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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
[[Slavery]], or the process of restricting peoples’ freedoms, was widespread within [[medieval Europe]]. Europe and the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean world]] during the [[medieval period]] (500–1500) were part of a highly interconnected network of [[slave trading]]. Throughout Europe, wartime captives were commonly forced into slavery. As European kingdoms transitioned to [[Feudalism|feudal societies]], [[serfdom]] began to replace slavery as the main economic and agricultural engine. Throughout medieval Europe, the perspectives and societal roles of enslaved peoples differed greatly, from some being restricted to agricultural labor to others being positioned as trusted political advisors.
==Early Middle Ages==
[[File:Costumes of Slaves or Serfs from the Sixth to the Twelfth Centuries.png|thumb|Costumes of slaves or serfs, from the sixth to the twelfth centuries]]
Slavery in the [[Early Middle Ages]] (500–1000) was initially a continuation of earlier [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] practices from [[late antiquity]],and was spread by an influx of captives in the wake of the social chaos caused by the [[barbarian invasions]] of the [[Western Roman Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rio |first=Alice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V6OpDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 |title=Slavery After Rome, 500-1100 |date=2017-03-30 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-100902-0 |pages=23 |language=en}}</ref> With the continuation of [[Slavery in ancient Rome|Roman legal practices of slavery]], new laws and practices concerning slavery spread throughout Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rodriguez |first=Junius P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA596 |title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery [2 Volumes] |date=December 1997 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-87436-885-7 |pages=596 |language=en |chapter=Slavery in medieval Europe}}</ref> For example, the [[Welsh laws]] of [[Hywel the Good]] included provisions dealing with slaves.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Biermann |first=Felix |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_FPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 |title=The Archaeology of Slavery in Early Medieval Northern Europe: The Invisible Commodity |last2=Jankowiak |first2=Marek |date=2021-11-18 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-73291-2 |pages=44 |language=en}}</ref> In the Germanic realms, laws instituted the enslavement of criminals, such as the [[Visigothic Code]]’s prescribing enslavement for criminals who could not pay financial penalties for their crimes<ref>{{cite web |url=http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg4-4.htm#l1 |title=Book IV, Title IV: The Visigothic Code: (Forum judicum)}}</ref> and as an actual punishment for various other crimes.<ref>[http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-1.htm#l3], [http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-3.htm#l3], & [http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-4.htm#l1].</ref> Such criminals would become slaves to their victims, often with their property.
As these peoples [[christianization of Europe|Christianized]], the church worked more actively to reduce the practice of holding coreligionists in bondage.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} [[St. Patrick]], who himself was captured and enslaved at one time, protested an attack that enslaved newly baptized Christians in his [[:q:Saint Patrick#Letter to the Soldiers of Coroticus (c. 450)|letter to the soldiers of Coroticus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Biermann |first=Felix |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_FPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 |title=The Archaeology of Slavery in Early Medieval Northern Europe: The Invisible Commodity |last2=Jankowiak |first2=Marek |date=2021-11-18 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-73291-2 |pages=43 |language=en}}</ref> The restoration of order and the growing power of the church slowly transmuted the late Roman slave system of [[Diocletian]] into [[serfdom]].{{citation needed|date=November 2019}}
Another major factor was the rise of [[Balthild of Chelles|Bathilde]] (626–680), queen of the [[Franks]], who had been enslaved before marrying [[Clovis II]]. When she became regent, her government outlawed slave-trading of Christians throughout the [[Merovingian dynasty|Merovingian empire]].<ref>Paul Fouracre, Richard A. Gerberding (1996), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uifpAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA111 Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography, 640–720]'', Manchester University Press, {{ISBN|0-7190-4791-9}}, p. 97–99 & 111.</ref> About ten percent of England’s population entered in the [[Domesday Book]] (1086) were slaves,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.domesdaybook.net/helpfiles/hs2970.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227083435/http://www.domesdaybook.net/helpfiles/hs2970.htm|url-status=dead|title=Domesday Book Slave|archive-date=27 February 2009|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> despite [[chattel slavery]] of English Christians being nominally discontinued after the [[Norman conquest of England|1066 conquest]]. It is difficult to be certain about slave numbers, however, since the old Roman word for slave (''servus'') continued to be applied to unfree people whose status later was reflected by the term ''serf''.<ref name="PAF">Perry Anderson, ''Passages from antiquity to feudalism'' (1996) p 141</ref>
==Slave trade==
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{{See also|History of slavery in the Muslim world#European slaves|Saqaliba|label 1 = European slaves in the Muslim world}}
[[Image:Varangian routes.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Routes through [[Slav]]ic territories used for the slave trade: [[Volga trade route]] from the [[Vikings]] (''[[Varangians]]'') to the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim Middle East]] (red), [[Route from the Varangians to the Greeks|trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks]] (''[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]]'') (blue) – and other trade routes of the 8th–11th centuries (orange)]]
Demand from the [[Early Islamic conquests|Islamic world]], which arose in the seventh century, dominated the slave trade in Europe during the [[medieval period]] (500–1500).<ref name="dictslave">''Slavery, Slave Trade.'' ed. Strayer, Joseph R. Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Volume 11. New York: Scribner, 1982. {{ISBN|978-0684190730}}</ref><ref name="britannicasurvey">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey The international slave trade|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="battuta">{{cite web|url=http://ibnbattuta.berkeley.edu/5anatolia.html|title=Battuta's Trip: Anatolia (Turkey) 1330–1331|access-date=24 December 2019|archive-date=29 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729095759/http://ibnbattuta.berkeley.edu/5anatolia.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> For most of that time, the sale of Christian slaves to non-Christians was banned.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} In the ''[[pactum Lotharii]]'' of 840 between [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] and the [[Carolingian Empire]], Venice promised not to buy Christian slaves in the Empire, and not to sell Christian slaves to Muslims.<ref name="dictslave"/><ref name="lotharii">Il ''pactum Lotharii'' del 840 [[Roberto Cessi|Cessi, Roberto]]. (1939–1940) – In: Atti. Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, Classe di Scienze Morali e Lettere Ser. 2, vol. 99 (1939–40) p. 11–49</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arielcaliban.org/PX_pacta_veneta.pdf|title=Pacta Veneta. A chronology in four steps. PAX TIBI MARCE Venice: government, law, jurisprudence Venezia: istituzioni, diritto, giurisprudenza|access-date=24 December 2019|archive-date=26 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160626095624/http://arielcaliban.org/PX_pacta_veneta.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Church prohibited the export of Christian slaves to non-Christian lands, for example in the Council of [[Koblenz]] in 922, the [[Council of London (1102)|Council of London]] in 1102, and the Council of [[Armagh]] in 1171.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/1171latrsale.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>
As a result, most Christian slave merchants focused on moving slaves from non-Christian areas to Muslim Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East; and most non-Christian merchants, although not bound by the Church’s rules, focused on [[History of slavery in the Muslim world#Geography of the slave trade|Muslim markets]] as well.<ref name="dictslave"/><ref name="britannicasurvey"/><ref name="battuta"/> Arabic silver [[dirham]]s, presumably exchanged for slaves, are plentiful in eastern Europe and Southern Sweden, indicating trade routes from [[Slav]]ic to [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim territory]].<ref name="dirhams">{{Cite journal |last=Jankowiak |first=Marek |date=27 Feb 2012 |title=Dirhams for slaves. Investigating the Slavic slave trade in the tenth century |url=https://www.academia.edu/1764468 |journal=Medieval Seminar, All Souls}}</ref>
=== Italian merchants ===
{{slavery}}
By the reign of [[Pope Zachary]] (741–752), [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] had established a thriving slave trade, buying in Italy, among other places, and selling to the [[Moors]] in Northern Africa (Zacharias himself reportedly forbade such traffic out of Rome).<ref>Duchesne, Louis Marie Olivier. ''XCIII Zacharias (741–752).'' Le Liber pontificalis; texte, introduction et commentaire par L. Duchesne (Volume 1). 1886. p. 426–439. [https://archive.org/details/duchesne01 Available on archive.org]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15743b.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope St. Zachary|website=newadvent.org|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref><ref>Reverend Alban Butler. "St. Zachary, Pope and Confessor". ''The Lives of the Saints'', Volume 3. 1866. [http://www.bartleby.com/210/3/152.html]</ref> When the sale of Christians to Muslims was banned (''[[pactum Lotharii]]''<ref name="lotharii"/>), the Venetians began to sell [[Slavs]] and other Eastern European non-Christian slaves in greater numbers. Caravans of slaves traveled from Eastern Europe, through Alpine passes in Austria, to reach Venice. A record of [[Raffelstetten customs regulations|tolls paid in Raffelstetten]] (903–906), near [[St. Florian Monastery|St. Florian]] on the [[Danube]], describes such merchants. Some are Slavic themselves, from [[Bohemia]] and the [[Kievan Rus']]. They had come from [[Kiev]] through [[Przemyśl]], [[Kraków]], [[Prague]], and Bohemia. The same record values [[Ancillae|female slaves]] at a ''[[Tremissis|tremissa]]'' (about 1.5 grams of gold or roughly {{frac|1|3}} of a Byzantine [[Solidus (coin)|solidus]] ([[Bezant|nomisma]]) or [[gold dinar]]) and male slaves, who were more numerous, at a ''saiga'' (which is much less).<ref name="dictslave"/><ref name="rafftolls">MGH, Leges, Capitularia regum Francorum, II, ed. by A. Boretius, Hanovre, 1890, p. 250–252 [https://archive.org/details/capitulariaregum01bore (available on-line)].</ref> [[Eunuch]]s were especially valuable, and "castration houses" arose in Venice, as well as other prominent slave markets, to meet this demand.<ref name="dirhams"/><ref name="valante">{{Cite book |last=Valante |first=Mary A. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt2tt1pr |title=Castration and Culture in the Middle Ages |date=2013 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1-84384-351-1 |editor-last=Tracy |editor-first=Larissa |chapter=Castrating Monks: Vikings, the Slave Trade, and the Value of Eunuchs |jstor=10.7722/j.ctt2tt1pr }}</ref>
Venice was far from the only slave trading hub in Italy. Southern Italy boasted slaves from distant regions, including Greece, Bulgaria, Armenia, and Slavic regions. During the 9th and 10th centuries, [[Amalfi]] was a major exporter of slaves to North Africa.<ref name="dictslave"/> [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]], along with Venice, dominated the trade in the Eastern Mediterranean beginning in the 12th century, and in the [[Black Sea]] beginning in the 13th century. They sold both [[Balts|Baltic]] and Slavic slaves, as well as [[Armenians]], [[Circassians]], [[Georgians]], [[Turkish people|Turks]] and other ethnic groups of the Black Sea and [[Caucasus]], to the Muslim nations of the Middle East.<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C&pg=PA45 Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800]''. Robert Davis (2004). p.45. {{ISBN|1-4039-4551-9}}.</ref> Genoa primarily managed the slave trade from [[Crimea]] to [[Mamluk Egypt]], until the 13th century, when increasing Venetian control over the Eastern Mediterranean allowed Venice to dominate that market.<ref name="lughod">Janet L. Abu-Lughod, ''Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350'' Oxford University Press {{ISBN|0195067746}}</ref> Between 1414 and 1423 alone, at least 10,000 slaves were sold in Venice.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081223185836/http://www.roxie.org/books/shoulders/ch02-labor.html Rawlins, Gregory J.E. Rebooting Reality — Chapter 2, Labor (archive from December 23, 2008)]</ref>
=== Iberia ===
[[File:Targ niewolnikow w Kordowie.jpg|thumb|right|[[Slavs|Slavic]] (''[[saqaliba]]'') and African slaves in [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]], [[Muslim Spain]], 1200s]]
[[Al-Andalus]], the Muslim-ruled area of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], (711–1492) imported a large number of slaves, as well as served as a staging point for Muslim and Jewish merchants to market slaves to the rest of the Islamic world.<ref name="radhanites">Olivia Remie Constable (1996). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M-CVlhPb21MC&pg=PA203 Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula, 900–1500]''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 203–204. {{ISBN|0521565030}}</ref> A ready market, especially for men of fighting age, could be found in [[Umayyad Spain]], with its need for supplies of new [[mamelukes]].
<blockquote>[[Al-Hakam I|Al-Hakam]] was the first monarch of this family who surrounded his throne with a certain splendour and magnificence. He increased the number of mamelukes (slave soldiers) until they amounted to 5,000 horse and 1,000 foot. ... he increased the number of his slaves, eunuchs and servants; had a bodyguard of cavalry always stationed at the gate of his palace and surrounded his person with a guard of mamelukes .... these mamelukes were called Al-haras (the Guard) owing to their all being Christians or foreigners. They occupied two large barracks, with stables for their horses.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite book|title=Early Medieval Spain – Springer|last=Collins|first=Roger|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-24135-4|year = 1995|isbn = 978-0-333-64171-2}}</ref></blockquote>
During the reign of [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] (912–961), there were at first 3,750, then 6,087, and finally 13,750 [[Saqaliba]], or Slavic slaves, at [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]], capital of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]. [[Ibn Hawqal]], Ibrahim al-Qarawi, and Bishop [[Liutprand of Cremona]] note that the Jewish merchants of Verdun specialized in castrating slaves, to be sold as eunuch saqaliba, which were enormously popular in Muslim Spain.<ref name="dictslave" /><ref name="valante" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.brepolis.net/LTool/Entrance.aspx?w=12&a=%2fllta%2fpages%2fToc.aspx|title=BREPOLiS – Login|website=apps.brepolis.net|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>
According to [[Roger Collins]] although the role of the [[Vikings]] in the slave trade in Iberia remains largely hypothetical, their depredations are clearly recorded. Raids on Al-Andalus by Vikings are reported in the years 844, 859, 966 and 971, conforming to the general pattern of such activity concentrating in the mid ninth and late tenth centuries.<ref name="auto1"/>
=== Vikings ===
[[File:LSR Wikinger - Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg|thumb|Slave chain lock and key. Sweden, [[Viking Age]] (8th–11th centuries)]]
The [[Nordic countries]] during the [[Viking Age]] (700–1100) practiced slavery. The [[Vikings]] called their slaves ''[[thrall]]s'' ([[Old Norse]]: ''Þræll'').<ref name="vikings">{{cite book|author=Junius P Rodriguez, PhD|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery. vol 1. A – K|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA674|year=1997|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=674|isbn=9780874368857}}</ref> There were also other terms used to describe thralls based on gender, such as ambatt/ambott and deja. Ambott is used in reference to female slaves, as is deja.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kuhn|first=Hans|title=Amt. 1. Sprachlichee|publisher=RGA 1:258|year=1973|pages=258}}</ref> Another name that is indicative of thrall status is bryti, which has associations with food. The word can be understood to mean, cook, and to break bread, which would place a person with this label as the person in charge of food in some manner. There is a runic inscription that describes a man of bryti status named Tolir who was able to marry and acted as the king’s estate manager.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{cite book|last=Sawyer|first=Birgit|title=The Viking-Age Rune-Stones: custom and commemoration in early medieval Scandinavia|publisher=OUP Oxford|year=2000}}</ref> Another name is muslegoman, which would have been used for a runaway slave.<ref name=":3" /> From this, it can be gathered that the different names for those who were thralls indicate position and duties performed.<ref>{{cite web|last=Brink|first=Stefan|title=Scandinavian Slavery|date=2021-09-23|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197532355.003.0004|work=Thraldom|pages=70–76|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/oso/9780197532355.003.0004|isbn=978-0-19-753235-5|access-date=2021-11-22}}</ref>
A fundamental part of Viking activity was the sale and taking of captives.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heebøll-Holm|first=Thomas K.|date=2020-06-04|title=Piratical slave-raiding – the demise of a Viking practice in high medieval Denmark|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03468755.2020.1748106|journal=Scandinavian Journal of History|volume=46|issue=4|pages=431–454|doi=10.1080/03468755.2020.1748106|s2cid=219919380|issn=0346-8755}}</ref> The thralls were mostly from Western Europe, among them many [[Franks]], [[Anglo-Saxons]], and [[Celts]]. Many Irish slaves were brought on expeditions for the [[Settlement of Iceland|colonization of Iceland]] (874–930).<ref>See [http://www.mnh.si.edu/vikings/voyage/subset/iceland/history.html Iceland History]</ref> Raids on monasteries provided a source of young, educated slaves who could be sold in Venice or Byzantium for high prices. Scandinavian trade centers stretched eastwards from [[Hedeby]] in Denmark and [[Birka]] in Sweden to [[Staraya Ladoga]] in northern Russia before the end of the 8th century.<ref name="valante" /> The collection of slaves was a by-product of conflict. The [[Annales Fuldenses|Annals of Fulda]] recorded that Franks who had been defeated by a group of Vikings in 880 CE were taken as captives after being defeated.<ref>{{Citation|last=Reuter|first=Timothy|title=The text – The Annals of Fulda|date=2013-01-01|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7765/9781526112736.00009|work=The Annals of Fulda|pages=88|publisher=Manchester University Press|doi=10.7765/9781526112736.00009|isbn=9781526112736|access-date=2021-11-22}}</ref> Viking groups would have political conflicts that also resulted in the taking of captives.<ref>{{cite book|last=E.g. Mac Airt and Mac Niocaill|title=The Annals of Ulster, to AD 1131|publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year=1983|location=Dublin|pages=311}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Tschan|editor-first=Francis J.|title=Adam of Bremen. History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1959|location=New York|pages=190, bk. 4, ch.6}}</ref>
This traffic continued into the 9th century as Scandinavians founded more trade centers at [[Kaupang]] in southwestern Norway and [[Novgorod]], farther south than Staraya Ladoga, and Kiev, farther south still and closer to [[Byzantium]]. [[Dublin]] and other northwestern European Viking settlements were established as gateways through which captives were traded northwards.Thralls could be bought and sold at slave markets. An account from the [[Laxdæla saga|Laxdoela Saga]] spoke of how during the 10th century there would be a meeting of kings every third year on the [[Branno Island]]s where negotiations and trades for slaves would take place.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Magnus|last1=Magnusson|first2=Hermann|last2=Palsson|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/223343478|title=Laxdaela saga ; Translated with an introduction by Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Palsson.|date=1969|publisher=Penguin|pages=64|oclc=223343478}}</ref> Though slaves could be bought and sold, it was more common to sell captives from other nations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Krag|first=Claus|date=1982|title=Treller og Trellehold|journal=Historisk Tidsskrift 61|volume=no. 3|pages=209–227}}</ref>
The 10th-century Persian traveller [[Ibn Rustah]] described how Swedish Vikings, the [[Varangians]] or [[Rus' Khaganate|Rus]], terrorized and enslaved the [[East Slavs|Slavs]] taken in their raids along the [[Volga River]].<ref>Niels Skyum-Nielsen, "Nordic Slavery in an International Context," ''Medieval Scandinavia'' 11 (1978–79) 126–48</ref> Slaves were often sold south, to [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] or Muslim buyers, via paths such as the [[Volga trade route]]. [[Ahmad ibn Fadlan]] of [[Baghdad]] provides an account of the other end of this trade route, namely of [[Volga Vikings]] selling Slavic slaves to middle-eastern merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uib.no/jais/v003ht/03-001-025Montgom1.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001082748/http://www.uib.no/jais/v003ht/03-001-025Montgom1.htm|url-status=dead|title=James E. Montgomery, IBN FAḌLĀN AND THE RŪSIYYAH|archive-date=1 October 2013|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> Finland proved another source for Viking slave raids.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.medievalists.net/2014/04/medieval-slave-traders-go-finland/|title=Why did Medieval Slave Traders go to Finland?|date=17 April 2014}}</ref> Slaves from Finland or [[Baltic states]] were traded as far as [[central Asia]].<ref>Medieval slave trade routes in Eastern Europe extended from Finland and the Baltic Countries to Central Asia [http://www.uef.fi/en/-/ita-euroopan-orjakaupan-reitit-ulottuivat-keskiajalla-suomesta-ja-baltiasta-keski-aasiaan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210083057/http://www.uef.fi/en/-/ita-euroopan-orjakaupan-reitit-ulottuivat-keskiajalla-suomesta-ja-baltiasta-keski-aasiaan|date=10 December 2014}}</ref><ref>Korpela, Jukka. The Baltic Finnic People in the Medieval and Pre-Modern Eastern European Slave Trade, in 'Russian History, Volume 41, Issue 1' p. 85-117 [http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/18763316-04101006]</ref> Captives may have been traded far within the Viking trade network, and within that network, it was possible to be sold again. In the Life of [[Fintan of Rheinau|St. Findan]], the Irishman was bought and sold three times after being taken captive by a Viking group.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Somerville|first=Angus A., trans.|title=The Viking Age: A Reader|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2014|location=Toronto|pages=195–198}}</ref>
=== Mongols ===
[[File:Asia 13th Century.pdf|thumb|[[Mongol Empire]] and its subsequent divisions with the khanate of the [[Golden Horde]] in green, 13th century]]
The [[Mongol invasions]] and conquests in the 13th century added a new force in the slave trade. The Mongols enslaved skilled individuals, women and children and marched them to [[Karakorum]] or [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]], whence they were sold throughout [[Eurasia]]. Many of these slaves were shipped to the slave market in [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/rubruck.html|title=William of Rubruck's Account of the Mongols|website=depts.washington.edu|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://geocities.com/medievalnovgorod/nov10.html|title=Life in 13th Century Novgorod – Women and Class Structure|date=26 October 2009|access-date=24 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091026193520/http://geocities.com/medievalnovgorod/nov10.html|archive-date=26 October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sras.org/news2.phtml?m=477|title=The Effects of the Mongol Empire on Russia|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>
[[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] and [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] merchants in [[Crimea]] were involved in the slave trade with the [[Golden Horde]].<ref name="dictslave"/><ref name="lughod"/> In 1441, [[Haci I Giray]] declared independence from the Golden Horde and established the [[Crimean Khanate]]. In the time of the Crimean Khanate, Crimeans engaged in frequent raids into the [[Danubian principalities]], [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland-Lithuania]], and [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovy]]. For each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. The campaigns by Crimean forces categorize into "sefers", officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves, and ''çapuls'', raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers. For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the Middle East. The [[Genoese colony]] of [[Caffa]] on the [[Black Sea]] coast of Crimea was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 Historical survey > Slave societies]</ref> [[Crimean Tatars|Crimean Tatar]] raiders enslaved more than 1 million Eastern Europeans.<ref>{{cite book|author=Galina I. Yermolenko|title=Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xjyVS72I2ocC|access-date=31 May 2012|date=15 July 2010|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|page=111|isbn=978-0-7546-6761-2}}</ref>
=== England and Ireland ===
In medieval [[Ireland]], as a commonly traded commodity slaves could, like cattle, become a form of internal or trans-border currency.<ref>
{{cite book |last1 = Campbelly
|first1 = Jamesetta
|chapter = Part I: The Romans to the Norman Conquest, 500 BC – AD 1066
|editor1-last = Clark
|editor1-first = Jonathan
|editor1-link = J. C. D. Clark
|title = A World by Itself: A History of the British Isles
|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UN8CAR5EEmgC
|publisher = Random House
|date = 2011
|page = [https://archive.org/details/worldbyitselfhis0000clar/page/23 23]
|isbn = 9780712664967
|quote = Whatever currency was in use [in Ireland in antiquity], it was not coin – as in other pre-coin economies, there was a system of conventional valuations in which female slaves, for example, were important units.
|url-access = registration
|url = https://archive.org/details/worldbyitselfhis0000clar/page/23
}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Keenan
| first1 = Desmond
| title = The True Origins of Irish Society
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=k2Ol_XFFH_oC
| publisher = Xlibris Corporation
| date = 2004
| page = 152
| isbn = 9781465318695
| quote = For the slave raiders, slaves were a valuable currency. You could sell them to buy wine and other luxury goods. There was always a market for them. There was always an unending supply of them, if only you were stronger than your neighbour. [...] For the Irish, slave-raiding was a lucrative extension to the cattle-raiding.
}}
</ref> In 1102, the [[Council of London in 1102|Council of London]] convened by [[Anselm of Canterbury]] obtained a resolution against the [[Slavery in Britain|slave trade in England]] which was aimed mainly at the sale of English slaves [[Slavery in Ireland|to the Irish]].<ref>{{citation |last=Crawley |first=John J. |year=1910 |url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/MARY/ANSELM.HTM |title=Lives of the Saints |publisher=John J. Crawley & Co.}}</ref>
=== Christians holding Muslim slaves ===
Although the primary flow of slaves was toward Muslim countries, as evident in the [[history of slavery in the Muslim world]], Christians did acquire Muslim slaves; in Southern France, in the 13th century, "the enslavement of Muslim captives was still fairly common".<ref>{{cite book|title=Aucassin and Nicolette|first=Robert S. |last=Sturges|publisher=Michigan State UP|isbn=9781611861570|year=2015|location=East Lansing|page=xv}}</ref> There are records, for example, of [[Saracen]] slave girls sold in [[Marseilles]] in 1248,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/1248serfs5.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> a date which coincided with the fall of [[Seville]] and its surrounding area, to raiding Christian [[Crusades|crusaders]], an event during which a large number of Muslim women from this area were enslaved as war booty, as it has been recorded in some Arabic poetry, notably by the poet [[Salih ben Sharif al-Rundi|al-Rundi]], who was contemporary to the events.
