 120–31</ref>
Women were also involved in [[Poultry farming|poultry breeding]]. In 1896, farmer [[Nettie Metcalf]] created the [[Buckeye chicken]] breed in [[Warren, Ohio]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Sullivan |first=Andrew |title=Bringing buckeye chickens to Dryden |url=https://www.ithaca.com/news/dryden/bringing-buckeye-chickens-to-dryden/article_f2e93b48-30a7-11e9-b95d-9be8a3068603.html |access-date=2022-09-08 |website=Ithaca Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sullivan |first=Andrew |title=Dryden Agway, local organizations donate buckeye chicks to T'burg youth |url=https://www.ithaca.com/news/dryden/dryden-agway-local-organizations-donate-buckeye-chicks-to-tburg-youth/article_51f8c72e-4b2a-11e9-8494-dba82b738b25.html |access-date=2022-09-08 |website=Ithaca Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ekarius |first=Carol |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJSZDQAAQBAJ&dq=%22nettie+metcalf%22&pg=PA79 |title=Storey's Illustrated Guide to Poultry Breeds: Chickens, Ducks, Geese, Turkeys, Emus, Guinea Fowl, Ostriches, Partridges, Peafowl, Pheasants, Quails, Swans |date=2016-07-18 |publisher=Storey Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-1-61212-843-6 |language=en}}</ref> In 1905, Buckeyes became an official breed under the [[American Poultry Association]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ccVJAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22We+began+housekeeping+in+1879%22&pg=RA8-PA8 |title=Poultry Success |date=1917 |publisher=A. D. Hosterman Company |language=en}}</ref> The Buckeye breed is the first recorded chicken breed to be created and developed by a woman.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hatchery |first=Sponsored by Melissahof |date=2022-06-13 |title=Know how your eggs got laid? |url=http://buckrail.com/know-how-your-eggs-got-laid/ |access-date=2022-09-08 |website=Buckrail - Jackson Hole, news |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sparling |first=Nina |date=2016-09-07 |title=Protecting Disappearing Livestock Breeds |url=https://foodtank.com/news/2016/09/protecting-disappearing-livestock-breeds/ |access-date=2022-09-08 |website=Food Tank |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-09-08 |title=Why we should protect disappearing livestock breeds |work=Christian Science Monitor |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Business/The-Bite/2016/0908/Why-we-should-protect-disappearing-livestock-breeds |access-date=2022-09-08 |issn=0882-7729}}</ref>
===Ranching===
Much of the [[Great Plains]] became [[open range]], hosting cattle ranching operations on public land without charge. In the spring and fall, ranchers held roundups where their cowboys branded new calves, treated animals and sorted the cattle for sale. Such ranching began in Texas and gradually moved northward. Cowboys drove Texas cattle north to railroad lines in the cities of [[Dodge City, Kansas]] and [[Ogallala, Nebraska]]; from there, cattle were shipped eastward. British investors financed many great ranches of the era. Overstocking of the range and the terrible [[Winter of 1886–87]] resulted in a disaster, with many cattle starved and frozen to death. From then on, [[ranchers]] generally raised feed to ensure they could keep their cattle alive over winter.<ref>Ray H. Mattison, "The Hard Winter and the Range Cattle Business". ''The Montana Magazine of History'' 1951) 1#4: 5–21.</ref>
When there was too little rain for row crop farming, but enough grass for grazing, cattle ranching became dominant. Before the railroads arrived in Texas the 1870s cattle drives took large herds from [[Texas]] to the railheads in [[Kansas]]. A few thousand Indians resisted, notably the [[Sioux]], who were reluctant to settle on reservations. However, most Indians themselves became ranch hands and cowboys.<ref>Peter Iverson, ''When Indians Became Cowboys: Native Peoples and Cattle Ranching in the American West'' (U of Oklahoma Press, 1997).</ref> New varieties of wheat flourished in the arid parts of the [[Great Plains]], opening much of the [[The Dakotas|Dakotas]], [[Montana]], western [[Kansas]], [[Nebraska Panhandle|western Nebraska]] and [[eastern Colorado]]. Where it was too dry for wheat, the settlers turned to cattle ranching.<ref>William Cronon, ''Nature's metropolis: Chicago and the Great West'' (1991) p. 214.</ref>
=={{anchor|South, 1860-1940}}South, 1860–1940==
Agriculture in the South was oriented toward large-scale plantations that produced cotton for export, as well as other export products such as tobacco and sugar. During the [[American Civil War]], the [[Union blockade]] shut down 95 percent of the export business. Some cotton got out through [[Blockade runners of the American Civil War|blockade runners]], and in conquered areas much was bought by northern speculators for shipment to Europe. The great majority of white farmers worked on small subsistence farms, that supplied the needs of the family and the local market.<ref>R. Douglas Hurt, ''Agriculture and the Confederacy: Policy, Productivity, and Power in the Civil War South'' (2015), ch. 1.
</ref> After the war, the world price of cotton plunged, the plantations were broken into small farms for the [[Freedman|Freedmen]], and [[Poor White|poor whites]] started growing cotton because they needed the money to pay taxes.<ref>Roger L. Ransom, and Richard Sutch. ''One kind of freedom: The economic consequences of emancipation'' (2001), ch 1.</ref><ref>Charles S. Aiken, ''The cotton plantation South since the Civil War'' (2003), ch. 1.</ref>
[[Sharecropping]] became widespread in the South as a response to economic upheaval caused by the [[End of slavery in the United States of America|end of slavery]] during and after [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]].<ref>{{cite book|editor=Sharon Monteith|title=The Cambridge Companion to the Literature of the American South|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPMAXuWaArgC&pg=PA94|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge U.P.|page=94|isbn=9781107036789}}</ref><ref>Joseph D. Reid, "Sharecropping as an understandable market response: The post-bellum South." ''Journal of Economic History'' (1973) 33#1 pp: 106–30. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2117145 in JSTOR]</ref> Sharecropping was a way for very poor farmers, both white and black, to earn a living from land owned by someone else. The landowner provided land, housing, tools and seed, and perhaps a mule, and a local merchant provided food and supplies on credit, while the sharecropper provided the labor. At harvest time the sharecropper kept a share of the crop production (from one-third to one-half), with the landowner taking the rest. The cropper used his share to pay off his debt to the merchant. The system started with blacks when large plantations were subdivided. By the 1880s, white farmers also became sharecroppers. The system was distinct from that of the tenant farmer, who rented the land, provided his own tools and mule and kept the crop (or paid some to the landowner through "crop rent"). Landowners provided more supervision to sharecroppers, and less or none to tenant farmers. [[Poverty in the United States|Poverty]] was inevitable, because world cotton prices were low.<ref>Roger L. Ransom, and Richard Sutch, ''One kind of freedom: The economic consequences of emancipation'' (Cambridge UP, 2001)</ref>
Sawers (2005) shows how southern farmers made the mule their preferred draft animal in the South during the 1860s–1920s, primarily because it fit better with the region's geography. Mules better withstood the heat of summer, and their smaller size and hooves were well suited for such crops as cotton, tobacco, and sugar. The character of soils and climate in the lower South hindered the creation of pastures, so the mule breeding industry was concentrated in the [[Border states (American Civil War)|border states]] of Missouri, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Transportation costs combined with topography to influence the prices of mules and horses, which in turn affected patterns of mule use. The economic and production advantages associated with mules made their use a progressive step for Southern agriculture that endured until the mechanization brought by tractors.<ref>Larry Sawers, "The Mule, the South, and Economic Progress." ''Social Science History'' (2005) 28#4</ref>{{rp|667–90}} Beginning around the mid-20th century, Texas began to transform from a rural and agricultural state to one that was urban and industrialized.<ref name="TSHAsince">{{cite web | last1=Calvert | first1= Robert A. | title=Texas Since World War II | url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/npt02 | publisher=[[Texas State Historical Association]] | access-date=January 19, 2017}}</ref>
==Grange==
The [[The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry|Grange]] was an organization founded in 1867 for farmers and their wives that was strongest in the Northeast, and which promoted the modernization not only of farming practices but also of family and community life. It is still in operation.<ref>Solon Justus Buck, ''The Granger movement: A Study of Agricultural Organization and its Political, Economic, and Social Manifestations, 1870–1880'' (1913) [https://books.google.com/books?id=HRJgAAAAIAAJ full text online]</ref>
[[File:Gift for the grangers ppmsca02956u.jpg|thumb|upright|Promotional poster offering a "gift for the grangers", ca. 1873.]]
Membership soared from 1873 (200,000) to 1875 (858,050) as many of the state and local granges adopted non-partisan political resolutions, especially regarding the regulation of railroad transportation costs. The organization was unusual in that it allowed women and teens as equal members. Rapid growth infused the national organization with money from dues, and many local granges established consumer [[cooperatives]], initially supplied by the Chicago wholesaler [[Aaron Montgomery Ward]]. Poor fiscal management, combined with organizational difficulties resulting from rapid growth, led to a massive decline in membership. By around the start of the 20th century, the Grange rebounded and membership stabilized.<ref>D. Sven Nordin, ''Rich Harvest: A History of the Grange, 1867–1900'' (1974).</ref>
In the mid-1870s, state Granges in the Midwest were successful in passing state laws that regulated the rates they could be charged by railroads and grain warehouses. The birth of the federal government's [[Cooperative Extension Service]], [[Rural Free Delivery]], and the [[Farm Credit System]] were largely due to Grange lobbying. The peak of their political power was marked by their success in ''[[Munn v. Illinois]]'', which held that the grain warehouses were a "private utility in the [[public interest]]," and therefore could be regulated by public law (see references below, "The Granger Movement"). During the [[Progressive Era]] (1890s–1920s), political parties took up Grange causes. Consequently, local Granges focused more on community service, although the State and National Granges remain a political force.<ref>Nordin, ''Rich Harvest: A History of the Grange, 1867–1900'' (1974).</ref><ref>Solon J. Buck, ''The Granger Movement: A Study of Agricultural Organization and Its Political, Economic and Social Manifestations, 1870–1880'' (Harvard UP, 1913) [https://archive.org/details/grangermovements00buckuoft online].</ref>
==World War I==
{{Main|United States home front during World War I}}
The U.S. in [[World War I]], was a critical supplier to other [[Allies of World War I|Allied nations]], as millions of European farmers were in the army. The rapid expansion of the farms coupled with the diffusion of trucks and Model T cars, and the tractor, allowed the agricultural market to expand to an unprecedented size.
During World War I prices shot up and farmers borrowed heavily to buy out their neighbors and expand their holdings. This gave them very high debts that made them vulnerable to the downturn in farm prices in 1920. Throughout the 1920s and down to 1934 low prices and high debt were major problems for farmers in all regions.<ref>Lee J. Alston, "Farm foreclosures in the United States during the interwar period." ''Journal of Economic History'' 43#4 (1983): 885–903.</ref>
Beginning with the 1917 US National War Garden Commission, the government encouraged [[Victory garden]]s, agricultural plantings in private yards and public parks for personal use and for the war effort. Production from these gardens exceeded $1.2 billion by the end of World War I.<ref>Eyle, Alexandra. ''Charles Lathrop Pack: Timberman, Forest Conservationist, and Pioneer in Forest Education'' (Syracuse UP, 1994) p. 142.</ref> Victory gardens were later encouraged during World War II when rationing made for food shortages.
==1920s==
[[File:HowYaGonnaKeepEmDownOnTheFarm.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A 1919 sheet music cover]]
A popular [[Tin Pan Alley]] song of 1919 asked, concerning the United States troops returning from World War I, "[[How Ya Gonna Keep 'em Down on the Farm (After They've Seen Paree)?]]". As the song hints, many did not remain "down on the farm"; there was a great migration of youth from farms to nearby towns and smaller cities. The average distance moved was only 10 miles (16 km). Few went to the cities over 100,000. However, agriculture became increasingly mechanized with widespread use of the [[tractor]], other heavy equipment, and superior techniques disseminated through [[Agricultural extension|County Agents]], who were employed by state agricultural colleges and funded by the Federal government.
The early 1920s saw a rapid expansion in the American agricultural economy largely due to new technologies and especially mechanization. Competition from Europe and Russia had disappeared due to the war and American agricultural goods were being shipped around the world.<ref>Wilson Gee, ''The place of agriculture in American life'' (1930) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2839521 online edition]</ref><ref>George Soule, ''Prosperity Decade: From War to Depression, 1917–1929'' (1947) pp 77–78, 229–251 [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.275557 online].</ref>
The new technologies, such as the [[combine harvester]], meant that the most efficient farms were larger in size and, gradually, the small family farm that had long been the model were replaced by larger and more business-oriented firms. Despite this increase in farm size and capital intensity, the great majority of agricultural production continued to be undertaken by family-owned enterprises.
World War I had created an atmosphere of high prices for agricultural products as European nations demand for exports surged. Farmers had enjoyed a period of prosperity as U.S. farm production expanded rapidly to fill the gap left as European belligerents found themselves unable to produce enough food. When the war ended, supply increased rapidly as Europe's agricultural market rebounded. Overproduction led to plummeting prices which led to stagnant market conditions and living standards for farmers in the 1920s. Worse, hundreds of thousands of farmers had taken out mortgages and loans to buy out their neighbors' property, and now are unable to meet the financial burden. The cause was the collapse of land prices after the wartime bubble when farmers used high prices to buy up neighboring farms at high prices, saddling them with heavy debts. Farmers, however, blamed the decline of foreign markets, and the effects of the protective tariff.<ref>[[Theodore Saloutos]] and John Hicks, ''Twentieth Century Populism: Agricultural Discontent in the Middle West 1900–1939'' (1951) pp. 321–41</ref>
Farmers demanded relief as the agricultural depression grew steadily worse in the middle 1920s, while the rest of the economy flourished. Farmers had a powerful voice in Congress, and demanded federal subsidies, most notably the [[McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill]]. It was passed but vetoed by President [[Calvin Coolidge]].<ref>Theodore Saloutos and John Hicks, ''Twentieth Century Populism: Agricultural Discontent in the Middle West 1900–1939'' (1951) pp. 372–403</ref> Coolidge instead supported the alternative program of Commerce Secretary [[Herbert Hoover]] and Agriculture Secretary [[William M. Jardine]] to modernize farming, by bringing in more electricity, more efficient equipment, better seeds and breeds, more rural education, and better business practices. Hoover advocated the creation of a [[Federal Farm Board]] which was dedicated to restriction of crop production to domestic demand, behind a tariff wall, and maintained that the farmer's ailments were due to defective distribution. In 1929, the Hoover plan was adopted.<ref>Gary H. Koerselman, "Secretary Hoover and National Farm Policy: Problems of Leadership," ''Agricultural History'' 1977 51(2): 378–95</ref>
==1930s==
===New Deal farm and rural programs===
{{Further| Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt#Agriculture}}
[[File:Langechildren2.jpg|right|thumb|upright|A migrant farm family in California, March 1935. Photo by [[Dorothea Lange]].]]
President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], a liberal Democrat, was keenly interested in farm issues and believed that true prosperity would not return until farming was prosperous.<ref>Roger Biles, ''A New Deal for the American people'' (1991) pp. 57–77.</ref><ref>Anthony J. Badger, ''The New Deal: the depression years 1933–1940'' (1989) pp. 147–89.</ref> Many different [[New Deal]] programs were directed at farmers.<ref>Broadus Mitchell, ''The Depression Decade: From New Era Through New Deal, 1929-41: From New Era Through New Deal, 1929-41'' (1947) pp 179-227. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.223789 online]</ref><ref>Theodore Saloutos, ''The American Farmer and the New Deal'' (1982)</ref> Farming reached its low point in 1932, but even then millions of unemployed people were returning to the family farm having given up hope for a job in the cities. The main New Deal strategy was to reduce the supply of commodities, thereby raising the prices a little to the consumer, and a great deal to the farmer. Marginal farmers produce too little to be helped by the strategy; specialized relief programs were developed for them. Prosperity largely returned to the farm by 1936.<ref>Peter Fearon, ''War, prosperity and depression: the US economy 1917–45'' (1987) pp. 176–94.</ref>
Roosevelt's "First Hundred Days" produced the Farm Security Act to raise farm incomes by raising the prices farmers received, which was achieved by reducing total farm output. In May 1933 the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] created the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA). The act reflected the demands of leaders of major farm organizations, especially the [[Farm Bureau]], and reflected debates among Roosevelt's farm advisers such as Secretary of Agriculture [[Henry A. Wallace]], M.L. Wilson,<ref>See [http://mobile.lib.montana.edu/collect/spcoll/findaid/acc00003.html M. L. Wilson Collection, 1935–1960]</ref> [[Rexford Tugwell]], and [[George Peek]].<ref>Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., ''The Coming of the New Deal'' (1958) pp. 27–84</ref>
The aim of the AAA was to raise prices for commodities through artificial scarcity. The AAA used a system of "domestic allotments", setting total output of corn, cotton, dairy products, hogs, rice, tobacco, and wheat. The farmers themselves had a voice in the process of using government to benefit their incomes. The AAA paid land owners subsidies for leaving some of their land idle with funds provided by a new tax on food processing. The goal was to force up farm prices to the point of "parity", an index based on 1910–1914 prices. To meet 1933 goals, {{convert|10|e6acre|km2}} of growing cotton was plowed up, bountiful crops were left to rot, and six million piglets were killed and discarded.<ref>Ronald L. Heinemann, ''Depression and New Deal in Virginia.'' (1983) p. 107</ref> The idea was the less produced, the higher the wholesale price and the higher income to the farmer. Farm incomes increased significantly in the first three years of the New Deal, as prices for commodities rose. Food prices remained well below 1929 levels.<ref>Anthony Badger, ''The New Deal: The Depression Years, 1933–1940'' (2002) pp. 89, 153–57</ref><ref>''Statistical Abstract 1940'' [https://www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/statab1901-1950.htm online]</ref>
The AAA established a long-lasting federal role in the planning of the entire agricultural sector of the economy, and was the first program on such a scale on behalf of the troubled agricultural economy. The original AAA did not provide for any [[sharecroppers]] or [[tenants]] or farm laborers who might become unemployed, but there were other New Deal programs especially for them, such as the [[Farm Security Administration]].<ref>Charles Kenneth Roberts, ''Farm Security Administration and Rural Rehabilitation in the South'' (University of Tennessee Press, 2015)</ref>
In 1936, the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] declared the AAA to be unconstitutional for technical reasons; it was replaced by a similar program that did win Court approval. Instead of paying farmers for letting fields lie barren, the new program instead subsidized them for planting soil enriching crops such as [[alfalfa]] that would not be sold on the market. Federal regulation of agricultural production has been modified many times since then, but together with large subsidies the basic philosophy of subsidizing farmers is still in effect in 2015.<ref>James L. Novak, James W. Pease, and Larry D. Sanders. ''Agricultural Policy in the United States: Evolution and Economics'' (Routledge, 2015)</ref>
===Rural relief===
[[File:Pumping water in Wilder, Fentress County TN 1942.gif|thumb|Modern methods had not reached the backwoods such as Wilder, Tennessee (Tennessee Valley Authority, 1942)]]
Many rural people lived in severe poverty, especially in the South. Major programs addressed to their needs included the [[Resettlement Administration]] (RA), the [[Rural Electrification Administration]] (REA), rural welfare projects sponsored by the WPA, NYA, Forest Service and CCC, including school lunches, building new schools, opening roads in remote areas, reforestation, and purchase of marginal lands to enlarge national forests. In 1933, the Administration launched the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]], a project involving dam construction planning on an unprecedented scale in order to curb flooding, generate electricity, and modernize the very poor farms in the [[Tennessee Valley]] region of the [[Southern United States]].<ref>Roger Biles, ''The South and the New Deal'' (2006).</ref><ref>Ronald C. Tobey, ''Technology as freedom: The New Deal and the electrical modernization of the American home'' (1996).</ref>
For the first time, there was a national program to help migrant and marginal farmers, through programs such as the [[Resettlement Administration]] and the [[Farm Security Administration]]. Their plight gained national attention through the 1939 novel and film ''[[The Grapes of Wrath]]''. The New Deal thought there were too many farmers, and resisted demands of the poor for loans to buy farms.<ref>Rexford G. Tugwell, "The resettlement idea." ''Agricultural History'' (1959) pp. 159–64. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3740911 in JSTOR]</ref> However, it made a major effort to upgrade the health facilities available to a sickly population.<ref>Michael R. Grey, ''New Deal Medicine: The Rural Health Programs of the Farm Security Administration'' (2002).</ref>
===Economics and Labor===
In the 1930s, during the [[Great Depression]], farm labor organized a number of strikes in various states. 1933 was a particularly active year with strikes including the [[California agricultural strikes of 1933]], the [[1933 Yakima Valley strike]] in Washington, and the [[1933 Wisconsin milk strike]].
Agriculture was prosperous during [[World War II]], even as rationing and price controls limited the availability of meat and other foods in order to guarantee its availability to the American And Allied armed forces. During World War II, farmers were not drafted, but surplus labor, especially in the southern cotton fields, voluntarily relocated to war jobs in the cities.<ref>Fearon, ''War, prosperity and depression: the US economy 1917–45'' (1987) pp. 266–72.</ref><ref>Walter W. Wilcox, ''Farmer in the Second World War'' (1947)</ref>
During World War II, [[victory garden]]s planted at private residences and public parks were an important source of fresh produce. These gardens were encouraged by the [[United States Department of Agriculture]]. Around one third of the vegetables produced by the United States came from victory gardens.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kallen|first=Stuart A.|title=The War at Home|date=2000|publisher=Lucent Books|location=San Diego|isbn=1-56006-531-1}}</ref><ref>see [http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/80400530/pdf/hist/bhnhe_1944_misc_pub_550.pdf for detail]</ref>
==Since 1945==
===Government policies===
{{main|United States farm bill}}
The New Deal era farm programs were continued into the 1940s and 1950s, with the goal of supporting the prices received by farmers. Typical programs involved farm loans, commodity subsidies, and price supports.<ref>Carl Zulauf and David Orden. "80 Years of Farm Bills – Evolutionary Reform." ''Choices'' (2016) [http://www.choicesmagazine.org/UserFiles/file/cmsarticle_551.pdf online]</ref> The rapid decline in the farm population led to a smaller voice in Congress. So the well-organized Farm Bureau and other lobbyists, worked in the 1970s to appeal to urban Congressman through food stamp programs for the poor. By 2000, the food stamp program was the largest component of the farm bill. In 2010, the [[Tea Party movement]] brought in many Republicans committed to cutting all federal subsidies, including those agriculture. Meanwhile, urban Democrats strongly opposed reductions, pointing to the severe hardships caused by the 2008–10 economic recession. Though the [[Agricultural Act of 2014]] saw many rural Republican Congressman voting against the program, it passed with bipartisan support.<ref>Christopher Bosso, ''Framing the Farm Bill: Interests, Ideology, and Agricultural Act of 2014'' (2017).</ref><ref>Carl Zulauf and David Orden, "The US Agricultural Act of 2014: Overview and Analysis." (International Food Policy Research Institute discussion paper 01393, 2014) [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David_Orden2/publication/308138378_The_US_Agricultural_Act_of_2014/links/57dae99e08ae5292a3768d07.pdf online].</ref><ref>David Orden and Carl Zulauf, "Political economy of the 2014 farm bill." ''American Journal of Agricultural Economics'' 97.5 (2015): 1298–311. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160401131433/http://ajae.oxfordjournals.org/content/97/5/1298.full online]</ref>
===Changing technology===
Ammonia from plants built during World War II to make explosives became available for making fertilizers, leading to a permanent decline in real fertilizer prices and expanded use.<ref>Alexander J. Field, ''A Great Leap Forward: 1930s Depression and U.S. Economic Growth'' (2011) pp. 22–23.</ref> The early 1950s was the peak period for tractor sales in the U.S. as the few remaining mules and work horses were sold for dog food. The horsepower of farm machinery underwent a large expansion.<ref name="Tractors">{{Cite web
|last1=White
|first1=William J.
|title=Economic History of Tractors in the United States
|url=http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/white.tractors.history.us
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024041712/http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/white.tractors.history.us
|archive-date=2013-10-24
}}</ref> A successful cotton picking machine was introduced in 1949. The machine could do the work of 50 men picking by hand. The great majority of unskilled farm laborers move to urban areas.<ref>{{cite book| author = Rifkin, Jeremy | title = The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post-Market Era | publisher = Putnam Publishing Group | year = 1995 | isbn = 0-87477-779-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mjperry.blogspot.com/2011/11/corn-yields-have-increased-six-times.html|title = CARPE DIEM: U.S. Corn Yields Have Increased Six Times Since the 1930s and Are Estimated to Double by 2030}}</ref>
Research on plant breeding produced varieties of grain crops that could produce high yields with heavy fertilizer input. This resulted in the [[Green revolution]], beginning in the 1940s.<ref>{{cite book |title= Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production|last=Smil|first=Vaclav |year=2004 |publisher= MIT Press|isbn= 0262693135 }}</ref> By 2000 yields of corn (maize) had risen by a factor of over four. Wheat and soybean yields also rose significantly.<ref>[http://quickstats.nass.usda.gov/?long_desc__LIKE=Corn&x=20&y=6#E3D0B839-C2EE-39DE-8335-CE17EE5D0823 USDA Statistics]</ref><ref>[http://www.agry.purdue.edu/ext/corn/news/timeless/yieldtrends.html Purdue University Dept. Agronomy]</ref>
===Economics and labor===
After 1945, a continued annual 2% increase in productivity (as opposed to 1% from 1835–1935)<ref name=Conkin>{{cite book|last1=Conkin|first1=Paul|title=Revolution Down on the Farm: The Transformation of American Agriculture since 1929|date=2008|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|isbn=978-0813173153|edition=first}}</ref>{{rp|97}} led to further increases in farm size and corresponding reductions in the number of farms.<ref name=Conkin/>{{rp|99}} Many farmers sold out and moved to nearby towns and cities. Others switched to part-time operation, supported by off-farm employment.
The 1960s and 1970s saw major [[farm worker]] strikes including the 1965 [[Delano grape strike]] and the 1970 [[Salad Bowl strike]]. In 1975, the [[California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975]] was enacted,<ref name="GovSigns">"Governor Signs Historic Farm Labor Legislation." ''Los Angeles Times.'' June 5, 1975.</ref> establishing the right to [[collective bargaining]] for [[farmworker]]s in California, a first in U.S. history.<ref name="Hurt">Hurt, R. Douglas. ''American Agriculture: A Brief History.'' Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 2002. {{ISBN|1-55753-281-8}}</ref> Individuals with prominent roles in farm worker organizing in this period include [[Cesar Chavez]], [[Dolores Huerta]], [[Larry Itliong]], and [[Philip Vera Cruz]]. Chavez mobilized California workers into the [[United Farm Workers]] organization.<ref>Stephen H. Sosnick, ''Hired Hands: Seasonal Farm Workers In The United States'' (1978) pp. 301–02</ref>
In 1990, undocumented workers made up an estimated 14 percent of the farm workforce. By the year 2000, the percentage had grown to over 50%, and has remained around 50% in the 2000-2020 period.<ref>{{cite web |title=Economic Research Service - Farm Labor |url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-economy/farm-labor/#demographic |website=USDA Economic Research Service |publisher=USDA |access-date=3 November 2021}}</ref>
In 2015, grain farmers started taking "an extreme step, one not widely seen since the 1980s" by breaching lease contracts with their landowners, reducing the amount of land they sow and risking long legal battles with landlords.<ref name=reuters>{{cite news|author1=Jo Winterbottom and P.J. Huffstutter|title=Rent walkouts point to strains in U.S. farm economy|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-grains-rents-insight-idUSKBN0LR0EX20150223|access-date=24 February 2015|work=Reuters|date=23 February 2015}}</ref>
===Technology===
New machinery—especially large self-propelled combines and mechanical [[cotton picker]]s—sharply reduced labor requirements in harvesting.<ref name=Conkin/>
In addition, electric motors and irrigation pumps opened up new ways to be efficient.<ref name=Conkin/>{{rp|107}} Electricity also played a role in making major innovations in [[animal husbandry]] possible, especially modern milking parlors, [[grain elevator]]s, and [[CAFOs]] (confined animal-feeding operations).<ref name=Conkin/> Advances in [[fertilizers]],<ref name=Conkin/>{{rp|109–12}} [[herbicides]],<ref name=Conkin/>{{rp|109–112}} [[insecticides]] and [[fungicides]],<ref name=Conkin/>{{rp|115–16}} the [[antibiotic use in livestock|use of antibiotics]]<ref name=Conkin/>{{rp|116–17}} and [[Growth hormone#Use of GH in Production of Meat and Milk|growth hormones]].<ref name=Conkin/>{{rp|118–19}} Significant advances occurred in [[plant breeding]] and [[animal breeding]], such as crop hybridization, [[GMOs]] (genetically modified organisms), and artificial insemination of livestock. Post-harvest innovations occurred in [[food processing]] and [[food distribution]] (e.g. frozen foods).<ref name=Conkin/>
==Crops==
===Wheat===
{{main|Wheat production in the United States}}
Wheat, used for white bread, pastries, pasta, and pizza, has been the principal cereal crop since the 18th century. It was introduced by the first English colonists and quickly became the main cash crop of farmers who sold it to urban populations and exporters. In colonial times its culture became concentrated in the [[Middle Colonies]], which became known as the "bread colonies". In the mid-18th century, wheat culture spread to the tidewaters of Maryland and Virginia, where George Washington was a prominent grower as he diversified away from tobacco. The crop moved west, with Ohio as the center in 1840 and Illinois in 1860.<ref>Paul W. Gates, ''The Farmers' Age: Agriculture, 1815–1860'' (1960) pp. 156–59, 183–86</ref> Illinois replaced its wheat with corn (which was used locally to feed hogs). The invention of mechanical harvesters, drawn first by horses and then tractors, made larger farms much more efficient than small ones. The farmers had to borrow money to buy land and equipment and had to specialize in wheat, which made them highly vulnerable to price fluctuations and gave them an incentive to ask for government help to stabilize or raise prices.<ref>Peter Fearon, "Mechanisation and Risk: Kansas Wheat Growers 1915–1930," ''Rural History,'' Oct 1995, Vol. 6 Issue 2, pp. 229–50</ref> Wheat farming depended on significant labor input only during planting, and especially at harvest time. Therefore, successful farmers, especially on the Great Plains, bought up as much land as possible, purchased very expensive mechanical equipment, and depended on migrating hired laborers at harvesting time. The migrant families tended to be social outcasts without local roots and mostly lived near the poverty line, except in the harvesting season.<ref>Toby Higbie, "Indispensable Outcasts: Harvest Laborers in the Wheat Belt of the Middle West, 1890–1925" ''Labor History,'' Fall 1997, Vol. 38#4 pp. 393–412</ref> From 1909 to today, North Dakota and Kansas have vied for first place in wheat production, followed by Oklahoma and Montana.
[[File:McCormick Twine Binder 1884.jpg|thumb|McCormick [[reaper-binder|reaper and twine binder]] in 1884]]
In the colonial era, wheat was sown by broadcasting, reaped by sickles, and threshed by flails. The kernels were then taken to a grist mill for grinding into flour. In 1830, it took four people and two oxen, working 10 hours a day, to produce 200 bushels.<ref name="ShannonThe">Shannon, ''The Farmers Last Frontier'', p. 410</ref> New technology greatly increased productivity in the 19th century, as sowing with drills replaced broadcasting, cradles took the place of sickles, and the cradles in turn were replaced by reapers and binders. Steam-powered threshing machines superseded flails. By 1895, in Bonanza farms in the Dakotas, it took six people and 36 horses pulling huge harvesters, working 10 hours a day, to produce 20,000 bushels.<ref name="ShannonThe" /> In the 1930s the gasoline powered [[Combine harvester|"combine"]] combined reaping and threshing into one operation that took one person to operate. Production grew from 85 million bushels in 1839, 500 million in 1880, 600 million in 1900, and peaked at 1.0 billion bushels in 1915. Prices fluctuated erratically, with a downward trend in the 1890s that caused great distress in the Plains states.<ref>Bureau of the Census, ''Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970'' (1976) series K: 507–08</ref>
[[File:Wallis tractor-001.jpg|thumb|A 1928 ''Wallis'' tractor made by [[Massey Ferguson]]]]
The marketing of wheat was modernized as well, as the cost of transportation steadily fell and more and more distant markets opened up. Before 1850, the crop was sacked, shipped by wagon or canal boat, and stored in warehouses. With the rapid growth of the nation's railroad network in the 1850s–1870s, farmers took their harvest by wagon for sale to the nearest country elevators. The wheat moved to terminal elevators, where it was sold through grain exchanges to flour millers and exporters. Since the elevators and railroads generally had a local monopoly, farmers soon had targets besides the weather for their complaints. They sometimes accused the elevator men of undergrading, shortweighting, and excessive dockage. Scandinavian immigrants in the Midwest took control over marketing through the organization of cooperatives.<ref>Shannon, ''The Farmers Last Frontier'', pp. 179–83</ref>
====Varieties====
[[File:Batteuse 1881.jpg|thumb|left|The horse-powered thresher; it removes the inedible [[chaff]] from the wheat kernels]]
Following the invention of the steel roller mill in 1878, hard varieties of wheat such as Turkey Red became more popular than soft, which had been previously preferred because they were easier for grist mills to grind.<ref>Karl S. Quisenberry, and L. P. Reitz "Turkey wheat: The cornerstone of an empire." ''Agricultural History'' 48.1 (1974): 98–110. [http://213.232.8.204/EN/dosya/1-120/h/turkeywheatthecornerstoneofanempire.pdf online]</ref>
Wheat production witnessed major changes in varieties and cultural practices since 1870. Thanks to these innovations, vast expanses of the wheat belt now support commercial production, and yields have resisted the negative impact of insects, diseases, and weeds. Biological innovations contributed roughly half of labor-productivity growth between 1839 and 1909.<ref>Alan L. Olmstead, and Paul W. Rhode, "The Red Queen and the Hard Reds: Productivity Growth in American Wheat, 1800–1940," ''Journal of Economic History,'' Dec 2002, Vol. 62 Issue 4, pp. 929–66</ref>
In the late 19th century, hardy new wheat varieties from the Russian steppes were introduced on the Great Plains by the [[Volga Germans]] who settled in [[North Dakota]], [[Kansas]], [[Montana]] and neighboring states.<ref>David Moon, "In the Russians' steppes: the introduction of Russian wheat on the Great Plains of the United States of America," ''Journal of Global History,'' July 2008, Vol. 3 Issue 2, pp. 203–25</ref> Legend credits the miller [[Warkentin House|Bernhard Warkentin]] (1847–1908), a German [[Mennonite]] from Russia for introducing the "Turkey red" variety from Russia.<ref>Karen Penner, "Bernhard Warkentin: Kansas Miller and Promoter Of Turkey Red Wheat," ''Journal of the American Historical Society of Germans from Russia,'' Fall 2007, Vol. 30 Issue 3, pp. 27–34</ref> More exactly, in the 1880s numerous millers and government agricultural agents worked to create "Turkey red" and make Kansas the "Wheat State".<ref>Norman E. Saul, "Myth and History: Turkey Red Wheat and the 'Kansas Miracle,'" ''Heritage of the Great Plains,'' Summer 1989, Vol. 22#3 pp. 1–13</ref> The U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, and the state experiment stations, have developed many new varieties, and taught farmers how to plant them.<ref>[[Jim Sherow#Personal life|Bonnie Lynn-Sherow]], "Beyond Winter Wheat: The USDA Extension Service and Kansas Wheat Production In The Twentieth Century," ''Kansas History,'' March 2000, Vol. 23 Issue 1, pp. 100–11</ref> Similar varieties now dominate in the arid regions of the [[Great Plains]].
====Exports====
Wheat farmers have always produced a surplus for export. The exports were small-scale until the 1860s, when bad crops in Europe, and lower costs due to cheaper railroads and ocean transport, opened the European markets to cheap American wheat. The British in particular depended on American wheat during the 1860s for a fourth of their food supply, making the government reluctant to risk a cutoff if it supported the Confederacy. By 1880, 150,000,000 bushels were exported to the value of $190,000,000. World War I saw large numbers of young European farmers conscripted into the armies, so Allied countries, particularly France and Italy depended on American shipments,<ref>Hardach, Gerd. The First World War, 1914–1918. University of California Press, 1977. pp. 124, 130–36.</ref> which ranged from 100,000,000 to 260,000,000 bushels a year. American farmers reacted to the heavy demand and high prices by expanding their production, many taking out mortgages to buy out their neighbors farms. This led to a large surplus in the 1920s. The resulting low prices prompted growers to seek government support of prices, first through the [[McNary-Haugen bill]]s, which failed in Congress, and later in the [[New Deal]] through the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] of 1933 and its many versions.<ref>Bureau of the Census, ''Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970'' (1976) series U: 279–80</ref>
World War II brought an enormous expansion of production, topping off at a billion bushels in 1944. During the war and after large-scale wheat and flour exports were part of [[Lend Lease]] and the foreign assistance programs. In 1966 exports reached 860 million bushels of which 570 million were given away as food aid. A major drought in the [[Soviet Union]] in 1972 led to the sale of 390 million bushels and an agreement was assigned in 1975 under the détente policy to supply the Soviets with grain over a five-year period.
====Marketing====
By 1900 private grain exchanges settled the daily prices for North American wheat. Santon (2010) explains how the AAA programs set wheat prices in the U.S. after 1933, and the Canadians established a wheat board to do the same there. The Canadian government required prairie farmers to deliver all their grain to the [[Canadian Wheat Board]] (CWB), a single-selling-desk agency that supplanted private wheat marketing in western Canada. Meanwhile, the United States government subsidized farm incomes with domestic-use taxes and import tariffs, but otherwise preserved private wheat marketing.<ref>Joseph M. Santos, "Going Against the Grain: Why Do Canada and the United States Market Wheat So Differently?" ''American Review of Canadian Studies,'' Spring 2010, Vol. 40 Issue 1, pp. 104–17</ref>
===Cotton===
{{Main|Cotton production in the United States}}
In the colonial era, small amounts of high quality [[long-staple cotton]] were produced in the [[Sea Islands]] off the coast of South Carolina. Inland, only short-staple [[cotton]] could be grown but it was full of seeds and very hard to process into fiber. The invention of the [[cotton gin]] in the late 1790s for the first time made short-staple cotton usable. It was generally produced on plantations ranging from South Carolina westward, with the work done by slaves. Simultaneously, the rapid growth of the [[industrial revolution]] in Britain, focused on textiles, created a major demand for the fiber. Cotton quickly exhausts the soil, so planters used their large profits to buy fresh land to the west, and purchase more slaves from the border states to operate their new plantations. After 1810, the emerging textile mills in New England also produced a heavy demand. By 1820, over 250,000 bales (of 500 pounds each) were exported to Europe, with a value of $22 million. By 1840, exports reached 1.5 million bales valued at $64 million, two thirds of all American exports. Cotton prices kept going up as the South remained the main supplier in the world. In 1860, the US shipped 3.5 million bales worth $192 million.<ref>[[Paul Wallace Gates|Paul W. Gates]], ''The Farmers' Age: Agriculture, 1815–1860'' (1960) pp. 7–10, 134–55</ref><ref>Sven Beckert, "Emancipation and empire: Reconstructing the worldwide web of cotton production in the age of the American Civil War." ''American Historical Review'' 109.5 (2004): 1405-1438 [https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/3207344/Beckert_EmancipationEmpire.pdf?sequence=2 online].</ref>
After the [[American Civil War]], cotton production expanded to small farms, operated by white and black tenant farmers and [[Sharecropping|sharecroppers]].<ref name="ShannonThe"/>{{rp|76–117}} The quantity exported held steady, at 3,000,000 bales, but prices on the world market fell.<ref>Bureau of the Census, ''Historical Statistics of the United States,'' series U: 275–76</ref> Although there was some work involved in planting the seeds, and cultivating or holding out the weeds, the critical labor input for cotton was in the picking. How much a cotton operation could produce depended on how many hands (men women and children) were available. Finally in the 1950s, new mechanical harvesters allowed a handful of workers to pick as much as 100 had done before. The result was a large-scale exodus of the white and black cotton farmers from the south. By the 1970s, most cotton was grown in large automated farms in the Southwest.<ref>[[Stephen Yafa]], ''Cotton: The Biography of a Revolutionary Fiber'' (2004)</ref><ref>D. Clayton Brown, ''King Cotton in Modern America: A Cultural, Political, and Economic History since 1945'' (2010).</ref>
==See also==
*[[Agriculture in the United States]]
*[[Cotton production in the United States]]
*[[Corn production in the United States]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
===Surveys===
* Cochrane, Willard W. ''The Development of American Agriculture: A Historical Analysis'' (1993)
* [[David B. Danbom|Danbom, David B.]] ''Born in the Country: A History of Rural America'' (1997)
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===Before 1775===
* Anderson, Virginia DeJohn, "Thomas Minor's World: Agrarian Life in Seventeenth-Century New England," ''Agricultural History,'' 82 (Fall 2008), 496–518.
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* Kulikoff, Allan. ''From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers'' (1992) [https://archive.org/details/agrarianoriginso00kuli online]
* Kulikoff, Allan. ''Tobacco and slaves: the development of southern cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680-1800'' (1986) [https://archive.org/details/tobaccoslaves00kuli online]
* [[McCusker, John J.]] ed. ''Economy of British America, 1607–1789'' (1991), 540pp [https://archive.org/details/economyofbritish00mccu online]
* Russell, Howard. ''A Long Deep Furrow: Three Centuries of Farming In New England'' (1981)
* Weeden, William Babcock ''Economic and Social History of New England, 1620–1789'' (1891) 964 pages; [https://books.google.com/books?id=JUJaNzIMr44C&pg=PA1 online edition]
===1775–1860===
====North====
* Bidwell, Percy and Falconer, John I. ''History of Agriculture in the Northern United States 1620–1860'' (1941) [https://archive.org/details/historyofagricul0000bidw online]
* [[Paul Wallace Gates|Gates, Paul W.]] ''The Farmers' Age: Agriculture, 1815–1860'' (1960) [https://archive.org/details/farmersageagricu0003gate online]
==== South ====
* Craven, Avery Odelle. ''Soil exhaustion as a factor in the agricultural history of Virginia and Maryland, 1606–1860'' (1926) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2886532 online edition]
* Gray, Lewis Cecil. ''History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860.'' 2 vol (1933), classic in-depth history [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/c/chla/browse/title/2944804.html online edition]
* Genovese, Eugene. ''Roll, Jordan Roll'' (1967), the history of plantation slavery
* Olmstead, Alan L., and Paul W. Rhode, "Biological Innovation and Productivity Growth in the Antebellum Cotton Economy," ''Journal of Economic History,'' 68 (Dec. 2008), 1123–71.
* Phillips, Ulrich B. "The Economic Cost of Slaveholding in the Cotton Belt," ''Political Science Quarterly'' 20#2 (Jun., 1905), pp. 257–75 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2140400 in JSTOR]
* Phillips, Ulrich B. "The Origin and Growth of the Southern Black Belts." ''American Historical Review,'' 11 (July, 1906): 798–816. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1832229 in JSTOR]
* Phillips, Ulrich B. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1011487 "The Decadence of the Plantation System." ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences,'' 35 (January, 1910): 37–41. in JSTOR]
* Phillips, Ulrich B. "Plantations with Slave Labor and Free." ''American Historical Review,'' 30 (July 1925): 738–53. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1835667 in JSTOR]
===1860-present, national===
* ''Cyclopedia of American agriculture; a popular survey of agricultural conditions,'' ed by L. H. Bailey, 4 vol 1907–1909. [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/c/chla/browse/title/2949859.html online edition] highly useful compendium.
* Bosso, Christopher J. ''Framing the Farm Bill: Interests, Ideology, and Agricultural Act of 2014'' (University Press of Kansas, 2017).
* Brunner, Edmund de Schweinitz. ''Rural social trends'' (1933) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2908213 online edition]
* Conkin, Paul K. ''A Revolution Down on the Farm: The Transformation of American Agriculture since 1929'' (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0813192420/ excerpt and text search]
* Dean, Virgil W. ''An Opportunity Lost: The Truman Administration and the Farm Policy Debate.'' U. of Missouri Press, 2006. 275 pp.
* Friedberger, Mark. '' Farm Families and Change in 20th Century America'' (2014)
* Gardner, Bruce L. "Changing Economic Perspectives on the Farm Problem." ''Journal of Economic Literature'' (1992) 30#1 62–101. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2727879 in JSTOR]
* Gardner, Bruce L. ''American Agriculture in the Twentieth Century: How it Flourished and What it Cost'' (Harvard UP, 2002).