Additionally, the possession of slaves was legal in 13th century Italy; many Christians held Muslim slaves throughout the country. These Saracen slaves were often captured by pirates and brought to Italy from Muslim Spain or North Africa. During the 13th century, most of the slaves in the Italian trade city of [[Genoa]] were of Muslim origin. These Muslim slaves were owned by royalty, military orders or groups, independent entities, and the church itself.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Anne Taylor|first=Julie|date=2007-04-01|title=Freedom and Bondage among Muslims in Southern Italy during the Thirteenth Century|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13602000701308889|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=27|issue=1|pages=72–73|doi=10.1080/13602000701308889|s2cid=216117913|issn=1360-2004}}</ref>
Christians also sold Muslim slaves captured in war. The Order of the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of Malta]] attacked pirates and Muslim shipping, and their base became a center for slave trading, selling captured [[North Africans]] and [[Turkish people|Turks]]. [[Malta]] remained a slave market until well into the late 18th century. One thousand slaves were required to man the galleys (ships) of the Order.<ref>{{cite journal|title=A medical service for slaves in Malta during the rule of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem.|first=P|last=Cassar|date=24 July 1968|journal=Medical History|volume=12|issue=3|pages=270–277|pmid=4875614 |pmc=1033829 |doi=10.1017/s0025727300013314}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/hospitallers/hospitallers.html |title=Brief History of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem |publisher=Hmml.org |date=23 September 2010 |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112130548/http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/hospitallers/hospitallers.html |archive-date=12 January 2009}}</ref>
While they would at times seize Muslims as slaves, it was more likely that Christian armies would kill their enemies, rather than take them into servitude.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Zilfi|first=Madeline C.|date=2016-11-25|title=Mediterranean Slavery Revisited (500-1800): Neue Perspektiven auf Mediterrane Sklaverei (500-1800), written by Stefan Hanss and Juliane Schiel|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jemh/20/6/article-p592_6.xml|journal=Journal of Early Modern History|language=en|volume=20|issue=6|pages=594–595|doi=10.1163/15700658-00200006-05|issn=1385-3783}}</ref>
=== Jewish slave trade ===
{{see also|Radhanite|Jewish views on slavery#Post-Talmud to 1800s|label 2=Jewish views on slavery}}<!--don't remove on title alone, this section discusses relevant content-->
[[File:Gniezno Boleslaus II.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|Christian slaves stand with Jewish merchants while bishop pleads for their release with duke of [[Bohemia]], 1100s<ref>{{Cite book |last=Malamat |first=Abraham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC&pg=PR9 |title=A History of the Jewish People |date=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=ix, 564 |language=en}}</ref>]]
The role of Jewish merchants in the early medieval slave trade has been subject to much misinterpretation and distortion. Although medieval records demonstrate that there were Jews who owned slaves in medieval Europe, Toch (2013) notes that the claim repeated in older sources, such as those by Charles Verlinden, that Jewish merchants where the primary dealers in European slaves is based on misreadings of primary documents from that era. Contemporary Jewish sources do not attest any a large-scale slave trade or ownership of slaves which may be distinguished from the wider phenomenon of early medieval European slavery. The trope of the Jewish dealer of Christian slaves was additionally a prominent image in medieval Europe [[Anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] propaganda.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Toch |first1=Michael |title=The Economic History of European Jews: Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages |date=2013 |publisher=Koninklijke Brill nV |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |isbn=9789004235397 |pages=178–190 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bf8yAQAAQBAJ |access-date=3 October 2022}}</ref>
=== Slave trade at the close of the Middle Ages ===
As more and more of Europe [[Christianization|Christianized]], and open hostilities between Christian and Muslim nations intensified, large-scale slave trade moved to more distant sources. Sending slaves to Egypt, for example, was forbidden by the papacy in 1317, 1323, 1329, 1338, and, finally, 1425, as slaves sent to Egypt would often become soldiers, and end up fighting their former Christian owners. Although the repeated bans indicate that such trade still occurred, they also indicate that it became less desirable.<ref name="dictslave"/> In the 16th century, African slaves replaced almost all other ethnicities and religious enslaved groups in Europe.<ref>Klein, Herbert. ''The Atlantic Slave Trade''.</ref>
==Slavery in law==
===Secular law===
Slavery was heavily regulated in [[Roman law]], which was reorganized in the [[Byzantine Empire]] by [[Justinian I]] as the [[Corpus Iuris Civilis]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rodriguez |first=Junius P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA550 |title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery [2 Volumes] |date=December 1997 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-87436-885-7 |pages=550 |language=en}}</ref> Although the Corpus was lost to the West for centuries, it was rediscovered in the 11th and 12th centuries,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berman |first=Harold J. |date=1977 |title=The Origins of Western Legal Science |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1340133 |journal=Harvard Law Review |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=894–943, 898 |doi=10.2307/1340133 |jstor=1340133 |issn=0017-811X}}</ref> and led to the foundation of law schools in Italy and France.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alburn |first=Cary R. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxLudzNw2h4C&pg=PA564 |title=ABA Journal |date=June 1959 |publisher=American Bar Association |pages=564 |language=en |chapter=Corpus Juris Civilis: A Hisotrical Romance}}</ref> According to the Corpus, the natural state of humanity is freedom, but the "law of nations" may supersede natural law and reduce certain people to slavery. The basic definition of slave in Romano-Byzantine law was:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fordham University, Internet History Sourcebooks Project |date= |title=Book I: Of Persons, Section III: Law of Persons |url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/535institutes.asp |access-date=24 December 2019 |website=Corpus Iurus Civilis: The Institutes, 535 CE}}</ref>
*anyone whose mother was a slave
*anyone who has been captured in battle
*anyone who has sold himself to pay a debt
It was, however, possible to become a freedman or a full citizen; the Corpus, like Roman law, had extensive and complicated rules for [[manumission]] of slaves.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fordham University, Internet History Sourcebooks Project. |title=Book I: Of Persons, Section V: Freedmen. |url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/535institutes.asp |access-date=2023-08-03 |website=Corpus Iurus Civilis: The Institutes, 535 CE}}</ref>
The slave trade in England was officially abolished in 1102.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britsattheirbest.com/freedom/f_time_12th_century.htm|title=BRITISH HISTORY THE STORY of FREEDOM LIBERTY! THE TIMELINE Freedom & justice go hand in hand|website=britsattheirbest.com|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> In [[Poland]] slavery was forbidden in the 15th century; it was replaced by the second enserfment. In [[Lithuania]], slavery was formally abolished in 1588.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>
===Canon law===
In fact, there was an explicit legal justification given for the enslavement of Muslims, found in the [[Decretum Gratiani]] and later expanded upon by the 14th century jurist [[Oldradus de Ponte]]: the Bible states that [[Hagar (Bible)|Hagar]], the slave girl of [[Abraham]], was beaten and cast out by Abraham’s wife [[Sarah]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Kaplan |first=Lindsay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eFByDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA144 |title=Figuring Racism in Medieval Christianity |date=2018-12-07 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-067824-1 |pages=144 |language=en}}</ref> The Decretum, like the Corpus, defined a slave as anyone whose mother was a slave.<ref name=":4" /> Otherwise, the canons were concerned with slavery only in ecclesiastical contexts: slaves for instance were not permitted to be ordained as clergy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allain |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n_KAvAjkEbsC&pg=PA38 |title=The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary |date=2012-09-27 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-966046-9 |pages=38 |language=en}}</ref>
==Slavery in the Byzantine Empire==
{{main|Slavery in the Byzantine Empire}}
==Slavery in the Islamic Near East==
{{main|History of slavery in the Muslim world|label 1 = Slavery in the Islamic world}}
The ancient and medieval [[Near East]] includes modern day [[Turkey]], the [[Levant]] and [[Egypt]], with strong connections to the rest of the [[North Africa|North African]] coastline. All of these areas were ruled by either the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] or the [[Sasanian Empire|Persians]] at the end of [[late antiquity]]. Pre-existing [[Slavery in the Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] (i.e. Roman) and [[Slavery in Iran|Persian institutions of slavery]] may have influenced the development of [[Islamic views on slavery|institutions of slavery in Islamic law and jurisprudence]].<ref>Crone, Patricia. Roman, Provincial, and Islamic Law: The Origins of the Islamic Patronate. Cambridge University Press, 1987.</ref> Likewise, some scholars have argued for the influence of [[Jewish views on slavery|Rabbinic tradition in regards to slavery]] on the development of Islamic legal thought.<ref>Wegner, J. R. "Islamic and Talmudic Jurisprudence: The Four Roots of Islamic Law and their Talmudic Counterparts," The American Journal of Legal History, 26, 1 (1982): p. 25-71.</ref>
Whatever the relationship between these different legal traditions, many similarities exist between the practice of [[Islamic Slavery|Islamic slavery]] in the early Middle Ages and the practices of early medieval Byzantines and western Europeans. The status of freed slaves under Islamic rule, who continued to owe services to their former masters, bears a strong similarity to [[slavery in ancient Rome]] and [[slavery in ancient Greece]]. However, the practice of slavery in the early medieval Near East also grew out of slavery practices in currency among pre-Islamic Arabs.<ref>Lewis, Bernard, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 4.</ref>
===Islamic states===
{{See also|Slavery in Egypt}}[[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|thumb|Rise of [[Islam]] in the [[Near East]] and its expansion to the [[Mediterranean world|Mediterranean region]] from 622 to 750 AD {{legend|#a1584e|[[Muhammad]], 622–632}} {{legend|#ef9070|[[Rashidun Caliphate]], 632–661}} {{legend|#fad07d|[[Umayyad Caliphate]], 661–750}}]]
Like the Old and New Testaments and Greek and Roman law codes, the [[Quran]] takes the institution of slavery for granted, though it urges kindness toward slaves and eventual manumission, especially for slaves who convert to Islam.<ref>Lewis, 1990, p. 5.</ref> In early Middle Ages, many slaves in Islamic society served as such for only a short period of time—perhaps an average of seven years.<ref>Wright, John, ''The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade''. Routledge, 2007, p. 2.</ref> Like their European counterparts, early medieval [[Islamic slave trade|Islamic slave traders]] preferred slaves who were not co-religionists and hence focused on "pagans" from [[inner Asia]], Europe, and especially from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="Wright, 2007, p. 3">Wright, 2007, p. 3.</ref> The [[Manumission|practice of manumission]] may have contributed to the integration of former slaves into the wider society. However, under [[sharia]] law, [[conversion to Islam]] did not necessitate manumission.<ref>Wright, 2007, p. 4.</ref>
Slaves were employed in heavy labor as well as in domestic contexts. Because of [[Islamic views on concubinage|Quranic allowance of concubinage]],<ref>IV:3, XXIII:6; XXXIII:50–52; LXX:30</ref> early Islamic traders, in contrast to Byzantine and early modern slave traders, imported large numbers of female slaves.<ref>Ali, Kecia. Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam. Harvard University Press, 2010; Wright, 2007, p. 3.</ref> The very earliest Islamic states did not create corps of slave soldiers (a practice familiar from later contexts) but did integrate freedmen into armies, which may have contributed to the rapid expansion of [[Early Islamic conquests|early Islamic conquest]].<ref>Lewis, 1990, p. 62.</ref> By the 9th century, use of slaves in Islamic armies, particularly [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] in cavalry units and Africans in infantry units, was a relatively common practice.<ref>Bacharach, Jere L., "African Military Slaves in the Medieval Middle East: The Cases of Iraq (869–955) and Egypt (868–1171)." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 13, No. 4 (Nov., 1981) 471–495.</ref><ref>Savage, E., "Berbers and Blacks: Ibadi Slave Traffic in Eighth-Century North Africa", ''The Journal of African History'', Vol. 33, No. 3 (1992), 351–368.</ref>
In Egypt, [[Ahmad ibn Tulun]] imported thousands of black slaves to wrestle independence from the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] in Iraq in 868.<ref>Yaacov Lev, David Ayalon (1914–1998) and the history of Black Military Slavery in medieval Islam, Der Islam 90.1 (January 2013): Accessed 22 November 2014, doi: [http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?action=interpret&id=GALE%7CA330005344&v=2.1&u=nysl_sc_cornl&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&authCount=1]</ref> The [[Ikhshidid dynasty]] used black slave units to liberate itself from Abbasid rule after the Abbasids destroyed ibn Tulun’s autonomous empire in 935.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon">Lev, David Ayalon</ref> Black professional soldiers were most associated with the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid dynasty]], which incorporated more professional black soldiers than the previous two dynasties.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon"/> It was the Fatimids who first incorporated black professional slave soldiers into the cavalry, despite massive opposition from Central Asian Turkish [[Mamluk]]s, who saw the African contingent as a threat to their role as the leading military unit in the Egyptian army.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon"/>[[File:Slaves Zadib Yemen 13th century BNF Paris.jpg|thumb|13th-century slave market in [[Yemen]]]]In the later half of the Middle Ages, the expansion of Islamic rule further into the Mediterranean, the [[Persian Gulf]], and [[Arabian Peninsula]] established the [[Indian Ocean slave trade|Saharan-Indian Ocean slave trade]].<ref>Jere L. Bacharach, African Military Slaves in the Muslim Middle East. BlackPast.org. Retrieved 20 November 2014. [http://www.blackpast.org/perspectives/african-military-slaves-muslim-middle-east]</ref> This network was a large market for African slaves, transporting approximately four million African slaves from its 7th century inception to its 20th century demise.<ref>Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East. (Oxford University Press, 1994). Retrieved 19 November 2014. [http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.asp]</ref> Ironically, the consolidation of borders in the Islamic Near East changed the face of the slave trade.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery">Lewis, Race and Slavery</ref> A rigid Islamic code, coupled with crystallizing frontiers, favored slave purchase and tribute over capture as lucrative slave avenues.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery" /> Even the sources of slaves shifted from the [[Fertile Crescent]] and [[Central Asia]] to [[Indochina]] and the [[Byzantine Empire]].<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 11</ref>
Patterns of preference for slaves in the Near East, as well as patterns of use, continued into the later Middle Ages with only slight changes. Slaves were employed in many activities, including agriculture, industry, the military, and domestic labor. Women were prioritized over men, and usually served in the domestic sphere as menials, [[Concubinage in the Muslim world|concubines]] (''[[cariye]]''), or wives.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 14">Lewis, ''Race and Slavery'', p. 14</ref> Domestic and commercial slaves were mostly better off than their agricultural counterparts, either becoming family members or business partners rather than condemned to a grueling life in a chain gang. There are references to gangs of slaves, mostly African, put to work in drainage projects in [[Iraq]], salt and gold mines in the [[Sahara]], and sugar and cotton plantations in North Africa and Spain. References to this latter type of slavery are rare, however.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 14"/> [[Eunuch|Eunuchs]] were the most prized and sought-after type of slave.
The most fortunate slaves found employment in politics or the military. In the [[Ottoman Empire]], the [[Devshirme|Devşirme system]] groomed young slave boys for civil or military service.<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, pp. 11–12</ref> Young Christian boys were uprooted from their conquered villages periodically as a levy, and were employed in government, entertainment, or the army, depending on their talents.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery"/> Slaves attained great success from this program, some winning the post of [[Grand vizier|Grand Vizier]] to the [[Sultan]] and others positions in the [[Janissaries]].<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 12</ref>
It is a bit of a misnomer to classify these men as "slaves", because in the Ottoman Empire, they were referred to as [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|kul]], or, slaves "of the Gate", or Sultanate.<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 71</ref> While not slaves per se under Islamic law, these Devşrime alumni remained under the Sultan’s discretion.
The Islamic Near East extensively relied upon professional slave soldiers, and was known for having them compose the core of armies.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery"/> The institution was conceived out of political predicaments and reflected the attitudes of the time, and was not indicative of political decline or financial bankruptcy.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon"/> Slave units were desired because of their unadulterated loyalty to the ruler, since they were imported and therefore could not threaten the throne with local loyalties or alliances.
===Ottoman Empire===
{{main|Slavery (Ottoman Empire)}}
[[File:Janissary Recruitment in the Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg|thumb|[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] painting of [[Balkan]] children in red being forcibly taken under the ''[[devşirme]]'' ("blood tax") system as soldier-slaves for the [[janissary]] army]]
Slavery was an important part of Ottoman society. The [[Byzantine-Ottoman wars]] and the [[Ottoman wars in Europe]] brought large numbers of Christian slaves into the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Phillips, Jr.|first=William D.|title=Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade|year=1985|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|isbn=978-0-7190-1825-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0B8NAQAAIAAJ&q=Byzantine-Ottoman%20wars%20slavery&pg=PA37|page=37}}</ref> In the middle of the 14th century, [[Murad I]] built his own personal slave army called the ''[[Kapıkulu]]''. The new force was based on the sultan’s right to a fifth of the war booty, which he interpreted to include captives taken in battle. The captive slaves were converted to Islam and trained in the sultan’s personal service.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=266205|title=Janissary |website=everything2.com|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>
In the ''[[devşirme]]'' (translated "blood tax" or "child collection"), young Christian boys from [[Anatolia]] and the [[Balkans]] were taken away from their homes and families, converted to Islam and enlisted into special soldier classes of the [[Military of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman army]]. These soldier classes were named [[Janissary|Janissaries]], the most famous branch of the ''Kapıkulu''. The Janissaries eventually became a decisive factor in the Ottoman military conquests in Europe.<ref name="auto"/>
Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman forces, imperial administrators and ''de facto'' rulers of the Ottoman Empire, such as [[Pargalı İbrahim Pasha]] and [[Sokollu Mehmet Paşa]], were recruited in this way.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/med/lewis1.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://schonwalder.com/Such-n-Such/huns.htm|title=The Turks: History and Culture|access-date=24 December 2019|archive-date=18 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061018065828/http://schonwalder.com/Such-n-Such/huns.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> By 1609 the Sultan’s ''Kapıkulu'' forces increased to about 100,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html|title=In the Service of the State and Military Class|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>
The [[Imperial Harem|concubines of the Ottoman Sultan]] consisted chiefly of purchased slaves. Because Islamic law forbade Muslims to enslave fellow Muslims, the Sultan’s concubines were generally of Christian origin (''[[cariye]]''). The mother of a Sultan, though technically a slave, received the extremely powerful title of ''Valide Sultan'', and at times became effective ruler of the Empire (see [[Sultanate of women]]). One notable example was [[Kösem Sultan]], daughter of a Greek Christian priest, who dominated the Ottoman Empire during the early decades of the 17th century.<ref>See generally Jay Winik (2007), ''The Great Upheaval''.</ref> Another notable example was [[Roxelana]], the favourite wife of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]].
==Slavery in the Crusader states==
As a result of the crusades, thousands of Muslims and Christians were sold into slavery. Once sold into slavery most were never heard from again, so it is challenging to find evidence of specific slave experiences.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|author=Susan Jane Allen|title=An Introduction to the Crusades|date=2017|isbn=978-1-4426-0023-2|location=North York, Ontario, Canada|oclc=983482121}}</ref>
In the [[crusade]]r [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], founded in 1099, at most 120,000 Franks ruled over 350,000 Muslims, Jews, and native Eastern Christians.<ref>Benjamin Z. Kedar, "The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant", in ''The Crusades: The Essential Readings'', ed. [[Thomas F. Madden]], Blackwell, 2002, p. 244. Originally published in ''Muslims Under Latin Rule, 1100–1300'', ed. James M. Powell, Princeton University Press, 1990. Kedar quotes his numbers from [[Joshua Prawer]], ''Histoire du royaume latin de Jérusalem'', tr. G. Nahon, Paris, 1969, vol. 1, pp. 498, 568–72.</ref> Following the initial invasion and conquest, sometimes accompanied by massacres or expulsions of Jews and Muslims, a peaceable co-existence between followers of the three religions prevailed.<ref>[[Christopher Tyerman]], ''God’s War, A new History of the Crusades'' pp. 226–228. quote = "Just as non-muslim communities survived under Islam, so non-Christians lived unfree but largely unmolested in Frankish outremer. After the early massacres, displacements and expulsions of Muslims and Jews from conquered cities, coexistence, rather than integration or persecution prevailed ... At Acre, where the two faiths shared a converted mosque as well as a suburban shrine, Muslim visitors were treated fairly and efficiently. Mosques still operated openly in Tyre and elsewhere."</ref> The Crusader states inherited many slaves. To this may have been added some Muslims taken as captives of war. The Kingdom’s largest city, [[Akko|Acre]], had a large slave market; however, the vast majority of Muslims and Jews remained free. The laws of Jerusalem declared that former Muslim slaves, if genuine converts to Christianity, must be freed.<ref>Christopher Tyerman, ''God’s War, A new History of the Crusades,'' p. 230.</ref>
In 1120, the [[Council of Nablus]] forbade sexual relations between crusaders and their female Muslim slaves:<ref name="Hans E. Mayer 1982 pp. 531-533">Hans E. Mayer, "The Concordat of Nablus" ([[Journal of Ecclesiastical History]] 33 (October 1982)), pp. 531–533.</ref> if a man raped his own slave, he would be castrated, but if he raped someone else’s slave, he would be castrated and exiled from the kingdom.<ref name="Hans E. Mayer 1982 pp. 531-533"/> But Benjamin Z. Kedar argued that the canons of the Council of Nablus were in force in the 12th century but had fallen out of use by the thirteenth. Marwan Nader questions this and suggests that the canons may not have applied to the whole kingdom at all times.<ref>Benjamin Z. Kedar, ''On the origins of the earliest laws of Frankish Jerusalem: The canons of the Council of Nablus, 1120'' (''[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]]'' 74, 1999), pp. 330–331; Marwan Nader, ''Burgesses and Burgess Law in the Latin Kingdoms of Jerusalem and Cyprus (1099–1325) (Ashgate: 2006), pg. 45.</ref>
Christian law mandated Christians could not enslave other Christians; however, enslaving non-Christians was acceptable. In fact, military orders frequently enslaved Muslims and used slave labor for agricultural estates.<ref name=":0"/> No Christian, whether Western or Eastern, was permitted by law to be sold into slavery, but this fate was as common for Muslim prisoners of war as it was for Christian prisoners taken by the Muslims. In the later medieval period, some slaves were used to oar Hospitaller ships. Generally, it was a relatively small number non-Christian slaves in medieval Europe, and this number significantly decreased by the end of the medieval period.<ref name=":0" />
The 13th-century [[Assizes of Jerusalem]] dealt more with fugitive slaves and the punishments ascribed to them, the prohibition of slaves testifying in court, and manumission of slaves, which could be accomplished, for example, through a will, or by conversion to Christianity. Conversion was apparently used as an excuse to escape slavery by Muslims who would then continue to practise Islam; crusader lords often refused to allow them to convert, and [[Pope Gregory IX]], contrary to both the laws of Jerusalem and the canon laws that he himself was partially responsible for compiling, allowed for Muslim slaves to remain enslaved even if they had converted.
==Slavery in Iberia==
{{main|Slavery in Spain|Slavery in Portugal}}
Communities of Muslims, Christians, and Jews existed on both sides of the political divide between Muslim and Christian kingdoms in Medieval Iberia: Al-Andalus hosted Jewish and Christian communities while Christian Iberia hosted Muslim and Jewish communities.<ref>{{Cite book|last=D.|first=Phillips, William|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/913510589|title=Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia|date=2014|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-4491-5|pages=20|oclc=913510589}}</ref> Christianity had introduced the ethos that banned the enslavement of fellow Christians, an ethos that was reinforced by the banning of the enslavement of co-religionists during the rise of Islam.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fynn-Paul|first=Jeffrey|title=Empire, Monotheism and Slavery in the Greater Mediterranean Region from Antiquity to the Early Modern Era|date=2009|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40586930|journal=Past & Present|issue=205|pages=13|jstor=40586930|issn=0031-2746}}</ref> Additionally, the [[Dar al-islam|Dar al-Islam]] protected ‘people of the book’ (Christians and Jews living in Islamic lands) from enslavement, an immunity which also applied to Muslims living in Christian Iberia. Despite these restrictions, criminal or indebted Muslims and Christians in both regions were still subject to judicially-sanctioned slavery.<ref>{{Citation|last=Fynn-Paul|first=Jeffrey|title=Empire, Monotheism and Slavery in the Greater Mediterranean Region from Antiquity to the Early Modern Era|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004346611_021|work=Critical Readings on Global Slavery (4 vols.)|year=2017|pages=553–587|publisher=Brill|doi=10.1163/9789004346611_021|isbn=9789004346611|access-date=2021-12-06}}</ref>
===Islamic Iberia===
{{See also|Slavery in Morocco}}[[File:Al-Andalus732.svg|thumb|Al-Andalus in 732]]
An early economic pillar of the Islamic empire in Iberia ([[Al-Andalus]]) during the eighth century was the slave trade. Due to [[manumission]] being a form of piety under Islamic law, slavery in Muslim Spain couldn't maintain the same level of auto-reproduction as societies with older slave populations. Therefore, Al-Andalus relied on trade systems as an external means of replenishing the supply of enslaved people.<ref>Fynn-Paul, p. 26.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jankowiak|first=Marek|date=2017-01-20|title=What Does the Slave Trade in the Saqaliba Tell Us about Early Islamic Slavery?|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=49|issue=1|pages=171|doi=10.1017/s0020743816001240|s2cid=165127852|issn=0020-7438|doi-access=free}}</ref> Forming relations between the Umayyads, Khārijites and 'Abbāsids, the flow of trafficked people from the main routes of the Sahara towards [[Al-Andalus]]<ref>Gaiser, A. (2014) "Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa" in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 42.</ref> served as a highly lucrative trade configuration. The archaeological evidence of human trafficking and proliferation of early trade in this case follows numismatics and materiality of text.<ref>Gaiser, A. (2014) "Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa" in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 44.</ref> This monetary structure of consistent gold influx proved to be a tenet in the development of Islamic commerce.<ref>Gutierrez, J. and Valor, M. (2014) "Trade, Transport and Travel" in Valor, M. and Gutierrez, A. (eds.) The Archaeology of Medieval Spain 1100–1500, Sheffield: Equinox, pp. 124.</ref> In this regard, the slave trade outperformed and was the most commercially successful venture for maximizing capital.<ref>Gaiser, A. (2014) "Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa" in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 45.</ref> This major change in the form of numismatics serves as a paradigm shift from the previous Visigothic economic arrangement. Additionally, it demonstrates profound change from one regional entity to another, the direct transfer of people and pure coinage from one religiously similar semi-autonomous province to another.
The medieval [[Iberian Peninsula]] was the scene of episodic [[warfare]] among Muslims and Christians (although sometimes Muslims and Christians were allies). Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from [[Al-Andalus]] to ravage the Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back booty and people. For example, in a raid on [[Lisbon]] in 1189 the [[Almohad]] caliph [[Yaqub al-Mansur]] took 3,000 female and child captives, and his governor of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] took 3,000 Christian slaves in a subsequent attack upon [[Silves Municipality, Portugal|Silves]] in 1191; an offensive by [[Alfonso VIII of Castile]] in 1182 brought him over two-thousand Muslim slaves.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://libro.uca.edu/rc/rc1.htm|title=Ransoming Captives, Chapter One|website=libro.uca.edu|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> These raiding expeditions also included the Sa’ifa (summer) incursions, a tradition produced during the Amir reign of Cordoba. In addition to acquiring wealth, some of these Sa’ifa raids sought to bring mostly male captives, often eunuchs, back to Al-Andalus. They were generically referred to as [[Saqaliba]], the Arab word for Slavs.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wenner|first=Manfred W.|date=1980|title=The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743800027136|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=12|issue=1|pages=62, 63|doi=10.1017/s0020743800027136|s2cid=162537404 |issn=0020-7438}}</ref> Slavs’ status as the most common group in the slave trade by the tenth century led to the development of the word “slave.”<ref>Phillips, p. 17.</ref> The Saqaliba were mostly assigned to palaces as guards, concubines, and eunuchs, although they were sometimes privately owned.<ref>Jankowiak, p. 169.</ref> Along with Christians and Slavs, Sub-Saharan Africans were also held as slaves, brought back from the caravan trade in the Sahara. Slaves in Islamic lands were generally used for domestic, military, and administrative purposes, rarely used for agriculture or large-scale manufacturing. Christians living in Al-Andalus were not allowed to hold authority over Muslims, but they were permitted to hold non-Muslim slaves.<ref>Phillips, p. 18.</ref>
===Christian Iberia===
[[File:Iberia1300.png|thumb|Iberia in AD 1300. (Partially based on Euratlas map of Europe, 1300.)]]
Contrary to suppositions of historians such as [[Marc Bloch]], slavery thrived as an institution in medieval Christian Iberia.{{Citation needed|date=January 2016}} Slavery existed in the region under the Romans, and continued to do so under the [[Visigoths]]. From the fifth to the early 8th century, large portions of the Iberian Peninsula were ruled by [[Visigothic Kingdom|Christian Visigothic Kingdoms]], whose rulers worked to codify human bondage. In the 7th century, [[Chindasuinth|King Chindasuinth]] issued the [[Visigothic Code]] (Liber Iudiciorum), to which subsequent Visigothic kings added new legislation. Although the Visigothic Kingdom collapsed in the early 8th century, portions of the Visigothic Code were still observed in parts of Spain in the following centuries. The Code, with its pronounced and frequent attention to the legal status of slaves, reveals the continuation of slavery as an institution in post-Roman Spain.