* Gates, Paul W. ''Agriculture and the Civil War'' (1985) [https://archive.org/details/agriculturecivil0000unse online]
* Gee, Wilson. ''The place of agriculture in American life'' (1930) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2839521 online edition]
* Lord, Russell. ''The Wallaces of Iowa'' (1947) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3077039 online edition]
* Lyon-Jenness, Cheryl. "Planting a seed: the nineteenth-century horticultural boom in America." ''Business History Review'' 78.3 (2004): 381–421.
* Mayer, Oscar Gottfried. ''America's meat packing industry; a brief survey of its development and economics.'' (1939) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2822158 online edition]
* McCormick, Cyrus. ''The century of the reaper; an account of Cyrus Hall McCormick, the inventor'' (1931) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3081839 online edition]
* Mullendore, William Clinton. ''History of the United States Food Administration, 1917–1919'' (1941) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2932544 online edition]
* Nourse, Edwin Griswold. ''Three years of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration'' (1937) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2758781 online edition]
* Perren, Richard, "Farmers and Consumers under Strain: Allied Meat Supplies in the First World War," ''Agricultural History Review'' (Oxford), 53 (part II, 2005), 212–28.
* Sanderson, Ezra Dwight. ''Research memorandum on rural life in the depression'' (1937) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2737279 online edition]
* Schultz, Theodore W. '' Agriculture in an Unstable Economy.'' (1945) by Nobel-prize winning conservative [https://www.questia.com/read/9105343?title=Agriculture%20in%20an%20Unstable%20Economy online edition]
* Shannon, Fred Albert. ''Farmer's Last Frontier: Agriculture, 1860–1897'' (1945) [https://archive.org/details/farmerslastfront00shan online edition] comprehensive survey
* Wilcox, Walter W. ''The farmer in the second world war'' (1947) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2944025 online edition]
* Zulauf, Carl, and David Orden. "80 Years of Farm Bills – Evolutionary Reform." ''Choices'' (2016) 31#4 pp. 1–7 [http://www.choicesmagazine.org/UserFiles/file/cmsarticle_551.pdf online]
===1860-present, regional studies===
* ''Cyclopedia of American agriculture; a popular survey of agricultural conditions,'' ed by L. H. Bailey, 4 vol 1907–1909. [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/c/chla/browse/title/2949859.html online edition] highly useful compendium
* Black, John D. ''The Rural Economy of New England: A regional study'' (1950) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2931364 online edition]
* Cannon, Brian Q., "Homesteading Remembered: A Sesquicentennial Perspective," ''Agricultural History,'' 87 (Winter 2013), 1–29.
* Clawson, Marion. ''The Western range livestock industry,'' (1950) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2905020 online edition]
* Dale, Edward Everett. ''The range cattle industry'' (1930) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2892747 online edition]
* Danbom, David B. ''Sod Busting: How families made farms on the 19th-century Plains '' (2014)
* Fite, Gilbert C. ''The Farmers' Frontier: 1865–1900'' (1966), the west
* Friedberger, Mark. "The Transformation of the Rural Midwest, 1945–1985," ''Old Northwest,'' 1992, Vol. 16 Issue 1, pp. 13–36
* Friedberger, Mark W. "Handing Down the Home Place: Farm Inheritance Strategies in Iowa" ''Annals of Iowa'' 47.6 (1984): 518–36. [https://ir.uiowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=9073&context=annals-of-iowa online]
* Friedberger, Mark. "The Farm Family and the Inheritance Process: Evidence from the Corn Belt, 1870–1950." ''Agricultural History'' 57.1 (1983): 1–13. uses Iowa census and sales data
* Friedberger, Mark. ''Shake-Out: Iowa Farm Families in the 1980s'' (1989)
* Fry, John J. "" Good Farming-Clear Thinking-Right Living": Midwestern Farm Newspapers, Social Reform, and Rural Readers in the Early Twentieth Century." Agricultural History (2004): 34–49.
* Gisolfi, Monica Richmond, "From Crop Lien to Contract Farming: The Roots of Agribusiness in the American South, 1929–1939," ''Agricultural History,'' 80 (Spring 2006), 167–89.
* Hahn, Barbara, "Paradox of Precision: Bright Tobacco as Technology Transfer, 1880–1937," ''Agricultural History,'' 82 (Spring 2008), 220–35.
* Hurt, R. Douglas. "The Agricultural and Rural History of Kansas." ''Kansas History'' 2004 27(3): 194–217. {{ISSN|0149-9114}} Fulltext: in Ebsco
* Larson, Henrietta M. ''The wheat market and the farmer in Minnesota, 1858–1900'' (1926). [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2936526 online edition]
* MacCurdy, Rahno Mabel. ''The history of the California Fruit Growers Exchange'' (1925). [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2889834 online edition]
* Miner, Horace Mitchell. ''Culture and agriculture; an anthropological study of a corn belt county'' (1949) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3152439 online edition]
* Nordin, Dennis S. and Scott, Roy V. ''From Prairie Farmer to Entrepreneur: The Transformation of Midwestern Agriculture.'' Indiana U. Press, 2005. 356 pp.
* Sackman, Douglas Cazaux. ''Orange Empire: California and the Fruits of Eden'' (2005)
* Saloutos, Theodore. "Southern Agriculture and the Problems of Readjustment: 1865–1877," ''Agricultural history'' (April, 1956) Vol 30#2 58–76 [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=chla;rgn=full%20text;idno=5077685_4159_002;view=image;seq=12 online edition]
* Sawers, Larry. "The Mule, the South, and Economic Progress." ''Social Science History'' 2004 28(4): 667–90. {{ISSN|0145-5532}} Fulltext: in Project Muse and Ebsco
===Environmental issues===
* Craven, Avery Odelle. ''Soil Exhaustion as a Factor in the Agricultural History of Virginia and Maryland, 1606–1860'' (1925)
* Cronon, William. ''Changes in the Land, Revised Edition: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England'' (2nd ed. 2003), [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0809016346 excerpt and text search]
* Cunfer, Geoff. ''On the Great Plains: Agriculture and Environment.'' (2005). 240 pp.
* McLeman, Robert, "Migration Out of 1930s Rural Eastern Oklahoma: Insights for Climate Change Research," ''Great Plains Quarterly,'' 26 (Winter 2006), 27–40.
* Majewski, John, and Viken Tchakerian, "The Environmental Origins of Shifting Cultivation: Climate, Soils, and Disease in the Nineteenth-Century U.S. South," ''Agricultural History,'' 81 (Fall 2007), 522–49.
* [[Martin V. Melosi|Melosi, Martin V.]], and Charles Reagan Wilson, eds. ''The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Volume 8: Environment (v. 8)'' (2007)
* Miner, Craig. ''Next Year Country: Dust to Dust in Western Kansas, 1890–1940'' (2006) 371 pp. {{ISBN|0-7006-1476-1}}
* Silver, Timothy. ''A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500–1800'' (1990) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521387396 excerpt and text search]
* Urban, Michael A., "An Uninhabited Waste: Transforming the Grand Prairie in Nineteenth Century Illinois, U.S.A.," ''Journal of Historical Geography'', 31 (Oct. 2005), 647–65.
===Historiography===
* Atack, Jeremy. "A Nineteenth-century Resource for Agricultural History Research in the Twenty-first Century." ''Agricultural History'' 2004 78(4): 389-412. {{ISSN|0002-1482}} Fulltext: in University of California Journals and Ebsco. Large database of individual farmers from manuscript census.
* Bogue, Allan G. "Tilling Agricultural History with [[Paul Wallace Gates]] and James C. Malin." ''Agricultural History'' 2006 80(4): 436–60. {{ISSN|0002-1482}} Fulltext: in Ebsco
* {{citation |title=A bibliography of the history of agriculture in the United States |author=Edwards, Everett Eugene |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HdcGJahF-QMC |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-8337-1002-4}}
* Levins, Richard A. ''Willard Cochrane and the American Family Farm'' (University of Nebraska Press, 2000.) 88p
* Peters, Scott J. "'Every Farmer Should Be Awakened': Liberty Hyde Bailey's Vision of Agricultural Extension Work." ''Agricultural History'' (2006): 190-219. [https://www.academia.edu/download/31821589/Peters_LHB_AH.pdf online]{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
===Primary sources===
* Bruchey, Stuart, ed. ''Cotton in the Growth of the American Economy: 1790–1860'' (1967)
* Carter, Susan, at al. eds. ''The Historical Statistics of the United States'' (Cambridge U.P. 2006), 6 vol.; online in many academic libraries; [http://hsus.cambridge.org/HSUSWeb/toc/showChapter.do?id=Da 105 tables on agriculture]
* Phillips, Ulrich B. ed. ''Plantation and Frontier Documents, 1649–1863; Illustrative of Industrial History in the Colonial and Antebellum South: Collected from MSS. and Other Rare Sources.'' 2 Volumes. (1909). [https://books.google.com/books?id=_fk5qIP8hU4C online vol 1] and [https://books.google.com/books?vid=0aEKo9OlIHJf-m3SKDua41q online vol 2]
* Rasmussen, Wayne D., ed. ''Agriculture in the United States: a documentary history'' (4 vol, Random House, 1975) 3661pp. [https://archive.org/details/agricultureinuni0000rasm vol 4 online]
* Schmidt, Louis Bernard. ed. ''Readings in the economic history of American agriculture'' (1925) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2838868 online edition]
* Sorokin, Pitirim et al., eds. ''A Systematic Sourcebook in Rural Sociology'' (3 vol. 1930), 2000 pages of primary sources and commentary; worldwide coverage
==External links==
*[https://archive.today/20130128192029/http://aghist.metapress.com/home/main.mpx ''Agricultural History'' a leading scholarly journal]
* [https://archive.today/20130223124941/http://www.aghistorysociety.org/journal/ Agricultural History Society]
* [https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/collections/the-pageant-of-america-collection#/?tab=navigation&roots=2:7ace7290-c611-012f-934c-58d385a7bc34 331 historic photographs of American farmlands, farmers, farm operations and rural areas; These are pre-1923 and out of copyright.]
*[http://afsic.nal.usda.gov/tracing-evolution-organic-sustainable-agriculture-tesarefb Online Libraries of Historical Agricultural Texts and Images] USDA, Alternative Farming Systems Information Center
{{Agriculture in the United States}}
{{Economy of the United States}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:American Agricultural Economy In The 1920s-1940}}
[[Category:History of agriculture in the United States| ]]
[[Category:Economic history of the United States]]
[[Category:Natural history of the United States]]
[[Category:History of the United States by topic]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -2,5 +2,5 @@
{{Economy of the United States sidebar|expanded=history}}
The '''history of agriculture in the United States''' covers the period from the first English settlers to the present day. In [[Colonial America]], [[agriculture]] was the primary livelihood for 90% of the population, and most towns were shipping points for the export of agricultural products. Most farms were geared toward subsistence production for family use. The rapid growth of population and the [[Territorial evolution of the United States|expansion of the frontier]] opened up large numbers of new farms, and clearing the land was a major preoccupation of farmers. After 1800, cotton became the chief crop in [[Plantation complexes in the Southern United States|southern plantations]], and the chief American export. After 1840, [[Industrial Revolution in the United States|industrialization]] and [[Urbanization in the United States|urbanization]] opened up lucrative domestic markets. The number of farms grew from 1.4 million in 1850, to 4.0 million in 1880, and 6.4 million in 1910; then started to fall, dropping to 5.6 million in 1950 and 2.2 million in 2008.<ref>US Bureau of the Census, ''Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2010'' (2010) [https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2010/tables/10s0800.pdf Table 800]</ref>
-[[File:Paul Sample's America, its soil LOC 2012588336.jpg|thumb|1946 Pictorial map, represent wealth of the United States soil]]
+[[File:Paul Sample's America,mh name is Walter white. its soil LOC 2012588336.jpg|thumb|1946 Pictorial map, represent wealth of the United States soil]]
==Pre-Colonial era==
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border: 4px double #d69d36; background:#ffffff;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><b><span style="color:#000000;">This article is part of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Economy of the United States">a series</a> on the</span></b></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#002868; background-clip:padding-box;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States"><span style="color:#ffffff;"><small>Economy of the</small><br />United States</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of the United States"><img alt="Coat of arms of the United States" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/70px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/105px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/140px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#bf0a30; color:#ffffff; text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States"><span style="color:#FFFFFF;">Economic history</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Agricultural history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the petroleum industry in the United States">Petroleum history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shipbuilding_in_the_American_colonies" title="Shipbuilding in the American colonies">Shipbuilding</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_the_United_States" title="Industrial Revolution in the United States">Industrial Revolution in the United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_dollar" title="History of the United States dollar">History of the United States dollar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tariff_in_United_States_history" title="Tariff in United States history">Tariff History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_dollar#History" title="United States dollar">United States dollar § History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Economic_history_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="Category:Economic history of the United States by state">History by state</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#bf0a30; color:#ffffff; text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States_by_sector" title="Economy of the United States by sector"><span style="color:#FFFFFF;">Sectors</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">
<dl><dt><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Primary_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary sector">Primary sector</a></b></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petroleum_in_the_United_States" title="Petroleum in the United States">Petroleum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Electricity sector in the United States">Electricity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States"> Mining</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Fishing industry in the United States">Fishing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forestry_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestry in the United States">Forestry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Drinking_water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water and sanitation</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Secondary sector</a></b></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Automotive industry in the United States">Automotive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Iron and steel industry in the United States">Iron and steel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Pulp and paper industry in the United States">Pulp and paper</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tertiary_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary sector">Tertiary sector</a></b></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social programs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transportation_in_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation in United States">Transportation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gambling_in_the_United_States" title="Gambling in the United States">Gambling</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">Healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">Insurance</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Financial_services_in_the_United_States" title="Financial services in the United States">Financial services</a></b></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Federal_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Federal Reserve">Central bank</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_largest_banks_in_the_United_States" title="List of largest banks in the United States">Largest banks</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Stock_exchanges_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Stock exchanges in the United States">Stock exchanges</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_largest_companies_in_the_United_States_by_revenue" title="List of largest companies in the United States by revenue">Largest companies</a></b></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Lists_of_companies_listed_on_the_New_York_Stock_Exchange" title="Category:Lists of companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange">Companies listed on the NYSE</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#bf0a30; color:#ffffff; text-align:center;"><span style="color:#FFFFFF;">Economy by state</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_California" title="Economy of California">California</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Texas" title="Economy of Texas">Texas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of New York">New York</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Florida" title="Economy of Florida">Florida</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_states_and_territories_of_the_United_States_by_GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="List of states and territories of the United States by GDP"><i>more...</i></a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>State statistics</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_budgets" title="List of U.S. state budgets">State budgets</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_credit_rating" title="List of U.S. states by credit rating">State credit ratings</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_unemployment_rate" title="List of U.S. states and territories by unemployment rate">State unemployment rate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Union_affiliation_by_U.S._state" title="Union affiliation by U.S. state">Union membership</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#bf0a30; color:#ffffff; text-align:center;"><span style="color:#FFFFFF;">Economy by city or county</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Allentown,_Pennsylvania" title="Economy of Allentown, Pennsylvania">Allentown</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Atlanta" title="Economy of Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Buffalo,_New_York" title="Economy of Buffalo, New York">Buffalo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Chicago" title="Economy of Chicago">Chicago</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Greater_Cleveland" title="Economy of Greater Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Columbus,_Ohio" title="Economy of Columbus, Ohio">Columbus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_metropolitan_Detroit" title="Economy of metropolitan Detroit">Detroit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Door_County,_Wisconsin" title="Economy of Door County, Wisconsin">Door County</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Erie,_Pennsylvania" title="Economy of Erie, Pennsylvania">Erie</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Houston" title="Economy of Houston">Houston</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Indianapolis" title="Economy of Indianapolis">Indianapolis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Kansas_City" title="Economy of Kansas City">Kansas City</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="Economy of Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Long_Island" title="Economy of Long Island">Long Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Louisville,_Kentucky" title="Economy of Louisville, Kentucky">Louisville</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Economy of Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_New_York_City" title="Economy of New York City">New York City</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Norfolk,_Virginia" title="Economy of Norfolk, Virginia">Norfolk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Economy of Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Philadelphia" title="Economy of Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Phoenix" title="Economy of Phoenix">Phoenix</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Pittsburgh" title="Economy of Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Salt_Lake_City" title="Economy of Salt Lake City">Salt Lake City</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_San_Diego" title="Economy of San Diego">San Diego</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Spokane,_Washington" title="Economy of Spokane, Washington">Spokane</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_St._Louis" title="Economy of St. Louis">St. Louis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Stamford,_Connecticut" title="Economy of Stamford, Connecticut">Stamford</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_Youngstown,_Ohio" title="Economy of Youngstown, Ohio">Youngstown</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#bf0a30; color:#ffffff; text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Labor_force_in_the_United_States" title="Labor force in the United States"><span style="color:#FFFFFF;">Labor</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">
<dl><dt><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_labor_law" title="United States labor law">Labor Law</a></b></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Child_labor_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Child labor laws in the United States">Child labor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Labor unions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Minimum_wage_in_the_United_States" title="Minimum wage in the United States">Minimum wage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Right-to-work_law" title="Right-to-work law">Right-to-work law</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><br /><b>Employment</b></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States"> Unemployment</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Causes_of_unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Causes of unemployment in the United States">Causes</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td>
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<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Economy_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Template:Economy of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Economy_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Template talk:Economy of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Economy_of_the_United_States_sidebar&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The <b>history of agriculture in the United States</b> covers the period from the first English settlers to the present day. In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonial_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial America">Colonial America</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> was the primary livelihood for 90% of the population, and most towns were shipping points for the export of agricultural products. Most farms were geared toward subsistence production for family use. The rapid growth of population and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">expansion of the frontier</a> opened up large numbers of new farms, and clearing the land was a major preoccupation of farmers. After 1800, cotton became the chief crop in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">southern plantations</a>, and the chief American export. After 1840, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_the_United_States" title="Industrial Revolution in the United States">industrialization</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urbanization_in_the_United_States" title="Urbanization in the United States">urbanization</a> opened up lucrative domestic markets. The number of farms grew from 1.4 million in 1850, to 4.0 million in 1880, and 6.4 million in 1910; then started to fall, dropping to 5.6 million in 1950 and 2.2 million in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:Error mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Paul_Sample%27s_America,mh_name_is_Walter_white._its_soil_LOC_2012588336.jpg" class="new" title="File:Paul Sample's America,mh name is Walter white. its soil LOC 2012588336.jpg"><span class="mw-file-element mw-broken-media" data-width="180">File:Paul Sample's America,mh name is Walter white. its soil LOC 2012588336.jpg</span></a><figcaption>1946 Pictorial map, represent wealth of the United States soil</figcaption></figure>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Pre-Colonial_era"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Pre-Colonial era</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Colonial_farming:_1610–1775"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Colonial farming: 1610–1775</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Ethnic_farming_styles"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ethnic farming styles</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#New_nation:_1776–1860"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">New nation: 1776–1860</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#South"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">South</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#New_England"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">New England</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Western_frontier"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Western frontier</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Railroad_age:_1860–1910"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Railroad age: 1860–1910</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Rural_life"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Rural life</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Ranching"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ranching</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#South,_1860–1940"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">South, 1860–1940</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Grange"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Grange</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#World_War_I"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">World War I</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#1920s"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">1920s</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#1930s"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">1930s</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#New_Deal_farm_and_rural_programs"><span class="tocnumber">9.1</span> <span class="toctext">New Deal farm and rural programs</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Rural_relief"><span class="tocnumber">9.2</span> <span class="toctext">Rural relief</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Economics_and_Labor"><span class="tocnumber">9.3</span> <span class="toctext">Economics and Labor</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Since_1945"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Since 1945</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Government_policies"><span class="tocnumber">10.1</span> <span class="toctext">Government policies</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Changing_technology"><span class="tocnumber">10.2</span> <span class="toctext">Changing technology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Economics_and_labor_2"><span class="tocnumber">10.3</span> <span class="toctext">Economics and labor</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Technology"><span class="tocnumber">10.4</span> <span class="toctext">Technology</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Crops"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Crops</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Wheat"><span class="tocnumber">11.1</span> <span class="toctext">Wheat</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#Varieties"><span class="tocnumber">11.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Varieties</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Exports"><span class="tocnumber">11.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Exports</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="#Marketing"><span class="tocnumber">11.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Marketing</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Cotton"><span class="tocnumber">11.2</span> <span class="toctext">Cotton</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Surveys"><span class="tocnumber">14.1</span> <span class="toctext">Surveys</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Before_1775"><span class="tocnumber">14.2</span> <span class="toctext">Before 1775</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#1775–1860"><span class="tocnumber">14.3</span> <span class="toctext">1775–1860</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-36"><a href="#North"><span class="tocnumber">14.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">North</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-37"><a href="#South_2"><span class="tocnumber">14.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">South</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38"><a href="#1860-present,_national"><span class="tocnumber">14.4</span> <span class="toctext">1860-present, national</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-39"><a href="#1860-present,_regional_studies"><span class="tocnumber">14.5</span> <span class="toctext">1860-present, regional studies</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Environmental_issues"><span class="tocnumber">14.6</span> <span class="toctext">Environmental issues</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><a href="#Historiography"><span class="tocnumber">14.7</span> <span class="toctext">Historiography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-42"><a href="#Primary_sources"><span class="tocnumber">14.8</span> <span class="toctext">Primary sources</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Pre-Colonial_era">Pre-Colonial era</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Pre-Colonial era">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Agricultural_Complex" title="Eastern Agricultural Complex">Eastern Agricultural Complex</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_prehistoric_Southwest" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in the prehistoric Southwest">Agriculture in the prehistoric Southwest</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_on_the_prehistoric_Great_Plains" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture on the prehistoric Great Plains">Agriculture on the prehistoric Great Plains</a></div>
<p>Prior to the arrival of Europeans in North America, the continent supported a diverse range of indigenous cultures. While some populations were primarily <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a>, other populations relied on agriculture. Native Americans farmed domesticated crops in the Eastern Woodlands, the Great Plains, and the American Southwest.
</p>
<h2><span id="Colonial_farming:_1610.E2.80.931775"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Colonial_farming:_1610–1775"><span class="anchor" id="Colonial_farming:_1610_-_1775"></span>Colonial farming: 1610–1775</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Colonial farming: 1610–1775">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Beginning in 1620, the first settlers in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plymouth_Colony" title="Plymouth Colony">Plymouth Colony</a> planted <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pea" title="Pea">peas</a> from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> but their most important crop was Indian corn (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>) which they were shown how to cultivate by the native <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Squanto" title="Squanto">Squanto</a>. To fertilize this crop, they used small fish which they called herrings or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shad" class="mw-redirect" title="Shad">shads</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup>
</p><p>Beginning in 1619, Southern plantation agriculture, using <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">slaves</a>, developed in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">Virginia</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Province_of_Maryland" title="Province of Maryland">Maryland</a> (where tobacco was grown), and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Province_of_South_Carolina" title="Province of South Carolina">South Carolina</a> (where indigo and rice was grown). Cotton became a major plantation crop after 1800 in the "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_Belt_(geological_formation)" title="Black Belt (geological formation)">Black Belt</a>," and throughout the region from North Carolina in an arc through Texas where the climate allowed for cotton cultivation.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>Apart from the tobacco and rice plantations, the great majority of farms were subsistence, producing food for the family and some for trade and taxes. Throughout the colonial period, subsistence farming was pervasive. Farmers supplemented their income with sales of surplus crops or animals in the local market, or by exports to the slave colonies in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_West_Indies" title="British West Indies">British West Indies</a>. Logging, hunting and fishing supplemented the family economy.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ethnic_farming_styles">Ethnic farming styles</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ethnic farming styles">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Ethnicity made a difference in agricultural practice. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">German Americans</a> brought with them practices and traditions that were quite different from those of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/English_Americans" title="English Americans">English</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scottish_Americans" title="Scottish Americans">Scots</a>. They adapted Old World techniques to a much more abundant land supply. For example, they generally preferred oxen to horses for plowing. Furthermore, the Germans showed a long-term tendency to keep the farm in the family and to avoid having their children move to towns.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scots-Irish_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Irish American">Scots Irish</a> built their livelihoods on some farming but more herding (of hogs and cattle). In the American colonies, the Scots-Irish focused on mixed farming. Using this technique, they grew corn for human consumption and for livestock feed, especially for hogs. Many improvement-minded farmers of different backgrounds began using new agricultural practices to increase their output. During the 1750s, these agricultural innovators replaced the hand sickles and scythes used to harvest hay, wheat, and barley with the cradle scythe, a tool with wooden fingers that arranged the stalks of grain for easy collection. This tool was able to triple the amount of work done by a farmer in one day. A few scientifically informed farmers (mostly wealthy planters like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>) began fertilizing their fields with dung and lime and rotating their crops to keep the soil fertile.
</p><p>Before 1720, most colonists in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Colonies" title="Middle Colonies">mid-Atlantic region</a> worked in small-scale farming and paid for imported manufactures by supplying the West Indies with corn and flour. In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Province_of_New_York" title="Province of New York">New York</a>, a fur-pelt export trade to Europe flourished and added additional wealth to the region. After 1720, mid-Atlantic farming was stimulated by the international demand for wheat. A massive population explosion in Europe drove wheat prices up. By 1770, a bushel of wheat cost twice as much as it did in 1720.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> Farmers also expanded their production of flaxseed and corn since flax was in high demand in the Irish linen industry and a demand for corn existed in the West Indies.
</p><p>Many poor German immigrants and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scotch-Irish_Americans" title="Scotch-Irish Americans">Scots-Irish settlers</a> began their careers as agricultural wage laborers. Merchants and artisans hired teen-aged <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_British_America" title="Indentured servitude in British America">indentured servants</a>, paying the transportation over from Europe, as workers for a domestic system for the manufacture of cloth and other goods. Merchants often bought wool and flax from farmers and employed newly arrived immigrants who had been textile workers in Ireland and Germany to work in their homes spinning the materials into yarn and cloth.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Large farmers and merchants became wealthy, while farmers with smaller farms and artisans only made enough for subsistence.
</p>
<h2><span id="New_nation:_1776.E2.80.931860"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="New_nation:_1776–1860">New nation: 1776–1860</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: New nation: 1776–1860">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The U.S. economy was primarily agricultural in the early 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> Westward expansion, including the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> and American victory in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a> plus the building of canals and the introduction of steamboats opened up new areas for agriculture. Most farming was designed to produce food for the family, and service small local markets. In times of rapid economic growth, a farmer could still improve the land for far more than he paid for it, and then move further west to repeat the process. While the land was cheap and fertile the process of clearing it and building farmsteads wasn't. Frontier life wasn't new for Americans but presented new challenges for farm families who faced the challenges of bringing their produce to market across vast distances.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="South">South</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: South">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a>, the poor lands were held by poor white farmers, who generally owned no slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> The best lands were held by rich plantation owners and were operated primarily with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slave labor</a>. These farms grew their own food and also concentrated on a few "cash crops" that could be exported to meet the growing demand in Europe, especially cotton, tobacco, and sugar. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a> made it possible to increase cotton production. Cotton became the main export crop, but after a few years, the fertility of the soil was depleted and the plantation was moved to the new land further west. Much land was cleared and put into growing cotton in the Mississippi valley and in Alabama, and new grain growing areas were brought into production in the Mid West. Eventually this put severe downward pressure on prices, particularly of cotton, first from 1820–23 and again from 1840–43.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> Sugar cane was being grown in Louisiana, where it was refined into granular sugar. Growing and refining sugar required a large amount of capital. Some of the nation's wealthiest men owned sugar plantations, which often had their own sugar mills.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="New_England">New England</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: New England">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>, subsistence agriculture gave way after 1810 to production to provide food supplies for the rapidly growing industrial towns and cities. New specialty export crops were introduced such as tobacco and cranberries.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Western_frontier">Western frontier</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Western frontier">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></div>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> had attempted to restrict westward expansion with the ineffective <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proclamation_Line_of_1763" class="mw-redirect" title="Proclamation Line of 1763">Proclamation Line of 1763</a>, abolished after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>. The first major movement west of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a> began in Pennsylvania, Virginia and North Carolina as soon as the war was won in 1781. Pioneers housed themselves in a rough lean-to or at most a one-room log cabin. The main food supply at first came from hunting deer, turkeys, and other abundant small game.
</p>
<blockquote><p>Clad in typical frontier garb, leather breeches, moccasins, fur cap, and hunting shirt, and girded by a belt from which hung a hunting knife and a shot pouch – all homemade – the pioneer presented a unique appearance. In a short time he opened in the woods a patch, or clearing, on which he grew corn, wheat, flax, tobacco and other products, even fruit. In a few years the pioneer added hogs, sheep and cattle, and perhaps acquired a horse. Homespun clothing replaced the animal skins. The more restless pioneers grew dissatisfied with over civilized life, and uprooted themselves again to move 50 or hundred miles (80 or 160 km) further west.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>In 1788, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_pioneers_to_the_Northwest_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="American pioneers to the Northwest Territory">American pioneers to the Northwest Territory</a> established <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marietta,_Ohio" title="Marietta, Ohio">Marietta, Ohio</a> as the first permanent American settlement in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northwest_Territory" title="Northwest Territory">Northwest Territory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> By 1813 the western frontier had reached the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/St._Louis,_Missouri" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Louis, Missouri">St. Louis, Missouri</a> was the largest town on the frontier, the gateway for travel westward, and a principal trading center for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> traffic and inland commerce. There was wide agreement on the need to settle the new territories quickly, but the debate polarized over the price the government should charge. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">conservatives</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whigs</a>, typified by president <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a>, wanted a moderated pace that charged the newcomers enough to pay the costs of the federal government. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democrats</a>, however, tolerated a wild scramble for land at very low prices. The final resolution came in the Homestead Law of 1862, with a moderated pace that gave settlers 160 acres free after they worked on it for five years.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>From the 1770s to the 1830s, pioneers moved into the new lands that stretched from Kentucky to Alabama to Texas. Most were farmers who moved in family groups.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> Historian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louis_M._Hacker" title="Louis M. Hacker">Louis M. Hacker</a> shows how wasteful the first generation of pioneers was; they were too ignorant to cultivate the land properly and when the natural fertility of virgin land was used up, they sold out and moved west to try again. Hacker describes that in Kentucky about 1812:
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996844942">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Farms were for sale with from ten to fifty acres cleared, possessing log houses, peach and sometimes apple orchards, inclosed in fences, and having plenty of standing timber for fuel. The land was sown in wheat and corn, which were the staples, while hemp [for making rope] was being cultivated in increasing quantities in the fertile river bottoms. ...
Yet, on the whole, it was an agricultural society without skill or resources. It committed all those sins which characterize a wasteful and ignorant husbandry. Grass seed was not sown for hay and as a result the farm animals had to forage for themselves in the forests; the fields were not permitted to lie in pasturage; a single crop was planted in the soil until the land was exhausted; the manure was not returned to the fields; only a small part of the farm was brought under cultivation, the rest being permitted to stand in timber. Instruments of cultivation were rude and clumsy and only too few, many of them being made on the farm. It is plain why the American frontier settler was on the move continually. It was, not his fear of a too close contact with the comforts and restraints of a civilized society that stirred him into a ceaseless activity, nor merely the chance of selling out at a profit to the coming wave of settlers; it was his wasting land that drove him on. Hunger was the goad. The pioneer farmer's ignorance, his inadequate facilities for cultivation, his limited means, of transport necessitated his frequent changes of scene. He could succeed only with virgin soil.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Hacker adds that the second wave of settlers reclaimed the land, repaired the damage, and practiced a more sustainable agriculture.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span id="Railroad_age:_1860.E2.80.931910"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Railroad_age:_1860–1910"><span class="anchor" id="Railroad_Age:_1860-1910"></span>Railroad age: 1860–1910</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Railroad age: 1860–1910">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">History of rail transportation in the United States</a></div>
<p>A dramatic expansion in farming took place from 1860 to 1910 as cheap rail transportation opened the way for exports to Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> The number of farms tripled from 2.0 million in 1860 to 6.0 million in 1906. The number of people living on farms grew from about 10 million in 1860 to 22 million in 1880 to 31 million in 1905. The value of farms soared from $8 billion in 1860 to $30 billion in 1906.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>The federal government issued 160-acre (65 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hectare" title="Hectare">ha</a>) tracts for very cheap costs to about 400,000 families who settled new land under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Homestead_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Homestead Act">Homestead Act</a> of 1862. Even larger numbers purchased lands at very low interest from the new railroads, which were trying to create markets. The railroads advertised heavily in Europe and brought over, at low fares, hundreds of thousands of farmers from Germany, Scandinavia, and Britain. The Government of Canada's <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dominion_Lands_Act" title="Dominion Lands Act">Dominion Lands Act</a></i> of 1872 served a similar function for establishing homesteads on the prairies in Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>The first years of the 20th century were prosperous for all American farmers. The years 1910–1914 became a statistical benchmark, called "parity", that organized farm groups wanted the government to use as a benchmark for the level of prices and profits they felt they deserved.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Rural_life">Rural life</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Rural life">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Kansas-bountiful-1907.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Kansas-bountiful-1907.jpg/170px-Kansas-bountiful-1907.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Kansas-bountiful-1907.jpg/255px-Kansas-bountiful-1907.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Kansas-bountiful-1907.jpg/340px-Kansas-bountiful-1907.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1665" data-file-height="3105" /></a><figcaption>Boosterism: cover of a promotional booklet published in 1907 by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chicago,_Rock_Island_and_Pacific_Railroad" title="Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad">Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Early settlers discovered that the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> were not the "Great American Desert," but they also found that the very harsh climate—with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornadoes</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blizzard" title="Blizzard">blizzards</a>, drought, hail storms, floods, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grasshopper" title="Grasshopper">grasshopper plagues</a><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup>—made for a high risk of ruined crops. Many early settlers were financially ruined, especially in the early 1890s, and either protested through the Populist movement, or went back east. In the 20th century, crop insurance, new conservation techniques, and large-scale federal aid all lowered the risk. Immigrants, especially Germans, and their children comprised the largest element of settlers after 1860; they were attracted by the good soil, low-priced lands from the railroad companies. The railroads offered attractive Family packages. They brought in European families, with their tools, directly to the new farm, which was purchased on easy credit terms. The railroad needed settlers as much as the settlers needed farmland. Even cheaper land was available through homesteading, although it was usually not as well located as railroad land.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p>The problem of blowing dust resulted from too little rainfall for growing enough wheat to keep the topsoil from blowing away. In the 1930s, techniques and technologies of soil conservation, most of which had been available but ignored before the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a> conditions began, were promoted by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soil_Conservation_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil Conservation Service">Soil Conservation Service</a> (SCS) of the US Department of Agriculture, so that, with cooperation from the weather, soil condition was much improved by 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p><p>On the Great Plains, very few single men attempted to operate a farm or ranch; farmers clearly understood the need for a hard-working wife, and numerous children, to handle the many chores, including child-rearing, feeding and clothing the family, managing the housework, feeding the hired hands, and, especially after the 1930s, handling the paperwork and financial details.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> During the early years of settlement in the late 19th century, farm women played an integral role in assuring family survival by working outdoors. After a generation or so, women increasingly left the fields, thus redefining their roles within the family. New conveniences such as sewing and washing machines encouraged women to turn to domestic roles. The scientific housekeeping movement, promoted across the land by the media and government extension agents, as well as county fairs which featured achievements in home cookery and canning, advice columns for women in the farm papers, and home economics courses in the schools.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Volga-Germans-US.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Volga-Germans-US.jpg/220px-Volga-Germans-US.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Volga-Germans-US.jpg/330px-Volga-Germans-US.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Volga-Germans-US.jpg 2x" data-file-width="433" data-file-height="279" /></a><figcaption>Temporary quarters for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">Volga Germans</a> in central Kansas, 1875</figcaption></figure>
<p>Although the eastern image of farm life on the prairies emphasizes the isolation of the lonely farmer and farm life, rural folk created a rich social life for themselves. They often sponsored activities that combined work, food, and entertainment such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barn_raising" title="Barn raising">barn raisings</a>, corn huskings, quilting bees, grange meeting, church activities, and school functions.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> The womenfolk organized shared meals and potluck events, as well as extended visits between families.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>Women were also involved in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poultry_farming" title="Poultry farming">poultry breeding</a>. In 1896, farmer <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nettie_Metcalf" title="Nettie Metcalf">Nettie Metcalf</a> created the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buckeye_chicken" title="Buckeye chicken">Buckeye chicken</a> breed in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warren,_Ohio" title="Warren, Ohio">Warren, Ohio</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-33">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> In 1905, Buckeyes became an official breed under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Poultry_Association" title="American Poultry Association">American Poultry Association</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-36">[36]</a></sup> The Buckeye breed is the first recorded chicken breed to be created and developed by a woman.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ranching">Ranching</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ranching">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Much of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> became <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Open_range" title="Open range">open range</a>, hosting cattle ranching operations on public land without charge. In the spring and fall, ranchers held roundups where their cowboys branded new calves, treated animals and sorted the cattle for sale. Such ranching began in Texas and gradually moved northward. Cowboys drove Texas cattle north to railroad lines in the cities of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dodge_City,_Kansas" title="Dodge City, Kansas">Dodge City, Kansas</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ogallala,_Nebraska" title="Ogallala, Nebraska">Ogallala, Nebraska</a>; from there, cattle were shipped eastward. British investors financed many great ranches of the era. Overstocking of the range and the terrible <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Winter_of_1886%E2%80%9387" class="mw-redirect" title="Winter of 1886–87">Winter of 1886–87</a> resulted in a disaster, with many cattle starved and frozen to death. From then on, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ranchers" class="mw-redirect" title="Ranchers">ranchers</a> generally raised feed to ensure they could keep their cattle alive over winter.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup>
</p><p>When there was too little rain for row crop farming, but enough grass for grazing, cattle ranching became dominant. Before the railroads arrived in Texas the 1870s cattle drives took large herds from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> to the railheads in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a>. A few thousand Indians resisted, notably the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Sioux</a>, who were reluctant to settle on reservations. However, most Indians themselves became ranch hands and cowboys.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> New varieties of wheat flourished in the arid parts of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a>, opening much of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Dakotas" title="The Dakotas">Dakotas</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a>, western <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nebraska_Panhandle" title="Nebraska Panhandle">western Nebraska</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Colorado" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Colorado">eastern Colorado</a>. Where it was too dry for wheat, the settlers turned to cattle ranching.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup>
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<h2><span id="South.2C_1860.E2.80.931940"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="South,_1860–1940"><span class="anchor" id="South,_1860-1940"></span>South, 1860–1940</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: South, 1860–1940">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Agriculture in the South was oriented toward large-scale plantations that produced cotton for export, as well as other export products such as tobacco and sugar. During the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Union_blockade" title="Union blockade">Union blockade</a> shut down 95 percent of the export business. Some cotton got out through <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blockade_runners_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Blockade runners of the American Civil War">blockade runners</a>, and in conquered areas much was bought by northern speculators for shipment to Europe. The great majority of white farmers worked on small subsistence farms, that supplied the needs of the family and the local market.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> After the war, the world price of cotton plunged, the plantations were broken into small farms for the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedmen</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poor_White" title="Poor White">poor whites</a> started growing cotton because they needed the money to pay taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">Sharecropping</a> became widespread in the South as a response to economic upheaval caused by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="End of slavery in the United States of America">end of slavery</a> during and after <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction era of the United States">Reconstruction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> Sharecropping was a way for very poor farmers, both white and black, to earn a living from land owned by someone else. The landowner provided land, housing, tools and seed, and perhaps a mule, and a local merchant provided food and supplies on credit, while the sharecropper provided the labor. At harvest time the sharecropper kept a share of the crop production (from one-third to one-half), with the landowner taking the rest. The cropper used his share to pay off his debt to the merchant. The system started with blacks when large plantations were subdivided. By the 1880s, white farmers also became sharecroppers. The system was distinct from that of the tenant farmer, who rented the land, provided his own tools and mule and kept the crop (or paid some to the landowner through "crop rent"). Landowners provided more supervision to sharecroppers, and less or none to tenant farmers. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a> was inevitable, because world cotton prices were low.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup>
</p><p>Sawers (2005) shows how southern farmers made the mule their preferred draft animal in the South during the 1860s–1920s, primarily because it fit better with the region's geography. Mules better withstood the heat of summer, and their smaller size and hooves were well suited for such crops as cotton, tobacco, and sugar. The character of soils and climate in the lower South hindered the creation of pastures, so the mule breeding industry was concentrated in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Border_states_(American_Civil_War)" title="Border states (American Civil War)">border states</a> of Missouri, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Transportation costs combined with topography to influence the prices of mules and horses, which in turn affected patterns of mule use. The economic and production advantages associated with mules made their use a progressive step for Southern agriculture that endured until the mechanization brought by tractors.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 667–90">: 667–90 </span></sup> Beginning around the mid-20th century, Texas began to transform from a rural and agricultural state to one that was urban and industrialized.<sup id="cite_ref-TSHAsince_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TSHAsince-50">[50]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Grange">Grange</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Grange">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_National_Grange_of_the_Order_of_Patrons_of_Husbandry" class="mw-redirect" title="The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry">Grange</a> was an organization founded in 1867 for farmers and their wives that was strongest in the Northeast, and which promoted the modernization not only of farming practices but also of family and community life. It is still in operation.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Gift_for_the_grangers_ppmsca02956u.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Gift_for_the_grangers_ppmsca02956u.jpg/170px-Gift_for_the_grangers_ppmsca02956u.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Gift_for_the_grangers_ppmsca02956u.jpg/255px-Gift_for_the_grangers_ppmsca02956u.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Gift_for_the_grangers_ppmsca02956u.jpg/340px-Gift_for_the_grangers_ppmsca02956u.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3828" data-file-height="4785" /></a><figcaption>Promotional poster offering a "gift for the grangers", ca. 1873.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Membership soared from 1873 (200,000) to 1875 (858,050) as many of the state and local granges adopted non-partisan political resolutions, especially regarding the regulation of railroad transportation costs. The organization was unusual in that it allowed women and teens as equal members. Rapid growth infused the national organization with money from dues, and many local granges established consumer <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cooperatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperatives">cooperatives</a>, initially supplied by the Chicago wholesaler <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aaron_Montgomery_Ward" title="Aaron Montgomery Ward">Aaron Montgomery Ward</a>. Poor fiscal management, combined with organizational difficulties resulting from rapid growth, led to a massive decline in membership. By around the start of the 20th century, the Grange rebounded and membership stabilized.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the mid-1870s, state Granges in the Midwest were successful in passing state laws that regulated the rates they could be charged by railroads and grain warehouses. The birth of the federal government's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cooperative_Extension_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperative Extension Service">Cooperative Extension Service</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rural_Free_Delivery" title="Rural Free Delivery">Rural Free Delivery</a>, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Farm_Credit_System" title="Farm Credit System">Farm Credit System</a> were largely due to Grange lobbying. The peak of their political power was marked by their success in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Munn_v._Illinois" title="Munn v. Illinois">Munn v. Illinois</a></i>, which held that the grain warehouses were a "private utility in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Public_interest" title="Public interest">public interest</a>," and therefore could be regulated by public law (see references below, "The Granger Movement"). During the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> (1890s–1920s), political parties took up Grange causes. Consequently, local Granges focused more on community service, although the State and National Granges remain a political force.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="World_War_I">World War I</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: World War I">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_I" title="United States home front during World War I">United States home front during World War I</a></div>
<p>The U.S. in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, was a critical supplier to other <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied nations</a>, as millions of European farmers were in the army. The rapid expansion of the farms coupled with the diffusion of trucks and Model T cars, and the tractor, allowed the agricultural market to expand to an unprecedented size.
</p><p>During World War I prices shot up and farmers borrowed heavily to buy out their neighbors and expand their holdings. This gave them very high debts that made them vulnerable to the downturn in farm prices in 1920. Throughout the 1920s and down to 1934 low prices and high debt were major problems for farmers in all regions.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup>
</p><p>Beginning with the 1917 US National War Garden Commission, the government encouraged <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Victory_garden" title="Victory garden">Victory gardens</a>, agricultural plantings in private yards and public parks for personal use and for the war effort. Production from these gardens exceeded $1.2 billion by the end of World War I.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> Victory gardens were later encouraged during World War II when rationing made for food shortages.