The Code regulated the social conditions, behavior, and punishments of slaves in early medieval Spain. The marriage of slaves and free or freed people was prohibited. Book III, title II, iii ("Where a Freeborn Woman Marries the Slave of Another or a Freeborn Man the Female Slave of Another") stipulates that if a free woman marries another person’s slave, the couple is to be separated and given 100 lashes. Furthermore, if the woman refuses to leave the slave, then she becomes the property of the slave’s master. Likewise, any children born to the couple would follow the father’s condition and be slaves.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Scott|first1=S.P.|title=The Visigothic Code|url=http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-2.pdf|website=The Library of Iberian Resources Online|location=Book III, Title II, Section III}}</ref>
Unlike [[Roman law]], in which only slaves were liable to corporal punishment,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kamen|first=Deborah|year=2010|title=A Corpus of Inscriptions: representing slave marks in Antiquity.|journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome|publisher=University of Michigan Press|volume=55|pages=95–110|jstor=41419689}}</ref> under Visigothic law, people of any social status were subject to corporal punishment. However, the physical punishment, typically beatings, administered to slaves was consistently harsher than that administered to freed or free people. Slaves could also be compelled to give testimony under torture. For example, slaves could be tortured to reveal the adultery of their masters, and it was illegal to free a slave for fear of what he or she might reveal under torture.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Scott|first1=S.P.|title=The Visigothic Code|url=http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-4.pdf|website=The Library of Iberian References Online|location=Book III, Title IV, Section VI}}</ref> Slaves' greater liability to physical punishment and judicial torture suggests their inferior social status in the eyes of Visigothic lawmakers.
Slavery remained persistent in Christian Iberia after the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Umayyad invasions]] in the 8th century, and the Visigothic law codes continued to control slave ownership. However, as William Phillips notes, medieval Iberia should not be thought of as a slave society, but rather as a society that owned slaves.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Phillips|first1=William|title=Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia|date=2014|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|page=10}}</ref> Slaves accounted for a relatively small percentage of the population, and did not make up a significant portion of the labor pool. Furthermore, while the existence of slavery continued from the earlier period, the use of slaves in post-Visigothic Christian Iberia differed from early periods. Ian Wood has suggests that, under the Visigoths, the majority of the slave population lived and worked on rural estates.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wood|first1=Ian|chapter=Social Relations in the Visigothic Kingdom from the Fifth to the Seventh Century|title=The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century: An Ethnographic Perspective|date=1999|publisher=Boydell Press|location=Woodbridge|page=195}}</ref>
After the Muslim invasions, slave owners (especially in the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]] and [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]]) moved away from using slaves as field laborers or in work gangs, and did not press slaves into military service.<ref name="Phillips 19">Phillips p.19</ref> Slaves tended to be owned singly rather than in large groups. There appear to have been many more female than male slaves, and they were most often used as domestic servants, or to supplement free labor.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saunders|first1=A.C. de C.M.|title=A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal: 1441–1555|date=1982|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|pages=84–85}}</ref><ref name="Phillips 19" /> In this respect, slave institutions in Aragon, especially, closely resembled those of other Mediterranean Christian kingdoms in France and Italy.<ref>Phiilps pages 14–15, 19</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Blumenthal|first1=Debra|title=Enemies and Familiars: Slavery and Mastery in Fifteenth-Century Valencia|url=https://archive.org/details/enemiesfamiliars00blum|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/enemiesfamiliars00blum/page/2 2]–3|isbn=9780801445026}}</ref>
In the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Leon|León]] and [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]], slavery followed the Visigothic model more closely than in the littoral kingdoms. Slaves in León and Castile were more likely to be employed as field laborers, supplanting free labor to support an aristocratic estate society.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barton|first1=Simon|title=The Aristocracy of Twelfth-Century Leon and Castile|date=1997|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|page=83}}</ref> These trends in slave populations and use changed in the wake of the Black Death in 1348, which significantly increased the demand for slaves across the whole of the peninsula.<ref>Phillips p.21</ref>
Christians were not the only slaveholders in Christian Iberia. Both Jews and Muslims living under Christian rule owned slaves, though more commonly in Aragon and Valencia than in Castile.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roth|first1=Norman|title=Jews, Visigoths & Muslims in Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict|date=1994|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|pages=160–161}}</ref><ref>Phillips pp.20–21</ref> After the conquest of Valencia in 1245, the Kingdom of Aragon prohibited the possession of Christian slaves by Jews, though they were still permitted to hold Muslim or pagan slaves.<ref>Roth pp.156, 160</ref> The main role of Iberian Jews in the slave trade came as facilitators: Jews acted as slave brokers and agents of transfer between the Christian and Muslim kingdoms.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
This role caused some degree of fear among Christian populations. A letter from [[Pope Gregory XI]] to the Bishop of [[Cordoba, Andalusia|Cordoba]] in 1239 addressed rumors that the Jews were involved in kidnapping and selling Christian women and children into slavery while their husbands were away fighting the Muslims.<ref name="ReferenceA">Roth p.160</ref> Despite these worries, the primary role of Jewish slave traders lay in facilitating the exchange of captives between Muslim and Christian rulers, one of the primary threads of economic and political connectivity between Christian and Muslim Iberia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Broadman|first1=James William|title=Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier|date=1986|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|page=passim}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Kathryn|editor1-last=Trivellato|editor1-first=Francesca|editor2-last=Halevi|editor2-first=Leor|editor3-last=Antunes|editor3-first=Catia|title=Religion and Trade: Cross Cultural Exchanges in World History, 1000–1900|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|pages=131–159|chapter="Reflections on Reciprocity: A Late Medieval Islamic Perspective on Christian-Muslim Commitment to Captive Exchange."}}</ref>
In the early period after the fall of the Visigothic kingdom in the 8th century, slaves primarily came into Christian Iberia through trade with the Muslim kingdoms of the south.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Constable|first1=Olivia|title=Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula, 900–1500|date=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|page=47}}</ref> Most were Eastern European, captured in battles and raids, with the heavy majority being [[Slavs]].<ref>Phillips p.17</ref> However, the ethnic composition of slaves in Christian Iberia shifted over the course of the Middle Ages. Slaveholders in the Christian kingdoms gradually moved away from owning Christians, in accordance with Church proscriptions. In the middle of the medieval period most slaves in Christian Iberia were Muslim, either captured in battle with the Islamic states from the southern part of the peninsula, or taken from the eastern Mediterranean and imported into Iberia by merchants from cities such as [[Genoa]].<ref>Phillips p.61</ref>
The Christian kingdoms of Iberia frequently traded their Muslim captives back across the border for payments of money or kind. Indeed, historian James Broadman writes that this type of redemption offered the best chance for captives and slaves to regain their freedom.<ref>Broadman p.6</ref> The sale of Muslim captives, either back to the Islamic southern states or to third-party slave brokers, supplied one of the means by which Aragon and Castile financed the [[Reconquista]]. Battles and sieges provided large numbers of captives; after the siege of [[Almeria]] in 1147, sources report that [[Alfonso VII of León]] sent almost 10,000 of the city’s Muslim women and children to Genoa to be sold into slavery as partial repayment of Genoese assistance in the campaign.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Phillips|first1=Jonathan|title=The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom|date=2007|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|page=260}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=O'Callaghan|first1=Joseph F.|title=Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain|date=2003|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|page=140}}</ref>
Towards the end of the Reconquista, however, this source of slaves became increasingly exhausted. Muslim rulers were increasingly unable to pay ransoms, and the Christian capture of large centers of population in the south made wholesale enslavement of Muslim populations impractical.<ref>Phillips pp.60–61</ref> The loss of an Iberian Muslim source of slaves further encouraged Christians to look to other sources of manpower. Beginning with the first Portuguese slave raid in sub-Saharan Africa in 1411, the focus of slave importation began to shift from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic World, and the racial composition of slaves in Christian Iberia began to include an increasing number of Sub-Saharan Africans.<ref>Blumenthal p.20</ref><ref>Saunders pp.5–7</ref>
Between 1489 and 1497 almost 2,100 black slaves were shipped from Portugal to Valencia.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite book|last1=Lawrance|first1=Jeremey|author-link1=Jeremy Lawrance|editor1-last=Earle|editor1-first=T.F.|editor2-last=Lowe|editor2-first=K.J.P.|title=Black Africans in Renaissance Europe|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|page=70|chapter=Black Africans in Renaissance Spanish Literature}}</ref><ref name="auto3">Saunders p.29</ref> By the end of the 15th century, Spain held the largest population of black Africans in Europe, with a small, but growing community of black ex-slaves.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> In the mid 16th century Spain imported up to 2,000 black African slaves annually through Portugal, and by 1565 most of [[Seville|Seville’s]] 6,327 slaves (out of a total population of 85,538) were black Africans.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="auto3"/>
== Slavery in the Mediterranean ==
{{See also|Slavery in Malta}}
[[File:Republik Venedig Handelswege01.png|thumb|[[Maritime republics]] of [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]] (red) and [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] (green) and their trade routes in the [[Mediterranean world|Mediterranean region]]]]
In the Mediterranean region, individuals became enslaved through war and conquest, piracy, and frontier raiding. Additionally, some courts would sentence people to slavery, and even some people sold themselves or their children into slavery due to extreme poverty.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=O'Connell, Monique, 1974–|title=The Mediterranean world : from the fall of Rome to the rise of Napoleon|others=Dursteler, Eric|date=23 May 2016|isbn=978-1-4214-1901-5|location=Baltimore|oclc=921240187}}</ref> The incentive for slavery in the Mediterranean was the greed of the slavers. The motivation behind many raids was to make money from the resulting slaves, with no political or religious agenda. Also, state and religious institutions frequently participated in the ransoming of individuals, so piracy became a lucrative market. This meant some individuals were returned home while others were sold away.<ref name=":1" />
For those who traded in the Mediterranean, it was the humanity and intellect of these enslaved peoples that made them valuable merchandise worth commodifying. To purchase an individual was to purchase their labor, autonomy, and faith; religious conversion was often a motivation for these transactions. Additionally, religious division was the fundamental basis of law for the ownership of slaves during this period; it was not legal for Christians, Muslims, or Jewish people to enslave fellow believers. However, the enslavement, and compulsory conversion, of nonbelievers or people from other religions was permissible.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Barker|first=Hannah|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.9783/9780812296488/html|title=That Most Precious Merchandise|date=2019-09-27|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|pages=209–212|language=en|doi=10.9783/9780812296488|isbn=9780812296488|s2cid=219875156}}</ref>
There were markets throughout the Mediterranean where enslaved people were bought and sold. In Italy the major slave trade centers were Venice and Genoa; in Iberia they were Barcelona and Valencia; and islands off the Mediterranean including Majorca, Sardinia, Sicily, Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus, and Chios also participated in slave markets. From these markets merchants would sell enslaved people domestically, or transport them to somewhere enslaved people were more in demand.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Italian slave market often found itself selling to Egypt in order to meet the Mamluk demand for slaves. This demand caused Venice and Genoa to compete with one another for control of Black Sea trading ports.<ref>Barker, p. 211.</ref>
The duties and expectations of slaves varied geographically; however, in the Mediterranean, it was most common for enslaved people to work in the households of elites. Enslaved people also worked in agricultural fields, but this was infrequent across the Mediterranean. It was most common in Venetian Crete, Genoese Chios, and Cyprus where enslaved people worked in vineyards, fields, and sugar mills. These were colonial societies, and enslaved people worked with free laborers in these areas. Enslaved women were sought after the most and therefore sold at the highest prices. This reflects the desire for domestic workers in elite households; however, enslaved women also could face sexual exploitation.<ref name=":1" /> Furthermore, even if freed from their stations, the former masters of these women often maintained power over them by becoming their employers or patrons.<ref>Barker, p. 210.</ref>
==Slavery in Moldavia and Wallachia==
{{main|Slavery in Romania}}
[[File:Ștefan cel Mare. Danie sălașe de țigani pentru Episcopia Rădăuți.jpg|thumb|A deed of donation through which [[Stephen III of Moldavia]] donates a number of ''sălașe'' of Roma slaves to the Rădăuţi bishopric]]
'''Slavery''' existed on the territory of present-day [[Romania]] while under [[Ottoman Empire|The Ottoman Empire]] and [[Russian Empire]] rulership, from before the founding of the principalities of [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] in 13th–14th century, until it was [[Abolitionism|abolished]] in stages during the 1840s and 1850s before the independence of the [[United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia]] was allowed, and also until 1783, in [[Transylvania]] and [[Bukovina]] (parts of the [[Habsburg monarchy]] and later [[Austria-Hungary|The Austria-Hungarian Empire]]). Most slaves were of [[Roma minority in Romania|Roma]] (Gypsy) ethnicity and a significant number of ''Rumâni''[https://ro.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumâni_(categorie_socială)] in [[Serfdom]] slavery.
Historian [[Nicolae Iorga]] associated the Roma people’s arrival with the 1241 [[Mongol invasion of Europe]] and considered their slavery as a vestige of that era. The practice of enslaving prisoners may also have been taken from the Mongols. The ethnic identity of the "Tatar slaves" is unknown, they could have been captured Tatars of the [[Golden Horde]], [[Cumans]], or the slaves of Tatars and Cumans.<ref>Viorel Achim, The Roma in Romanian History, [[Central European University Press]], Budapest, 2004, {{ISBN|963-9241-84-9}}</ref>
While it is possible that some Romani people were slaves or auxiliary troops of the Mongols or Tatars and [[Nogai Horde]], the bulk of them came from south of the [[Danube]] at the end of the 14th century, some time before the [[foundation of Wallachia]].
The Roma slaves were owned by the [[Boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia|boyars]] (see [[Wallachian Revolution of 1848]]), the Christian Orthodox monasteries, or the state. They were used only as smiths, [[Gold panning|gold panners]] and as agricultural workers.
The Rumâni were only owned by [[Boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia|Boyars]] and [[Romanian Orthodox Church|Monasteries]], until the [[Independence of Romania]] from the [[Ottoman Empire]] on 9th of May 1877. They were considered less valuable because they were taxable, only skilled at agricultural work and couldn't be used at tribute.
It was common for both boyars and monasteries to register their Romanian [[Serfdom|serfs]] as "Gypsies" so that they would not pay the taxes that were imposed on the serfs.<ref>Marushiakova and Vesselin, p. 103</ref> Any Romanian, regardless of gender, marrying a Roma would immediately become a slave that could be used as tribute.
==Slavery in Russia==
{{main|Slavery in Russia|Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe|Kholop|l2 = Crimean slave raids}}
{{Early Slavic status}}
In [[Kievan Rus]] and [[Russia]], the slaves were usually classified as [[kholop]]s. A kholop’s master had unlimited power over his life: he could kill him, sell him, or use him as payment upon a [[debt]]. The master, however, was responsible before the law for his kholop’s actions. A person could become a kholop as a result of capture, selling himself or herself, being sold for debts or committed [[crime]]s, or marriage to a kholop. Until the late 10th century, the kholops represented a majority among the servants who worked lordly lands.
By the 16th century, slavery in [[Russia]] consisted mostly of those who sold themselves into slavery owing to poverty.<ref name="Richard Hellie 1984">[[Richard Hellie]], ''Slavery in Russia, 1450–1725'' (1984)</ref> They worked predominantly as household servants, among the richest families, and indeed generally produced less than they consumed.<ref>Carolyn Johnston Pouncey, ''The [[Domostroy|Domostroi]]: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible'', p15 {{ISBN|0-8014-9689-6}}</ref> Laws forbade the freeing of slaves in times of famine, to avoid feeding them, and slaves generally remained with the family a long time; the ''[[Domostroy]]'', an advice book, speaks of the need to choose slaves of good character and to provide for them properly.<ref>Carolyn Johnston Pouncey, ''The Domostroi: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible'', p33 {{ISBN|0-8014-9689-6}}</ref> Slavery remained a major institution in [[Russia]] until 1723, when [[Peter the Great]] converted the household slaves into house [[serfs]]. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into [[Serfdom in Russia|serfs]] earlier in 1679.<ref name="Richard Hellie 1984"/>
In 1382 the Golden Horde under Khan [[Tokhtamysh]] sacked [[Moscow]], burning the city and carrying off thousands of inhabitants as slaves. For years the [[Khanate of Kazan|Khanates of Kazan]] and [[Astrakhan Khanate|Astrakhan]] routinely made raids on Russian principalities for
slaves and to plunder towns. Russian chronicles record about 40 raids of [[List of Kazan khans|Kazan Khans]] on the Russian territories in the first half of the 16th century.<ref>The Full Collection of the Russian Annals, vol.13, SPb, 1904</ref> In 1521, the combined forces of Crimean Khan [[Mehmed I Giray]] and his Kazan allies attacked Moscow and captured thousands of slaves.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Crimean_Khanate|title=The Tatar Khanate of Crimea – All Empires|website=allempires.com}}</ref> About 30 major Tatar raids were recorded into [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovite]] territories between 1558 and 1596.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html|title=Supply of Slaves|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> In 1571, the Crimean Tatars attacked and sacked Moscow, burning everything but the Kremlin and taking thousands of captives as slaves.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/cities/printStory.cfm?obj_id=9141603&city_id=MCW|title=Gulliver|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> In [[Crimea]], about 75% of the population consisted of slaves.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey > Slave societies (broken link)|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>
==Slavery in Poland and Lithuania==
[[File:Lithuanian Statute I.jpg|thumb|[[Statutes of Lithuania]] banned slavery, 1529|upright]]
{{main|Slavery in Poland|Slavery in Lithuania}}
Slavery in Poland existed on the territory of [[Kingdom of Poland (Piasts)|Kingdom of Poland]] during the times of the [[Piast dynasty]],<ref name="bardach40-41">Juliusz Bardach, Bogusław Lesnodorski, and Michał Pietrzak, ''Historia państwa i prawa polskiego'' (Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987; p. 40–41</ref> however, slavery was restricted to those captured during war. In some special cases and for limited periods [[serfdom]] was also applied to debtors.
Slavery was banned officially in 1529 and prohibition on slavery was one of the most important of the [[Statutes of Lithuania]], which had to be implemented before the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] could join the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] in 1569.
The First Statute was drafted in 1522 and came into power in 1529 by the initiative of the [[Lithuanian Council of Lords]]. It has been proposed that the codification was initiated by [[Grand Chancellor of Lithuania]] [[Mikołaj Radziwiłł (1470–1521)|Mikołaj Radziwiłł]] as a reworking and expansion of the 15th century [[Casimir's Code]].<ref>{{in lang|lt}} E. Gudavičius, [http://ausis.gf.vu.lt/mg/nr/2002/09/09stat.html Stages of the Lithuanian Statute] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927164324/http://ausis.gf.vu.lt/mg/nr/2002/09/09stat.html |date=27 September 2006 }}</ref>
==Slavery in Scandinavia==
{{main|Slavery in Denmark|Slavery in Sweden|Thrall}}
The evidence indicates that slavery in Scandinavia was more common in southern regions, as there are fewer northern provincial laws that contain mentions of slavery. Likewise, slaves were likely numerous but consolidated under the ownership of elites as chattel labor on large farm estates.<ref name=":6">{{cite book|last=Iversen|first=Frode|title=Nordic Elites in Transformation, c. 1050–1250, Volume I|publisher=Routledge|year=2019|isbn=9780429262210|pages=60–79|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Raffield|first=Ben|date=December 2019|title=The Slave Markets of the Viking World: Comparative Perspectives on an 'Invisible Archaeology |doi=10.1080/0144039X.2019.1592976|journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=40|issue=4|pages=682–705|s2cid=151255018|doi-access=free}}</ref>
{{Norse status}}
The laws from 12th and 13th centuries describe the legal status of two categories. According to the Norwegian [[Gulating]] code (in about 1160), domestic slaves could not, unlike foreign slaves, be sold out of the country. This and other laws defined slaves as their master’s property at the same level as cattle; if either were harmed then the perpetrator was responsible for damages, but if either caused damage to property then the owners were held accountable.<ref name=":3" /> It also described a procedure for giving a slave their freedom. According to the Law of Scania<ref name=":7">{{cite book|last1=Tamm|first1=Ditlev|title=The Danish medieval laws : the laws of Scania, Zealand and Jutland|last2=Vogt|first2=Helle|publisher=Routledge medieval translations|year=2016|isbn=9781315646374|location=London|language=English}}</ref> slaves could be granted freedom or redeem it themselves, upon which they must then be accepted into a new kin group or face societal ostracization.<ref name=":7" />
The Law of Scania indicates free men may become slaves as a way to atone for a crime with the implication they would be eventually freed. Likewise, the Gotlander Guta Lag indicates slavery could be for a fixed period and as a method to pay for debt.<ref>{{cite book|last=Peel|first=Christine|title=Guta Lag and Guta Saga : the Law and History of the Gotlanders|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=9781315735863|location=London|language=English}}</ref> Within the Older Västgöta Law widows are only allowed to remarry if an enslaved fostre or fostra could manage the farm in her absence. Likewise, the Younger Västgöta Law indicates further trust for fostre and fostra as they could occasionally be entrusted with the master’s keys. Likewise, some fostre were in such a trusted position they could undertake military actions while a slave.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":7" /> Yet, for all their independence, any children of fostre or fostra were still property of their masters.<ref name=":3" />
[[File:LSR Wikinger - Sklavenfessel.jpg|thumb|Viking-era slave chains|upright]]
A freed slave did not have full legal status; for example, the punishment for killing a former slave was low. A former slave’s son also had a low status, but higher than that of his parents. Women were commonly taken as slaves and forced into concubinage for lords. The children of these women had little formal rights with inheritance and legitimacy possible should they be needed for succession or favored by their parents, but nothing was guaranteed.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Karras|first=Ruth|title=Concubinage and Slavery in the Viking Age|date=1990|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40919117|journal=Scandinavian Studies|volume=62|issue=2|pages=141–162|jstor=40919117|via=JSTOR}}</ref>
Slavery began to be replaced by a feudal-style tenant farmer economy wherein free men tied to the land worked farms for a lord reducing the need for slaves<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /> The Norwegian law code from 1274, ''[[Landslov]]'' (Land’s law), does not mention slaves, but former slaves. Thus it seems like slavery was abolished in Norway by this time.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} In Denmark, slavery was gradually replaced by serfdom (hoveriet) in the 13th-century, and in Sweden, slavery was abolished in 1334 and not replaced with serfdom, which never excisted in Sweden.<ref>Dick Harrison (2006). Slaveri: Forntiden till renässansen. Lund: Historiska media. ISBN 91-85057-81-9</ref>
==Slavery in the British Isles==
{{main|Slavery in Britain|Slavery in Ireland}}
British [[medieval Wales|Wales]] and Gaelic [[medieval Ireland (disambiguation)|Ireland]] and [[medieval Scotland|Scotland]] were among the last areas of Christian Europe to give up their institution of slavery. Under Gaelic custom, prisoners of war were routinely taken as slaves. During the period that slavery was disappearing across most of western Europe, it was reaching its height in the British Isles: the Viking invasions and the subsequent warring between Scandinavians and the natives, the number of captives taken as slaves drastically increased. The Irish church was vehemently opposed to slavery and blamed the 1169 [[Norman invasion of Ireland|Norman invasion]] on divine punishment for the practice, along with local acceptance of [[polygyny]] and [[divorce]].
==Serfdom versus slavery==
In considering how serfdom evolved from slavery, historians who study the divide between slavery and serfdom encounter several issues of [[historiography]] and methodology. Some historians believe that slavery transitioned into serfdom (a view that has only been around for the last 200 years), though there is disagreement among them regarding how rapid this transition was.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/70 70]–71|isbn=9780801436802}}</ref> Pierre Bonnassie, a medieval historian, thought that the chattel slavery of the ancient world ceased to exist in the Europe of the 10th century and was followed by [[Feudalism|feudal]] serfdom.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/68 68]|isbn=9780801436802}}</ref> Jean-Pierre Devroey thinks that the shift from slavery to serfdom was gradual as well in some parts of the continent.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Devroey|first1=Jean-Pierre|title=Men and Women in Early Medieval Serfdom: the Ninth-Century North Frankish Evidence|journal=Past and Present|volume=166|year=2007|page=17|doi=10.1093/past/166.1.3}}</ref> Other areas, though, did not have what he calls "western-style serfdom" after the end of slavery, such as the rural areas of the [[Byzantine Empire]], [[Iceland]], and [[Scandinavia]].<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite journal|last1=Devroey|first1=Jean-Pierre|title=Men and Women in Early Medieval Serfdom: The Ninth-Century North Frankish Evidence|journal=Past and Present|year=2000|volume=166|page=28|doi=10.1093/past/166.1.3}}</ref> Complicating this issue is that regions in Europe often had both serfs and slaves simultaneously. In northwestern Europe, a transition from slavery to serfdom happened by the 12th century. The Catholic Church promoted the transformation by giving the example. Enslavement of fellow Catholics was prohibited in 992 and manumission was declared to be a pious act. However it remained legal to enslave people of other religions and dogmas.<ref name="auto2">{{cite book|last=Clarence-Smith|first=W. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZW9DjTAox6EC|title=Religions and the abolition of slavery – a comparative approach|date=24 December 2006|publisher=C. Hurst & Company|isbn=9781850657088}}</ref>
Generally speaking, regarding how slaves differed from serfs, the underpinnings of slavery and serfdom are debated as well. Dominique Barthélemy, among others, has questioned the very premises for neatly distinguishing serfdom from slavery, arguing that a binary classification masks the many shades of servitude.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/71 71]|isbn=9780801436802}}</ref> Of particular interest to historians is the role of serfdom and slavery within the state, and the implications that held for both serf and slave. Some think that slavery was the exclusion of people from the public sphere and its institutions, whereas serfdom was a complex form of dependency that usually lacked a codified basis in the legal system.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|pages=[https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/68 68]–69|isbn=9780801436802}}</ref> Wendy Davies argues that serfs, like slaves, also became excluded from the public judicial system and that judicial matters were attended to in the private courts of their respective lords.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Davies|first1=Wendy|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|date=1996|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|pages=236–238|chapter=On Servile Status in the Early Middle Ages}}</ref>
Despite the scholarly disagreement, it is possible to piece together a general picture of slavery and serfdom. Slaves typically owned no property, and were in fact the property of their masters. Slaves worked full-time for their masters and operated under a negative [[Incentives|incentive structure]]; in other words, failure to work resulted in physical punishment.<ref name=":2">{{cite book|last1=Engerman|first1=Stanley|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|year=1996|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|pages=31–32|chapter=Slavery, Serfdom, and Other Forms of Coerced Labour: Similarities and Differences}}</ref> Serfs held plots of land, which was essentially a form of "payment" that the lord offered in exchange for the serf’s service.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bush|first1=Michael|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|year=1996|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|page=3|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> Serfs worked part-time for the masters and part-time for themselves and had opportunities to accumulate personal wealth that often did not exist for the slave.<ref name=":2"/>
Slaves were generally imported from foreign countries or continents, via the [[slave trade]]. Serfs were typically indigenous Europeans and were not subject to the same involuntary movements as slaves. Serfs worked in family units, whereas the concept of family was generally murkier for slaves.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bush|first1=Michael|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|date=1996|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|page=2|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> At any given moment, a slave’s family could be torn apart via trade, and masters often used this threat to coerce compliant behavior from the slave.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Engerman|first1=Stanley|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|date=1996|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|pages=24–26|chapter=Slavery, serfdom and other forms of coerced labour: similarities and differences}}</ref>
The end of serfdom is also debated, with Georges Duby pointing to the early 12th century as a rough end point for "serfdom in the strict sense of the term".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|page=[https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/79 79]|isbn=9780801436802}}</ref> Other historians dispute this assertion, citing discussions and the mention of serfdom as an institution during later dates (such as in 13th century [[England]], or in Central Europe, where the rise of serfdom coincided with its decline in Western Europe). There are several approaches to get a time span for the transition, and [[lexicography]] is one such method. There is supposedly a clear shift in diction when referencing those who were either slaves or serfs at approximately 1000, though there is not a consensus on how significant this shift is, or if it even exists.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|page=[https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/69 69]|isbn=9780801436802}}</ref>
In addition, [[numismatists]] shed light on the decline of serfdom. There is a widespread theory that the introduction of currency hastened the decline of serfdom because it was preferable to pay for labor rather than depend on feudal obligations. Some historians argue that landlords began selling serfs their land – and hence, their freedom – during periods of [[economic inflation]] across Europe.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bush|first1=Michael|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|page=12|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> Other historians argue that the end of slavery came from the royalty, who gave serfs freedom through edicts and legislation in an attempt to broaden their tax base.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Engerman|first1=Stanley|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|page=38|chapter=Slavery, serfdom and other forms of coerced labour: similarities and differences}}</ref>
The absence of serfdom in some parts of medieval Europe raises several questions. Devroey thinks it is because slavery was not born out of economic structures in these areas, but was rather a societal practice.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Heinrich Fichtenau points out that in Central Europe, there was not a labor market strong enough for slavery to become a necessity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fichtenau|first1=Heinrich|title=Living in the 10th century: Mentalities and Social Orders|date=1984|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|page=372}}</ref>
==Justifications for slavery==
In late Rome, the official attitude toward slavery was ambivalent. According to [[Corpus Juris Civilis|Justinian’s legal code]], slavery was defined as "an institution according to the law of nations whereby one person falls under the [[property rights]] of another, contrary to nature".<ref>David Graeber, ''Debt: The First 5000 Years'' (Brooklyn, New York: Melville House, 2011), ch. 7.</ref>
Justifications for slavery throughout the medieval period were dominated by the perception of religious difference. Slaves were often outsiders taken in war. As such, Hebrew and Islamic thinking both conceived of the slave as an "enemy within".<ref>[[Orlando Patterson]], ''Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 40–41.</ref> In the Christian tradition, [[paganism|pagans]] and [[heretics]] were similarly considered enemies of the faith who could be justly enslaved. In theory, slaves who converted could embark on the path to freedom, but practices were inconsistent: masters were not obliged to [[manumission|manumit]] them and the practice of baptising slaves was often discouraged.<ref name="Rayborn, p.93">Timothy Rayborn, ''The Violent Pilgrimage: Christians, Muslims and Holy Conflicts, 850–1150'', Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2013, p. 93.</ref> The enslavement of co-religionists was discouraged, if not forbidden, for Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike. Consequently, northern European pagans and black Africans were a target for all three religious groups. Ethnic and religious difference were conflated in the justification of slavery.<ref name="Rayborn, p.93"/>
A major Christian justification for the use of slavery, especially against those with dark skin, was the [[Curse of Ham]]. The Curse of Ham refers to a biblical parable ([https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%209:20-27 Gen. 9:20–27]) in which [[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]], the son of [[Noah]], sins by seeing his father inebriated and naked, although scholars differ on the exact nature of Ham’s transgression. Noah then curses Ham’s offspring, [[Canaan]], with being a "servant of servants unto his brethren". Although race or skin color is not mentioned, many Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars began to interpret the passage as a curse of both slavery and black skin, in an attempt to justify the enslavement of people of color, specifically those of African descent.<ref>David M. Goldenberg, ''The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam'' (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005).</ref> In the medieval period, however, it was also used by some Christians as a justification for serfdom. Muslim sources in the 7th century allude to the Curse of Ham gaining relevance as a justifying myth for the Islamic world’s longstanding enslavement of Africans.