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="1920s">1920s</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 1920s">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:HowYaGonnaKeepEmDownOnTheFarm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/HowYaGonnaKeepEmDownOnTheFarm.jpg/170px-HowYaGonnaKeepEmDownOnTheFarm.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/HowYaGonnaKeepEmDownOnTheFarm.jpg/255px-HowYaGonnaKeepEmDownOnTheFarm.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/0/05/HowYaGonnaKeepEmDownOnTheFarm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="332" data-file-height="407" /></a><figcaption>A 1919 sheet music cover</figcaption></figure>
<p>A popular <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tin_Pan_Alley" title="Tin Pan Alley">Tin Pan Alley</a> song of 1919 asked, concerning the United States troops returning from World War I, "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/How_Ya_Gonna_Keep_%27em_Down_on_the_Farm_(After_They%27ve_Seen_Paree)%3F" title="How Ya Gonna Keep 'em Down on the Farm (After They've Seen Paree)?">How Ya Gonna Keep 'em Down on the Farm (After They've Seen Paree)?</a>". As the song hints, many did not remain "down on the farm"; there was a great migration of youth from farms to nearby towns and smaller cities. The average distance moved was only 10 miles (16 km). Few went to the cities over 100,000. However, agriculture became increasingly mechanized with widespread use of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tractor" title="Tractor">tractor</a>, other heavy equipment, and superior techniques disseminated through <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agricultural_extension" title="Agricultural extension">County Agents</a>, who were employed by state agricultural colleges and funded by the Federal government.
The early 1920s saw a rapid expansion in the American agricultural economy largely due to new technologies and especially mechanization. Competition from Europe and Russia had disappeared due to the war and American agricultural goods were being shipped around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup>
</p><p>The new technologies, such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Combine_harvester" title="Combine harvester">combine harvester</a>, meant that the most efficient farms were larger in size and, gradually, the small family farm that had long been the model were replaced by larger and more business-oriented firms. Despite this increase in farm size and capital intensity, the great majority of agricultural production continued to be undertaken by family-owned enterprises.
</p><p>World War I had created an atmosphere of high prices for agricultural products as European nations demand for exports surged. Farmers had enjoyed a period of prosperity as U.S. farm production expanded rapidly to fill the gap left as European belligerents found themselves unable to produce enough food. When the war ended, supply increased rapidly as Europe's agricultural market rebounded. Overproduction led to plummeting prices which led to stagnant market conditions and living standards for farmers in the 1920s. Worse, hundreds of thousands of farmers had taken out mortgages and loans to buy out their neighbors' property, and now are unable to meet the financial burden. The cause was the collapse of land prices after the wartime bubble when farmers used high prices to buy up neighboring farms at high prices, saddling them with heavy debts. Farmers, however, blamed the decline of foreign markets, and the effects of the protective tariff.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p><p>Farmers demanded relief as the agricultural depression grew steadily worse in the middle 1920s, while the rest of the economy flourished. Farmers had a powerful voice in Congress, and demanded federal subsidies, most notably the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/McNary%E2%80%93Haugen_Farm_Relief_Bill" title="McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill">McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill</a>. It was passed but vetoed by President <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> Coolidge instead supported the alternative program of Commerce Secretary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> and Agriculture Secretary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/William_M._Jardine" class="mw-redirect" title="William M. Jardine">William M. Jardine</a> to modernize farming, by bringing in more electricity, more efficient equipment, better seeds and breeds, more rural education, and better business practices. Hoover advocated the creation of a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Farm_Board" title="Federal Farm Board">Federal Farm Board</a> which was dedicated to restriction of crop production to domestic demand, behind a tariff wall, and maintained that the farmer's ailments were due to defective distribution. In 1929, the Hoover plan was adopted.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="1930s">1930s</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 1930s">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="New_Deal_farm_and_rural_programs">New Deal farm and rural programs</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: New Deal farm and rural programs">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt#Agriculture" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt § Agriculture</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Langechildren2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Langechildren2.jpg/170px-Langechildren2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Langechildren2.jpg/255px-Langechildren2.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Langechildren2.jpg/340px-Langechildren2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="4270" /></a><figcaption>A migrant farm family in California, March 1935. Photo by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dorothea_Lange" title="Dorothea Lange">Dorothea Lange</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<p>President <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, a liberal Democrat, was keenly interested in farm issues and believed that true prosperity would not return until farming was prosperous.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> Many different <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> programs were directed at farmers.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup> Farming reached its low point in 1932, but even then millions of unemployed people were returning to the family farm having given up hope for a job in the cities. The main New Deal strategy was to reduce the supply of commodities, thereby raising the prices a little to the consumer, and a great deal to the farmer. Marginal farmers produce too little to be helped by the strategy; specialized relief programs were developed for them. Prosperity largely returned to the farm by 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>Roosevelt's "First Hundred Days" produced the Farm Security Act to raise farm incomes by raising the prices farmers received, which was achieved by reducing total farm output. In May 1933 the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agricultural_Adjustment_Act" title="Agricultural Adjustment Act">Agricultural Adjustment Act</a> created the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agricultural_Adjustment_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural Adjustment Administration">Agricultural Adjustment Administration</a> (AAA). The act reflected the demands of leaders of major farm organizations, especially the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Farm_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Farm Bureau">Farm Bureau</a>, and reflected debates among Roosevelt's farm advisers such as Secretary of Agriculture <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a>, M.L. Wilson,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rexford_Tugwell" title="Rexford Tugwell">Rexford Tugwell</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Peek" title="George Peek">George Peek</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup>
</p><p>The aim of the AAA was to raise prices for commodities through artificial scarcity. The AAA used a system of "domestic allotments", setting total output of corn, cotton, dairy products, hogs, rice, tobacco, and wheat. The farmers themselves had a voice in the process of using government to benefit their incomes. The AAA paid land owners subsidies for leaving some of their land idle with funds provided by a new tax on food processing. The goal was to force up farm prices to the point of "parity", an index based on 1910–1914 prices. To meet 1933 goals, 10 million acres (40,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of growing cotton was plowed up, bountiful crops were left to rot, and six million piglets were killed and discarded.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup> The idea was the less produced, the higher the wholesale price and the higher income to the farmer. Farm incomes increased significantly in the first three years of the New Deal, as prices for commodities rose. Food prices remained well below 1929 levels.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup>
</p><p>The AAA established a long-lasting federal role in the planning of the entire agricultural sector of the economy, and was the first program on such a scale on behalf of the troubled agricultural economy. The original AAA did not provide for any <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sharecroppers" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharecroppers">sharecroppers</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tenants" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenants">tenants</a> or farm laborers who might become unemployed, but there were other New Deal programs especially for them, such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Farm_Security_Administration" title="Farm Security Administration">Farm Security Administration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1936, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> declared the AAA to be unconstitutional for technical reasons; it was replaced by a similar program that did win Court approval. Instead of paying farmers for letting fields lie barren, the new program instead subsidized them for planting soil enriching crops such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alfalfa" title="Alfalfa">alfalfa</a> that would not be sold on the market. Federal regulation of agricultural production has been modified many times since then, but together with large subsidies the basic philosophy of subsidizing farmers is still in effect in 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Rural_relief">Rural relief</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Rural relief">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Pumping_water_in_Wilder,_Fentress_County_TN_1942.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Pumping_water_in_Wilder%2C_Fentress_County_TN_1942.gif/220px-Pumping_water_in_Wilder%2C_Fentress_County_TN_1942.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Pumping_water_in_Wilder%2C_Fentress_County_TN_1942.gif/330px-Pumping_water_in_Wilder%2C_Fentress_County_TN_1942.gif 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Pumping_water_in_Wilder%2C_Fentress_County_TN_1942.gif/440px-Pumping_water_in_Wilder%2C_Fentress_County_TN_1942.gif 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="412" /></a><figcaption>Modern methods had not reached the backwoods such as Wilder, Tennessee (Tennessee Valley Authority, 1942)</figcaption></figure>
<p>Many rural people lived in severe poverty, especially in the South. Major programs addressed to their needs included the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Resettlement_Administration" title="Resettlement Administration">Resettlement Administration</a> (RA), the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rural_Electrification_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural Electrification Administration">Rural Electrification Administration</a> (REA), rural welfare projects sponsored by the WPA, NYA, Forest Service and CCC, including school lunches, building new schools, opening roads in remote areas, reforestation, and purchase of marginal lands to enlarge national forests. In 1933, the Administration launched the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tennessee_Valley_Authority" title="Tennessee Valley Authority">Tennessee Valley Authority</a>, a project involving dam construction planning on an unprecedented scale in order to curb flooding, generate electricity, and modernize the very poor farms in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tennessee_Valley" title="Tennessee Valley">Tennessee Valley</a> region of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup>
</p><p>For the first time, there was a national program to help migrant and marginal farmers, through programs such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Resettlement_Administration" title="Resettlement Administration">Resettlement Administration</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Farm_Security_Administration" title="Farm Security Administration">Farm Security Administration</a>. Their plight gained national attention through the 1939 novel and film <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Grapes_of_Wrath" title="The Grapes of Wrath">The Grapes of Wrath</a></i>. The New Deal thought there were too many farmers, and resisted demands of the poor for loans to buy farms.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup> However, it made a major effort to upgrade the health facilities available to a sickly population.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Economics_and_Labor">Economics and Labor</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Economics and Labor">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In the 1930s, during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, farm labor organized a number of strikes in various states. 1933 was a particularly active year with strikes including the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/California_agricultural_strikes_of_1933" title="California agricultural strikes of 1933">California agricultural strikes of 1933</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1933_Yakima_Valley_strike" title="1933 Yakima Valley strike">1933 Yakima Valley strike</a> in Washington, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1933_Wisconsin_milk_strike" title="1933 Wisconsin milk strike">1933 Wisconsin milk strike</a>.
</p><p>Agriculture was prosperous during <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, even as rationing and price controls limited the availability of meat and other foods in order to guarantee its availability to the American And Allied armed forces. During World War II, farmers were not drafted, but surplus labor, especially in the southern cotton fields, voluntarily relocated to war jobs in the cities.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup>
</p><p>During World War II, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Victory_garden" title="Victory garden">victory gardens</a> planted at private residences and public parks were an important source of fresh produce. These gardens were encouraged by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a>. Around one third of the vegetables produced by the United States came from victory gardens.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Since_1945">Since 1945</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Since 1945">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Government_policies">Government policies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Government policies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_farm_bill" title="United States farm bill">United States farm bill</a></div>
<p>The New Deal era farm programs were continued into the 1940s and 1950s, with the goal of supporting the prices received by farmers. Typical programs involved farm loans, commodity subsidies, and price supports.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup> The rapid decline in the farm population led to a smaller voice in Congress. So the well-organized Farm Bureau and other lobbyists, worked in the 1970s to appeal to urban Congressman through food stamp programs for the poor. By 2000, the food stamp program was the largest component of the farm bill. In 2010, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tea_Party_movement" title="Tea Party movement">Tea Party movement</a> brought in many Republicans committed to cutting all federal subsidies, including those agriculture. Meanwhile, urban Democrats strongly opposed reductions, pointing to the severe hardships caused by the 2008–10 economic recession. Though the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agricultural_Act_of_2014" title="Agricultural Act of 2014">Agricultural Act of 2014</a> saw many rural Republican Congressman voting against the program, it passed with bipartisan support.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Changing_technology">Changing technology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Changing technology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Ammonia from plants built during World War II to make explosives became available for making fertilizers, leading to a permanent decline in real fertilizer prices and expanded use.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup> The early 1950s was the peak period for tractor sales in the U.S. as the few remaining mules and work horses were sold for dog food. The horsepower of farm machinery underwent a large expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-Tractors_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tractors-87">[87]</a></sup> A successful cotton picking machine was introduced in 1949. The machine could do the work of 50 men picking by hand. The great majority of unskilled farm laborers move to urban areas.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup>
</p><p>Research on plant breeding produced varieties of grain crops that could produce high yields with heavy fertilizer input. This resulted in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Green revolution">Green revolution</a>, beginning in the 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup> By 2000 yields of corn (maize) had risen by a factor of over four. Wheat and soybean yields also rose significantly.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Economics_and_labor_2">Economics and labor</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Economics and labor">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>After 1945, a continued annual 2% increase in productivity (as opposed to 1% from 1835–1935)<sup id="cite_ref-Conkin_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conkin-93">[93]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 97">: 97 </span></sup> led to further increases in farm size and corresponding reductions in the number of farms.<sup id="cite_ref-Conkin_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conkin-93">[93]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 99">: 99 </span></sup> Many farmers sold out and moved to nearby towns and cities. Others switched to part-time operation, supported by off-farm employment.
</p><p>The 1960s and 1970s saw major <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Farm_worker" class="mw-redirect" title="Farm worker">farm worker</a> strikes including the 1965 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Delano_grape_strike" title="Delano grape strike">Delano grape strike</a> and the 1970 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salad_Bowl_strike" title="Salad Bowl strike">Salad Bowl strike</a>. In 1975, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/California_Agricultural_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1975" title="California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975">California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975</a> was enacted,<sup id="cite_ref-GovSigns_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GovSigns-94">[94]</a></sup> establishing the right to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a> for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Farmworker" title="Farmworker">farmworkers</a> in California, a first in U.S. history.<sup id="cite_ref-Hurt_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hurt-95">[95]</a></sup> Individuals with prominent roles in farm worker organizing in this period include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cesar_Chavez" title="Cesar Chavez">Cesar Chavez</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dolores_Huerta" title="Dolores Huerta">Dolores Huerta</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Larry_Itliong" title="Larry Itliong">Larry Itliong</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philip_Vera_Cruz" title="Philip Vera Cruz">Philip Vera Cruz</a>. Chavez mobilized California workers into the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Farm_Workers" title="United Farm Workers">United Farm Workers</a> organization.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1990, undocumented workers made up an estimated 14 percent of the farm workforce. By the year 2000, the percentage had grown to over 50%, and has remained around 50% in the 2000-2020 period.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2015, grain farmers started taking "an extreme step, one not widely seen since the 1980s" by breaching lease contracts with their landowners, reducing the amount of land they sow and risking long legal battles with landlords.<sup id="cite_ref-reuters_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reuters-98">[98]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Technology">Technology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Technology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>New machinery—especially large self-propelled combines and mechanical <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cotton_picker" title="Cotton picker">cotton pickers</a>—sharply reduced labor requirements in harvesting.<sup id="cite_ref-Conkin_93-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conkin-93">[93]</a></sup>
</p><p>In addition, electric motors and irrigation pumps opened up new ways to be efficient.<sup id="cite_ref-Conkin_93-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conkin-93">[93]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 107">: 107 </span></sup> Electricity also played a role in making major innovations in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">animal husbandry</a> possible, especially modern milking parlors, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grain_elevator" title="Grain elevator">grain elevators</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/CAFOs" class="mw-redirect" title="CAFOs">CAFOs</a> (confined animal-feeding operations).<sup id="cite_ref-Conkin_93-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conkin-93">[93]</a></sup> Advances in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fertilizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilizers">fertilizers</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Conkin_93-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conkin-93">[93]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 109–12">: 109–12 </span></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herbicides" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbicides">herbicides</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Conkin_93-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conkin-93">[93]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 109–112">: 109–112 </span></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Insecticides" class="mw-redirect" title="Insecticides">insecticides</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fungicides" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungicides">fungicides</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Conkin_93-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conkin-93">[93]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 115–16">: 115–16 </span></sup> the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antibiotic_use_in_livestock" title="Antibiotic use in livestock">use of antibiotics</a><sup id="cite_ref-Conkin_93-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conkin-93">[93]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 116–17">: 116–17 </span></sup> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Growth_hormone#Use_of_GH_in_Production_of_Meat_and_Milk" title="Growth hormone">growth hormones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Conkin_93-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conkin-93">[93]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 118–19">: 118–19 </span></sup> Significant advances occurred in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plant_breeding" title="Plant breeding">plant breeding</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Animal_breeding" title="Animal breeding">animal breeding</a>, such as crop hybridization, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/GMOs" class="mw-redirect" title="GMOs">GMOs</a> (genetically modified organisms), and artificial insemination of livestock. Post-harvest innovations occurred in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">food processing</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_distribution" title="Food distribution">food distribution</a> (e.g. frozen foods).<sup id="cite_ref-Conkin_93-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conkin-93">[93]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Crops">Crops</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Crops">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Wheat">Wheat</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Wheat">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wheat_production_in_the_United_States" title="Wheat production in the United States">Wheat production in the United States</a></div>
<p>Wheat, used for white bread, pastries, pasta, and pizza, has been the principal cereal crop since the 18th century. It was introduced by the first English colonists and quickly became the main cash crop of farmers who sold it to urban populations and exporters. In colonial times its culture became concentrated in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Colonies" title="Middle Colonies">Middle Colonies</a>, which became known as the "bread colonies". In the mid-18th century, wheat culture spread to the tidewaters of Maryland and Virginia, where George Washington was a prominent grower as he diversified away from tobacco. The crop moved west, with Ohio as the center in 1840 and Illinois in 1860.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup> Illinois replaced its wheat with corn (which was used locally to feed hogs). The invention of mechanical harvesters, drawn first by horses and then tractors, made larger farms much more efficient than small ones. The farmers had to borrow money to buy land and equipment and had to specialize in wheat, which made them highly vulnerable to price fluctuations and gave them an incentive to ask for government help to stabilize or raise prices.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup> Wheat farming depended on significant labor input only during planting, and especially at harvest time. Therefore, successful farmers, especially on the Great Plains, bought up as much land as possible, purchased very expensive mechanical equipment, and depended on migrating hired laborers at harvesting time. The migrant families tended to be social outcasts without local roots and mostly lived near the poverty line, except in the harvesting season.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup> From 1909 to today, North Dakota and Kansas have vied for first place in wheat production, followed by Oklahoma and Montana.