The apparent discrepancy between the notion of human liberty founded in [[natural law]] and the recognition of slavery by [[canon law]] was resolved by a legal "compromise": enslavement was allowable given a just cause, which could then be defined by papal authority.<ref>Walter Ullmann, ''Medieval Papalism'' (Routledge, 1949), p. 57.</ref> The state of slavery was thought to be closely tied to [[original sin]].<ref>David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966), pp. 92–94.</ref> Towards the middle of the 15th century, the [[Catholic Church and slavery|Catholic Church]], in particular the Papacy, took an active role in offering justifications for the enslavement of Saracens, pagans, infidels, and "other enemies of Christ". In 1452, a [[papal bull]] entitled [[Dum Diversas]] authorized [[Afonso V of Portugal|King Afonso V of Portugal]] to enslave any "Saracens" or "pagans" he encountered. The Pope, [[Pope Nicholas V]], recognized King Alfonso’s military action as legitimate in the form of the papal bull, and declared the
<blockquote>full and free power, through the Apostolic authority by this edict, to invade, conquer, fight, and subjugate the Saracens and pagans, and other infidels and other enemies of Christ, and ... to reduce their persons into perpetual servitude ...<ref>Pope Nicholas V, "Dum diversas" (1452), in ''Bullarium patronatus Portugalliae regum in ecclesiis Africae, Asiae atque Oceaniae'' (1868) [https://books.google.com/books?id=6NDmAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22in%20perpetuam%20servitutem%22&pg=PA22 p. 22.]</ref><ref>Pope Nicholas V (1452), "Dum Diversas (English Translation)", ''Unam Sanctam Catholicam'', 5 February 2011. http://unamsanctamcatholicam.blogspot.com/2011/02/dum-diversas-english-translation.html.</ref></blockquote>
In a follow-up bull, released in 1455 and entitled [[Romanus Pontifex]], Pope Nicholas V reiterated his support for the enslavement of infidels in the context of Portugal’s monopoly on North African trade routes.<ref>Frances Gardiner Davenport, ''European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies to 1648'' (Washington, D.C.), pp. 20–26.</ref>
Historians such as Timothy Rayborn have contended that religious justifications served to mask the economic necessities underlying the institution of slavery.<ref name="Rayborn, p.93"/>
==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Catholic Church and slavery]]
* [[Christianity and slavery]]
* [[History of slavery]]
* [[Islamic views on slavery]]
* [[Slavery in ancient Greece]]
* [[Slavery in ancient Rome]]
* [[Slavery in antiquity]]
* [[The Bible and slavery]]
{{col div end}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==Further reading==
* Barker, Hannah "Slavery in Medieval Europe." ''Oxford Bibliographies'' (2019) [https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396584/obo-9780195396584-0276.xml]
* Barker, Hannah ''[[That Most Precious Merchandise: The Mediterranean Trade in Black Sea Slaves, 1260-1500]]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019)
* Campbell, Gwyn ''et al.'' eds. ''Women and Slavery, Vol. 1: Africa, the Indian Ocean World, and the Medieval North Atlantic'' (2007)
* Dockès, Pierre. ''Medieval Slavery and Liberation'' (1989)
* Frantzen, Allen J., and Douglas Moffat, eds. ''The Work of Work: Servitude, Slavery and Labor in Medieval England'' (1994)
* Karras, Ruth Mazo. ''Slavery and Society in Medieval Scandinavia'' (Yale University Press, 1988)
* Perry, Craig ''et al.'' eds. ''The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2 AD500-AD1420 (Cambridge University Press, 2021)
* Phillips, William D. ''Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade'' (Manchester University Press, 1985)
* Rio, Alice. ''Slavery After Rome, 500-1100'' (Oxford University Press, 2017) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=54675 online review]
* Stuard, Susan Mosher. "Ancillary evidence for the decline of medieval slavery." ''Past & Present'' 149 (1995): 3-28 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/651097 online].
* Verhulst, Adriaan. "The decline of slavery and the economic expansion of the Early Middle Ages." ''Past & Present'' No. 133 (Nov., 1991), pp. 195–203 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/650772 online]
* Wyatt David R. ''Slaves and warriors in medieval Britain and Ireland, 800–1200'' (2009)
{{Middle Ages}}
[[Category:Slavery in Europe]]
[[Category:History of slavery]]
[[Category:Medieval society]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{short description|Slavery during the medieval period in Europe}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
[[Slavery]], or the process of restricting peoples’ freedoms, was widespread within [[medieval Europe]]. Europe and the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean world]] during the [[medieval period]] (500–1500) were part of a highly interconnected network of [[slave trading]]. Throughout Europe, wartime captives were commonly forced into slavery. As European kingdoms transitioned to [[Feudalism|feudal societies]], [[serfdom]] began to replace slavery as the main economic and agricultural engine. Throughout medieval Europe, the perspectives and societal roles of enslaved peoples differed greatly, from some being restricted to agricultural labor to others being positioned as trusted political advisors.
==Early Middle Ages==
[[File:Costumes of Slaves or Serfs from the Sixth to the Twelfth Centuries.png|thumb|Costumes of slaves or serfs, from the sixth to the twelfth centuries]]
Slavery in the [[Early Middle Ages]] (500–1000) was initially a continuation of earlier [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] practices from [[late antiquity]],and was spread by an influx of captives in the wake of the social chaos caused by the [[barbarian invasions]] of the [[Western Roman Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rio |first=Alice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V6OpDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 |title=Slavery After Rome, 500-1100 |date=2017-03-30 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-100902-0 |pages=23 |language=en}}</ref> With the continuation of [[Slavery in ancient Rome|Roman legal practices of slavery]], new laws and practices concerning slavery spread throughout Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rodriguez |first=Junius P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA596 |title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery [2 Volumes] |date=December 1997 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-87436-885-7 |pages=596 |language=en |chapter=Slavery in medieval Europe}}</ref> For example, the [[Welsh laws]] of [[Hywel the Good]] included provisions dealing with slaves.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Biermann |first=Felix |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_FPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 |title=The Archaeology of Slavery in Early Medieval Northern Europe: The Invisible Commodity |last2=Jankowiak |first2=Marek |date=2021-11-18 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-73291-2 |pages=44 |language=en}}</ref> In the Germanic realms, laws instituted the enslavement of criminals, such as the [[Visigothic Code]]’s prescribing enslavement for criminals who could not pay financial penalties for their crimes<ref>{{cite web |url=http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg4-4.htm#l1 |title=Book IV, Title IV: The Visigothic Code: (Forum judicum)}}</ref> and as an actual punishment for various other crimes.<ref>[http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-1.htm#l3], [http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-3.htm#l3], & [http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-4.htm#l1].</ref> Such criminals would become slaves to their victims, often with their property.
As these peoples [[christianization of Europe|Christianized]], the church worked more actively to reduce the practice of holding coreligionists in bondage.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} [[St. Patrick]], who himself was captured and enslaved at one time, protested an attack that enslaved newly baptized Christians in his [[:q:Saint Patrick#Letter to the Soldiers of Coroticus (c. 450)|letter to the soldiers of Coroticus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Biermann |first=Felix |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_FPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 |title=The Archaeology of Slavery in Early Medieval Northern Europe: The Invisible Commodity |last2=Jankowiak |first2=Marek |date=2021-11-18 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-73291-2 |pages=43 |language=en}}</ref> The restoration of order and the growing power of the church slowly transmuted the late Roman slave system of [[Diocletian]] into [[serfdom]].{{citation needed|date=November 2019}}
Another major factor was the rise of [[Balthild of Chelles|Bathilde]] (626–680), queen of the [[Franks]], who had been enslaved before marrying [[Clovis II]]. When she became regent, her government outlawed slave-trading of Christians throughout the [[Merovingian dynasty|Merovingian empire]].<ref>Paul Fouracre, Richard A. Gerberding (1996), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uifpAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA111 Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography, 640–720]'', Manchester University Press, {{ISBN|0-7190-4791-9}}, p. 97–99 & 111.</ref> About ten percent of England’s population entered in the [[Domesday Book]] (1086) were slaves,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.domesdaybook.net/helpfiles/hs2970.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227083435/http://www.domesdaybook.net/helpfiles/hs2970.htm|url-status=dead|title=Domesday Book Slave|archive-date=27 February 2009|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> despite [[chattel slavery]] of English Christians being nominally discontinued after the [[Norman conquest of England|1066 conquest]]. It is difficult to be certain about slave numbers, however, since the old Roman word for slave (''servus'') continued to be applied to unfree people whose status later was reflected by the term ''serf''.<ref name="PAF">Perry Anderson, ''Passages from antiquity to feudalism'' (1996) p 141</ref>
==Slave trade==
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{{See also|History of slavery in the Muslim world#European slaves|Saqaliba|label 1 = European slaves in the Muslim world}}
[[Image:Varangian routes.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Routes through [[Slav]]ic territories used for the slave trade: [[Volga trade route]] from the [[Vikings]] (''[[Varangians]]'') to the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim Middle East]] (red), [[Route from the Varangians to the Greeks|trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks]] (''[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]]'') (blue) – and other trade routes of the 8th–11th centuries (orange)]]
Demand from the [[Early Islamic conquests|Islamic world]], which arose in the seventh century, dominated the slave trade in Europe during the [[medieval period]] (500–1500).<ref name="dictslave">''Slavery, Slave Trade.'' ed. Strayer, Joseph R. Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Volume 11. New York: Scribner, 1982. {{ISBN|978-0684190730}}</ref><ref name="britannicasurvey">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159|title=Historical survey The international slave trade|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="battuta">{{cite web|url=http://ibnbattuta.berkeley.edu/5anatolia.html|title=Battuta's Trip: Anatolia (Turkey) 1330–1331|access-date=24 December 2019|archive-date=29 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729095759/http://ibnbattuta.berkeley.edu/5anatolia.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> For most of that time, the sale of Christian slaves to non-Christians was banned.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} In the ''[[pactum Lotharii]]'' of 840 between [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] and the [[Carolingian Empire]], Venice promised not to buy Christian slaves in the Empire, and not to sell Christian slaves to Muslims.<ref name="dictslave"/><ref name="lotharii">Il ''pactum Lotharii'' del 840 [[Roberto Cessi|Cessi, Roberto]]. (1939–1940) – In: Atti. Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, Classe di Scienze Morali e Lettere Ser. 2, vol. 99 (1939–40) p. 11–49</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arielcaliban.org/PX_pacta_veneta.pdf|title=Pacta Veneta. A chronology in four steps. PAX TIBI MARCE Venice: government, law, jurisprudence Venezia: istituzioni, diritto, giurisprudenza|access-date=24 December 2019|archive-date=26 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160626095624/http://arielcaliban.org/PX_pacta_veneta.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Church prohibited the export of Christian slaves to non-Christian lands, for example in the Council of [[Koblenz]] in 922, the [[Council of London (1102)|Council of London]] in 1102, and the Council of [[Armagh]] in 1171.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/1171latrsale.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>
As a result, most Christian slave merchants focused on moving slaves from non-Christian areas to Muslim Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East; and most non-Christian merchants, although not bound by the Church’s rules, focused on [[History of slavery in the Muslim world#Geography of the slave trade|Muslim markets]] as well.<ref name="dictslave"/><ref name="britannicasurvey"/><ref name="battuta"/> Arabic silver [[dirham]]s, presumably exchanged for slaves, are plentiful in eastern Europe and Southern Sweden, indicating trade routes from [[Slav]]ic to [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim territory]].<ref name="dirhams">{{Cite journal |last=Jankowiak |first=Marek |date=27 Feb 2012 |title=Dirhams for slaves. Investigating the Slavic slave trade in the tenth century |url=https://www.academia.edu/1764468 |journal=Medieval Seminar, All Souls}}</ref>
=== Italian merchants ===
{{slavery}}
By the reign of [[Pope Zachary]] (741–752), [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] had established a thriving slave trade, buying in Italy, among other places, and selling to the [[Moors]] in Northern Africa (Zacharias himself reportedly forbade such traffic out of Rome).<ref>Duchesne, Louis Marie Olivier. ''XCIII Zacharias (741–752).'' Le Liber pontificalis; texte, introduction et commentaire par L. Duchesne (Volume 1). 1886. p. 426–439. [https://archive.org/details/duchesne01 Available on archive.org]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15743b.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope St. Zachary|website=newadvent.org|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref><ref>Reverend Alban Butler. "St. Zachary, Pope and Confessor". ''The Lives of the Saints'', Volume 3. 1866. [http://www.bartleby.com/210/3/152.html]</ref> When the sale of Christians to Muslims was banned (''[[pactum Lotharii]]''<ref name="lotharii"/>), the Venetians began to sell [[Slavs]] and other Eastern European non-Christian slaves in greater numbers. Caravans of slaves traveled from Eastern Europe, through Alpine passes in Austria, to reach Venice. A record of [[Raffelstetten customs regulations|tolls paid in Raffelstetten]] (903–906), near [[St. Florian Monastery|St. Florian]] on the [[Danube]], describes such merchants. Some are Slavic themselves, from [[Bohemia]] and the [[Kievan Rus']]. They had come from [[Kiev]] through [[Przemyśl]], [[Kraków]], [[Prague]], and Bohemia. The same record values [[Ancillae|female slaves]] at a ''[[Tremissis|tremissa]]'' (about 1.5 grams of gold or roughly {{frac|1|3}} of a Byzantine [[Solidus (coin)|solidus]] ([[Bezant|nomisma]]) or [[gold dinar]]) and male slaves, who were more numerous, at a ''saiga'' (which is much less).<ref name="dictslave"/><ref name="rafftolls">MGH, Leges, Capitularia regum Francorum, II, ed. by A. Boretius, Hanovre, 1890, p. 250–252 [https://archive.org/details/capitulariaregum01bore (available on-line)].</ref> [[Eunuch]]s were especially valuable, and "castration houses" arose in Venice, as well as other prominent slave markets, to meet this demand.<ref name="dirhams"/><ref name="valante">{{Cite book |last=Valante |first=Mary A. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt2tt1pr |title=Castration and Culture in the Middle Ages |date=2013 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1-84384-351-1 |editor-last=Tracy |editor-first=Larissa |chapter=Castrating Monks: Vikings, the Slave Trade, and the Value of Eunuchs |jstor=10.7722/j.ctt2tt1pr }}</ref>
Venice was far from the only slave trading hub in Italy. Southern Italy boasted slaves from distant regions, including Greece, Bulgaria, Armenia, and Slavic regions. During the 9th and 10th centuries, [[Amalfi]] was a major exporter of slaves to North Africa.<ref name="dictslave"/> [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]], along with Venice, dominated the trade in the Eastern Mediterranean beginning in the 12th century, and in the [[Black Sea]] beginning in the 13th century. They sold both [[Balts|Baltic]] and Slavic slaves, as well as [[Armenians]], [[Circassians]], [[Georgians]], [[Turkish people|Turks]] and other ethnic groups of the Black Sea and [[Caucasus]], to the Muslim nations of the Middle East.<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C&pg=PA45 Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800]''. Robert Davis (2004). p.45. {{ISBN|1-4039-4551-9}}.</ref> Genoa primarily managed the slave trade from [[Crimea]] to [[Mamluk Egypt]], until the 13th century, when increasing Venetian control over the Eastern Mediterranean allowed Venice to dominate that market.<ref name="lughod">Janet L. Abu-Lughod, ''Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350'' Oxford University Press {{ISBN|0195067746}}</ref> Between 1414 and 1423 alone, at least 10,000 slaves were sold in Venice.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081223185836/http://www.roxie.org/books/shoulders/ch02-labor.html Rawlins, Gregory J.E. Rebooting Reality — Chapter 2, Labor (archive from December 23, 2008)]</ref>
=== Iberia ===
[[File:Targ niewolnikow w Kordowie.jpg|thumb|right|[[Slavs|Slavic]] (''[[saqaliba]]'') and African slaves in [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]], [[Muslim Spain]], 1200s]]
[[Al-Andalus]], the Muslim-ruled area of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], (711–1492) imported a large number of slaves, as well as served as a staging point for Muslim and Jewish merchants to market slaves to the rest of the Islamic world.<ref name="radhanites">Olivia Remie Constable (1996). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M-CVlhPb21MC&pg=PA203 Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula, 900–1500]''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 203–204. {{ISBN|0521565030}}</ref> A ready market, especially for men of fighting age, could be found in [[Umayyad Spain]], with its need for supplies of new [[mamelukes]].
<blockquote>[[Al-Hakam I|Al-Hakam]] was the first monarch of this family who surrounded his throne with a certain splendour and magnificence. He increased the number of mamelukes (slave soldiers) until they amounted to 5,000 horse and 1,000 foot. ... he increased the number of his slaves, eunuchs and servants; had a bodyguard of cavalry always stationed at the gate of his palace and surrounded his person with a guard of mamelukes .... these mamelukes were called Al-haras (the Guard) owing to their all being Christians or foreigners. They occupied two large barracks, with stables for their horses.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite book|title=Early Medieval Spain – Springer|last=Collins|first=Roger|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-24135-4|year = 1995|isbn = 978-0-333-64171-2}}</ref></blockquote>
During the reign of [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] (912–961), there were at first 3,750, then 6,087, and finally 13,750 [[Saqaliba]], or Slavic slaves, at [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]], capital of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]. [[Ibn Hawqal]], Ibrahim al-Qarawi, and Bishop [[Liutprand of Cremona]] note that the Jewish merchants of Verdun specialized in castrating slaves, to be sold as eunuch saqaliba, which were enormously popular in Muslim Spain.<ref name="dictslave" /><ref name="valante" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.brepolis.net/LTool/Entrance.aspx?w=12&a=%2fllta%2fpages%2fToc.aspx|title=BREPOLiS – Login|website=apps.brepolis.net|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>
According to [[Roger Collins]] although the role of the [[Vikings]] in the slave trade in Iberia remains largely hypothetical, their depredations are clearly recorded. Raids on Al-Andalus by Vikings are reported in the years 844, 859, 966 and 971, conforming to the general pattern of such activity concentrating in the mid ninth and late tenth centuries.<ref name="auto1"/>
=== Vikings ===
[[File:LSR Wikinger - Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg|thumb|Slave chain lock and key. Sweden, [[Viking Age]] (8th–11th centuries)]]
The [[Nordic countries]] during the [[Viking Age]] (700–1100) practiced slavery. The [[Vikings]] called their slaves ''[[thrall]]s'' ([[Old Norse]]: ''Þræll'').<ref name="vikings">{{cite book|author=Junius P Rodriguez, PhD|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery. vol 1. A – K|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA674|year=1997|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=674|isbn=9780874368857}}</ref> There were also other terms used to describe thralls based on gender, such as ambatt/ambott and deja. Ambott is used in reference to female slaves, as is deja.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kuhn|first=Hans|title=Amt. 1. Sprachlichee|publisher=RGA 1:258|year=1973|pages=258}}</ref> Another name that is indicative of thrall status is bryti, which has associations with food. The word can be understood to mean, cook, and to break bread, which would place a person with this label as the person in charge of food in some manner. There is a runic inscription that describes a man of bryti status named Tolir who was able to marry and acted as the king’s estate manager.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{cite book|last=Sawyer|first=Birgit|title=The Viking-Age Rune-Stones: custom and commemoration in early medieval Scandinavia|publisher=OUP Oxford|year=2000}}</ref> Another name is muslegoman, which would have been used for a runaway slave.<ref name=":3" /> From this, it can be gathered that the different names for those who were thralls indicate position and duties performed.<ref>{{cite web|last=Brink|first=Stefan|title=Scandinavian Slavery|date=2021-09-23|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197532355.003.0004|work=Thraldom|pages=70–76|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/oso/9780197532355.003.0004|isbn=978-0-19-753235-5|access-date=2021-11-22}}</ref>
A fundamental part of Viking activity was the sale and taking of captives.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heebøll-Holm|first=Thomas K.|date=2020-06-04|title=Piratical slave-raiding – the demise of a Viking practice in high medieval Denmark|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03468755.2020.1748106|journal=Scandinavian Journal of History|volume=46|issue=4|pages=431–454|doi=10.1080/03468755.2020.1748106|s2cid=219919380|issn=0346-8755}}</ref> The thralls were mostly from Western Europe, among them many [[Franks]], [[Anglo-Saxons]], and [[Celts]]. Many Irish slaves were brought on expeditions for the [[Settlement of Iceland|colonization of Iceland]] (874–930).<ref>See [http://www.mnh.si.edu/vikings/voyage/subset/iceland/history.html Iceland History]</ref> Raids on monasteries provided a source of young, educated slaves who could be sold in Venice or Byzantium for high prices. Scandinavian trade centers stretched eastwards from [[Hedeby]] in Denmark and [[Birka]] in Sweden to [[Staraya Ladoga]] in northern Russia before the end of the 8th century.<ref name="valante" /> The collection of slaves was a by-product of conflict. The [[Annales Fuldenses|Annals of Fulda]] recorded that Franks who had been defeated by a group of Vikings in 880 CE were taken as captives after being defeated.<ref>{{Citation|last=Reuter|first=Timothy|title=The text – The Annals of Fulda|date=2013-01-01|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7765/9781526112736.00009|work=The Annals of Fulda|pages=88|publisher=Manchester University Press|doi=10.7765/9781526112736.00009|isbn=9781526112736|access-date=2021-11-22}}</ref> Viking groups would have political conflicts that also resulted in the taking of captives.<ref>{{cite book|last=E.g. Mac Airt and Mac Niocaill|title=The Annals of Ulster, to AD 1131|publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year=1983|location=Dublin|pages=311}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Tschan|editor-first=Francis J.|title=Adam of Bremen. History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1959|location=New York|pages=190, bk. 4, ch.6}}</ref>
This traffic continued into the 9th century as Scandinavians founded more trade centers at [[Kaupang]] in southwestern Norway and [[Novgorod]], farther south than Staraya Ladoga, and Kiev, farther south still and closer to [[Byzantium]]. [[Dublin]] and other northwestern European Viking settlements were established as gateways through which captives were traded northwards.Thralls could be bought and sold at slave markets. An account from the [[Laxdæla saga|Laxdoela Saga]] spoke of how during the 10th century there would be a meeting of kings every third year on the [[Branno Island]]s where negotiations and trades for slaves would take place.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Magnus|last1=Magnusson|first2=Hermann|last2=Palsson|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/223343478|title=Laxdaela saga ; Translated with an introduction by Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Palsson.|date=1969|publisher=Penguin|pages=64|oclc=223343478}}</ref> Though slaves could be bought and sold, it was more common to sell captives from other nations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Krag|first=Claus|date=1982|title=Treller og Trellehold|journal=Historisk Tidsskrift 61|volume=no. 3|pages=209–227}}</ref>
The 10th-century Persian traveller [[Ibn Rustah]] described how Swedish Vikings, the [[Varangians]] or [[Rus' Khaganate|Rus]], terrorized and enslaved the [[East Slavs|Slavs]] taken in their raids along the [[Volga River]].<ref>Niels Skyum-Nielsen, "Nordic Slavery in an International Context," ''Medieval Scandinavia'' 11 (1978–79) 126–48</ref> Slaves were often sold south, to [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] or Muslim buyers, via paths such as the [[Volga trade route]]. [[Ahmad ibn Fadlan]] of [[Baghdad]] provides an account of the other end of this trade route, namely of [[Volga Vikings]] selling Slavic slaves to middle-eastern merchants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uib.no/jais/v003ht/03-001-025Montgom1.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001082748/http://www.uib.no/jais/v003ht/03-001-025Montgom1.htm|url-status=dead|title=James E. Montgomery, IBN FAḌLĀN AND THE RŪSIYYAH|archive-date=1 October 2013|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> Finland proved another source for Viking slave raids.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.medievalists.net/2014/04/medieval-slave-traders-go-finland/|title=Why did Medieval Slave Traders go to Finland?|date=17 April 2014}}</ref> Slaves from Finland or [[Baltic states]] were traded as far as [[central Asia]].<ref>Medieval slave trade routes in Eastern Europe extended from Finland and the Baltic Countries to Central Asia [http://www.uef.fi/en/-/ita-euroopan-orjakaupan-reitit-ulottuivat-keskiajalla-suomesta-ja-baltiasta-keski-aasiaan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210083057/http://www.uef.fi/en/-/ita-euroopan-orjakaupan-reitit-ulottuivat-keskiajalla-suomesta-ja-baltiasta-keski-aasiaan|date=10 December 2014}}</ref><ref>Korpela, Jukka. The Baltic Finnic People in the Medieval and Pre-Modern Eastern European Slave Trade, in 'Russian History, Volume 41, Issue 1' p. 85-117 [http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/18763316-04101006]</ref> Captives may have been traded far within the Viking trade network, and within that network, it was possible to be sold again. In the Life of [[Fintan of Rheinau|St. Findan]], the Irishman was bought and sold three times after being taken captive by a Viking group.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Somerville|first=Angus A., trans.|title=The Viking Age: A Reader|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2014|location=Toronto|pages=195–198}}</ref>
=== Mongols ===
[[File:Asia 13th Century.pdf|thumb|[[Mongol Empire]] and its subsequent divisions with the khanate of the [[Golden Horde]] in green, 13th century]]
The [[Mongol invasions]] and conquests in the 13th century added a new force in the slave trade. The Mongols enslaved skilled individuals, women and children and marched them to [[Karakorum]] or [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]], whence they were sold throughout [[Eurasia]]. Many of these slaves were shipped to the slave market in [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/rubruck.html|title=William of Rubruck's Account of the Mongols|website=depts.washington.edu|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://geocities.com/medievalnovgorod/nov10.html|title=Life in 13th Century Novgorod – Women and Class Structure|date=26 October 2009|access-date=24 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091026193520/http://geocities.com/medievalnovgorod/nov10.html|archive-date=26 October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sras.org/news2.phtml?m=477|title=The Effects of the Mongol Empire on Russia|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>
[[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] and [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] merchants in [[Crimea]] were involved in the slave trade with the [[Golden Horde]].<ref name="dictslave"/><ref name="lughod"/> In 1441, [[Haci I Giray]] declared independence from the Golden Horde and established the [[Crimean Khanate]]. In the time of the Crimean Khanate, Crimeans engaged in frequent raids into the [[Danubian principalities]], [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland-Lithuania]], and [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovy]]. For each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. The campaigns by Crimean forces categorize into "sefers", officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves, and ''çapuls'', raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers. For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the Middle East. The [[Genoese colony]] of [[Caffa]] on the [[Black Sea]] coast of Crimea was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 Historical survey > Slave societies]</ref> [[Crimean Tatars|Crimean Tatar]] raiders enslaved more than 1 million Eastern Europeans.<ref>{{cite book|author=Galina I. Yermolenko|title=Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xjyVS72I2ocC|access-date=31 May 2012|date=15 July 2010|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|page=111|isbn=978-0-7546-6761-2}}</ref>
=== England and Ireland ===
In medieval [[Ireland]], as a commonly traded commodity slaves could, like cattle, become a form of internal or trans-border currency.<ref>
{{cite book |last1 = Campbelly
|first1 = Jamesetta
|chapter = Part I: The Romans to the Norman Conquest, 500 BC – AD 1066
|editor1-last = Clark
|editor1-first = Jonathan
|editor1-link = J. C. D. Clark
|title = A World by Itself: A History of the British Isles
|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UN8CAR5EEmgC
|publisher = Random House
|date = 2011
|page = [https://archive.org/details/worldbyitselfhis0000clar/page/23 23]
|isbn = 9780712664967
|quote = Whatever currency was in use [in Ireland in antiquity], it was not coin – as in other pre-coin economies, there was a system of conventional valuations in which female slaves, for example, were important units.