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:McCormick_Twine_Binder_1884.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/McCormick_Twine_Binder_1884.jpg/220px-McCormick_Twine_Binder_1884.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/McCormick_Twine_Binder_1884.jpg/330px-McCormick_Twine_Binder_1884.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/McCormick_Twine_Binder_1884.jpg/440px-McCormick_Twine_Binder_1884.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3052" data-file-height="1979" /></a><figcaption>McCormick <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reaper-binder" title="Reaper-binder">reaper and twine binder</a> in 1884</figcaption></figure>
<p>In the colonial era, wheat was sown by broadcasting, reaped by sickles, and threshed by flails. The kernels were then taken to a grist mill for grinding into flour. In 1830, it took four people and two oxen, working 10 hours a day, to produce 200 bushels.<sup id="cite_ref-ShannonThe_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShannonThe-102">[102]</a></sup> New technology greatly increased productivity in the 19th century, as sowing with drills replaced broadcasting, cradles took the place of sickles, and the cradles in turn were replaced by reapers and binders. Steam-powered threshing machines superseded flails. By 1895, in Bonanza farms in the Dakotas, it took six people and 36 horses pulling huge harvesters, working 10 hours a day, to produce 20,000 bushels.<sup id="cite_ref-ShannonThe_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShannonThe-102">[102]</a></sup> In the 1930s the gasoline powered <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Combine_harvester" title="Combine harvester">"combine"</a> combined reaping and threshing into one operation that took one person to operate. Production grew from 85 million bushels in 1839, 500 million in 1880, 600 million in 1900, and peaked at 1.0 billion bushels in 1915. Prices fluctuated erratically, with a downward trend in the 1890s that caused great distress in the Plains states.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Wallis_tractor-001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wallis_tractor-001.jpg/220px-Wallis_tractor-001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wallis_tractor-001.jpg/330px-Wallis_tractor-001.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wallis_tractor-001.jpg/440px-Wallis_tractor-001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>A 1928 <i>Wallis</i> tractor made by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Massey_Ferguson" title="Massey Ferguson">Massey Ferguson</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The marketing of wheat was modernized as well, as the cost of transportation steadily fell and more and more distant markets opened up. Before 1850, the crop was sacked, shipped by wagon or canal boat, and stored in warehouses. With the rapid growth of the nation's railroad network in the 1850s–1870s, farmers took their harvest by wagon for sale to the nearest country elevators. The wheat moved to terminal elevators, where it was sold through grain exchanges to flour millers and exporters. Since the elevators and railroads generally had a local monopoly, farmers soon had targets besides the weather for their complaints. They sometimes accused the elevator men of undergrading, shortweighting, and excessive dockage. Scandinavian immigrants in the Midwest took control over marketing through the organization of cooperatives.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Varieties">Varieties</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Varieties">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Batteuse_1881.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Batteuse_1881.jpg/220px-Batteuse_1881.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Batteuse_1881.jpg/330px-Batteuse_1881.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Batteuse_1881.jpg/440px-Batteuse_1881.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1447" data-file-height="785" /></a><figcaption>The horse-powered thresher; it removes the inedible <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chaff" title="Chaff">chaff</a> from the wheat kernels</figcaption></figure>
<p>Following the invention of the steel roller mill in 1878, hard varieties of wheat such as Turkey Red became more popular than soft, which had been previously preferred because they were easier for grist mills to grind.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup>
</p><p>Wheat production witnessed major changes in varieties and cultural practices since 1870. Thanks to these innovations, vast expanses of the wheat belt now support commercial production, and yields have resisted the negative impact of insects, diseases, and weeds. Biological innovations contributed roughly half of labor-productivity growth between 1839 and 1909.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the late 19th century, hardy new wheat varieties from the Russian steppes were introduced on the Great Plains by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Volga_Germans" title="Volga Germans">Volga Germans</a> who settled in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Dakota" title="North Dakota">North Dakota</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a> and neighboring states.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup> Legend credits the miller <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warkentin_House" title="Warkentin House">Bernhard Warkentin</a> (1847–1908), a German <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mennonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Mennonite">Mennonite</a> from Russia for introducing the "Turkey red" variety from Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup> More exactly, in the 1880s numerous millers and government agricultural agents worked to create "Turkey red" and make Kansas the "Wheat State".<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup> The U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, and the state experiment stations, have developed many new varieties, and taught farmers how to plant them.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup> Similar varieties now dominate in the arid regions of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a>.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Exports">Exports</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Exports">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>Wheat farmers have always produced a surplus for export. The exports were small-scale until the 1860s, when bad crops in Europe, and lower costs due to cheaper railroads and ocean transport, opened the European markets to cheap American wheat. The British in particular depended on American wheat during the 1860s for a fourth of their food supply, making the government reluctant to risk a cutoff if it supported the Confederacy. By 1880, 150,000,000 bushels were exported to the value of $190,000,000. World War I saw large numbers of young European farmers conscripted into the armies, so Allied countries, particularly France and Italy depended on American shipments,<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup> which ranged from 100,000,000 to 260,000,000 bushels a year. American farmers reacted to the heavy demand and high prices by expanding their production, many taking out mortgages to buy out their neighbors farms. This led to a large surplus in the 1920s. The resulting low prices prompted growers to seek government support of prices, first through the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/McNary-Haugen_bill" class="mw-redirect" title="McNary-Haugen bill">McNary-Haugen bills</a>, which failed in Congress, and later in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> through the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agricultural_Adjustment_Act" title="Agricultural Adjustment Act">Agricultural Adjustment Act</a> of 1933 and its many versions.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup>
</p><p>World War II brought an enormous expansion of production, topping off at a billion bushels in 1944. During the war and after large-scale wheat and flour exports were part of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lend_Lease" class="mw-redirect" title="Lend Lease">Lend Lease</a> and the foreign assistance programs. In 1966 exports reached 860 million bushels of which 570 million were given away as food aid. A major drought in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in 1972 led to the sale of 390 million bushels and an agreement was assigned in 1975 under the détente policy to supply the Soviets with grain over a five-year period.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Marketing">Marketing</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Marketing">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>By 1900 private grain exchanges settled the daily prices for North American wheat. Santon (2010) explains how the AAA programs set wheat prices in the U.S. after 1933, and the Canadians established a wheat board to do the same there. The Canadian government required prairie farmers to deliver all their grain to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canadian_Wheat_Board" title="Canadian Wheat Board">Canadian Wheat Board</a> (CWB), a single-selling-desk agency that supplanted private wheat marketing in western Canada. Meanwhile, the United States government subsidized farm incomes with domestic-use taxes and import tariffs, but otherwise preserved private wheat marketing.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Cotton">Cotton</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Cotton">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cotton_production_in_the_United_States" title="Cotton production in the United States">Cotton production in the United States</a></div>
<p>In the colonial era, small amounts of high quality <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Long-staple_cotton" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-staple cotton">long-staple cotton</a> were produced in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sea_Islands" title="Sea Islands">Sea Islands</a> off the coast of South Carolina. Inland, only short-staple <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> could be grown but it was full of seeds and very hard to process into fiber. The invention of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a> in the late 1790s for the first time made short-staple cotton usable. It was generally produced on plantations ranging from South Carolina westward, with the work done by slaves. Simultaneously, the rapid growth of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrial_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial revolution">industrial revolution</a> in Britain, focused on textiles, created a major demand for the fiber. Cotton quickly exhausts the soil, so planters used their large profits to buy fresh land to the west, and purchase more slaves from the border states to operate their new plantations. After 1810, the emerging textile mills in New England also produced a heavy demand. By 1820, over 250,000 bales (of 500 pounds each) were exported to Europe, with a value of $22 million. By 1840, exports reached 1.5 million bales valued at $64 million, two thirds of all American exports. Cotton prices kept going up as the South remained the main supplier in the world. In 1860, the US shipped 3.5 million bales worth $192 million.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup>
</p><p>After the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, cotton production expanded to small farms, operated by white and black tenant farmers and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecroppers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ShannonThe_102-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShannonThe-102">[102]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 76–117">: 76–117 </span></sup> The quantity exported held steady, at 3,000,000 bales, but prices on the world market fell.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup> Although there was some work involved in planting the seeds, and cultivating or holding out the weeds, the critical labor input for cotton was in the picking. How much a cotton operation could produce depended on how many hands (men women and children) were available. Finally in the 1950s, new mechanical harvesters allowed a handful of workers to pick as much as 100 had done before. The result was a large-scale exodus of the white and black cotton farmers from the south. By the 1970s, most cotton was grown in large automated farms in the Southwest.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture in the United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cotton_production_in_the_United_States" title="Cotton production in the United States">Cotton production in the United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corn_production_in_the_United_States" title="Corn production in the United States">Corn production in the United States</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">US Bureau of the Census, <i>Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2010</i> (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2010/tables/10s0800.pdf">Table 800</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFMary_Caroline_Crawford1970" class="citation cs2">Mary Caroline Crawford (1970), <i>In the days of the Pilgrim Fathers</i>, p. 114</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+days+of+the+Pilgrim+Fathers&rft.pages=114&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Mary+Caroline+Crawford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Jack P. Greene, Rosemary Brana-Shute, and Randy J. Sparks, eds. <i>Money, Trade, and Power: The Evolution of Colonial South Carolina's Plantation Society</i> (Univ of South Carolina Press, 2021).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGary_M._WaltonJames_F._Shepherd1979" class="citation book cs1">Gary M. Walton; James F. Shepherd (1979). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economicriseofea00walt"><i>The Economic Rise of Early America</i></a></span>. Cambridge UP. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economicriseofea00walt/page/42">42</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+Rise+of+Early+America&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=1979&rft.au=Gary+M.+Walton&rft.au=James+F.+Shepherd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feconomicriseofea00walt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard H. Shryock, "British versus German traditions in colonial agriculture," <i>Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i> (1939) 26#1 pp. 39–54. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1893205">in JSTOR</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James T. Lemon, "The agricultural practices of national groups in eighteenth-century southeastern Pennsylvania." <i>Geographical Review</i> (1966): 467–496. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/213054">in JSTOR</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJames_L._Roark2012" class="citation book cs1">James L. Roark; et al. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7SsVAAAAQBAJ"><i>The American Promise, Volume I: To 1877: A History of the United States</i></a>. Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 134. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781457605611" title="Special:BookSources/9781457605611"><bdi>9781457605611</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Promise%2C+Volume+I%3A+To+1877%3A+A+History+of+the+United+States&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781457605611&rft.au=James+L.+Roark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7SsVAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Curtis P. Nettels, <i>The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815 </i>(1962)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paul_Wallace_Gates" title="Paul Wallace Gates">Paul W. Gates</a>, <i>The Farmers' Age: Agriculture, 1815–1860</i> (1960)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sam Bowers Hilliard, <i>Hog Meat and Hoecake: Food Supply in the Old South, 1840–1860</i> (2014).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Solomon Otto, <i>The Southern Frontiers, 1607–1860: The Agricultural Evolution of the Colonial and Antebellum South</i> (1989).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph Carlyle Sitterson, <i>Sugar country: the cane sugar industry in the South, 1753–1950</i> (1953).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Percy W. Bidwell, "The Agricultural Revolution in New England," <i>American Historical Review</i> (1921) 26#4 pp. 683–702 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1836733">in JSTOR</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles H. Ambler and Festus P. Summers, <i>West Virginia, the mountain state</i> (1958) p. 55.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFTheodore_Roosevelt1905" class="citation book cs1">Theodore Roosevelt (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/winningofwest06roosbyu"><i>The Winning of the West</i></a>. Current Literature. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/winningofwest06roosbyu/page/46">46</a>–.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Winning+of+the+West&rft.pages=46-&rft.pub=Current+Literature&rft.date=1905&rft.au=Theodore+Roosevelt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwinningofwest06roosbyu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John R. Van Atta, <i>Securing the West: Politics, Public Lands, and the Fate of the Old Republic, 1785–1850</i> (Johns Hopkins University Press; 2014)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ray Allen Billington and Martin Ridge, <i>Westward Expansion</i> (5th ed. 1982) pp. 203–328, 747–66</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Louis Morton Hacker, "Western Land Hunger and the War of 1812: A Conjecture", <i>Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i> (1924) 10#4 pp. 365–95, quote on pp. 369–71 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1892931">in JSTOR</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hacker, "Western Land Hunger and the War of 1812."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fred A. Shannon, <i>The farmer's last frontier: agriculture, 1860–1897</i> (1945) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060523055745/http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3070303">complete text online</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Historical Statistics</i> (1975) p. 437 series K1–K16</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Leland H. Jenks, "Railroads as an Economic Force in American Development," <i>Journal of Economic History</i>, 4#1 (1944), 1–20. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2113700">2113700</a>. </span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shannon, <i>Farmers Last Frontier,</i> pp 51-75.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert L. Tontz, "Origin of the Base Period Concept of Parity: A Significant Value Judgment in Agricultural Policy." <i>Agricultural History</i> (1958): 3–13. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3740836">in JSTOR</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Annette Atkins, <i>Harvest of Grief: Grasshopper Plagues and Public Assistance in Minnesota, 1873–78</i> (2003)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_White1991" class="citation book cs1">Richard White (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lCF8eIFe93cC&pg=PA147"><i>"It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West</i></a>. U of Oklahoma Press. p. 147. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780806125671" title="Special:BookSources/9780806125671"><bdi>9780806125671</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22It%27s+Your+Misfortune+and+None+of+My+Own%22%3A+A+New+History+of+the+American+West&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=U+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780806125671&rft.au=Richard+White&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlCF8eIFe93cC%26pg%3DPA147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Douglas Hurt, et al. "Agricultural Technology in the Dust Bowl, 1932–40," <i>Great Plains: Environment and Culture,</i> (1979), pp. 139–56</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Louis Baumhardt, "Dust bowl era." <i>Encyclopedia of water science</i> (2003): 187-191 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rl_Baumhardt/publication/43255753_Dust_Bowl_Era/links/02e7e52e925144a5cf000000.pdf">online</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deborah Fink, <i>Agrarian Women: Wives and Mothers in Rural Nebraska, 1880–1940</i> (1992)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chad Montrie, "'Men Alone Cannot Settle a Country:' Domesticating Nature in the Kansas-Nebraska Grasslands," <i>Great Plains Quarterly,</i> Fall 2005, Vol. 25 Issue 4, pp. 245–58</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Ronning, "Quilting in Webster County, Nebraska, 1880–1920," <i>Uncoverings,</i> 1992, Vol. 13, pp. 169–91</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nathan B. Sanderson, "More Than a Potluck," <i>Nebraska History,</i> Fall 2008, 89#3 pp. 120–31</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:1-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan" class="citation web cs1">Sullivan, Andrew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ithaca.com/news/dryden/bringing-buckeye-chickens-to-dryden/article_f2e93b48-30a7-11e9-b95d-9be8a3068603.html">"Bringing buckeye chickens to Dryden"</a>. <i>Ithaca Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-09-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ithaca+Times&rft.atitle=Bringing+buckeye+chickens+to+Dryden&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ithaca.com%2Fnews%2Fdryden%2Fbringing-buckeye-chickens-to-dryden%2Farticle_f2e93b48-30a7-11e9-b95d-9be8a3068603.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan" class="citation web cs1">Sullivan, Andrew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ithaca.com/news/dryden/dryden-agway-local-organizations-donate-buckeye-chicks-to-tburg-youth/article_51f8c72e-4b2a-11e9-8494-dba82b738b25.html">"Dryden Agway, local organizations donate buckeye chicks to T'burg youth"</a>. <i>Ithaca Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-09-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ithaca+Times&rft.atitle=Dryden+Agway%2C+local+organizations+donate+buckeye+chicks+to+T%27burg+youth&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ithaca.com%2Fnews%2Fdryden%2Fdryden-agway-local-organizations-donate-buckeye-chicks-to-tburg-youth%2Farticle_51f8c72e-4b2a-11e9-8494-dba82b738b25.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFEkarius2016" class="citation book cs1">Ekarius, Carol (2016-07-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xJSZDQAAQBAJ&dq=%22nettie+metcalf%22&pg=PA79"><i>Storey's Illustrated Guide to Poultry Breeds: Chickens, Ducks, Geese, Turkeys, Emus, Guinea Fowl, Ostriches, Partridges, Peafowl, Pheasants, Quails, Swans</i></a>. Storey Publishing, LLC. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61212-843-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61212-843-6"><bdi>978-1-61212-843-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storey%27s+Illustrated+Guide+to+Poultry+Breeds%3A+Chickens%2C+Ducks%2C+Geese%2C+Turkeys%2C+Emus%2C+Guinea+Fowl%2C+Ostriches%2C+Partridges%2C+Peafowl%2C+Pheasants%2C+Quails%2C+Swans&rft.pub=Storey+Publishing%2C+LLC&rft.date=2016-07-18&rft.isbn=978-1-61212-843-6&rft.aulast=Ekarius&rft.aufirst=Carol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxJSZDQAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522nettie%2Bmetcalf%2522%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:0-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ccVJAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22We+began+housekeeping+in+1879%22&pg=RA8-PA8"><i>Poultry Success</i></a>. A. D. Hosterman Company. 1917.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poultry+Success&rft.pub=A.+D.+Hosterman+Company&rft.date=1917&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DccVJAAAAYAAJ%26dq%3D%2522We%2Bbegan%2Bhousekeeping%2Bin%2B1879%2522%26pg%3DRA8-PA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHatchery2022" class="citation web cs1">Hatchery, Sponsored by Melissahof (2022-06-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://buckrail.com/know-how-your-eggs-got-laid/">"Know how your eggs got laid?"</a>. <i>Buckrail - Jackson Hole, news</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-09-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Buckrail+-+Jackson+Hole%2C+news&rft.atitle=Know+how+your+eggs+got+laid%3F&rft.date=2022-06-13&rft.aulast=Hatchery&rft.aufirst=Sponsored+by+Melissahof&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbuckrail.com%2Fknow-how-your-eggs-got-laid%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSparling2016" class="citation web cs1">Sparling, Nina (2016-09-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foodtank.com/news/2016/09/protecting-disappearing-livestock-breeds/">"Protecting Disappearing Livestock Breeds"</a>. <i>Food Tank</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-09-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Food+Tank&rft.atitle=Protecting+Disappearing+Livestock+Breeds&rft.date=2016-09-07&rft.aulast=Sparling&rft.aufirst=Nina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffoodtank.com%2Fnews%2F2016%2F09%2Fprotecting-disappearing-livestock-breeds%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csmonitor.com/Business/The-Bite/2016/0908/Why-we-should-protect-disappearing-livestock-breeds">"Why we should protect disappearing livestock breeds"</a>. <i>Christian Science Monitor</i>. 2016-09-08. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0882-7729">0882-7729</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-09-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=Why+we+should+protect+disappearing+livestock+breeds&rft.date=2016-09-08&rft.issn=0882-7729&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2FBusiness%2FThe-Bite%2F2016%2F0908%2FWhy-we-should-protect-disappearing-livestock-breeds&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ray H. Mattison, "The Hard Winter and the Range Cattle Business". <i>The Montana Magazine of History</i> 1951) 1#4: 5–21.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Iverson, <i>When Indians Became Cowboys: Native Peoples and Cattle Ranching in the American West</i> (U of Oklahoma Press, 1997).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Cronon, <i>Nature's metropolis: Chicago and the Great West</i> (1991) p. 214.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Douglas Hurt, <i>Agriculture and the Confederacy: Policy, Productivity, and Power in the Civil War South</i> (2015), ch. 1.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roger L. Ransom, and Richard Sutch. <i>One kind of freedom: The economic consequences of emancipation</i> (2001), ch 1.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles S. Aiken, <i>The cotton plantation South since the Civil War</i> (2003), ch. 1.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSharon_Monteith2013" class="citation book cs1">Sharon Monteith, ed. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DPMAXuWaArgC&pg=PA94"><i>The Cambridge Companion to the Literature of the American South</i></a>. Cambridge U.P. p. 94. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107036789" title="Special:BookSources/9781107036789"><bdi>9781107036789</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+the+Literature+of+the+American+South&rft.pages=94&rft.pub=Cambridge+U.P.&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781107036789&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDPMAXuWaArgC%26pg%3DPA94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph D. Reid, "Sharecropping as an understandable market response: The post-bellum South." <i>Journal of Economic History</i> (1973) 33#1 pp: 106–30. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2117145">in JSTOR</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roger L. Ransom, and Richard Sutch, <i>One kind of freedom: The economic consequences of emancipation</i> (Cambridge UP, 2001)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larry Sawers, "The Mule, the South, and Economic Progress." <i>Social Science History</i> (2005) 28#4</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-TSHAsince-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TSHAsince_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCalvert" class="citation web cs1">Calvert, Robert A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/npt02">"Texas Since World War II"</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Texas_State_Historical_Association" title="Texas State Historical Association">Texas State Historical Association</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Texas+Since+World+War+II&rft.pub=Texas+State+Historical+Association&rft.aulast=Calvert&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftshaonline.org%2Fhandbook%2Fonline%2Farticles%2Fnpt02&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Solon Justus Buck, <i>The Granger movement: A Study of Agricultural Organization and its Political, Economic, and Social Manifestations, 1870–1880</i> (1913) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HRJgAAAAIAAJ">full text online</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Sven Nordin, <i>Rich Harvest: A History of the Grange, 1867–1900</i> (1974).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nordin, <i>Rich Harvest: A History of the Grange, 1867–1900</i> (1974).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Solon J. Buck, <i>The Granger Movement: A Study of Agricultural Organization and Its Political, Economic and Social Manifestations, 1870–1880</i> (Harvard UP, 1913) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grangermovements00buckuoft">online</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee J. Alston, "Farm foreclosures in the United States during the interwar period." <i>Journal of Economic History</i> 43#4 (1983): 885–903.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eyle, Alexandra. <i>Charles Lathrop Pack: Timberman, Forest Conservationist, and Pioneer in Forest Education</i> (Syracuse UP, 1994) p. 142.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson Gee, <i>The place of agriculture in American life</i> (1930) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2839521">online edition</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Soule, <i>Prosperity Decade: From War to Depression, 1917–1929</i> (1947) pp 77–78, 229–251 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.275557">online</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theodore_Saloutos" title="Theodore Saloutos">Theodore Saloutos</a> and John Hicks, <i>Twentieth Century Populism: Agricultural Discontent in the Middle West 1900–1939</i> (1951) pp. 321–41</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Theodore Saloutos and John Hicks, <i>Twentieth Century Populism: Agricultural Discontent in the Middle West 1900–1939</i> (1951) pp. 372–403</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gary H. Koerselman, "Secretary Hoover and National Farm Policy: Problems of Leadership," <i>Agricultural History</i> 1977 51(2): 378–95</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roger Biles, <i>A New Deal for the American people</i> (1991) pp. 57–77.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony J. Badger, <i>The New Deal: the depression years 1933–1940</i> (1989) pp. 147–89.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Broadus Mitchell, <i>The Depression Decade: From New Era Through New Deal, 1929-41: From New Era Through New Deal, 1929-41</i> (1947) pp 179-227. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.223789">online</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Theodore Saloutos, <i>The American Farmer and the New Deal</i> (1982)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Fearon, <i>War, prosperity and depression: the US economy 1917–45</i> (1987) pp. 176–94.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mobile.lib.montana.edu/collect/spcoll/findaid/acc00003.html">M. L. Wilson Collection, 1935–1960</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., <i>The Coming of the New Deal</i> (1958) pp. 27–84</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald L. Heinemann, <i>Depression and New Deal in Virginia.</i> (1983) p. 107</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony Badger, <i>The New Deal: The Depression Years, 1933–1940</i> (2002) pp. 89, 153–57</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Statistical Abstract 1940</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/statab1901-1950.htm">online</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Kenneth Roberts, <i>Farm Security Administration and Rural Rehabilitation in the South</i> (University of Tennessee Press, 2015)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James L. Novak, James W. Pease, and Larry D. Sanders. <i>Agricultural Policy in the United States: Evolution and Economics</i> (Routledge, 2015)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roger Biles, <i>The South and the New Deal</i> (2006).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald C. Tobey, <i>Technology as freedom: The New Deal and the electrical modernization of the American home</i> (1996).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rexford G. Tugwell, "The resettlement idea." <i>Agricultural History</i> (1959) pp. 159–64. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3740911">in JSTOR</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael R. Grey, <i>New Deal Medicine: The Rural Health Programs of the Farm Security Administration</i> (2002).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fearon, <i>War, prosperity and depression: the US economy 1917–45</i> (1987) pp. 266–72.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter W. Wilcox, <i>Farmer in the Second World War</i> (1947)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKallen2000" class="citation book cs1">Kallen, Stuart A. (2000). <i>The War at Home</i>. San Diego: Lucent Books. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56006-531-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-56006-531-1"><bdi>1-56006-531-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+at+Home&rft.place=San+Diego&rft.pub=Lucent+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-56006-531-1&rft.aulast=Kallen&rft.aufirst=Stuart+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/80400530/pdf/hist/bhnhe_1944_misc_pub_550.pdf">for detail</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carl Zulauf and David Orden. "80 Years of Farm Bills – Evolutionary Reform." <i>Choices</i> (2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.choicesmagazine.org/UserFiles/file/cmsarticle_551.pdf">online</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher Bosso, <i>Framing the Farm Bill: Interests, Ideology, and Agricultural Act of 2014</i> (2017).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carl Zulauf and David Orden, "The US Agricultural Act of 2014: Overview and Analysis." (International Food Policy Research Institute discussion paper 01393, 2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David_Orden2/publication/308138378_The_US_Agricultural_Act_of_2014/links/57dae99e08ae5292a3768d07.pdf">online</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Orden and Carl Zulauf, "Political economy of the 2014 farm bill." <i>American Journal of Agricultural Economics</i> 97.5 (2015): 1298–311. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160401131433/http://ajae.oxfordjournals.org/content/97/5/1298.full">online</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexander J. Field, <i>A Great Leap Forward: 1930s Depression and U.S. Economic Growth</i> (2011) pp. 22–23.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Tractors-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tractors_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWhite" class="citation web cs1">White, William J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131024041712/http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/white.tractors.history.us">"Economic History of Tractors in the United States"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/white.tractors.history.us">the original</a> on 2013-10-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Economic+History+of+Tractors+in+the+United+States&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feh.net%2Fencyclopedia%2Farticle%2Fwhite.tractors.history.us&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRifkin,_Jeremy1995" class="citation book cs1">Rifkin, Jeremy (1995). <i>The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post-Market Era</i>. Putnam Publishing Group. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87477-779-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87477-779-8"><bdi>0-87477-779-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+Work%3A+The+Decline+of+the+Global+Labor+Force+and+the+Dawn+of+the+Post-Market+Era&rft.pub=Putnam+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-87477-779-8&rft.au=Rifkin%2C+Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mjperry.blogspot.com/2011/11/corn-yields-have-increased-six-times.html">"CARPE DIEM: U.S. Corn Yields Have Increased Six Times Since the 1930s and Are Estimated to Double by 2030"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CARPE+DIEM%3A+U.S.+Corn+Yields+Have+Increased+Six+Times+Since+the+1930s+and+Are+Estimated+to+Double+by+2030&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmjperry.blogspot.com%2F2011%2F11%2Fcorn-yields-have-increased-six-times.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSmil2004" class="citation book cs1">Smil, Vaclav (2004). <i>Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production</i>. MIT Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0262693135" title="Special:BookSources/0262693135"><bdi>0262693135</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enriching+the+Earth%3A+Fritz+Haber%2C+Carl+Bosch%2C+and+the+Transformation+of+World+Food+Production&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0262693135&rft.aulast=Smil&rft.aufirst=Vaclav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quickstats.nass.usda.gov/?long_desc__LIKE=Corn&x=20&y=6#E3D0B839-C2EE-39DE-8335-CE17EE5D0823">USDA Statistics</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.agry.purdue.edu/ext/corn/news/timeless/yieldtrends.html">Purdue University Dept. Agronomy</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Conkin-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Conkin_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conkin_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conkin_93-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conkin_93-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conkin_93-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conkin_93-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conkin_93-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conkin_93-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conkin_93-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conkin_93-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conkin_93-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFConkin2008" class="citation book cs1">Conkin, Paul (2008). <i>Revolution Down on the Farm: The Transformation of American Agriculture since 1929</i> (first ed.). University Press of Kentucky. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813173153" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813173153"><bdi>978-0813173153</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+Down+on+the+Farm%3A+The+Transformation+of+American+Agriculture+since+1929&rft.edition=first&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0813173153&rft.aulast=Conkin&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-GovSigns-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GovSigns_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Governor Signs Historic Farm Labor Legislation." <i>Los Angeles Times.</i> June 5, 1975.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Hurt-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hurt_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hurt, R. Douglas. <i>American Agriculture: A Brief History.</i> Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55753-281-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-55753-281-8">1-55753-281-8</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen H. Sosnick, <i>Hired Hands: Seasonal Farm Workers In The United States</i> (1978) pp. 301–02</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-economy/farm-labor/#demographic">"Economic Research Service - Farm Labor"</a>. <i>USDA Economic Research Service</i>. USDA<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USDA+Economic+Research+Service&rft.atitle=Economic+Research+Service+-+Farm+Labor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ers.usda.gov%2Ftopics%2Ffarm-economy%2Ffarm-labor%2F%23demographic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-reuters-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-reuters_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJo_Winterbottom_and_P.J._Huffstutter2015" class="citation news cs1">Jo Winterbottom and P.J. Huffstutter (23 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-grains-rents-insight-idUSKBN0LR0EX20150223">"Rent walkouts point to strains in U.S. farm economy"</a>. <i>Reuters</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Rent+walkouts+point+to+strains+in+U.S.+farm+economy&rft.date=2015-02-23&rft.au=Jo+Winterbottom+and+P.J.+Huffstutter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-usa-grains-rents-insight-idUSKBN0LR0EX20150223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul W. Gates, <i>The Farmers' Age: Agriculture, 1815–1860</i> (1960) pp. 156–59, 183–86</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Fearon, "Mechanisation and Risk: Kansas Wheat Growers 1915–1930," <i>Rural History,</i> Oct 1995, Vol. 6 Issue 2, pp. 229–50</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Toby Higbie, "Indispensable Outcasts: Harvest Laborers in the Wheat Belt of the Middle West, 1890–1925" <i>Labor History,</i> Fall 1997, Vol. 38#4 pp. 393–412</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ShannonThe-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ShannonThe_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ShannonThe_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ShannonThe_102-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shannon, <i>The Farmers Last Frontier</i>, p. 410</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bureau of the Census, <i>Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970</i> (1976) series K: 507–08</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shannon, <i>The Farmers Last Frontier</i>, pp. 179–83</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl S. Quisenberry, and L. P. Reitz "Turkey wheat: The cornerstone of an empire." <i>Agricultural History</i> 48.1 (1974): 98–110. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://213.232.8.204/EN/dosya/1-120/h/turkeywheatthecornerstoneofanempire.pdf">online</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alan L. Olmstead, and Paul W. Rhode, "The Red Queen and the Hard Reds: Productivity Growth in American Wheat, 1800–1940," <i>Journal of Economic History,</i> Dec 2002, Vol. 62 Issue 4, pp. 929–66</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Moon, "In the Russians' steppes: the introduction of Russian wheat on the Great Plains of the United States of America," <i>Journal of Global History,</i> July 2008, Vol. 3 Issue 2, pp. 203–25</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karen Penner, "Bernhard Warkentin: Kansas Miller and Promoter Of Turkey Red Wheat," <i>Journal of the American Historical Society of Germans from Russia,</i> Fall 2007, Vol. 30 Issue 3, pp. 27–34</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman E. Saul, "Myth and History: Turkey Red Wheat and the 'Kansas Miracle,'" <i>Heritage of the Great Plains,</i> Summer 1989, Vol. 22#3 pp. 1–13</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jim_Sherow#Personal_life" title="Jim Sherow">Bonnie Lynn-Sherow</a>, "Beyond Winter Wheat: The USDA Extension Service and Kansas Wheat Production In The Twentieth Century," <i>Kansas History,</i> March 2000, Vol. 23 Issue 1, pp. 100–11</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hardach, Gerd. The First World War, 1914–1918. University of California Press, 1977. pp. 124, 130–36.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bureau of the Census, <i>Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970</i> (1976) series U: 279–80</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph M. Santos, "Going Against the Grain: Why Do Canada and the United States Market Wheat So Differently?" <i>American Review of Canadian Studies,</i> Spring 2010, Vol. 40 Issue 1, pp. 104–17</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paul_Wallace_Gates" title="Paul Wallace Gates">Paul W. Gates</a>, <i>The Farmers' Age: Agriculture, 1815–1860</i> (1960) pp. 7–10, 134–55</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sven Beckert, "Emancipation and empire: Reconstructing the worldwide web of cotton production in the age of the American Civil War." <i>American Historical Review</i> 109.5 (2004): 1405-1438 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/3207344/Beckert_EmancipationEmpire.pdf?sequence=2">online</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bureau of the Census, <i>Historical Statistics of the United States,</i> series U: 275–76</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stephen_Yafa" title="Stephen Yafa">Stephen Yafa</a>, <i>Cotton: The Biography of a Revolutionary Fiber</i> (2004)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Clayton Brown, <i>King Cotton in Modern America: A Cultural, Political, and Economic History since 1945</i> (2010).</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Surveys">Surveys</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Surveys">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>Cochrane, Willard W. <i>The Development of American Agriculture: A Historical Analysis</i> (1993)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/David_B._Danbom" title="David B. Danbom">Danbom, David B.</a> <i>Born in the Country: A History of Rural America</i> (1997)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gilbert_Fite" title="Gilbert Fite">Fite, Gilbert C.</a> <i>American Farmers: The New Minority</i> (Indiana U. Press, 1981) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanfarmersn0000fite">online</a></li>
<li>Goreham, Gary. <i>Encyclopedia of rural America</i> (Grey House Publishing, 2 vol 2008). 232 essays</li>
<li>Gras, Norman. <i>A history of agriculture in Europe and America,</i> (1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2845579">online edition</a></li>
<li>Hart, John Fraser. <i>The Changing Scale of American Agriculture.</i> U. of Virginia Press, 2004. 320 pp.</li>
<li>Hurt, R. Douglas. <i>American Agriculture: A Brief History</i> (2002)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yair_Mundlak" title="Yair Mundlak">Mundlak, Yair</a>. "Economic Growth: Lessons from Two Centuries of American Agriculture." <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Journal_of_Economic_Literature" title="Journal of Economic Literature">Journal of Economic Literature</a></i> 2005 43(4): 989–1024. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4129381">4129381</a></li>
<li>Ogle, Maureen. <i>In meat we trust: An unexpected history of carnivore America</i> (2013).</li>
<li>Robert, Joseph C. <i>The story of tobacco in America (1949) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3136323">online edition</a></i></li>
<li>Russell, Howard. <i>A Long Deep Furrow: Three Centuries of Farming In New England</i> (1981) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/longdeepfurrowth0000russ">online</a></li>
<li>Schafer, Joseph. <i>The social history of American agriculture</i> (1936) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2712484">online edition</a></li>
<li>Schapsmeier, Edward L; and Frederick H. Schapsmeier. <i>Encyclopedia of American agricultural history</i> (1975) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofam0000scha">online</a></li></ul>
<ul><li>Schlebecker John T. <i>Whereby we thrive: A history of American farming, 1607–1972</i> (1972) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wherebywethriveh0000schl">online</a></li>
<li>Skaggs, Jimmy M. <i>Prime cut: Livestock raising and meatpacking in the United States, 1607-1983</i> (Texas A&M UP, 1986).</li>
<li>Taylor, Carl C. <i>The farmers' movement, 1620–1920</i> (1953) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2800584">online edition</a></li>
<li>Walker, Melissa, and James C. Cobb, eds. <i>The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture, vol. 11: Agriculture and Industry.</i> (University of North Carolina Press, 2008) 354, pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-5909-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-5909-4">978-0-8078-5909-4</a></li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Before_1775">Before 1775</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Before 1775">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>Anderson, Virginia DeJohn, "Thomas Minor's World: Agrarian Life in Seventeenth-Century New England," <i>Agricultural History,</i> 82 (Fall 2008), 496–518.</li>
<li>Bidwell, Percy and Falconer, John I. <i>History of Agriculture in the Northern United States 1620–1860</i> (1941) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofagricul0000bidw">online</a></li>
<li>Galenson, David. "The Settlement and Growth of the Colonies," in Stanley L. Engerman and Robert E. Gallman (eds.), <i>The Cambridge Economic History of the United States: Volume I, The Colonial Era</i> (1996).</li>
<li>Kulikoff, Allan. <i>From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers</i> (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/agrarianoriginso00kuli">online</a></li>
<li>Kulikoff, Allan. <i>Tobacco and slaves: the development of southern cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680-1800</i> (1986) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tobaccoslaves00kuli">online</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/McCusker,_John_J." class="mw-redirect" title="McCusker, John J.">McCusker, John J.</a> ed. <i>Economy of British America, 1607–1789</i> (1991), 540pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economyofbritish00mccu">online</a></li>
<li>Russell, Howard. <i>A Long Deep Furrow: Three Centuries of Farming In New England</i> (1981)</li>
<li>Weeden, William Babcock <i>Economic and Social History of New England, 1620–1789</i> (1891) 964 pages; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JUJaNzIMr44C&pg=PA1">online edition</a></li></ul>
<h3><span id="1775.E2.80.931860"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="1775–1860">1775–1860</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: 1775–1860">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="North">North</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: North">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<ul><li>Bidwell, Percy and Falconer, John I. <i>History of Agriculture in the Northern United States 1620–1860</i> (1941) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofagricul0000bidw">online</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paul_Wallace_Gates" title="Paul Wallace Gates">Gates, Paul W.</a> <i>The Farmers' Age: Agriculture, 1815–1860</i> (1960) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/farmersageagricu0003gate">online</a></li></ul>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="South_2">South</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: South">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<ul><li>Craven, Avery Odelle. <i>Soil exhaustion as a factor in the agricultural history of Virginia and Maryland, 1606–1860</i> (1926) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2886532">online edition</a></li>
<li>Gray, Lewis Cecil. <i>History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860.</i> 2 vol (1933), classic in-depth history <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/c/chla/browse/title/2944804.html">online edition</a></li>
<li>Genovese, Eugene. <i>Roll, Jordan Roll</i> (1967), the history of plantation slavery</li>
<li>Olmstead, Alan L., and Paul W. Rhode, "Biological Innovation and Productivity Growth in the Antebellum Cotton Economy," <i>Journal of Economic History,</i> 68 (Dec. 2008), 1123–71.</li>
<li>Phillips, Ulrich B. "The Economic Cost of Slaveholding in the Cotton Belt," <i>Political Science Quarterly</i> 20#2 (Jun., 1905), pp. 257–75 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2140400">in JSTOR</a></li>
<li>Phillips, Ulrich B. "The Origin and Growth of the Southern Black Belts." <i>American Historical Review,</i> 11 (July, 1906): 798–816. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1832229">in JSTOR</a></li>
<li>Phillips, Ulrich B. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1011487">"The Decadence of the Plantation System." <i>Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences,</i> 35 (January, 1910): 37–41. in JSTOR</a></li>
<li>Phillips, Ulrich B. "Plantations with Slave Labor and Free." <i>American Historical Review,</i> 30 (July 1925): 738–53. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1835667">in JSTOR</a></li></ul>
<h3><span id="1860-present.2C_national"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="1860-present,_national">1860-present, national</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: 1860-present, national">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><i>Cyclopedia of American agriculture; a popular survey of agricultural conditions,</i> ed by L. H. Bailey, 4 vol 1907–1909. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/c/chla/browse/title/2949859.html">online edition</a> highly useful compendium.</li>
<li>Bosso, Christopher J. <i>Framing the Farm Bill: Interests, Ideology, and Agricultural Act of 2014</i> (University Press of Kansas, 2017).</li>
<li>Brunner, Edmund de Schweinitz. <i>Rural social trends</i> (1933) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2908213">online edition</a></li>
<li>Conkin, Paul K. <i>A Revolution Down on the Farm: The Transformation of American Agriculture since 1929</i> (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0813192420/">excerpt and text search</a></li>
<li>Dean, Virgil W. <i>An Opportunity Lost: The Truman Administration and the Farm Policy Debate.</i> U. of Missouri Press, 2006. 275 pp.</li>
<li>Friedberger, Mark. <i> Farm Families and Change in 20th Century America</i> (2014)</li>
<li>Gardner, Bruce L. "Changing Economic Perspectives on the Farm Problem." <i>Journal of Economic Literature</i> (1992) 30#1 62–101. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2727879">in JSTOR</a></li>
<li>Gardner, Bruce L. <i>American Agriculture in the Twentieth Century: How it Flourished and What it Cost</i> (Harvard UP, 2002).</li>
<li>Gates, Paul W. <i>Agriculture and the Civil War</i> (1985) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/agriculturecivil0000unse">online</a></li>
<li>Gee, Wilson. <i>The place of agriculture in American life</i> (1930) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2839521">online edition</a></li>
<li>Lord, Russell. <i>The Wallaces of Iowa</i> (1947) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3077039">online edition</a></li>
<li>Lyon-Jenness, Cheryl. "Planting a seed: the nineteenth-century horticultural boom in America." <i>Business History Review</i> 78.3 (2004): 381–421.</li>
<li>Mayer, Oscar Gottfried. <i>America's meat packing industry; a brief survey of its development and economics.</i> (1939) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2822158">online edition</a></li>
<li>McCormick, Cyrus. <i>The century of the reaper; an account of Cyrus Hall McCormick, the inventor</i> (1931) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3081839">online edition</a></li>
<li>Mullendore, William Clinton. <i>History of the United States Food Administration, 1917–1919</i> (1941) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2932544">online edition</a></li>
<li>Nourse, Edwin Griswold. <i>Three years of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration</i> (1937) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2758781">online edition</a></li>
<li>Perren, Richard, "Farmers and Consumers under Strain: Allied Meat Supplies in the First World War," <i>Agricultural History Review</i> (Oxford), 53 (part II, 2005), 212–28.</li>
<li>Sanderson, Ezra Dwight. <i>Research memorandum on rural life in the depression</i> (1937) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2737279">online edition</a></li>
<li>Schultz, Theodore W. <i> Agriculture in an Unstable Economy.</i> (1945) by Nobel-prize winning conservative <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/9105343?title=Agriculture%20in%20an%20Unstable%20Economy">online edition</a></li>
<li>Shannon, Fred Albert. <i>Farmer's Last Frontier: Agriculture, 1860–1897</i> (1945) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/farmerslastfront00shan">online edition</a> comprehensive survey</li>
<li>Wilcox, Walter W. <i>The farmer in the second world war</i> (1947) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2944025">online edition</a></li>
<li>Zulauf, Carl, and David Orden. "80 Years of Farm Bills – Evolutionary Reform." <i>Choices</i> (2016) 31#4 pp. 1–7 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.choicesmagazine.org/UserFiles/file/cmsarticle_551.pdf">online</a></li></ul>
<h3><span id="1860-present.2C_regional_studies"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="1860-present,_regional_studies">1860-present, regional studies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: 1860-present, regional studies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><i>Cyclopedia of American agriculture; a popular survey of agricultural conditions,</i> ed by L. H. Bailey, 4 vol 1907–1909. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/c/chla/browse/title/2949859.html">online edition</a> highly useful compendium</li>
<li>Black, John D. <i>The Rural Economy of New England: A regional study</i> (1950) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2931364">online edition</a></li>
<li>Cannon, Brian Q., "Homesteading Remembered: A Sesquicentennial Perspective," <i>Agricultural History,</i> 87 (Winter 2013), 1–29.</li>
<li>Clawson, Marion. <i>The Western range livestock industry,</i> (1950) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2905020">online edition</a></li>
<li>Dale, Edward Everett. <i>The range cattle industry</i> (1930) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2892747">online edition</a></li>
<li>Danbom, David B. <i>Sod Busting: How families made farms on the 19th-century Plains </i> (2014)</li>
<li>Fite, Gilbert C. <i>The Farmers' Frontier: 1865–1900</i> (1966), the west</li>
<li>Friedberger, Mark. "The Transformation of the Rural Midwest, 1945–1985," <i>Old Northwest,</i> 1992, Vol. 16 Issue 1, pp. 13–36</li>
<li>Friedberger, Mark W. "Handing Down the Home Place: Farm Inheritance Strategies in Iowa" <i>Annals of Iowa</i> 47.6 (1984): 518–36. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ir.uiowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=9073&context=annals-of-iowa">online</a></li>
<li>Friedberger, Mark. "The Farm Family and the Inheritance Process: Evidence from the Corn Belt, 1870–1950." <i>Agricultural History</i> 57.1 (1983): 1–13. uses Iowa census and sales data</li>
<li>Friedberger, Mark. <i>Shake-Out: Iowa Farm Families in the 1980s</i> (1989)</li>
<li>Fry, John J. "" Good Farming-Clear Thinking-Right Living": Midwestern Farm Newspapers, Social Reform, and Rural Readers in the Early Twentieth Century." Agricultural History (2004): 34–49.</li>
<li>Gisolfi, Monica Richmond, "From Crop Lien to Contract Farming: The Roots of Agribusiness in the American South, 1929–1939," <i>Agricultural History,</i> 80 (Spring 2006), 167–89.</li>
<li>Hahn, Barbara, "Paradox of Precision: Bright Tobacco as Technology Transfer, 1880–1937," <i>Agricultural History,</i> 82 (Spring 2008), 220–35.</li>
<li>Hurt, R. Douglas. "The Agricultural and Rural History of Kansas." <i>Kansas History</i> 2004 27(3): 194–217. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0149-9114">0149-9114</a> Fulltext: in Ebsco</li>
<li>Larson, Henrietta M. <i>The wheat market and the farmer in Minnesota, 1858–1900</i> (1926). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2936526">online edition</a></li>
<li>MacCurdy, Rahno Mabel. <i>The history of the California Fruit Growers Exchange</i> (1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2889834">online edition</a></li>
<li>Miner, Horace Mitchell. <i>Culture and agriculture; an anthropological study of a corn belt county</i> (1949) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3152439">online edition</a></li>
<li>Nordin, Dennis S. and Scott, Roy V. <i>From Prairie Farmer to Entrepreneur: The Transformation of Midwestern Agriculture.</i> Indiana U. Press, 2005. 356 pp.</li>
<li>Sackman, Douglas Cazaux. <i>Orange Empire: California and the Fruits of Eden</i> (2005)</li>
<li>Saloutos, Theodore. "Southern Agriculture and the Problems of Readjustment: 1865–1877," <i>Agricultural history</i> (April, 1956) Vol 30#2 58–76 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=chla;rgn=full%20text;idno=5077685_4159_002;view=image;seq=12">online edition</a></li>
<li>Sawers, Larry. "The Mule, the South, and Economic Progress." <i>Social Science History</i> 2004 28(4): 667–90. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0145-5532">0145-5532</a> Fulltext: in Project Muse and Ebsco</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Environmental_issues">Environmental issues</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Environmental issues">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>Craven, Avery Odelle. <i>Soil Exhaustion as a Factor in the Agricultural History of Virginia and Maryland, 1606–1860</i> (1925)</li>
<li>Cronon, William. <i>Changes in the Land, Revised Edition: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England</i> (2nd ed. 2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0809016346">excerpt and text search</a></li>
<li>Cunfer, Geoff. <i>On the Great Plains: Agriculture and Environment.</i> (2005). 240 pp.</li>
<li>McLeman, Robert, "Migration Out of 1930s Rural Eastern Oklahoma: Insights for Climate Change Research," <i>Great Plains Quarterly,</i> 26 (Winter 2006), 27–40.</li>
<li>Majewski, John, and Viken Tchakerian, "The Environmental Origins of Shifting Cultivation: Climate, Soils, and Disease in the Nineteenth-Century U.S. South," <i>Agricultural History,</i> 81 (Fall 2007), 522–49.</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Martin_V._Melosi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin V. Melosi (page does not exist)">Melosi, Martin V.</a>, and Charles Reagan Wilson, eds. <i>The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Volume 8: Environment (v. 8)</i> (2007)</li>
<li>Miner, Craig. <i>Next Year Country: Dust to Dust in Western Kansas, 1890–1940</i> (2006) 371 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7006-1476-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7006-1476-1">0-7006-1476-1</a></li>
<li>Silver, Timothy. <i>A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500–1800</i> (1990) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521387396">excerpt and text search</a></li>
<li>Urban, Michael A., "An Uninhabited Waste: Transforming the Grand Prairie in Nineteenth Century Illinois, U.S.A.," <i>Journal of Historical Geography</i>, 31 (Oct. 2005), 647–65.</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Historiography">Historiography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>Atack, Jeremy. "A Nineteenth-century Resource for Agricultural History Research in the Twenty-first Century." <i>Agricultural History</i> 2004 78(4): 389-412. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0002-1482">0002-1482</a> Fulltext: in University of California Journals and Ebsco. Large database of individual farmers from manuscript census.</li>
<li>Bogue, Allan G. "Tilling Agricultural History with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paul_Wallace_Gates" title="Paul Wallace Gates">Paul Wallace Gates</a> and James C. Malin." <i>Agricultural History</i> 2006 80(4): 436–60. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0002-1482">0002-1482</a> Fulltext: in Ebsco</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards,_Everett_Eugene1970" class="citation cs2">Edwards, Everett Eugene (1970), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HdcGJahF-QMC"><i>A bibliography of the history of agriculture in the United States</i></a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8337-1002-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8337-1002-4"><bdi>978-0-8337-1002-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+bibliography+of+the+history+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-8337-1002-4&rft.au=Edwards%2C+Everett+Eugene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHdcGJahF-QMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Levins, Richard A. <i>Willard Cochrane and the American Family Farm</i> (University of Nebraska Press, 2000.) 88p</li>
<li>Peters, Scott J. "'Every Farmer Should Be Awakened': Liberty Hyde Bailey's Vision of Agricultural Extension Work." <i>Agricultural History</i> (2006): 190-219. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/31821589/Peters_LHB_AH.pdf">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2022">dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>Bruchey, Stuart, ed. <i>Cotton in the Growth of the American Economy: 1790–1860</i> (1967)</li>
<li>Carter, Susan, at al. eds. <i>The Historical Statistics of the United States</i> (Cambridge U.P. 2006), 6 vol.; online in many academic libraries; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hsus.cambridge.org/HSUSWeb/toc/showChapter.do?id=Da">105 tables on agriculture</a></li>
<li>Phillips, Ulrich B. ed. <i>Plantation and Frontier Documents, 1649–1863; Illustrative of Industrial History in the Colonial and Antebellum South: Collected from MSS. and Other Rare Sources.</i> 2 Volumes. (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_fk5qIP8hU4C">online vol 1</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?vid=0aEKo9OlIHJf-m3SKDua41q">online vol 2</a></li>
<li>Rasmussen, Wayne D., ed. <i>Agriculture in the United States: a documentary history</i> (4 vol, Random House, 1975) 3661pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/agricultureinuni0000rasm">vol 4 online</a></li>
<li>Schmidt, Louis Bernard. ed. <i>Readings in the economic history of American agriculture</i> (1925) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2838868">online edition</a></li>
<li>Sorokin, Pitirim et al., eds. <i>A Systematic Sourcebook in Rural Sociology</i> (3 vol. 1930), 2000 pages of primary sources and commentary; worldwide coverage</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130128192029/http://aghist.metapress.com/home/main.mpx"><i>Agricultural History</i> a leading scholarly journal</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130223124941/http://www.aghistorysociety.org/journal/">Agricultural History Society</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/collections/the-pageant-of-america-collection#/?tab=navigation&roots=2:7ace7290-c611-012f-934c-58d385a7bc34">331 historic photographs of American farmlands, farmers, farm operations and rural areas; These are pre-1923 and out of copyright.</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://afsic.nal.usda.gov/tracing-evolution-organic-sustainable-agriculture-tesarefb">Online Libraries of Historical Agricultural Texts and Images</a> USDA, Alternative Farming Systems Information Center</li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1061467846">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Agriculture_in_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Template:Agriculture in the United States"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Agriculture in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template:Agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Agriculture_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">African-American</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_land_loss_in_the_United_States" title="Black land loss in the United States">Black land loss</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Hawaiian_aquaculture" title="Ancient Hawaiian aquaculture">Ancient Hawaiian aquaculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Agricultural_Complex" title="Eastern Agricultural Complex">Eastern Agricultural Complex</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)" title="Three Sisters (agriculture)">Three Sisters</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Native_American_agriculture_in_Virginia" title="Native American agriculture in Virginia">Native American in Virginia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prehistoric_agriculture_on_the_Great_Plains" title="Prehistoric agriculture on the Great Plains">Prehistoric agriculture on the Great Plains</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prehistoric_agriculture_in_the_Southwestern_United_States" title="Prehistoric agriculture in the Southwestern United States">Prehistoric agriculture in the Southwestern United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_American_wine" title="History of American wine">Wine</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:IHC_corn_picker,_Story_County,_Iowa,_2011.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg/100px-IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg/150px-IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg/200px-IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1363" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Industries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Banana_production_in_the_United_States" title="Banana production in the United States">Banana</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beekeeping_in_the_United_States" title="Beekeeping in the United States">Bee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blackcurrant_production_in_the_United_States" title="Blackcurrant production in the United States">Blackcurrant</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_the_United_States" title="Cannabis in the United States">Cannabis</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hemp_in_the_United_States" title="Hemp in the United States">Hemp</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cherry_production_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherry production in the United States">Cherry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christmas_tree_production_in_the_United_States" title="Christmas tree production in the United States">Christmas tree</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corn_production_in_the_United_States" title="Corn production in the United States">Corn</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cotton_production_in_the_United_States" title="Cotton production in the United States">Cotton</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cider_in_the_United_States" title="Cider in the United States">Cider</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dairy_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Dairy industry in the United States">Dairy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hop_production_in_the_United_States" title="Hop production in the United States">Hop</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poultry_farming_in_the_United_States" title="Poultry farming in the United States">Poultry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rice_production_in_the_United_States" title="Rice production in the United States">Rice</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spinach_in_the_United_States" title="Spinach in the United States">Spinach</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sugar_industry_of_the_United_States" title="Sugar industry of the United States">Sugar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tea_production_in_the_United_States" title="Tea production in the United States">Tea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Tobacco</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Connecticut_shade_tobacco" title="Connecticut shade tobacco">Connecticut shade tobacco</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wheat_production_in_the_United_States" title="Wheat production in the United States">Wheat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_wine" class="mw-redirect" title="American wine">Wine</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State, commonwealth,<br /> or territory-specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_Alabama" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Alabama">Alabama</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alabama_wine" title="Alabama wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_Alaska" title="Agriculture in Alaska">Alaska</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aquaculture_in_Alaska" title="Aquaculture in Alaska">aquaculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Alaska" title="Cannabis in Alaska">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alaska_wine" title="Alaska wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Arizona