|url-access = registration
|url = https://archive.org/details/worldbyitselfhis0000clar/page/23
}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Keenan
| first1 = Desmond
| title = The True Origins of Irish Society
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=k2Ol_XFFH_oC
| publisher = Xlibris Corporation
| date = 2004
| page = 152
| isbn = 9781465318695
| quote = For the slave raiders, slaves were a valuable currency. You could sell them to buy wine and other luxury goods. There was always a market for them. There was always an unending supply of them, if only you were stronger than your neighbour. [...] For the Irish, slave-raiding was a lucrative extension to the cattle-raiding.
}}
</ref> In 1102, the [[Council of London in 1102|Council of London]] convened by [[Anselm of Canterbury]] obtained a resolution against the [[Slavery in Britain|slave trade in England]] which was aimed mainly at the sale of English slaves [[Slavery in Ireland|to the Irish]].<ref>{{citation |last=Crawley |first=John J. |year=1910 |url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/MARY/ANSELM.HTM |title=Lives of the Saints |publisher=John J. Crawley & Co.}}</ref>
=== Christians holding Muslim slaves ===
Although the primary flow of slaves was toward Muslim countries, as evident in the [[history of slavery in the Muslim world]], Christians did acquire Muslim slaves; in Southern France, in the 13th century, "the enslavement of Muslim captives was still fairly common".<ref>{{cite book|title=Aucassin and Nicolette|first=Robert S. |last=Sturges|publisher=Michigan State UP|isbn=9781611861570|year=2015|location=East Lansing|page=xv}}</ref> There are records, for example, of [[Saracen]] slave girls sold in [[Marseilles]] in 1248,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/1248serfs5.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> a date which coincided with the fall of [[Seville]] and its surrounding area, to raiding Christian [[Crusades|crusaders]], an event during which a large number of Muslim women from this area were enslaved as war booty, as it has been recorded in some Arabic poetry, notably by the poet [[Salih ben Sharif al-Rundi|al-Rundi]], who was contemporary to the events.
Additionally, the possession of slaves was legal in 13th century Italy; many Christians held Muslim slaves throughout the country. These Saracen slaves were often captured by pirates and brought to Italy from Muslim Spain or North Africa. During the 13th century, most of the slaves in the Italian trade city of [[Genoa]] were of Muslim origin. These Muslim slaves were owned by royalty, military orders or groups, independent entities, and the church itself.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Anne Taylor|first=Julie|date=2007-04-01|title=Freedom and Bondage among Muslims in Southern Italy during the Thirteenth Century|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13602000701308889|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=27|issue=1|pages=72–73|doi=10.1080/13602000701308889|s2cid=216117913|issn=1360-2004}}</ref>
Christians also sold Muslim slaves captured in war. The Order of the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of Malta]] attacked pirates and Muslim shipping, and their base became a center for slave trading, selling captured [[North Africans]] and [[Turkish people|Turks]]. [[Malta]] remained a slave market until well into the late 18th century. One thousand slaves were required to man the galleys (ships) of the Order.<ref>{{cite journal|title=A medical service for slaves in Malta during the rule of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem.|first=P|last=Cassar|date=24 July 1968|journal=Medical History|volume=12|issue=3|pages=270–277|pmid=4875614 |pmc=1033829 |doi=10.1017/s0025727300013314}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/hospitallers/hospitallers.html |title=Brief History of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem |publisher=Hmml.org |date=23 September 2010 |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112130548/http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/hospitallers/hospitallers.html |archive-date=12 January 2009}}</ref>
While they would at times seize Muslims as slaves, it was more likely that Christian armies would kill their enemies, rather than take them into servitude.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Zilfi|first=Madeline C.|date=2016-11-25|title=Mediterranean Slavery Revisited (500-1800): Neue Perspektiven auf Mediterrane Sklaverei (500-1800), written by Stefan Hanss and Juliane Schiel|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jemh/20/6/article-p592_6.xml|journal=Journal of Early Modern History|language=en|volume=20|issue=6|pages=594–595|doi=10.1163/15700658-00200006-05|issn=1385-3783}}</ref>
=== Jewish slave trade ===
{{see also|Radhanite|Jewish views on slavery#Post-Talmud to 1800s|label 2=Jewish views on slavery}}<!--don't remove on title alone, this section discusses relevant content-->
[[File:Gniezno Boleslaus II.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|Christian slaves stand with Jewish merchants while bishop pleads for their release with duke of [[Bohemia]], 1100s<ref>{{Cite book |last=Malamat |first=Abraham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC&pg=PR9 |title=A History of the Jewish People |date=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=ix, 564 |language=en}}</ref>]]
The role of Jewish merchants in the early medieval slave trade has been subject to much misinterpretation and distortion. Although medieval records demonstrate that there were Jews who owned slaves in medieval Europe, Toch (2013) notes that the claim repeated in older sources, such as those by Charles Verlinden, that Jewish merchants where the primary dealers in European slaves is based on misreadings of primary documents from that era. Contemporary Jewish sources do not attest any a large-scale slave trade or ownership of slaves which may be distinguished from the wider phenomenon of early medieval European slavery. The trope of the Jewish dealer of Christian slaves was additionally a prominent image in medieval Europe [[Anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] propaganda.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Toch |first1=Michael |title=The Economic History of European Jews: Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages |date=2013 |publisher=Koninklijke Brill nV |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |isbn=9789004235397 |pages=178–190 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bf8yAQAAQBAJ |access-date=3 October 2022}}</ref>
=== Slave trade at the close of the Middle Ages ===
As more and more of Europe [[Christianization|Christianized]], and open hostilities between Christian and Muslim nations intensified, large-scale slave trade moved to more distant sources. Sending slaves to Egypt, for example, was forbidden by the papacy in 1317, 1323, 1329, 1338, and, finally, 1425, as slaves sent to Egypt would often become soldiers, and end up fighting their former Christian owners. Although the repeated bans indicate that such trade still occurred, they also indicate that it became less desirable.<ref name="dictslave"/> In the 16th century, African slaves replaced almost all other ethnicities and religious enslaved groups in Europe.<ref>Klein, Herbert. ''The Atlantic Slave Trade''.</ref>
==Slavery in law==
===Secular law===
Slavery was heavily regulated in [[Roman law]], which was reorganized in the [[Byzantine Empire]] by [[Justinian I]] as the [[Corpus Iuris Civilis]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rodriguez |first=Junius P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA550 |title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery [2 Volumes] |date=December 1997 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-87436-885-7 |pages=550 |language=en}}</ref> Although the Corpus was lost to the West for centuries, it was rediscovered in the 11th and 12th centuries,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berman |first=Harold J. |date=1977 |title=The Origins of Western Legal Science |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1340133 |journal=Harvard Law Review |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=894–943, 898 |doi=10.2307/1340133 |jstor=1340133 |issn=0017-811X}}</ref> and led to the foundation of law schools in Italy and France.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alburn |first=Cary R. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxLudzNw2h4C&pg=PA564 |title=ABA Journal |date=June 1959 |publisher=American Bar Association |pages=564 |language=en |chapter=Corpus Juris Civilis: A Hisotrical Romance}}</ref> According to the Corpus, the natural state of humanity is freedom, but the "law of nations" may supersede natural law and reduce certain people to slavery. The basic definition of slave in Romano-Byzantine law was:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fordham University, Internet History Sourcebooks Project |date= |title=Book I: Of Persons, Section III: Law of Persons |url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/535institutes.asp |access-date=24 December 2019 |website=Corpus Iurus Civilis: The Institutes, 535 CE}}</ref>
*anyone whose mother was a slave
*anyone who has been captured in battle
*anyone who has sold himself to pay a debt
It was, however, possible to become a freedman or a full citizen; the Corpus, like Roman law, had extensive and complicated rules for [[manumission]] of slaves.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fordham University, Internet History Sourcebooks Project. |title=Book I: Of Persons, Section V: Freedmen. |url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/535institutes.asp |access-date=2023-08-03 |website=Corpus Iurus Civilis: The Institutes, 535 CE}}</ref>
The slave trade in England was officially abolished in 1102.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britsattheirbest.com/freedom/f_time_12th_century.htm|title=BRITISH HISTORY THE STORY of FREEDOM LIBERTY! THE TIMELINE Freedom & justice go hand in hand|website=britsattheirbest.com|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> In [[Poland]] slavery was forbidden in the 15th century; it was replaced by the second enserfment. In [[Lithuania]], slavery was formally abolished in 1588.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>
===Canon law===
In fact, there was an explicit legal justification given for the enslavement of Muslims, found in the [[Decretum Gratiani]] and later expanded upon by the 14th century jurist [[Oldradus de Ponte]]: the Bible states that [[Hagar (Bible)|Hagar]], the slave girl of [[Abraham]], was beaten and cast out by Abraham’s wife [[Sarah]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Kaplan |first=Lindsay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eFByDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA144 |title=Figuring Racism in Medieval Christianity |date=2018-12-07 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-067824-1 |pages=144 |language=en}}</ref> The Decretum, like the Corpus, defined a slave as anyone whose mother was a slave.<ref name=":4" /> Otherwise, the canons were concerned with slavery only in ecclesiastical contexts: slaves for instance were not permitted to be ordained as clergy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allain |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n_KAvAjkEbsC&pg=PA38 |title=The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary |date=2012-09-27 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-966046-9 |pages=38 |language=en}}</ref>
==Slavery in the Byzantine Empire==
{{main|Slavery in the Byzantine Empire}}
==Slavery in the Crusader states==
As a result of the crusades, thousands of Muslims and Christians were sold into slavery. Once sold into slavery most were never heard from again, so it is challenging to find evidence of specific slave experiences.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|author=Susan Jane Allen|title=An Introduction to the Crusades|date=2017|isbn=978-1-4426-0023-2|location=North York, Ontario, Canada|oclc=983482121}}</ref>
In the [[crusade]]r [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], founded in 1099, at most 120,000 Franks ruled over 350,000 Muslims, Jews, and native Eastern Christians.<ref>Benjamin Z. Kedar, "The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant", in ''The Crusades: The Essential Readings'', ed. [[Thomas F. Madden]], Blackwell, 2002, p. 244. Originally published in ''Muslims Under Latin Rule, 1100–1300'', ed. James M. Powell, Princeton University Press, 1990. Kedar quotes his numbers from [[Joshua Prawer]], ''Histoire du royaume latin de Jérusalem'', tr. G. Nahon, Paris, 1969, vol. 1, pp. 498, 568–72.</ref> Following the initial invasion and conquest, sometimes accompanied by massacres or expulsions of Jews and Muslims, a peaceable co-existence between followers of the three religions prevailed.<ref>[[Christopher Tyerman]], ''God’s War, A new History of the Crusades'' pp. 226–228. quote = "Just as non-muslim communities survived under Islam, so non-Christians lived unfree but largely unmolested in Frankish outremer. After the early massacres, displacements and expulsions of Muslims and Jews from conquered cities, coexistence, rather than integration or persecution prevailed ... At Acre, where the two faiths shared a converted mosque as well as a suburban shrine, Muslim visitors were treated fairly and efficiently. Mosques still operated openly in Tyre and elsewhere."</ref> The Crusader states inherited many slaves. To this may have been added some Muslims taken as captives of war. The Kingdom’s largest city, [[Akko|Acre]], had a large slave market; however, the vast majority of Muslims and Jews remained free. The laws of Jerusalem declared that former Muslim slaves, if genuine converts to Christianity, must be freed.<ref>Christopher Tyerman, ''God’s War, A new History of the Crusades,'' p. 230.</ref>
In 1120, the [[Council of Nablus]] forbade sexual relations between crusaders and their female Muslim slaves:<ref name="Hans E. Mayer 1982 pp. 531-533">Hans E. Mayer, "The Concordat of Nablus" ([[Journal of Ecclesiastical History]] 33 (October 1982)), pp. 531–533.</ref> if a man raped his own slave, he would be castrated, but if he raped someone else’s slave, he would be castrated and exiled from the kingdom.<ref name="Hans E. Mayer 1982 pp. 531-533"/> But Benjamin Z. Kedar argued that the canons of the Council of Nablus were in force in the 12th century but had fallen out of use by the thirteenth. Marwan Nader questions this and suggests that the canons may not have applied to the whole kingdom at all times.<ref>Benjamin Z. Kedar, ''On the origins of the earliest laws of Frankish Jerusalem: The canons of the Council of Nablus, 1120'' (''[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]]'' 74, 1999), pp. 330–331; Marwan Nader, ''Burgesses and Burgess Law in the Latin Kingdoms of Jerusalem and Cyprus (1099–1325) (Ashgate: 2006), pg. 45.</ref>
Christian law mandated Christians could not enslave other Christians; however, enslaving non-Christians was acceptable. In fact, military orders frequently enslaved Muslims and used slave labor for agricultural estates.<ref name=":0"/> No Christian, whether Western or Eastern, was permitted by law to be sold into slavery, but this fate was as common for Muslim prisoners of war as it was for Christian prisoners taken by the Muslims. In the later medieval period, some slaves were used to oar Hospitaller ships. Generally, it was a relatively small number non-Christian slaves in medieval Europe, and this number significantly decreased by the end of the medieval period.<ref name=":0" />
The 13th-century [[Assizes of Jerusalem]] dealt more with fugitive slaves and the punishments ascribed to them, the prohibition of slaves testifying in court, and manumission of slaves, which could be accomplished, for example, through a will, or by conversion to Christianity. Conversion was apparently used as an excuse to escape slavery by Muslims who would then continue to practise Islam; crusader lords often refused to allow them to convert, and [[Pope Gregory IX]], contrary to both the laws of Jerusalem and the canon laws that he himself was partially responsible for compiling, allowed for Muslim slaves to remain enslaved even if they had converted.
==Slavery in Iberia==
{{main|Slavery in Spain|Slavery in Portugal}}
Communities of Muslims, Christians, and Jews existed on both sides of the political divide between Muslim and Christian kingdoms in Medieval Iberia: Al-Andalus hosted Jewish and Christian communities while Christian Iberia hosted Muslim and Jewish communities.<ref>{{Cite book|last=D.|first=Phillips, William|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/913510589|title=Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia|date=2014|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-4491-5|pages=20|oclc=913510589}}</ref> Christianity had introduced the ethos that banned the enslavement of fellow Christians, an ethos that was reinforced by the banning of the enslavement of co-religionists during the rise of Islam.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fynn-Paul|first=Jeffrey|title=Empire, Monotheism and Slavery in the Greater Mediterranean Region from Antiquity to the Early Modern Era|date=2009|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40586930|journal=Past & Present|issue=205|pages=13|jstor=40586930|issn=0031-2746}}</ref> Additionally, the [[Dar al-islam|Dar al-Islam]] protected ‘people of the book’ (Christians and Jews living in Islamic lands) from enslavement, an immunity which also applied to Muslims living in Christian Iberia. Despite these restrictions, criminal or indebted Muslims and Christians in both regions were still subject to judicially-sanctioned slavery.<ref>{{Citation|last=Fynn-Paul|first=Jeffrey|title=Empire, Monotheism and Slavery in the Greater Mediterranean Region from Antiquity to the Early Modern Era|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004346611_021|work=Critical Readings on Global Slavery (4 vols.)|year=2017|pages=553–587|publisher=Brill|doi=10.1163/9789004346611_021|isbn=9789004346611|access-date=2021-12-06}}</ref>
===Islamic Iberia===
{{See also|Slavery in Morocco}}[[File:Al-Andalus732.svg|thumb|Al-Andalus in 732]]
An early economic pillar of the Islamic empire in Iberia ([[Al-Andalus]]) during the eighth century was the slave trade. Due to [[manumission]] being a form of piety under Islamic law, slavery in Muslim Spain couldn't maintain the same level of auto-reproduction as societies with older slave populations. Therefore, Al-Andalus relied on trade systems as an external means of replenishing the supply of enslaved people.<ref>Fynn-Paul, p. 26.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jankowiak|first=Marek|date=2017-01-20|title=What Does the Slave Trade in the Saqaliba Tell Us about Early Islamic Slavery?|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=49|issue=1|pages=171|doi=10.1017/s0020743816001240|s2cid=165127852|issn=0020-7438|doi-access=free}}</ref> Forming relations between the Umayyads, Khārijites and 'Abbāsids, the flow of trafficked people from the main routes of the Sahara towards [[Al-Andalus]]<ref>Gaiser, A. (2014) "Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa" in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 42.</ref> served as a highly lucrative trade configuration. The archaeological evidence of human trafficking and proliferation of early trade in this case follows numismatics and materiality of text.<ref>Gaiser, A. (2014) "Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa" in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 44.</ref> This monetary structure of consistent gold influx proved to be a tenet in the development of Islamic commerce.<ref>Gutierrez, J. and Valor, M. (2014) "Trade, Transport and Travel" in Valor, M. and Gutierrez, A. (eds.) The Archaeology of Medieval Spain 1100–1500, Sheffield: Equinox, pp. 124.</ref> In this regard, the slave trade outperformed and was the most commercially successful venture for maximizing capital.<ref>Gaiser, A. (2014) "Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa" in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 45.</ref> This major change in the form of numismatics serves as a paradigm shift from the previous Visigothic economic arrangement. Additionally, it demonstrates profound change from one regional entity to another, the direct transfer of people and pure coinage from one religiously similar semi-autonomous province to another.
The medieval [[Iberian Peninsula]] was the scene of episodic [[warfare]] among Muslims and Christians (although sometimes Muslims and Christians were allies). Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from [[Al-Andalus]] to ravage the Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back booty and people. For example, in a raid on [[Lisbon]] in 1189 the [[Almohad]] caliph [[Yaqub al-Mansur]] took 3,000 female and child captives, and his governor of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] took 3,000 Christian slaves in a subsequent attack upon [[Silves Municipality, Portugal|Silves]] in 1191; an offensive by [[Alfonso VIII of Castile]] in 1182 brought him over two-thousand Muslim slaves.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://libro.uca.edu/rc/rc1.htm|title=Ransoming Captives, Chapter One|website=libro.uca.edu|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> These raiding expeditions also included the Sa’ifa (summer) incursions, a tradition produced during the Amir reign of Cordoba. In addition to acquiring wealth, some of these Sa’ifa raids sought to bring mostly male captives, often eunuchs, back to Al-Andalus. They were generically referred to as [[Saqaliba]], the Arab word for Slavs.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wenner|first=Manfred W.|date=1980|title=The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743800027136|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=12|issue=1|pages=62, 63|doi=10.1017/s0020743800027136|s2cid=162537404 |issn=0020-7438}}</ref> Slavs’ status as the most common group in the slave trade by the tenth century led to the development of the word “slave.”<ref>Phillips, p. 17.</ref> The Saqaliba were mostly assigned to palaces as guards, concubines, and eunuchs, although they were sometimes privately owned.<ref>Jankowiak, p. 169.</ref> Along with Christians and Slavs, Sub-Saharan Africans were also held as slaves, brought back from the caravan trade in the Sahara. Slaves in Islamic lands were generally used for domestic, military, and administrative purposes, rarely used for agriculture or large-scale manufacturing. Christians living in Al-Andalus were not allowed to hold authority over Muslims, but they were permitted to hold non-Muslim slaves.<ref>Phillips, p. 18.</ref>
===Christian Iberia===
[[File:Iberia1300.png|thumb|Iberia in AD 1300. (Partially based on Euratlas map of Europe, 1300.)]]
Contrary to suppositions of historians such as [[Marc Bloch]], slavery thrived as an institution in medieval Christian Iberia.{{Citation needed|date=January 2016}} Slavery existed in the region under the Romans, and continued to do so under the [[Visigoths]]. From the fifth to the early 8th century, large portions of the Iberian Peninsula were ruled by [[Visigothic Kingdom|Christian Visigothic Kingdoms]], whose rulers worked to codify human bondage. In the 7th century, [[Chindasuinth|King Chindasuinth]] issued the [[Visigothic Code]] (Liber Iudiciorum), to which subsequent Visigothic kings added new legislation. Although the Visigothic Kingdom collapsed in the early 8th century, portions of the Visigothic Code were still observed in parts of Spain in the following centuries. The Code, with its pronounced and frequent attention to the legal status of slaves, reveals the continuation of slavery as an institution in post-Roman Spain.
The Code regulated the social conditions, behavior, and punishments of slaves in early medieval Spain. The marriage of slaves and free or freed people was prohibited. Book III, title II, iii ("Where a Freeborn Woman Marries the Slave of Another or a Freeborn Man the Female Slave of Another") stipulates that if a free woman marries another person’s slave, the couple is to be separated and given 100 lashes. Furthermore, if the woman refuses to leave the slave, then she becomes the property of the slave’s master. Likewise, any children born to the couple would follow the father’s condition and be slaves.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Scott|first1=S.P.|title=The Visigothic Code|url=http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-2.pdf|website=The Library of Iberian Resources Online|location=Book III, Title II, Section III}}</ref>
Unlike [[Roman law]], in which only slaves were liable to corporal punishment,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kamen|first=Deborah|year=2010|title=A Corpus of Inscriptions: representing slave marks in Antiquity.|journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome|publisher=University of Michigan Press|volume=55|pages=95–110|jstor=41419689}}</ref> under Visigothic law, people of any social status were subject to corporal punishment. However, the physical punishment, typically beatings, administered to slaves was consistently harsher than that administered to freed or free people. Slaves could also be compelled to give testimony under torture. For example, slaves could be tortured to reveal the adultery of their masters, and it was illegal to free a slave for fear of what he or she might reveal under torture.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Scott|first1=S.P.|title=The Visigothic Code|url=http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-4.pdf|website=The Library of Iberian References Online|location=Book III, Title IV, Section VI}}</ref> Slaves' greater liability to physical punishment and judicial torture suggests their inferior social status in the eyes of Visigothic lawmakers.
Slavery remained persistent in Christian Iberia after the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Umayyad invasions]] in the 8th century, and the Visigothic law codes continued to control slave ownership. However, as William Phillips notes, medieval Iberia should not be thought of as a slave society, but rather as a society that owned slaves.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Phillips|first1=William|title=Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia|date=2014|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|page=10}}</ref> Slaves accounted for a relatively small percentage of the population, and did not make up a significant portion of the labor pool. Furthermore, while the existence of slavery continued from the earlier period, the use of slaves in post-Visigothic Christian Iberia differed from early periods. Ian Wood has suggests that, under the Visigoths, the majority of the slave population lived and worked on rural estates.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wood|first1=Ian|chapter=Social Relations in the Visigothic Kingdom from the Fifth to the Seventh Century|title=The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century: An Ethnographic Perspective|date=1999|publisher=Boydell Press|location=Woodbridge|page=195}}</ref>
After the Muslim invasions, slave owners (especially in the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]] and [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]]) moved away from using slaves as field laborers or in work gangs, and did not press slaves into military service.<ref name="Phillips 19">Phillips p.19</ref> Slaves tended to be owned singly rather than in large groups. There appear to have been many more female than male slaves, and they were most often used as domestic servants, or to supplement free labor.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saunders|first1=A.C. de C.M.|title=A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal: 1441–1555|date=1982|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|pages=84–85}}</ref><ref name="Phillips 19" /> In this respect, slave institutions in Aragon, especially, closely resembled those of other Mediterranean Christian kingdoms in France and Italy.<ref>Phiilps pages 14–15, 19</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Blumenthal|first1=Debra|title=Enemies and Familiars: Slavery and Mastery in Fifteenth-Century Valencia|url=https://archive.org/details/enemiesfamiliars00blum|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/enemiesfamiliars00blum/page/2 2]–3|isbn=9780801445026}}</ref>
In the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Leon|León]] and [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]], slavery followed the Visigothic model more closely than in the littoral kingdoms. Slaves in León and Castile were more likely to be employed as field laborers, supplanting free labor to support an aristocratic estate society.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barton|first1=Simon|title=The Aristocracy of Twelfth-Century Leon and Castile|date=1997|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|page=83}}</ref> These trends in slave populations and use changed in the wake of the Black Death in 1348, which significantly increased the demand for slaves across the whole of the peninsula.<ref>Phillips p.21</ref>
Christians were not the only slaveholders in Christian Iberia. Both Jews and Muslims living under Christian rule owned slaves, though more commonly in Aragon and Valencia than in Castile.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roth|first1=Norman|title=Jews, Visigoths & Muslims in Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict|date=1994|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|pages=160–161}}</ref><ref>Phillips pp.20–21</ref> After the conquest of Valencia in 1245, the Kingdom of Aragon prohibited the possession of Christian slaves by Jews, though they were still permitted to hold Muslim or pagan slaves.<ref>Roth pp.156, 160</ref> The main role of Iberian Jews in the slave trade came as facilitators: Jews acted as slave brokers and agents of transfer between the Christian and Muslim kingdoms.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
This role caused some degree of fear among Christian populations. A letter from [[Pope Gregory XI]] to the Bishop of [[Cordoba, Andalusia|Cordoba]] in 1239 addressed rumors that the Jews were involved in kidnapping and selling Christian women and children into slavery while their husbands were away fighting the Muslims.<ref name="ReferenceA">Roth p.160</ref> Despite these worries, the primary role of Jewish slave traders lay in facilitating the exchange of captives between Muslim and Christian rulers, one of the primary threads of economic and political connectivity between Christian and Muslim Iberia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Broadman|first1=James William|title=Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier|date=1986|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|page=passim}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Kathryn|editor1-last=Trivellato|editor1-first=Francesca|editor2-last=Halevi|editor2-first=Leor|editor3-last=Antunes|editor3-first=Catia|title=Religion and Trade: Cross Cultural Exchanges in World History, 1000–1900|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|pages=131–159|chapter="Reflections on Reciprocity: A Late Medieval Islamic Perspective on Christian-Muslim Commitment to Captive Exchange."}}</ref>
In the early period after the fall of the Visigothic kingdom in the 8th century, slaves primarily came into Christian Iberia through trade with the Muslim kingdoms of the south.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Constable|first1=Olivia|title=Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula, 900–1500|date=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|page=47}}</ref> Most were Eastern European, captured in battles and raids, with the heavy majority being [[Slavs]].<ref>Phillips p.17</ref> However, the ethnic composition of slaves in Christian Iberia shifted over the course of the Middle Ages. Slaveholders in the Christian kingdoms gradually moved away from owning Christians, in accordance with Church proscriptions. In the middle of the medieval period most slaves in Christian Iberia were Muslim, either captured in battle with the Islamic states from the southern part of the peninsula, or taken from the eastern Mediterranean and imported into Iberia by merchants from cities such as [[Genoa]].<ref>Phillips p.61</ref>
The Christian kingdoms of Iberia frequently traded their Muslim captives back across the border for payments of money or kind. Indeed, historian James Broadman writes that this type of redemption offered the best chance for captives and slaves to regain their freedom.<ref>Broadman p.6</ref> The sale of Muslim captives, either back to the Islamic southern states or to third-party slave brokers, supplied one of the means by which Aragon and Castile financed the [[Reconquista]]. Battles and sieges provided large numbers of captives; after the siege of [[Almeria]] in 1147, sources report that [[Alfonso VII of León]] sent almost 10,000 of the city’s Muslim women and children to Genoa to be sold into slavery as partial repayment of Genoese assistance in the campaign.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Phillips|first1=Jonathan|title=The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom|date=2007|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|page=260}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=O'Callaghan|first1=Joseph F.|title=Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain|date=2003|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|page=140}}</ref>
Towards the end of the Reconquista, however, this source of slaves became increasingly exhausted. Muslim rulers were increasingly unable to pay ransoms, and the Christian capture of large centers of population in the south made wholesale enslavement of Muslim populations impractical.<ref>Phillips pp.60–61</ref> The loss of an Iberian Muslim source of slaves further encouraged Christians to look to other sources of manpower. Beginning with the first Portuguese slave raid in sub-Saharan Africa in 1411, the focus of slave importation began to shift from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic World, and the racial composition of slaves in Christian Iberia began to include an increasing number of Sub-Saharan Africans.<ref>Blumenthal p.20</ref><ref>Saunders pp.5–7</ref>
Between 1489 and 1497 almost 2,100 black slaves were shipped from Portugal to Valencia.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite book|last1=Lawrance|first1=Jeremey|author-link1=Jeremy Lawrance|editor1-last=Earle|editor1-first=T.F.|editor2-last=Lowe|editor2-first=K.J.P.|title=Black Africans in Renaissance Europe|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|page=70|chapter=Black Africans in Renaissance Spanish Literature}}</ref><ref name="auto3">Saunders p.29</ref> By the end of the 15th century, Spain held the largest population of black Africans in Europe, with a small, but growing community of black ex-slaves.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> In the mid 16th century Spain imported up to 2,000 black African slaves annually through Portugal, and by 1565 most of [[Seville|Seville’s]] 6,327 slaves (out of a total population of 85,538) were black Africans.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="auto3"/>
== Slavery in the Mediterranean ==
{{See also|Slavery in Malta}}
[[File:Republik Venedig Handelswege01.png|thumb|[[Maritime republics]] of [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]] (red) and [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] (green) and their trade routes in the [[Mediterranean world|Mediterranean region]]]]
In the Mediterranean region, individuals became enslaved through war and conquest, piracy, and frontier raiding. Additionally, some courts would sentence people to slavery, and even some people sold themselves or their children into slavery due to extreme poverty.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=O'Connell, Monique, 1974–|title=The Mediterranean world : from the fall of Rome to the rise of Napoleon|others=Dursteler, Eric|date=23 May 2016|isbn=978-1-4214-1901-5|location=Baltimore|oclc=921240187}}</ref> The incentive for slavery in the Mediterranean was the greed of the slavers. The motivation behind many raids was to make money from the resulting slaves, with no political or religious agenda. Also, state and religious institutions frequently participated in the ransoming of individuals, so piracy became a lucrative market. This meant some individuals were returned home while others were sold away.<ref name=":1" />
For those who traded in the Mediterranean, it was the humanity and intellect of these enslaved peoples that made them valuable merchandise worth commodifying. To purchase an individual was to purchase their labor, autonomy, and faith; religious conversion was often a motivation for these transactions. Additionally, religious division was the fundamental basis of law for the ownership of slaves during this period; it was not legal for Christians, Muslims, or Jewish people to enslave fellow believers. However, the enslavement, and compulsory conversion, of nonbelievers or people from other religions was permissible.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Barker|first=Hannah|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.9783/9780812296488/html|title=That Most Precious Merchandise|date=2019-09-27|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|pages=209–212|language=en|doi=10.9783/9780812296488|isbn=9780812296488|s2cid=219875156}}</ref>
There were markets throughout the Mediterranean where enslaved people were bought and sold. In Italy the major slave trade centers were Venice and Genoa; in Iberia they were Barcelona and Valencia; and islands off the Mediterranean including Majorca, Sardinia, Sicily, Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus, and Chios also participated in slave markets. From these markets merchants would sell enslaved people domestically, or transport them to somewhere enslaved people were more in demand.<ref name=":1" /> For example, the Italian slave market often found itself selling to Egypt in order to meet the Mamluk demand for slaves. This demand caused Venice and Genoa to compete with one another for control of Black Sea trading ports.<ref>Barker, p. 211.</ref>
The duties and expectations of slaves varied geographically; however, in the Mediterranean, it was most common for enslaved people to work in the households of elites. Enslaved people also worked in agricultural fields, but this was infrequent across the Mediterranean. It was most common in Venetian Crete, Genoese Chios, and Cyprus where enslaved people worked in vineyards, fields, and sugar mills. These were colonial societies, and enslaved people worked with free laborers in these areas. Enslaved women were sought after the most and therefore sold at the highest prices. This reflects the desire for domestic workers in elite households; however, enslaved women also could face sexual exploitation.<ref name=":1" /> Furthermore, even if freed from their stations, the former masters of these women often maintained power over them by becoming their employers or patrons.<ref>Barker, p. 210.</ref>
==Slavery in Moldavia and Wallachia==
{{main|Slavery in Romania}}
[[File:Ștefan cel Mare. Danie sălașe de țigani pentru Episcopia Rădăuți.jpg|thumb|A deed of donation through which [[Stephen III of Moldavia]] donates a number of ''sălașe'' of Roma slaves to the Rădăuţi bishopric]]
'''Slavery''' existed on the territory of present-day [[Romania]] while under [[Ottoman Empire|The Ottoman Empire]] and [[Russian Empire]] rulership, from before the founding of the principalities of [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] in 13th–14th century, until it was [[Abolitionism|abolished]] in stages during the 1840s and 1850s before the independence of the [[United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia]] was allowed, and also until 1783, in [[Transylvania]] and [[Bukovina]] (parts of the [[Habsburg monarchy]] and later [[Austria-Hungary|The Austria-Hungarian Empire]]). Most slaves were of [[Roma minority in Romania|Roma]] (Gypsy) ethnicity and a significant number of ''Rumâni''[https://ro.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumâni_(categorie_socială)] in [[Serfdom]] slavery.
Historian [[Nicolae Iorga]] associated the Roma people’s arrival with the 1241 [[Mongol invasion of Europe]] and considered their slavery as a vestige of that era. The practice of enslaving prisoners may also have been taken from the Mongols. The ethnic identity of the "Tatar slaves" is unknown, they could have been captured Tatars of the [[Golden Horde]], [[Cumans]], or the slaves of Tatars and Cumans.<ref>Viorel Achim, The Roma in Romanian History, [[Central European University Press]], Budapest, 2004, {{ISBN|963-9241-84-9}}</ref>
While it is possible that some Romani people were slaves or auxiliary troops of the Mongols or Tatars and [[Nogai Horde]], the bulk of them came from south of the [[Danube]] at the end of the 14th century, some time before the [[foundation of Wallachia]].
The Roma slaves were owned by the [[Boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia|boyars]] (see [[Wallachian Revolution of 1848]]), the Christian Orthodox monasteries, or the state. They were used only as smiths, [[Gold panning|gold panners]] and as agricultural workers.
The Rumâni were only owned by [[Boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia|Boyars]] and [[Romanian Orthodox Church|Monasteries]], until the [[Independence of Romania]] from the [[Ottoman Empire]] on 9th of May 1877. They were considered less valuable because they were taxable, only skilled at agricultural work and couldn't be used at tribute.
It was common for both boyars and monasteries to register their Romanian [[Serfdom|serfs]] as "Gypsies" so that they would not pay the taxes that were imposed on the serfs.<ref>Marushiakova and Vesselin, p. 103</ref> Any Romanian, regardless of gender, marrying a Roma would immediately become a slave that could be used as tribute.
==Slavery in Russia==
{{main|Slavery in Russia|Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe|Kholop|l2 = Crimean slave raids}}
{{Early Slavic status}}
In [[Kievan Rus]] and [[Russia]], the slaves were usually classified as [[kholop]]s. A kholop’s master had unlimited power over his life: he could kill him, sell him, or use him as payment upon a [[debt]]. The master, however, was responsible before the law for his kholop’s actions. A person could become a kholop as a result of capture, selling himself or herself, being sold for debts or committed [[crime]]s, or marriage to a kholop. Until the late 10th century, the kholops represented a majority among the servants who worked lordly lands.
By the 16th century, slavery in [[Russia]] consisted mostly of those who sold themselves into slavery owing to poverty.<ref name="Richard Hellie 1984">[[Richard Hellie]], ''Slavery in Russia, 1450–1725'' (1984)</ref> They worked predominantly as household servants, among the richest families, and indeed generally produced less than they consumed.<ref>Carolyn Johnston Pouncey, ''The [[Domostroy|Domostroi]]: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible'', p15 {{ISBN|0-8014-9689-6}}</ref> Laws forbade the freeing of slaves in times of famine, to avoid feeding them, and slaves generally remained with the family a long time; the ''[[Domostroy]]'', an advice book, speaks of the need to choose slaves of good character and to provide for them properly.<ref>Carolyn Johnston Pouncey, ''The Domostroi: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible'', p33 {{ISBN|0-8014-9689-6}}</ref> Slavery remained a major institution in [[Russia]] until 1723, when [[Peter the Great]] converted the household slaves into house [[serfs]]. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into [[Serfdom in Russia|serfs]] earlier in 1679.<ref name="Richard Hellie 1984"/>
In 1382 the Golden Horde under Khan [[Tokhtamysh]] sacked [[Moscow]], burning the city and carrying off thousands of inhabitants as slaves. For years the [[Khanate of Kazan|Khanates of Kazan]] and [[Astrakhan Khanate|Astrakhan]] routinely made raids on Russian principalities for
slaves and to plunder towns. Russian chronicles record about 40 raids of [[List of Kazan khans|Kazan Khans]] on the Russian territories in the first half of the 16th century.<ref>The Full Collection of the Russian Annals, vol.13, SPb, 1904</ref> In 1521, the combined forces of Crimean Khan [[Mehmed I Giray]] and his Kazan allies attacked Moscow and captured thousands of slaves.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Crimean_Khanate|title=The Tatar Khanate of Crimea – All Empires|website=allempires.com}}</ref> About 30 major Tatar raids were recorded into [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovite]] territories between 1558 and 1596.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html|title=Supply of Slaves|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> In 1571, the Crimean Tatars attacked and sacked Moscow, burning everything but the Kremlin and taking thousands of captives as slaves.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/cities/printStory.cfm?obj_id=9141603&city_id=MCW|title=Gulliver|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> In [[Crimea]], about 75% of the population consisted of slaves.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157|title=Historical survey > Slave societies (broken link)|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>
==Slavery in Poland and Lithuania==
[[File:Lithuanian Statute I.jpg|thumb|[[Statutes of Lithuania]] banned slavery, 1529|upright]]
{{main|Slavery in Poland|Slavery in Lithuania}}
Slavery in Poland existed on the territory of [[Kingdom of Poland (Piasts)|Kingdom of Poland]] during the times of the [[Piast dynasty]],<ref name="bardach40-41">Juliusz Bardach, Bogusław Lesnodorski, and Michał Pietrzak, ''Historia państwa i prawa polskiego'' (Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987; p. 40–41</ref> however, slavery was restricted to those captured during war. In some special cases and for limited periods [[serfdom]] was also applied to debtors.
Slavery was banned officially in 1529 and prohibition on slavery was one of the most important of the [[Statutes of Lithuania]], which had to be implemented before the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] could join the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] in 1569.
The First Statute was drafted in 1522 and came into power in 1529 by the initiative of the [[Lithuanian Council of Lords]]. It has been proposed that the codification was initiated by [[Grand Chancellor of Lithuania]] [[Mikołaj Radziwiłł (1470–1521)|Mikołaj Radziwiłł]] as a reworking and expansion of the 15th century [[Casimir's Code]].<ref>{{in lang|lt}} E. Gudavičius, [http://ausis.gf.vu.lt/mg/nr/2002/09/09stat.html Stages of the Lithuanian Statute] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927164324/http://ausis.gf.vu.lt/mg/nr/2002/09/09stat.html |date=27 September 2006 }}</ref>
==Slavery in Scandinavia==
{{main|Slavery in Denmark|Slavery in Sweden|Thrall}}
The evidence indicates that slavery in Scandinavia was more common in southern regions, as there are fewer northern provincial laws that contain mentions of slavery. Likewise, slaves were likely numerous but consolidated under the ownership of elites as chattel labor on large farm estates.<ref name=":6">{{cite book|last=Iversen|first=Frode|title=Nordic Elites in Transformation, c. 1050–1250, Volume I|publisher=Routledge|year=2019|isbn=9780429262210|pages=60–79|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Raffield|first=Ben|date=December 2019|title=The Slave Markets of the Viking World: Comparative Perspectives on an 'Invisible Archaeology |doi=10.1080/0144039X.2019.1592976|journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=40|issue=4|pages=682–705|s2cid=151255018|doi-access=free}}</ref>
{{Norse status}}
The laws from 12th and 13th centuries describe the legal status of two categories. According to the Norwegian [[Gulating]] code (in about 1160), domestic slaves could not, unlike foreign slaves, be sold out of the country. This and other laws defined slaves as their master’s property at the same level as cattle; if either were harmed then the perpetrator was responsible for damages, but if either caused damage to property then the owners were held accountable.<ref name=":3" /> It also described a procedure for giving a slave their freedom. According to the Law of Scania<ref name=":7">{{cite book|last1=Tamm|first1=Ditlev|title=The Danish medieval laws : the laws of Scania, Zealand and Jutland|last2=Vogt|first2=Helle|publisher=Routledge medieval translations|year=2016|isbn=9781315646374|location=London|language=English}}</ref> slaves could be granted freedom or redeem it themselves, upon which they must then be accepted into a new kin group or face societal ostracization.<ref name=":7" />
The Law of Scania indicates free men may become slaves as a way to atone for a crime with the implication they would be eventually freed. Likewise, the Gotlander Guta Lag indicates slavery could be for a fixed period and as a method to pay for debt.<ref>{{cite book|last=Peel|first=Christine|title=Guta Lag and Guta Saga : the Law and History of the Gotlanders|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=9781315735863|location=London|language=English}}</ref> Within the Older Västgöta Law widows are only allowed to remarry if an enslaved fostre or fostra could manage the farm in her absence. Likewise, the Younger Västgöta Law indicates further trust for fostre and fostra as they could occasionally be entrusted with the master’s keys. Likewise, some fostre were in such a trusted position they could undertake military actions while a slave.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":7" /> Yet, for all their independence, any children of fostre or fostra were still property of their masters.<ref name=":3" />
[[File:LSR Wikinger - Sklavenfessel.jpg|thumb|Viking-era slave chains|upright]]
A freed slave did not have full legal status; for example, the punishment for killing a former slave was low. A former slave’s son also had a low status, but higher than that of his parents. Women were commonly taken as slaves and forced into concubinage for lords. The children of these women had little formal rights with inheritance and legitimacy possible should they be needed for succession or favored by their parents, but nothing was guaranteed.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Karras|first=Ruth|title=Concubinage and Slavery in the Viking Age|date=1990|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40919117|journal=Scandinavian Studies|volume=62|issue=2|pages=141–162|jstor=40919117|via=JSTOR}}</ref>
Slavery began to be replaced by a feudal-style tenant farmer economy wherein free men tied to the land worked farms for a lord reducing the need for slaves<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /> The Norwegian law code from 1274, ''[[Landslov]]'' (Land’s law), does not mention slaves, but former slaves. Thus it seems like slavery was abolished in Norway by this time.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} In Denmark, slavery was gradually replaced by serfdom (hoveriet) in the 13th-century, and in Sweden, slavery was abolished in 1334 and not replaced with serfdom, which never excisted in Sweden.<ref>Dick Harrison (2006). Slaveri: Forntiden till renässansen. Lund: Historiska media. ISBN 91-85057-81-9</ref>
==Slavery in the British Isles==
{{main|Slavery in Britain|Slavery in Ireland}}
British [[medieval Wales|Wales]] and Gaelic [[medieval Ireland (disambiguation)|Ireland]] and [[medieval Scotland|Scotland]] were among the last areas of Christian Europe to give up their institution of slavery. Under Gaelic custom, prisoners of war were routinely taken as slaves. During the period that slavery was disappearing across most of western Europe, it was reaching its height in the British Isles: the Viking invasions and the subsequent warring between Scandinavians and the natives, the number of captives taken as slaves drastically increased. The Irish church was vehemently opposed to slavery and blamed the 1169 [[Norman invasion of Ireland|Norman invasion]] on divine punishment for the practice, along with local acceptance of [[polygyny]] and [[divorce]].
==Serfdom versus slavery==
In considering how serfdom evolved from slavery, historians who study the divide between slavery and serfdom encounter several issues of [[historiography]] and methodology. Some historians believe that slavery transitioned into serfdom (a view that has only been around for the last 200 years), though there is disagreement among them regarding how rapid this transition was.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/70 70]–71|isbn=9780801436802}}</ref> Pierre Bonnassie, a medieval historian, thought that the chattel slavery of the ancient world ceased to exist in the Europe of the 10th century and was followed by [[Feudalism|feudal]] serfdom.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/68 68]|isbn=9780801436802}}</ref> Jean-Pierre Devroey thinks that the shift from slavery to serfdom was gradual as well in some parts of the continent.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Devroey|first1=Jean-Pierre|title=Men and Women in Early Medieval Serfdom: the Ninth-Century North Frankish Evidence|journal=Past and Present|volume=166|year=2007|page=17|doi=10.1093/past/166.1.3}}</ref> Other areas, though, did not have what he calls "western-style serfdom" after the end of slavery, such as the rural areas of the [[Byzantine Empire]], [[Iceland]], and [[Scandinavia]].<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite journal|last1=Devroey|first1=Jean-Pierre|title=Men and Women in Early Medieval Serfdom: The Ninth-Century North Frankish Evidence|journal=Past and Present|year=2000|volume=166|page=28|doi=10.1093/past/166.1.3}}</ref> Complicating this issue is that regions in Europe often had both serfs and slaves simultaneously. In northwestern Europe, a transition from slavery to serfdom happened by the 12th century. The Catholic Church promoted the transformation by giving the example. Enslavement of fellow Catholics was prohibited in 992 and manumission was declared to be a pious act. However it remained legal to enslave people of other religions and dogmas.<ref name="auto2">{{cite book|last=Clarence-Smith|first=W. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZW9DjTAox6EC|title=Religions and the abolition of slavery – a comparative approach|date=24 December 2006|publisher=C. Hurst & Company|isbn=9781850657088}}</ref>
Generally speaking, regarding how slaves differed from serfs, the underpinnings of slavery and serfdom are debated as well. Dominique Barthélemy, among others, has questioned the very premises for neatly distinguishing serfdom from slavery, arguing that a binary classification masks the many shades of servitude.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/71 71]|isbn=9780801436802}}</ref> Of particular interest to historians is the role of serfdom and slavery within the state, and the implications that held for both serf and slave. Some think that slavery was the exclusion of people from the public sphere and its institutions, whereas serfdom was a complex form of dependency that usually lacked a codified basis in the legal system.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|pages=[https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/68 68]–69|isbn=9780801436802}}</ref> Wendy Davies argues that serfs, like slaves, also became excluded from the public judicial system and that judicial matters were attended to in the private courts of their respective lords.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Davies|first1=Wendy|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|date=1996|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|pages=236–238|chapter=On Servile Status in the Early Middle Ages}}</ref>
Despite the scholarly disagreement, it is possible to piece together a general picture of slavery and serfdom. Slaves typically owned no property, and were in fact the property of their masters. Slaves worked full-time for their masters and operated under a negative [[Incentives|incentive structure]]; in other words, failure to work resulted in physical punishment.<ref name=":2">{{cite book|last1=Engerman|first1=Stanley|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|year=1996|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|pages=31–32|chapter=Slavery, Serfdom, and Other Forms of Coerced Labour: Similarities and Differences}}</ref> Serfs held plots of land, which was essentially a form of "payment" that the lord offered in exchange for the serf’s service.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bush|first1=Michael|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|year=1996|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|page=3|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> Serfs worked part-time for the masters and part-time for themselves and had opportunities to accumulate personal wealth that often did not exist for the slave.<ref name=":2"/>
Slaves were generally imported from foreign countries or continents, via the [[slave trade]]. Serfs were typically indigenous Europeans and were not subject to the same involuntary movements as slaves. Serfs worked in family units, whereas the concept of family was generally murkier for slaves.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bush|first1=Michael|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|date=1996|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|page=2|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> At any given moment, a slave’s family could be torn apart via trade, and masters often used this threat to coerce compliant behavior from the slave.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Engerman|first1=Stanley|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|date=1996|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|pages=24–26|chapter=Slavery, serfdom and other forms of coerced labour: similarities and differences}}</ref>
The end of serfdom is also debated, with Georges Duby pointing to the early 12th century as a rough end point for "serfdom in the strict sense of the term".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|page=[https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/79 79]|isbn=9780801436802}}</ref> Other historians dispute this assertion, citing discussions and the mention of serfdom as an institution during later dates (such as in 13th century [[England]], or in Central Europe, where the rise of serfdom coincided with its decline in Western Europe). There are several approaches to get a time span for the transition, and [[lexicography]] is one such method. There is supposedly a clear shift in diction when referencing those who were either slaves or serfs at approximately 1000, though there is not a consensus on how significant this shift is, or if it even exists.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barthélemy|first1=Dominique|title=The Serf the Knight and the Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|page=[https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/69 69]|isbn=9780801436802}}</ref>
In addition, [[numismatists]] shed light on the decline of serfdom. There is a widespread theory that the introduction of currency hastened the decline of serfdom because it was preferable to pay for labor rather than depend on feudal obligations. Some historians argue that landlords began selling serfs their land – and hence, their freedom – during periods of [[economic inflation]] across Europe.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bush|first1=Michael|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|page=12|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> Other historians argue that the end of slavery came from the royalty, who gave serfs freedom through edicts and legislation in an attempt to broaden their tax base.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Engerman|first1=Stanley|title=Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman Limited|location=London|page=38|chapter=Slavery, serfdom and other forms of coerced labour: similarities and differences}}</ref>
The absence of serfdom in some parts of medieval Europe raises several questions. Devroey thinks it is because slavery was not born out of economic structures in these areas, but was rather a societal practice.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Heinrich Fichtenau points out that in Central Europe, there was not a labor market strong enough for slavery to become a necessity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fichtenau|first1=Heinrich|title=Living in the 10th century: Mentalities and Social Orders|date=1984|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|page=372}}</ref>
==Justifications for slavery==
In late Rome, the official attitude toward slavery was ambivalent. According to [[Corpus Juris Civilis|Justinian’s legal code]], slavery was defined as "an institution according to the law of nations whereby one person falls under the [[property rights]] of another, contrary to nature".<ref>David Graeber, ''Debt: The First 5000 Years'' (Brooklyn, New York: Melville House, 2011), ch. 7.</ref>
Justifications for slavery throughout the medieval period were dominated by the perception of religious difference. Slaves were often outsiders taken in war. As such, Hebrew and Islamic thinking both conceived of the slave as an "enemy within".<ref>[[Orlando Patterson]], ''Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 40–41.</ref> In the Christian tradition, [[paganism|pagans]] and [[heretics]] were similarly considered enemies of the faith who could be justly enslaved. In theory, slaves who converted could embark on the path to freedom, but practices were inconsistent: masters were not obliged to [[manumission|manumit]] them and the practice of baptising slaves was often discouraged.<ref name="Rayborn, p.93">Timothy Rayborn, ''The Violent Pilgrimage: Christians, Muslims and Holy Conflicts, 850–1150'', Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2013, p. 93.</ref> The enslavement of co-religionists was discouraged, if not forbidden, for Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike. Consequently, northern European pagans and black Africans were a target for all three religious groups. Ethnic and religious difference were conflated in the justification of slavery.<ref name="Rayborn, p.93"/>
A major Christian justification for the use of slavery, especially against those with dark skin, was the [[Curse of Ham]]. The Curse of Ham refers to a biblical parable ([https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%209:20-27 Gen. 9:20–27]) in which [[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]], the son of [[Noah]], sins by seeing his father inebriated and naked, although scholars differ on the exact nature of Ham’s transgression. Noah then curses Ham’s offspring, [[Canaan]], with being a "servant of servants unto his brethren". Although race or skin color is not mentioned, many Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars began to interpret the passage as a curse of both slavery and black skin, in an attempt to justify the enslavement of people of color, specifically those of African descent.<ref>David M. Goldenberg, ''The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam'' (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005).</ref> In the medieval period, however, it was also used by some Christians as a justification for serfdom. Muslim sources in the 7th century allude to the Curse of Ham gaining relevance as a justifying myth for the Islamic world’s longstanding enslavement of Africans.