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arizona_wine" title="Arizona wine">wine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Arizona" title="Cannabis in Arizona">cannabis</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Arkansas
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rice_cultivation_in_Arkansas" title="Rice cultivation in Arkansas">rice</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arkansas_wine" title="Arkansas wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_California" title="Agriculture in California">California</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Almonds_in_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Almonds in California">almonds</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_California" title="Cannabis in California">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Walnuts_in_California" title="Walnuts in California">walnuts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/California_wine" title="California wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_Colorado" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Colorado">Colorado</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colorado_wine" title="Colorado wine">wine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Colorado" title="Cannabis in Colorado">cannabis</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_Connecticut" title="Agriculture in Connecticut">Connecticut</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Connecticut" title="Cannabis in Connecticut">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Connecticut_wine" title="Connecticut wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Delaware
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Delaware" title="Cannabis in Delaware">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Delaware_wine" title="Delaware wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_Florida" title="Agriculture in Florida">Florida</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Florida_wine" title="Florida wine">wine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tomato_production_in_Florida" title="Tomato production in Florida">tomato</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mango_production_in_Florida" title="Mango production in Florida">mango</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Georgia
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)_wine" title="Georgia (U.S. state) wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_Hawaii" title="Agriculture in Hawaii">Hawaii</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Hawaii" title="Coffee production in Hawaii">coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sugar_plantations_in_Hawaii" title="Sugar plantations in Hawaii">sugar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hawaii_wine" title="Hawaii wine">wine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_in_Hawaii" title="Genetically modified food in Hawaii">genetically modified food</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_Idaho" title="Agriculture in Idaho">Idaho</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Idaho_wine" title="Idaho wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Illinois
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Illinois" title="Cannabis in Illinois">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Illinois_wine" title="Illinois wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Indiana">Indiana</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indiana_wine" title="Indiana wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Iowa">Iowa</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iowa_wine" title="Iowa wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Kansas
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kansas_wine" title="Kansas wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_Kentucky" title="Agriculture in Kentucky">Kentucky</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kentucky_wine" title="Kentucky wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Louisiana
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louisiana_wine" title="Louisiana wine">Louisiana wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Maine
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aquaculture_in_Maine" title="Aquaculture in Maine">aquaculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Maine" title="Cannabis in Maine">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maine_wine" title="Maine wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_Maryland" title="Agriculture in Maryland">Maryland</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Maryland" title="Cannabis in Maryland">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maryland_wine" title="Maryland wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Massachussets
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Massachusetts" title="Cannabis in Massachusetts">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Massachusetts_wine" title="Massachusetts wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Michigan
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Michigan" title="Cannabis in Michigan">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cherry_production_in_Michigan" title="Cherry production in Michigan">cherries</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michigan_wine" title="Michigan wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Minnesota
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Minnesota_wine" title="Minnesota wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Mississippi
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mississippi_wine" title="Mississippi wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Missouri
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Missouri" title="Cannabis in Missouri">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Missouri_wine" title="Missouri wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Montana
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Montana" title="Cannabis in Montana">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Montana_wine" title="Montana wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Nebraska
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nebraska_wine" title="Nebraska wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Nevada
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Nevada" title="Cannabis in Nevada">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nevada_wine" title="Nevada wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>New Hampshire
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Hampshire_wine" title="New Hampshire wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>New Jersey
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_New_Jersey" title="Cannabis in New Jersey">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Jersey_wine" title="New Jersey wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_New_York" title="Agriculture in New York">New York</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_New_York" title="Cannabis in New York">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_wine" title="New York wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>New Mexico
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_New_Mexico" title="Cannabis in New Mexico">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Mexico_chile" title="New Mexico chile">chile</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Mexico_wine" title="New Mexico wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_North_Carolina" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in North Carolina">North Carolina</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Carolina_wine" title="North Carolina wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>North Dakota
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Dakota_wine" title="North Dakota wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Ohio
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ohio_wine" title="Ohio wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Oklahoma
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oklahoma_wine" title="Oklahoma wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Oregon
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oregon_wine" title="Oregon wine">wine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Oregon" title="Cannabis in Oregon">cannabis</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_Pennsylvania" title="Agriculture in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pennsylvania_wine" title="Pennsylvania wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Puerto Rico
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Cannabis in Puerto Rico">Cannabis</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Rhode Island
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Rhode_Island" title="Cannabis in Rhode Island">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rhode_Island_wine" title="Rhode Island wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>South Carolina
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Carolina_wine" title="South Carolina wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>South Dakota
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Dakota_wine" title="South Dakota wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Tennessee
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tennessee_wine" title="Tennessee wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Utah
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Utah_wine" title="Utah wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Vermont
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Vermont" title="Cannabis in Vermont">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vermont_wine" title="Vermont wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Virginia
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Virginia" title="Cannabis in Virginia">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virginia_wine" title="Virginia wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Virgin Islands
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="Cannabis in the United States Virgin Islands">Cannabis</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Washington
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Washington" title="Cannabis in Washington">cannabis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Washington_wine" title="Washington wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>West Virginia
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Virginia_wine" title="West Virginia wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_Wisconsin" title="Agriculture in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wisconsin_dairy_industry" title="Wisconsin dairy industry">dairy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wisconsin_wine" title="Wisconsin wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Wyoming
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wyoming_wine" title="Wyoming wine">wine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Guam
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_Guam" title="Cannabis in Guam">cannabis</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Northern Mariana Islands
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannabis_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Cannabis in the Northern Mariana Islands">cannabis</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Texas
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Texas_rice_production" title="Texas rice production">rice</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Texas_wine" title="Texas wine">wine</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Southwestern_United_States" title="Agriculture in the Southwestern United States">Southwestern United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_Dirt_Region" title="Black Dirt Region">Black Dirt Region</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corn_Belt" title="Corn Belt">Corn Belt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cotton_Belt" title="Cotton Belt">Cotton Belt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fruit_Belt" title="Fruit Belt">Fruit Belt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rice_Belt" title="Rice Belt">Rice Belt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pacific_Northwest_oyster_industry" title="Pacific Northwest oyster industry">Pacific Northwest oyster industry</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government <br />organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Agricultural_Statistics_Service" title="National Agricultural Statistics Service">National Agricultural Statistics Service</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Census_of_Agriculture" title="United States Census of Agriculture">United States Census of Agriculture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Law and<br />politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agricultural_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Agricultural policy of the United States">Agricultural policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agricultural_Trade_Development_and_Assistance_Act_of_1954" title="Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954">Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_Risk_Protection_Act_of_2000" title="Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000">Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/California_Agricultural_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1975" title="California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975">California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capper%E2%80%93Volstead_Act" title="Capper–Volstead Act">Capper–Volstead Act</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Children%27s_Act_for_Responsible_Employment" title="Children's Act for Responsible Employment">Children's Act for Responsible Employment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_farm_bill" title="United States farm bill">Farm bill</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_Security_Act_of_1985" title="Food Security Act of 1985">Food Security Act of 1985</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food,_Agriculture,_Conservation,_and_Trade_Act_of_1990" title="Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990">Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Agriculture_Improvement_and_Reform_Act_of_1996" title="Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996">Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grain_Futures_Act" title="Grain Futures Act">Grain Futures Act</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Packers_and_Stockyards_Act" title="Packers and Stockyards Act">Packers and Stockyards Act</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health and<br /> environment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mental_health_in_United_States_agricultural_workers" title="Mental health in United States agricultural workers">Agricultural workers mental health</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">Climate change</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Farmers%27_suicides_in_the_United_States" title="Farmers' suicides in the United States">Farmer suicide</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_in_the_United_States" title="Genetically modified food in the United States">Genetically modified food</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ogallala_Aquifer" title="Ogallala Aquifer">Ogallala Aquifer</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Crime</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/California_nut_crimes" title="California nut crimes">California nut crimes</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Farmworkers_in_the_United_States" title="Farmworkers in the United States">Labor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bracero_Program" title="Bracero Program">Bracero Program</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Convict_leasing" title="Convict leasing">Convict leasing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Farm_Labor_Organizing_Committee" title="Farm Labor Organizing Committee">Farm Labor Organizing Committee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/H-2A_visa" title="H-2A visa">H-2A visa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Farm_Workers" title="United Farm Workers">United Farm Workers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Food_and_Commercial_Workers" title="United Food and Commercial Workers">United Food and Commercial Workers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Woman%27s_Land_Army_of_America" title="Woman's Land Army of America">Woman's Land Army of America</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ranch" title="Ranch">Ranch</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American School</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_System_(economic_plan)" title="American System (economic plan)">American System</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_the_United_States" title="Industrial Revolution in the United States">Industrial Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Industry_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Industry in the United States">Industries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Industry</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">History</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aquaculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquaculture in the United States">Aquaculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Automotive industry in the United States">Automotive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Air_transportation_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Air transportation in the United States">Aviation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beer_in_the_United_States" title="Beer in the United States">Beer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Biotechnology_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Biotechnology in the United States">Biotechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cement_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Cement industry in the United States">Cement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Hawaii" title="Coffee production in Hawaii">Coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cotton_production_in_the_United_States" title="Cotton production in the United States">Cotton</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Electricity sector in the United States">Electric power</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electronics_industry_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronics industry in the United States">Electronics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Film</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Fishing industry in the United States">Fishing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gambling_in_the_United_States" title="Gambling in the United States">Gambling</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Hedge_fund_firms_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Hedge fund firms of the United States">Hedge fund</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_States" title="Internet in the United States">Internet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Media_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of the United States">Media</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gold_mining_in_the_United_States" title="Gold mining in the United States">Gold mining</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Pharmaceutical_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Pharmaceutical industry in the United States">Pharmaceuticals</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharmacies_in_the_United_States" title="Pharmacies in the United States">Pharmacy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Publishing_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Publishing in the United States">Publishing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">Radio</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Real_estate_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Real estate in the United States">Real estate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States" title="Renewable energy in the United States">Renewable energy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Steel_industry_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Steel industry in the United States">Steel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in the United States">Telecommunications</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">Television</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_television_in_the_United_States" title="Digital television in the United States">Digital</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Textile_industry_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Textile industry of the United States">Textiles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States" title="Video games in the United States">Video gaming</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wine_of_the_United_States" title="Wine of the United States">Wine</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Special_economic_zones_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Special economic zones of the United States">Special Economic Zones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empowerment_zone" title="Empowerment zone">Empowerment Zone</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Opportunity_zone" title="Opportunity zone">Opportunity Zone</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Targeted_Employment_Area" title="Targeted Employment Area">Targeted Employment Area</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Foreign_trade_zones_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Foreign trade zones of the United States">Foreign Trade Zones</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Metropolitan_statistical_area" title="Metropolitan statistical area">Metropolitan Statistical Area</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Energy in the United States">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coal_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal in the United States">Coal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Petroleum industry in the United States">Oil</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Oil_shale_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Oil shale in the United States">Oil shale</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_oil_refineries#United_States" title="List of oil refineries">Oil refineries</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_the_United_States" title="Nuclear power in the United States">Nuclear</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States" title="Renewable energy in the United States">Renewable</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wind_power_in_the_United_States" title="Wind power in the United States">Wind</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_States" title="Solar power in the United States">Solar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal power in the United States">Geothermal</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Infrastructure_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Infrastructure in the United States">infrastructure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">Communications</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Shipping_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Shipping in the United States">Shipping</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Illegal drug trade in the United States">Illegal drug trade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Committee_on_Foreign_Investment_in_the_United_States" title="Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States">Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ports_of_the_United_States" title="Ports of the United States">Ports</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_States" title="List of exports of the United States">Exports</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_the_largest_trading_partners_of_the_United_States" title="List of the largest trading partners of the United States">Trading partners</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Law and regulations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Tax system</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_labor_law" title="United States labor law">Labor law</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Child_labor_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Child labor laws in the United States">Child labor laws</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Right-to-work_law" title="Right-to-work law">Right-to-work law</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Minimum_wage_in_the_United_States" title="Minimum wage in the United States">Minimum wage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Food safety in the United States">Food safety</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Finance_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Finance in the United States">Finance</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Banking in the United States">banking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Financial_services_in_the_United_States" title="Financial services in the United States">Financial services</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">Dollar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bureau_of_Engraving_and_Printing" title="Bureau of Engraving and Printing">Bureau of Engraving and Printing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Central bank</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_banks_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of banks in the United States">Other banks</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange" title="New York Stock Exchange">New York Stock Exchange</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/NYSE_Composite" title="NYSE Composite">NYSE Composite</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/NASDAQ" class="mw-redirect" title="NASDAQ">NASDAQ</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/NASDAQ_Composite" class="mw-redirect" title="NASDAQ Composite">NASDAQ Composite</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chicago_Board_of_Trade" title="Chicago Board of Trade">Chicago Board of Trade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_Board_of_Trade" title="New York Board of Trade">New York Board of Trade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intercontinental_Exchange" title="Intercontinental Exchange">Intercontinental Exchange</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Accounting_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Accounting in the United States">Accounting</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Economy of the United States">Government institutions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Department of the Treasury">Department of the Treasury</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce" title="United States Department of Commerce">Department of Commerce</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Labor" title="United States Department of Labor">Department of Labor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Office_of_the_United_States_Trade_Representative" title="Office of the United States Trade Representative">Office of the United States Trade Representative</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Small_Business_Administration" title="Small Business Administration">Small Business Administration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service" title="Internal Revenue Service">Internal Revenue Service</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Trade_and_Development_Agency" title="United States Trade and Development Agency">United States Trade and Development Agency</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">Customs and Border Protection</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Office_of_the_Comptroller_of_the_Currency" title="Office of the Comptroller of the Currency">Office of the Comptroller of the Currency</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Consumer_Financial_Protection_Bureau" title="Consumer Financial Protection Bureau">Consumer Financial Protection Bureau</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" title="U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission">Securities and Exchange Commission</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation" title="Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation">Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Credit_Union_Administration" title="National Credit Union Administration">National Credit Union Administration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_International_Trade_Commission" title="United States International Trade Commission">United States International Trade Commission</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Federal_Statistical_System_of_the_United_States" title="Federal Statistical System of the United States">Statistics</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Economic_development_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Economic development in the United States">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_rankings_of_the_United_States" title="International rankings of the United States">International rankings</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_GDP" title="List of U.S. states and territories by GDP">States by GDP</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_welfare_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Social welfare in the United States">Social welfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Labor_force_in_the_United_States" title="Labor force in the United States">Labor force</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Causes_of_unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Causes of unemployment in the United States">Causes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_unemployment_rate" title="List of U.S. states and territories by unemployment rate">State unemployment rate</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urbanization_in_the_United_States" title="Urbanization in the United States">Urbanization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emigration_from_the_United_States" title="Emigration from the United States">Emigration</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/U.S._International_Development_Finance_Corporation" title="U.S. International Development Finance Corporation">U.S. International Development Finance Corporation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blue_Dot_Network" title="Blue Dot Network">Blue Dot Network</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Build_Back_Better_World" title="Build Back Better World">Build Back Better World</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Export%E2%80%93Import_Bank_of_the_United_States" title="Export–Import Bank of the United States">Export–Import Bank of the United States</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economic initiatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/AmeriCorps_VISTA" title="AmeriCorps VISTA">AmeriCorps VISTA</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Job_Corps" title="Job Corps">Job Corps</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pathways_out_of_Poverty" title="Pathways out of Poverty">Pathways out of Poverty</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Economic history of the United States">Events</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2000s_United_States_housing_bubble" title="2000s United States housing bubble">2006–2012 housing bubble</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2008%E2%80%932010_automotive_industry_crisis" title="2008–2010 automotive industry crisis">2008–2010 automotive industry crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_Stimulus_Act_of_2008" title="Economic Stimulus Act of 2008">2008 economic stimulus plan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war" title="China–United States trade war">China–United States trade war</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:United_States" title="Category:United States">Related topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bankruptcy_in_the_United_States" title="Bankruptcy in the United States">Bankruptcy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">Companies</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_largest_companies_in_the_United_States_by_revenue" title="List of largest companies in the United States by revenue">Largest</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fortune_500" title="Fortune 500">Top 500</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State-owned_enterprises_of_the_United_States" title="State-owned enterprises of the United States">SOEs</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">Demographics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute" title="American National Standards Institute">National Standards</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/FCC_mark" title="FCC mark">FCC mark</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Made_in_USA" title="Made in USA">Made in USA</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_wealthiest_Americans_by_net_worth" title="List of wealthiest Americans by net worth">List of Americans by net worth</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:American_economists" title="Category:American economists">American economists</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States">Science and technology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><i><b>See also:</b></i> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Economy of the United States">Category</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Outline of the United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_North_America" title="Economy of North America">Economy of North America</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1694013886' |