The apparent discrepancy between the notion of human liberty founded in [[natural law]] and the recognition of slavery by [[canon law]] was resolved by a legal "compromise": enslavement was allowable given a just cause, which could then be defined by papal authority.<ref>Walter Ullmann, ''Medieval Papalism'' (Routledge, 1949), p. 57.</ref> The state of slavery was thought to be closely tied to [[original sin]].<ref>David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966), pp. 92–94.</ref> Towards the middle of the 15th century, the [[Catholic Church and slavery|Catholic Church]], in particular the Papacy, took an active role in offering justifications for the enslavement of Saracens, pagans, infidels, and "other enemies of Christ". In 1452, a [[papal bull]] entitled [[Dum Diversas]] authorized [[Afonso V of Portugal|King Afonso V of Portugal]] to enslave any "Saracens" or "pagans" he encountered. The Pope, [[Pope Nicholas V]], recognized King Alfonso’s military action as legitimate in the form of the papal bull, and declared the
<blockquote>full and free power, through the Apostolic authority by this edict, to invade, conquer, fight, and subjugate the Saracens and pagans, and other infidels and other enemies of Christ, and ... to reduce their persons into perpetual servitude ...<ref>Pope Nicholas V, "Dum diversas" (1452), in ''Bullarium patronatus Portugalliae regum in ecclesiis Africae, Asiae atque Oceaniae'' (1868) [https://books.google.com/books?id=6NDmAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22in%20perpetuam%20servitutem%22&pg=PA22 p. 22.]</ref><ref>Pope Nicholas V (1452), "Dum Diversas (English Translation)", ''Unam Sanctam Catholicam'', 5 February 2011. http://unamsanctamcatholicam.blogspot.com/2011/02/dum-diversas-english-translation.html.</ref></blockquote>
In a follow-up bull, released in 1455 and entitled [[Romanus Pontifex]], Pope Nicholas V reiterated his support for the enslavement of infidels in the context of Portugal’s monopoly on North African trade routes.<ref>Frances Gardiner Davenport, ''European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies to 1648'' (Washington, D.C.), pp. 20–26.</ref>
Historians such as Timothy Rayborn have contended that religious justifications served to mask the economic necessities underlying the institution of slavery.<ref name="Rayborn, p.93"/>
==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Catholic Church and slavery]]
* [[Christianity and slavery]]
* [[History of slavery]]
* [[Islamic views on slavery]]
* [[Slavery in ancient Greece]]
* [[Slavery in ancient Rome]]
* [[Slavery in antiquity]]
* [[The Bible and slavery]]
{{col div end}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==Further reading==
* Barker, Hannah "Slavery in Medieval Europe." ''Oxford Bibliographies'' (2019) [https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396584/obo-9780195396584-0276.xml]
* Barker, Hannah ''[[That Most Precious Merchandise: The Mediterranean Trade in Black Sea Slaves, 1260-1500]]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019)
* Campbell, Gwyn ''et al.'' eds. ''Women and Slavery, Vol. 1: Africa, the Indian Ocean World, and the Medieval North Atlantic'' (2007)
* Dockès, Pierre. ''Medieval Slavery and Liberation'' (1989)
* Frantzen, Allen J., and Douglas Moffat, eds. ''The Work of Work: Servitude, Slavery and Labor in Medieval England'' (1994)
* Karras, Ruth Mazo. ''Slavery and Society in Medieval Scandinavia'' (Yale University Press, 1988)
* Perry, Craig ''et al.'' eds. ''The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2 AD500-AD1420 (Cambridge University Press, 2021)
* Phillips, William D. ''Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade'' (Manchester University Press, 1985)
* Rio, Alice. ''Slavery After Rome, 500-1100'' (Oxford University Press, 2017) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=54675 online review]
* Stuard, Susan Mosher. "Ancillary evidence for the decline of medieval slavery." ''Past & Present'' 149 (1995): 3-28 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/651097 online].
* Verhulst, Adriaan. "The decline of slavery and the economic expansion of the Early Middle Ages." ''Past & Present'' No. 133 (Nov., 1991), pp. 195–203 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/650772 online]
* Wyatt David R. ''Slaves and warriors in medieval Britain and Ireland, 800–1200'' (2009)
{{Middle Ages}}
[[Category:Slavery in Europe]]
[[Category:History of slavery]]
[[Category:Medieval society]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -117,37 +117,4 @@
==Slavery in the Byzantine Empire==
{{main|Slavery in the Byzantine Empire}}
-
-==Slavery in the Islamic Near East==
-{{main|History of slavery in the Muslim world|label 1 = Slavery in the Islamic world}}
-
-The ancient and medieval [[Near East]] includes modern day [[Turkey]], the [[Levant]] and [[Egypt]], with strong connections to the rest of the [[North Africa|North African]] coastline. All of these areas were ruled by either the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] or the [[Sasanian Empire|Persians]] at the end of [[late antiquity]]. Pre-existing [[Slavery in the Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] (i.e. Roman) and [[Slavery in Iran|Persian institutions of slavery]] may have influenced the development of [[Islamic views on slavery|institutions of slavery in Islamic law and jurisprudence]].<ref>Crone, Patricia. Roman, Provincial, and Islamic Law: The Origins of the Islamic Patronate. Cambridge University Press, 1987.</ref> Likewise, some scholars have argued for the influence of [[Jewish views on slavery|Rabbinic tradition in regards to slavery]] on the development of Islamic legal thought.<ref>Wegner, J. R. "Islamic and Talmudic Jurisprudence: The Four Roots of Islamic Law and their Talmudic Counterparts," The American Journal of Legal History, 26, 1 (1982): p. 25-71.</ref>
-
-Whatever the relationship between these different legal traditions, many similarities exist between the practice of [[Islamic Slavery|Islamic slavery]] in the early Middle Ages and the practices of early medieval Byzantines and western Europeans. The status of freed slaves under Islamic rule, who continued to owe services to their former masters, bears a strong similarity to [[slavery in ancient Rome]] and [[slavery in ancient Greece]]. However, the practice of slavery in the early medieval Near East also grew out of slavery practices in currency among pre-Islamic Arabs.<ref>Lewis, Bernard, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 4.</ref>
-
-===Islamic states===
-{{See also|Slavery in Egypt}}[[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|thumb|Rise of [[Islam]] in the [[Near East]] and its expansion to the [[Mediterranean world|Mediterranean region]] from 622 to 750 AD {{legend|#a1584e|[[Muhammad]], 622–632}} {{legend|#ef9070|[[Rashidun Caliphate]], 632–661}} {{legend|#fad07d|[[Umayyad Caliphate]], 661–750}}]]
-Like the Old and New Testaments and Greek and Roman law codes, the [[Quran]] takes the institution of slavery for granted, though it urges kindness toward slaves and eventual manumission, especially for slaves who convert to Islam.<ref>Lewis, 1990, p. 5.</ref> In early Middle Ages, many slaves in Islamic society served as such for only a short period of time—perhaps an average of seven years.<ref>Wright, John, ''The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade''. Routledge, 2007, p. 2.</ref> Like their European counterparts, early medieval [[Islamic slave trade|Islamic slave traders]] preferred slaves who were not co-religionists and hence focused on "pagans" from [[inner Asia]], Europe, and especially from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="Wright, 2007, p. 3">Wright, 2007, p. 3.</ref> The [[Manumission|practice of manumission]] may have contributed to the integration of former slaves into the wider society. However, under [[sharia]] law, [[conversion to Islam]] did not necessitate manumission.<ref>Wright, 2007, p. 4.</ref>
-
-Slaves were employed in heavy labor as well as in domestic contexts. Because of [[Islamic views on concubinage|Quranic allowance of concubinage]],<ref>IV:3, XXIII:6; XXXIII:50–52; LXX:30</ref> early Islamic traders, in contrast to Byzantine and early modern slave traders, imported large numbers of female slaves.<ref>Ali, Kecia. Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam. Harvard University Press, 2010; Wright, 2007, p. 3.</ref> The very earliest Islamic states did not create corps of slave soldiers (a practice familiar from later contexts) but did integrate freedmen into armies, which may have contributed to the rapid expansion of [[Early Islamic conquests|early Islamic conquest]].<ref>Lewis, 1990, p. 62.</ref> By the 9th century, use of slaves in Islamic armies, particularly [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] in cavalry units and Africans in infantry units, was a relatively common practice.<ref>Bacharach, Jere L., "African Military Slaves in the Medieval Middle East: The Cases of Iraq (869–955) and Egypt (868–1171)." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 13, No. 4 (Nov., 1981) 471–495.</ref><ref>Savage, E., "Berbers and Blacks: Ibadi Slave Traffic in Eighth-Century North Africa", ''The Journal of African History'', Vol. 33, No. 3 (1992), 351–368.</ref>
-
-In Egypt, [[Ahmad ibn Tulun]] imported thousands of black slaves to wrestle independence from the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] in Iraq in 868.<ref>Yaacov Lev, David Ayalon (1914–1998) and the history of Black Military Slavery in medieval Islam, Der Islam 90.1 (January 2013): Accessed 22 November 2014, doi: [http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?action=interpret&id=GALE%7CA330005344&v=2.1&u=nysl_sc_cornl&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&authCount=1]</ref> The [[Ikhshidid dynasty]] used black slave units to liberate itself from Abbasid rule after the Abbasids destroyed ibn Tulun’s autonomous empire in 935.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon">Lev, David Ayalon</ref> Black professional soldiers were most associated with the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid dynasty]], which incorporated more professional black soldiers than the previous two dynasties.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon"/> It was the Fatimids who first incorporated black professional slave soldiers into the cavalry, despite massive opposition from Central Asian Turkish [[Mamluk]]s, who saw the African contingent as a threat to their role as the leading military unit in the Egyptian army.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon"/>[[File:Slaves Zadib Yemen 13th century BNF Paris.jpg|thumb|13th-century slave market in [[Yemen]]]]In the later half of the Middle Ages, the expansion of Islamic rule further into the Mediterranean, the [[Persian Gulf]], and [[Arabian Peninsula]] established the [[Indian Ocean slave trade|Saharan-Indian Ocean slave trade]].<ref>Jere L. Bacharach, African Military Slaves in the Muslim Middle East. BlackPast.org. Retrieved 20 November 2014. [http://www.blackpast.org/perspectives/african-military-slaves-muslim-middle-east]</ref> This network was a large market for African slaves, transporting approximately four million African slaves from its 7th century inception to its 20th century demise.<ref>Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East. (Oxford University Press, 1994). Retrieved 19 November 2014. [http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.asp]</ref> Ironically, the consolidation of borders in the Islamic Near East changed the face of the slave trade.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery">Lewis, Race and Slavery</ref> A rigid Islamic code, coupled with crystallizing frontiers, favored slave purchase and tribute over capture as lucrative slave avenues.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery" /> Even the sources of slaves shifted from the [[Fertile Crescent]] and [[Central Asia]] to [[Indochina]] and the [[Byzantine Empire]].<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 11</ref>
-Patterns of preference for slaves in the Near East, as well as patterns of use, continued into the later Middle Ages with only slight changes. Slaves were employed in many activities, including agriculture, industry, the military, and domestic labor. Women were prioritized over men, and usually served in the domestic sphere as menials, [[Concubinage in the Muslim world|concubines]] (''[[cariye]]''), or wives.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 14">Lewis, ''Race and Slavery'', p. 14</ref> Domestic and commercial slaves were mostly better off than their agricultural counterparts, either becoming family members or business partners rather than condemned to a grueling life in a chain gang. There are references to gangs of slaves, mostly African, put to work in drainage projects in [[Iraq]], salt and gold mines in the [[Sahara]], and sugar and cotton plantations in North Africa and Spain. References to this latter type of slavery are rare, however.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 14"/> [[Eunuch|Eunuchs]] were the most prized and sought-after type of slave.
-
-The most fortunate slaves found employment in politics or the military. In the [[Ottoman Empire]], the [[Devshirme|Devşirme system]] groomed young slave boys for civil or military service.<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, pp. 11–12</ref> Young Christian boys were uprooted from their conquered villages periodically as a levy, and were employed in government, entertainment, or the army, depending on their talents.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery"/> Slaves attained great success from this program, some winning the post of [[Grand vizier|Grand Vizier]] to the [[Sultan]] and others positions in the [[Janissaries]].<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 12</ref>
-
-It is a bit of a misnomer to classify these men as "slaves", because in the Ottoman Empire, they were referred to as [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|kul]], or, slaves "of the Gate", or Sultanate.<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 71</ref> While not slaves per se under Islamic law, these Devşrime alumni remained under the Sultan’s discretion.
-
-The Islamic Near East extensively relied upon professional slave soldiers, and was known for having them compose the core of armies.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery"/> The institution was conceived out of political predicaments and reflected the attitudes of the time, and was not indicative of political decline or financial bankruptcy.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon"/> Slave units were desired because of their unadulterated loyalty to the ruler, since they were imported and therefore could not threaten the throne with local loyalties or alliances.
-
-===Ottoman Empire===
-{{main|Slavery (Ottoman Empire)}}
-[[File:Janissary Recruitment in the Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg|thumb|[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] painting of [[Balkan]] children in red being forcibly taken under the ''[[devşirme]]'' ("blood tax") system as soldier-slaves for the [[janissary]] army]]
-Slavery was an important part of Ottoman society. The [[Byzantine-Ottoman wars]] and the [[Ottoman wars in Europe]] brought large numbers of Christian slaves into the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Phillips, Jr.|first=William D.|title=Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade|year=1985|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|isbn=978-0-7190-1825-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0B8NAQAAIAAJ&q=Byzantine-Ottoman%20wars%20slavery&pg=PA37|page=37}}</ref> In the middle of the 14th century, [[Murad I]] built his own personal slave army called the ''[[Kapıkulu]]''. The new force was based on the sultan’s right to a fifth of the war booty, which he interpreted to include captives taken in battle. The captive slaves were converted to Islam and trained in the sultan’s personal service.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=266205|title=Janissary |website=everything2.com|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>
-
-In the ''[[devşirme]]'' (translated "blood tax" or "child collection"), young Christian boys from [[Anatolia]] and the [[Balkans]] were taken away from their homes and families, converted to Islam and enlisted into special soldier classes of the [[Military of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman army]]. These soldier classes were named [[Janissary|Janissaries]], the most famous branch of the ''Kapıkulu''. The Janissaries eventually became a decisive factor in the Ottoman military conquests in Europe.<ref name="auto"/>
-
-Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman forces, imperial administrators and ''de facto'' rulers of the Ottoman Empire, such as [[Pargalı İbrahim Pasha]] and [[Sokollu Mehmet Paşa]], were recruited in this way.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/med/lewis1.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://schonwalder.com/Such-n-Such/huns.htm|title=The Turks: History and Culture|access-date=24 December 2019|archive-date=18 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061018065828/http://schonwalder.com/Such-n-Such/huns.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> By 1609 the Sultan’s ''Kapıkulu'' forces increased to about 100,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html|title=In the Service of the State and Military Class|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>
-
-The [[Imperial Harem|concubines of the Ottoman Sultan]] consisted chiefly of purchased slaves. Because Islamic law forbade Muslims to enslave fellow Muslims, the Sultan’s concubines were generally of Christian origin (''[[cariye]]''). The mother of a Sultan, though technically a slave, received the extremely powerful title of ''Valide Sultan'', and at times became effective ruler of the Empire (see [[Sultanate of women]]). One notable example was [[Kösem Sultan]], daughter of a Greek Christian priest, who dominated the Ottoman Empire during the early decades of the 17th century.<ref>See generally Jay Winik (2007), ''The Great Upheaval''.</ref> Another notable example was [[Roxelana]], the favourite wife of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]].
==Slavery in the Crusader states==
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0 => '',
1 => '==Slavery in the Islamic Near East==',
2 => '{{main|History of slavery in the Muslim world|label 1 = Slavery in the Islamic world}}',
3 => '',
4 => 'The ancient and medieval [[Near East]] includes modern day [[Turkey]], the [[Levant]] and [[Egypt]], with strong connections to the rest of the [[North Africa|North African]] coastline. All of these areas were ruled by either the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] or the [[Sasanian Empire|Persians]] at the end of [[late antiquity]]. Pre-existing [[Slavery in the Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] (i.e. Roman) and [[Slavery in Iran|Persian institutions of slavery]] may have influenced the development of [[Islamic views on slavery|institutions of slavery in Islamic law and jurisprudence]].<ref>Crone, Patricia. Roman, Provincial, and Islamic Law: The Origins of the Islamic Patronate. Cambridge University Press, 1987.</ref> Likewise, some scholars have argued for the influence of [[Jewish views on slavery|Rabbinic tradition in regards to slavery]] on the development of Islamic legal thought.<ref>Wegner, J. R. "Islamic and Talmudic Jurisprudence: The Four Roots of Islamic Law and their Talmudic Counterparts," The American Journal of Legal History, 26, 1 (1982): p. 25-71.</ref>',
5 => '',
6 => 'Whatever the relationship between these different legal traditions, many similarities exist between the practice of [[Islamic Slavery|Islamic slavery]] in the early Middle Ages and the practices of early medieval Byzantines and western Europeans. The status of freed slaves under Islamic rule, who continued to owe services to their former masters, bears a strong similarity to [[slavery in ancient Rome]] and [[slavery in ancient Greece]]. However, the practice of slavery in the early medieval Near East also grew out of slavery practices in currency among pre-Islamic Arabs.<ref>Lewis, Bernard, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 4.</ref>',
7 => '',
8 => '===Islamic states===',
9 => '{{See also|Slavery in Egypt}}[[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|thumb|Rise of [[Islam]] in the [[Near East]] and its expansion to the [[Mediterranean world|Mediterranean region]] from 622 to 750 AD {{legend|#a1584e|[[Muhammad]], 622–632}} {{legend|#ef9070|[[Rashidun Caliphate]], 632–661}} {{legend|#fad07d|[[Umayyad Caliphate]], 661–750}}]]',
10 => 'Like the Old and New Testaments and Greek and Roman law codes, the [[Quran]] takes the institution of slavery for granted, though it urges kindness toward slaves and eventual manumission, especially for slaves who convert to Islam.<ref>Lewis, 1990, p. 5.</ref> In early Middle Ages, many slaves in Islamic society served as such for only a short period of time—perhaps an average of seven years.<ref>Wright, John, ''The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade''. Routledge, 2007, p. 2.</ref> Like their European counterparts, early medieval [[Islamic slave trade|Islamic slave traders]] preferred slaves who were not co-religionists and hence focused on "pagans" from [[inner Asia]], Europe, and especially from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="Wright, 2007, p. 3">Wright, 2007, p. 3.</ref> The [[Manumission|practice of manumission]] may have contributed to the integration of former slaves into the wider society. However, under [[sharia]] law, [[conversion to Islam]] did not necessitate manumission.<ref>Wright, 2007, p. 4.</ref>',
11 => ' ',
12 => 'Slaves were employed in heavy labor as well as in domestic contexts. Because of [[Islamic views on concubinage|Quranic allowance of concubinage]],<ref>IV:3, XXIII:6; XXXIII:50–52; LXX:30</ref> early Islamic traders, in contrast to Byzantine and early modern slave traders, imported large numbers of female slaves.<ref>Ali, Kecia. Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam. Harvard University Press, 2010; Wright, 2007, p. 3.</ref> The very earliest Islamic states did not create corps of slave soldiers (a practice familiar from later contexts) but did integrate freedmen into armies, which may have contributed to the rapid expansion of [[Early Islamic conquests|early Islamic conquest]].<ref>Lewis, 1990, p. 62.</ref> By the 9th century, use of slaves in Islamic armies, particularly [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] in cavalry units and Africans in infantry units, was a relatively common practice.<ref>Bacharach, Jere L., "African Military Slaves in the Medieval Middle East: The Cases of Iraq (869–955) and Egypt (868–1171)." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 13, No. 4 (Nov., 1981) 471–495.</ref><ref>Savage, E., "Berbers and Blacks: Ibadi Slave Traffic in Eighth-Century North Africa", ''The Journal of African History'', Vol. 33, No. 3 (1992), 351–368.</ref>',
13 => '',
14 => 'In Egypt, [[Ahmad ibn Tulun]] imported thousands of black slaves to wrestle independence from the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] in Iraq in 868.<ref>Yaacov Lev, David Ayalon (1914–1998) and the history of Black Military Slavery in medieval Islam, Der Islam 90.1 (January 2013): Accessed 22 November 2014, doi: [http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?action=interpret&id=GALE%7CA330005344&v=2.1&u=nysl_sc_cornl&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&authCount=1]</ref> The [[Ikhshidid dynasty]] used black slave units to liberate itself from Abbasid rule after the Abbasids destroyed ibn Tulun’s autonomous empire in 935.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon">Lev, David Ayalon</ref> Black professional soldiers were most associated with the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid dynasty]], which incorporated more professional black soldiers than the previous two dynasties.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon"/> It was the Fatimids who first incorporated black professional slave soldiers into the cavalry, despite massive opposition from Central Asian Turkish [[Mamluk]]s, who saw the African contingent as a threat to their role as the leading military unit in the Egyptian army.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon"/>[[File:Slaves Zadib Yemen 13th century BNF Paris.jpg|thumb|13th-century slave market in [[Yemen]]]]In the later half of the Middle Ages, the expansion of Islamic rule further into the Mediterranean, the [[Persian Gulf]], and [[Arabian Peninsula]] established the [[Indian Ocean slave trade|Saharan-Indian Ocean slave trade]].<ref>Jere L. Bacharach, African Military Slaves in the Muslim Middle East. BlackPast.org. Retrieved 20 November 2014. [http://www.blackpast.org/perspectives/african-military-slaves-muslim-middle-east]</ref> This network was a large market for African slaves, transporting approximately four million African slaves from its 7th century inception to its 20th century demise.<ref>Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East. (Oxford University Press, 1994). Retrieved 19 November 2014. [http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.asp]</ref> Ironically, the consolidation of borders in the Islamic Near East changed the face of the slave trade.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery">Lewis, Race and Slavery</ref> A rigid Islamic code, coupled with crystallizing frontiers, favored slave purchase and tribute over capture as lucrative slave avenues.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery" /> Even the sources of slaves shifted from the [[Fertile Crescent]] and [[Central Asia]] to [[Indochina]] and the [[Byzantine Empire]].<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 11</ref>',
15 => 'Patterns of preference for slaves in the Near East, as well as patterns of use, continued into the later Middle Ages with only slight changes. Slaves were employed in many activities, including agriculture, industry, the military, and domestic labor. Women were prioritized over men, and usually served in the domestic sphere as menials, [[Concubinage in the Muslim world|concubines]] (''[[cariye]]''), or wives.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 14">Lewis, ''Race and Slavery'', p. 14</ref> Domestic and commercial slaves were mostly better off than their agricultural counterparts, either becoming family members or business partners rather than condemned to a grueling life in a chain gang. There are references to gangs of slaves, mostly African, put to work in drainage projects in [[Iraq]], salt and gold mines in the [[Sahara]], and sugar and cotton plantations in North Africa and Spain. References to this latter type of slavery are rare, however.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 14"/> [[Eunuch|Eunuchs]] were the most prized and sought-after type of slave.',
16 => '',
17 => 'The most fortunate slaves found employment in politics or the military. In the [[Ottoman Empire]], the [[Devshirme|Devşirme system]] groomed young slave boys for civil or military service.<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, pp. 11–12</ref> Young Christian boys were uprooted from their conquered villages periodically as a levy, and were employed in government, entertainment, or the army, depending on their talents.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery"/> Slaves attained great success from this program, some winning the post of [[Grand vizier|Grand Vizier]] to the [[Sultan]] and others positions in the [[Janissaries]].<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 12</ref>',
18 => '',
19 => 'It is a bit of a misnomer to classify these men as "slaves", because in the Ottoman Empire, they were referred to as [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|kul]], or, slaves "of the Gate", or Sultanate.<ref>Lewis, Race and Slavery, p. 71</ref> While not slaves per se under Islamic law, these Devşrime alumni remained under the Sultan’s discretion.',
20 => '',
21 => 'The Islamic Near East extensively relied upon professional slave soldiers, and was known for having them compose the core of armies.<ref name="Lewis, Race and Slavery"/> The institution was conceived out of political predicaments and reflected the attitudes of the time, and was not indicative of political decline or financial bankruptcy.<ref name="Lev, David Ayalon"/> Slave units were desired because of their unadulterated loyalty to the ruler, since they were imported and therefore could not threaten the throne with local loyalties or alliances.',
22 => '',
23 => '===Ottoman Empire===',
24 => '{{main|Slavery (Ottoman Empire)}}',
25 => '[[File:Janissary Recruitment in the Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg|thumb|[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] painting of [[Balkan]] children in red being forcibly taken under the ''[[devşirme]]'' ("blood tax") system as soldier-slaves for the [[janissary]] army]]',
26 => 'Slavery was an important part of Ottoman society. The [[Byzantine-Ottoman wars]] and the [[Ottoman wars in Europe]] brought large numbers of Christian slaves into the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Phillips, Jr.|first=William D.|title=Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade|year=1985|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|isbn=978-0-7190-1825-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0B8NAQAAIAAJ&q=Byzantine-Ottoman%20wars%20slavery&pg=PA37|page=37}}</ref> In the middle of the 14th century, [[Murad I]] built his own personal slave army called the ''[[Kapıkulu]]''. The new force was based on the sultan’s right to a fifth of the war booty, which he interpreted to include captives taken in battle. The captive slaves were converted to Islam and trained in the sultan’s personal service.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=266205|title=Janissary |website=everything2.com|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>',
27 => '',
28 => 'In the ''[[devşirme]]'' (translated "blood tax" or "child collection"), young Christian boys from [[Anatolia]] and the [[Balkans]] were taken away from their homes and families, converted to Islam and enlisted into special soldier classes of the [[Military of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman army]]. These soldier classes were named [[Janissary|Janissaries]], the most famous branch of the ''Kapıkulu''. The Janissaries eventually became a decisive factor in the Ottoman military conquests in Europe.<ref name="auto"/>',
29 => '',
30 => 'Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman forces, imperial administrators and ''de facto'' rulers of the Ottoman Empire, such as [[Pargalı İbrahim Pasha]] and [[Sokollu Mehmet Paşa]], were recruited in this way.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/med/lewis1.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://schonwalder.com/Such-n-Such/huns.htm|title=The Turks: History and Culture|access-date=24 December 2019|archive-date=18 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061018065828/http://schonwalder.com/Such-n-Such/huns.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> By 1609 the Sultan’s ''Kapıkulu'' forces increased to about 100,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html|title=In the Service of the State and Military Class|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>',
31 => '',
32 => 'The [[Imperial Harem|concubines of the Ottoman Sultan]] consisted chiefly of purchased slaves. Because Islamic law forbade Muslims to enslave fellow Muslims, the Sultan’s concubines were generally of Christian origin (''[[cariye]]''). The mother of a Sultan, though technically a slave, received the extremely powerful title of ''Valide Sultan'', and at times became effective ruler of the Empire (see [[Sultanate of women]]). One notable example was [[Kösem Sultan]], daughter of a Greek Christian priest, who dominated the Ottoman Empire during the early decades of the 17th century.<ref>See generally Jay Winik (2007), ''The Great Upheaval''.</ref> Another notable example was [[Roxelana]], the favourite wife of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]].'
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Slavery during the medieval period in Europe</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a>, or the process of restricting peoples’ freedoms, was widespread within <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Europe">medieval Europe</a>. Europe and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean world</a> during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval period">medieval period</a> (500–1500) were part of a highly interconnected network of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_trading" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave trading">slave trading</a>. Throughout Europe, wartime captives were commonly forced into slavery. As European kingdoms transitioned to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal societies</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> began to replace slavery as the main economic and agricultural engine. Throughout medieval Europe, the perspectives and societal roles of enslaved peoples differed greatly, from some being restricted to agricultural labor to others being positioned as trusted political advisors.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Early_Middle_Ages"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Early Middle Ages</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Slave_trade"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Slave trade</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Italian_merchants"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Italian merchants</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Iberia"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Iberia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Vikings"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Vikings</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Mongols"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Mongols</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#England_and_Ireland"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">England and Ireland</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Christians_holding_Muslim_slaves"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Christians holding Muslim slaves</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Jewish_slave_trade"><span class="tocnumber">2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Jewish slave trade</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Slave_trade_at_the_close_of_the_Middle_Ages"><span class="tocnumber">2.8</span> <span class="toctext">Slave trade at the close of the Middle Ages</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Slavery_in_law"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Slavery in law</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Secular_law"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Secular law</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Canon_law"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Canon law</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Slavery in the Byzantine Empire</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Slavery_in_the_Crusader_states"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Slavery in the Crusader states</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Slavery_in_Iberia"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Slavery in Iberia</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Islamic_Iberia"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Islamic Iberia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Christian_Iberia"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Christian Iberia</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Slavery_in_the_Mediterranean"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Slavery in the Mediterranean</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Slavery_in_Moldavia_and_Wallachia"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Slavery in Moldavia and Wallachia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Slavery_in_Russia"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Slavery in Russia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Slavery_in_Poland_and_Lithuania"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Slavery in Poland and Lithuania</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Slavery_in_Scandinavia"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Slavery in Scandinavia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Slavery_in_the_British_Isles"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Slavery in the British Isles</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#Serfdom_versus_slavery"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">Serfdom versus slavery</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Justifications_for_slavery"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Justifications for slavery</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">16</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">17</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_Middle_Ages">Early Middle Ages</span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png/220px-Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png/330px-Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png/440px-Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1040" /></a><figcaption>Costumes of slaves or serfs, from the sixth to the twelfth centuries</figcaption></figure>
<p>Slavery in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> (500–1000) was initially a continuation of earlier <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> practices from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>,and was spread by an influx of captives in the wake of the social chaos caused by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbarian_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarian invasions">barbarian invasions</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> With the continuation of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Roman legal practices of slavery</a>, new laws and practices concerning slavery spread throughout Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> For example, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Welsh_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh laws">Welsh laws</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hywel_the_Good" class="mw-redirect" title="Hywel the Good">Hywel the Good</a> included provisions dealing with slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> In the Germanic realms, laws instituted the enslavement of criminals, such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Visigothic_Code" title="Visigothic Code">Visigothic Code</a>’s prescribing enslavement for criminals who could not pay financial penalties for their crimes<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> and as an actual punishment for various other crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> Such criminals would become slaves to their victims, often with their property.
</p><p>As these peoples <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christianization_of_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianization of Europe">Christianized</a>, the church worked more actively to reduce the practice of holding coreligionists in bondage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/St._Patrick" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Patrick">St. Patrick</a>, who himself was captured and enslaved at one time, protested an attack that enslaved newly baptized Christians in his <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Saint_Patrick#Letter_to_the_Soldiers_of_Coroticus_(c._450)" class="extiw" title="q:Saint Patrick">letter to the soldiers of Coroticus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup> The restoration of order and the growing power of the church slowly transmuted the late Roman slave system of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> into <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Another major factor was the rise of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Balthild_of_Chelles" title="Balthild of Chelles">Bathilde</a> (626–680), queen of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, who had been enslaved before marrying <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Clovis_II" title="Clovis II">Clovis II</a>. When she became regent, her government outlawed slave-trading of Christians throughout the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty" title="Merovingian dynasty">Merovingian empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> About ten percent of England’s population entered in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a> (1086) were slaves,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> despite <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">chattel slavery</a> of English Christians being nominally discontinued after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">1066 conquest</a>. It is difficult to be certain about slave numbers, however, since the old Roman word for slave (<i>servus</i>) continued to be applied to unfree people whose status later was reflected by the term <i>serf</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-PAF_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PAF-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Slave_trade">Slave trade</span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world#European_slaves" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">European slaves in the Muslim world</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Varangian_routes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Varangian_routes.png/260px-Varangian_routes.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Varangian_routes.png/390px-Varangian_routes.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Varangian_routes.png/520px-Varangian_routes.png 2x" data-file-width="872" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption>Routes through <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slav" class="mw-redirect" title="Slav">Slavic</a> territories used for the slave trade: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga trade route</a> from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> (<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Varangians" title="Varangians">Varangians</a></i>) to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim Middle East</a> (red), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" title="Route from the Varangians to the Greeks">trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks</a> (<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a></i>) (blue) – and other trade routes of the 8th–11th centuries (orange)</figcaption></figure>
<p>Demand from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_Islamic_conquests" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Islamic conquests">Islamic world</a>, which arose in the seventh century, dominated the slave trade in Europe during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval period">medieval period</a> (500–1500).<sup id="cite_ref-dictslave_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dictslave-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-britannicasurvey_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannicasurvey-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-battuta_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-battuta-12">[12]</a></sup> For most of that time, the sale of Christian slaves to non-Christians was banned.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pactum_Lotharii" title="Pactum Lotharii">pactum Lotharii</a></i> of 840 between <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>, Venice promised not to buy Christian slaves in the Empire, and not to sell Christian slaves to Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-dictslave_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dictslave-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lotharii_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lotharii-13">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> The Church prohibited the export of Christian slaves to non-Christian lands, for example in the Council of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Koblenz" title="Koblenz">Koblenz</a> in 922, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Council_of_London_(1102)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of London (1102)">Council of London</a> in 1102, and the Council of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armagh" title="Armagh">Armagh</a> in 1171.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>As a result, most Christian slave merchants focused on moving slaves from non-Christian areas to Muslim Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East; and most non-Christian merchants, although not bound by the Church’s rules, focused on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world#Geography_of_the_slave_trade" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim markets</a> as well.<sup id="cite_ref-dictslave_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dictslave-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-britannicasurvey_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannicasurvey-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-battuta_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-battuta-12">[12]</a></sup> Arabic silver <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dirham" title="Dirham">dirhams</a>, presumably exchanged for slaves, are plentiful in eastern Europe and Southern Sweden, indicating trade routes from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slav" class="mw-redirect" title="Slav">Slavic</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim territory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dirhams_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dirhams-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Italian_merchants">Italian merchants</span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:720px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<dl><dt><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Avret_Esir_Pazarlar%C4%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="Avret Esir Pazarları">Avret Esir Pazarları</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Avret_Esir_Pazarlar%C4%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="Avret Esir Pazarları">Avret Esir Pazarları</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Umm_walad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umm walad">Umm walad</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Role_of_Nantes_in_the_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Role of Nantes in the slave trade">Nantes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<dl><dt><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li>
<li>(<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Britain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</span></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unfree_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfree labour">Unfree labour</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_last_surviving_American_enslaved_people" class="mw-redirect" title="List of last surviving American enslaved people">last surviving American enslaved people</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marriage_of_enslaved_people_(United_States)" title="Marriage of enslaved people (United States)">Marriage of enslaved people (United States)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Breeding_of_enslaved_people_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Breeding of enslaved people in the United States">breeding</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_slave_court_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="American slave court cases">court cases</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">Adams</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
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<p>By the reign of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pope_Zachary" title="Pope Zachary">Pope Zachary</a> (741–752), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a> had established a thriving slave trade, buying in Italy, among other places, and selling to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a> in Northern Africa (Zacharias himself reportedly forbade such traffic out of Rome).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> When the sale of Christians to Muslims was banned (<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pactum_Lotharii" title="Pactum Lotharii">pactum Lotharii</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-lotharii_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lotharii-13">[13]</a></sup>), the Venetians began to sell <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a> and other Eastern European non-Christian slaves in greater numbers. Caravans of slaves traveled from Eastern Europe, through Alpine passes in Austria, to reach Venice. A record of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Raffelstetten_customs_regulations" title="Raffelstetten customs regulations">tolls paid in Raffelstetten</a> (903–906), near <a href="/enwiki/wiki/St._Florian_Monastery" title="St. Florian Monastery">St. Florian</a> on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>, describes such merchants. Some are Slavic themselves, from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>. They had come from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a> through <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Przemy%C5%9Bl" title="Przemyśl">Przemyśl</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>, and Bohemia. The same record values <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">female slaves</a> at a <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tremissis" title="Tremissis">tremissa</a></i> (about 1.5 grams of gold or roughly <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac" role="math"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> of a Byzantine <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">solidus</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bezant" title="Bezant">nomisma</a>) or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gold_dinar" title="Gold dinar">gold dinar</a>) and male slaves, who were more numerous, at a <i>saiga</i> (which is much less).<sup id="cite_ref-dictslave_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dictslave-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rafftolls_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rafftolls-20">[20]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">Eunuchs</a> were especially valuable, and "castration houses" arose in Venice, as well as other prominent slave markets, to meet this demand.<sup id="cite_ref-dirhams_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dirhams-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-valante_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valante-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>Venice was far from the only slave trading hub in Italy. Southern Italy boasted slaves from distant regions, including Greece, Bulgaria, Armenia, and Slavic regions. During the 9th and 10th centuries, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amalfi" title="Amalfi">Amalfi</a> was a major exporter of slaves to North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-dictslave_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dictslave-10">[10]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a>, along with Venice, dominated the trade in the Eastern Mediterranean beginning in the 12th century, and in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> beginning in the 13th century. They sold both <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Baltic</a> and Slavic slaves, as well as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turks</a> and other ethnic groups of the Black Sea and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, to the Muslim nations of the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> Genoa primarily managed the slave trade from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mamluk_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Egypt">Mamluk Egypt</a>, until the 13th century, when increasing Venetian control over the Eastern Mediterranean allowed Venice to dominate that market.<sup id="cite_ref-lughod_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lughod-23">[23]</a></sup> Between 1414 and 1423 alone, at least 10,000 slaves were sold in Venice.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Iberia">Iberia</span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg/220px-Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg/330px-Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg/440px-Targ_niewolnikow_w_Kordowie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="887" data-file-height="874" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a> (<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">saqaliba</a></i>) and African slaves in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Córdoba, Andalusia">Córdoba</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muslim_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Spain">Muslim Spain</a>, 1200s</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, the Muslim-ruled area of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>, (711–1492) imported a large number of slaves, as well as served as a staging point for Muslim and Jewish merchants to market slaves to the rest of the Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-radhanites_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-radhanites-25">[25]</a></sup> A ready market, especially for men of fighting age, could be found in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Umayyad_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad Spain">Umayyad Spain</a>, with its need for supplies of new <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mamelukes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamelukes">mamelukes</a>.
</p>
<blockquote><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Hakam_I" title="Al-Hakam I">Al-Hakam</a> was the first monarch of this family who surrounded his throne with a certain splendour and magnificence. He increased the number of mamelukes (slave soldiers) until they amounted to 5,000 horse and 1,000 foot. ... he increased the number of his slaves, eunuchs and servants; had a bodyguard of cavalry always stationed at the gate of his palace and surrounded his person with a guard of mamelukes .... these mamelukes were called Al-haras (the Guard) owing to their all being Christians or foreigners. They occupied two large barracks, with stables for their horses.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-26">[26]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>During the reign of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd-ar-Rahman III">Abd-ar-Rahman III</a> (912–961), there were at first 3,750, then 6,087, and finally 13,750 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a>, or Slavic slaves, at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Córdoba, Andalusia">Córdoba</a>, capital of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ibn_Hawqal" title="Ibn Hawqal">Ibn Hawqal</a>, Ibrahim al-Qarawi, and Bishop <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liutprand_of_Cremona" title="Liutprand of Cremona">Liutprand of Cremona</a> note that the Jewish merchants of Verdun specialized in castrating slaves, to be sold as eunuch saqaliba, which were enormously popular in Muslim Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-dictslave_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dictslave-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-valante_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valante-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roger_Collins" title="Roger Collins">Roger Collins</a> although the role of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> in the slave trade in Iberia remains largely hypothetical, their depredations are clearly recorded. Raids on Al-Andalus by Vikings are reported in the years 844, 859, 966 and 971, conforming to the general pattern of such activity concentrating in the mid ninth and late tenth centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-26">[26]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Vikings">Vikings</span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg/220px-LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg/330px-LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg/440px-LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfesselschloss.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2668" data-file-height="2748" /></a><figcaption>Slave chain lock and key. Sweden, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a> (8th–11th centuries)</figcaption></figure>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic countries</a> during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a> (700–1100) practiced slavery. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> called their slaves <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">thralls</a></i> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>: <i>Þræll</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-vikings_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vikings-28">[28]</a></sup> There were also other terms used to describe thralls based on gender, such as ambatt/ambott and deja. Ambott is used in reference to female slaves, as is deja.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> Another name that is indicative of thrall status is bryti, which has associations with food. The word can be understood to mean, cook, and to break bread, which would place a person with this label as the person in charge of food in some manner. There is a runic inscription that describes a man of bryti status named Tolir who was able to marry and acted as the king’s estate manager.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30">[30]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-31">[31]</a></sup> Another name is muslegoman, which would have been used for a runaway slave.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-31">[31]</a></sup> From this, it can be gathered that the different names for those who were thralls indicate position and duties performed.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>A fundamental part of Viking activity was the sale and taking of captives.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> The thralls were mostly from Western Europe, among them many <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a>. Many Irish slaves were brought on expeditions for the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Settlement_of_Iceland" title="Settlement of Iceland">colonization of Iceland</a> (874–930).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> Raids on monasteries provided a source of young, educated slaves who could be sold in Venice or Byzantium for high prices. Scandinavian trade centers stretched eastwards from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hedeby" title="Hedeby">Hedeby</a> in Denmark and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Birka" title="Birka">Birka</a> in Sweden to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Staraya_Ladoga" title="Staraya Ladoga">Staraya Ladoga</a> in northern Russia before the end of the 8th century.<sup id="cite_ref-valante_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valante-21">[21]</a></sup> The collection of slaves was a by-product of conflict. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annales_Fuldenses" title="Annales Fuldenses">Annals of Fulda</a> recorded that Franks who had been defeated by a group of Vikings in 880 CE were taken as captives after being defeated.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> Viking groups would have political conflicts that also resulted in the taking of captives.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p><p>This traffic continued into the 9th century as Scandinavians founded more trade centers at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaupang" title="Kaupang">Kaupang</a> in southwestern Norway and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Novgorod">Novgorod</a>, farther south than Staraya Ladoga, and Kiev, farther south still and closer to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a> and other northwestern European Viking settlements were established as gateways through which captives were traded northwards.Thralls could be bought and sold at slave markets. An account from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laxd%C3%A6la_saga" title="Laxdæla saga">Laxdoela Saga</a> spoke of how during the 10th century there would be a meeting of kings every third year on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Branno_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Branno Island">Branno Islands</a> where negotiations and trades for slaves would take place.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> Though slaves could be bought and sold, it was more common to sell captives from other nations.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup>
</p><p>The 10th-century Persian traveller <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ibn_Rustah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Rustah">Ibn Rustah</a> described how Swedish Vikings, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Varangians" title="Varangians">Varangians</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus</a>, terrorized and enslaved the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">Slavs</a> taken in their raids along the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Volga_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga River">Volga River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> Slaves were often sold south, to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> or Muslim buyers, via paths such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga trade route</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Fadlan" title="Ahmad ibn Fadlan">Ahmad ibn Fadlan</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> provides an account of the other end of this trade route, namely of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Volga_Vikings" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga Vikings">Volga Vikings</a> selling Slavic slaves to middle-eastern merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> Finland proved another source for Viking slave raids.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> Slaves from Finland or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic states</a> were traded as far as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">central Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> Captives may have been traded far within the Viking trade network, and within that network, it was possible to be sold again. In the Life of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fintan_of_Rheinau" title="Fintan of Rheinau">St. Findan</a>, the Irishman was bought and sold three times after being taken captive by a Viking group.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mongols">Mongols</span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Asia_13th_Century.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Asia_13th_Century.pdf/page1-220px-Asia_13th_Century.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Asia_13th_Century.pdf/page1-330px-Asia_13th_Century.pdf.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Asia_13th_Century.pdf/page1-440px-Asia_13th_Century.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="1275" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> and its subsequent divisions with the khanate of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> in green, 13th century</figcaption></figure>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongol_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasions">Mongol invasions</a> and conquests in the 13th century added a new force in the slave trade. The Mongols enslaved skilled individuals, women and children and marched them to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karakorum" title="Karakorum">Karakorum</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarai_(city)" title="Sarai (city)">Sarai</a>, whence they were sold throughout <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>. Many of these slaves were shipped to the slave market in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetians</a> merchants in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> were involved in the slave trade with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dictslave_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dictslave-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lughod_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lughod-23">[23]</a></sup> In 1441, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Haci_I_Giray" class="mw-redirect" title="Haci I Giray">Haci I Giray</a> declared independence from the Golden Horde and established the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a>. In the time of the Crimean Khanate, Crimeans engaged in frequent raids into the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Danubian_principalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Danubian principalities">Danubian principalities</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Poland-Lithuania</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Muscovy</a>. For each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. The campaigns by Crimean forces categorize into "sefers", officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves, and <i>çapuls</i>, raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers. For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and the Middle East. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genoese_colony" class="mw-redirect" title="Genoese colony">Genoese colony</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caffa" class="mw-redirect" title="Caffa">Caffa</a> on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> coast of Crimea was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatar</a> raiders enslaved more than 1 million Eastern Europeans.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="England_and_Ireland">England and Ireland</span></h3>
<p>In medieval <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, as a commonly traded commodity slaves could, like cattle, become a form of internal or trans-border currency.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> In 1102, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Council_of_London_in_1102" title="Council of London in 1102">Council of London</a> convened by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a> obtained a resolution against the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">slave trade in England</a> which was aimed mainly at the sale of English slaves <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Ireland" title="Slavery in Ireland">to the Irish</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Christians_holding_Muslim_slaves">Christians holding Muslim slaves</span></h3>
<p>Although the primary flow of slaves was toward Muslim countries, as evident in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">history of slavery in the Muslim world</a>, Christians did acquire Muslim slaves; in Southern France, in the 13th century, "the enslavement of Muslim captives was still fairly common".<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> There are records, for example, of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saracen" title="Saracen">Saracen</a> slave girls sold in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marseilles" class="mw-redirect" title="Marseilles">Marseilles</a> in 1248,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> a date which coincided with the fall of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> and its surrounding area, to raiding Christian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">crusaders</a>, an event during which a large number of Muslim women from this area were enslaved as war booty, as it has been recorded in some Arabic poetry, notably by the poet <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salih_ben_Sharif_al-Rundi" class="mw-redirect" title="Salih ben Sharif al-Rundi">al-Rundi</a>, who was contemporary to the events.
</p><p>Additionally, the possession of slaves was legal in 13th century Italy; many Christians held Muslim slaves throughout the country. These Saracen slaves were often captured by pirates and brought to Italy from Muslim Spain or North Africa. During the 13th century, most of the slaves in the Italian trade city of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a> were of Muslim origin. These Muslim slaves were owned by royalty, military orders or groups, independent entities, and the church itself.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup>
</p><p>Christians also sold Muslim slaves captured in war. The Order of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller" title="Knights Hospitaller">Knights of Malta</a> attacked pirates and Muslim shipping, and their base became a center for slave trading, selling captured <a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Africans" class="mw-redirect" title="North Africans">North Africans</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turks</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> remained a slave market until well into the late 18th century. One thousand slaves were required to man the galleys (ships) of the Order.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup>
</p><p>While they would at times seize Muslims as slaves, it was more likely that Christian armies would kill their enemies, rather than take them into servitude.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Jewish_slave_trade">Jewish slave trade</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radhanite" title="Radhanite">Radhanite</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery#Post-Talmud_to_1800s" title="Jewish views on slavery">Jewish views on slavery</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Gniezno_Boleslaus_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Gniezno_Boleslaus_II.jpg/230px-Gniezno_Boleslaus_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Gniezno_Boleslaus_II.jpg/345px-Gniezno_Boleslaus_II.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Gniezno_Boleslaus_II.jpg/460px-Gniezno_Boleslaus_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1310" /></a><figcaption>Christian slaves stand with Jewish merchants while bishop pleads for their release with duke of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, 1100s<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>The role of Jewish merchants in the early medieval slave trade has been subject to much misinterpretation and distortion. Although medieval records demonstrate that there were Jews who owned slaves in medieval Europe, Toch (2013) notes that the claim repeated in older sources, such as those by Charles Verlinden, that Jewish merchants where the primary dealers in European slaves is based on misreadings of primary documents from that era. Contemporary Jewish sources do not attest any a large-scale slave trade or ownership of slaves which may be distinguished from the wider phenomenon of early medieval European slavery. The trope of the Jewish dealer of Christian slaves was additionally a prominent image in medieval Europe <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-Semitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Semitism">anti-Semitic</a> propaganda.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Slave_trade_at_the_close_of_the_Middle_Ages">Slave trade at the close of the Middle Ages</span></h3>
<p>As more and more of Europe <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianized</a>, and open hostilities between Christian and Muslim nations intensified, large-scale slave trade moved to more distant sources. Sending slaves to Egypt, for example, was forbidden by the papacy in 1317, 1323, 1329, 1338, and, finally, 1425, as slaves sent to Egypt would often become soldiers, and end up fighting their former Christian owners. Although the repeated bans indicate that such trade still occurred, they also indicate that it became less desirable.<sup id="cite_ref-dictslave_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dictslave-10">[10]</a></sup> In the 16th century, African slaves replaced almost all other ethnicities and religious enslaved groups in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Slavery_in_law">Slavery in law</span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Secular_law">Secular law</span></h3>
<p>Slavery was heavily regulated in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, which was reorganized in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corpus_Iuris_Civilis" class="mw-redirect" title="Corpus Iuris Civilis">Corpus Iuris Civilis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> Although the Corpus was lost to the West for centuries, it was rediscovered in the 11th and 12th centuries,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup> and led to the foundation of law schools in Italy and France.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup> According to the Corpus, the natural state of humanity is freedom, but the "law of nations" may supersede natural law and reduce certain people to slavery. The basic definition of slave in Romano-Byzantine law was:<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul><li>anyone whose mother was a slave</li>
<li>anyone who has been captured in battle</li>
<li>anyone who has sold himself to pay a debt</li></ul>
<p>It was, however, possible to become a freedman or a full citizen; the Corpus, like Roman law, had extensive and complicated rules for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a> of slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup>
</p><p>The slave trade in England was officially abolished in 1102.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup> In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> slavery was forbidden in the 15th century; it was replaced by the second enserfment. In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, slavery was formally abolished in 1588.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Canon_law">Canon law</span></h3>
<p>In fact, there was an explicit legal justification given for the enslavement of Muslims, found in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decretum_Gratiani" title="Decretum Gratiani">Decretum Gratiani</a> and later expanded upon by the 14th century jurist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oldradus_de_Ponte" title="Oldradus de Ponte">Oldradus de Ponte</a>: the Bible states that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hagar_(Bible)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hagar (Bible)">Hagar</a>, the slave girl of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>, was beaten and cast out by Abraham’s wife <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarah" title="Sarah">Sarah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-70">[70]</a></sup> The Decretum, like the Corpus, defined a slave as anyone whose mother was a slave.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-70">[70]</a></sup> Otherwise, the canons were concerned with slavery only in ecclesiastical contexts: slaves for instance were not permitted to be ordained as clergy.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire">Slavery in the Byzantine Empire</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Slavery in the Byzantine Empire</a></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Slavery_in_the_Crusader_states">Slavery in the Crusader states</span></h2>
<p>As a result of the crusades, thousands of Muslims and Christians were sold into slavery. Once sold into slavery most were never heard from again, so it is challenging to find evidence of specific slave experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30">[30]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crusade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusade">crusader</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a>, founded in 1099, at most 120,000 Franks ruled over 350,000 Muslims, Jews, and native Eastern Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup> Following the initial invasion and conquest, sometimes accompanied by massacres or expulsions of Jews and Muslims, a peaceable co-existence between followers of the three religions prevailed.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup> The Crusader states inherited many slaves. To this may have been added some Muslims taken as captives of war. The Kingdom’s largest city, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akko" class="mw-redirect" title="Akko">Acre</a>, had a large slave market; however, the vast majority of Muslims and Jews remained free. The laws of Jerusalem declared that former Muslim slaves, if genuine converts to Christianity, must be freed.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1120, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Council_of_Nablus" title="Council of Nablus">Council of Nablus</a> forbade sexual relations between crusaders and their female Muslim slaves:<sup id="cite_ref-Hans_E._Mayer_1982_pp._531-533_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hans_E._Mayer_1982_pp._531-533-75">[75]</a></sup> if a man raped his own slave, he would be castrated, but if he raped someone else’s slave, he would be castrated and exiled from the kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-Hans_E._Mayer_1982_pp._531-533_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hans_E._Mayer_1982_pp._531-533-75">[75]</a></sup> But Benjamin Z. Kedar argued that the canons of the Council of Nablus were in force in the 12th century but had fallen out of use by the thirteenth. Marwan Nader questions this and suggests that the canons may not have applied to the whole kingdom at all times.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup>
</p><p>Christian law mandated Christians could not enslave other Christians; however, enslaving non-Christians was acceptable. In fact, military orders frequently enslaved Muslims and used slave labor for agricultural estates.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30">[30]</a></sup> No Christian, whether Western or Eastern, was permitted by law to be sold into slavery, but this fate was as common for Muslim prisoners of war as it was for Christian prisoners taken by the Muslims. In the later medieval period, some slaves were used to oar Hospitaller ships. Generally, it was a relatively small number non-Christian slaves in medieval Europe, and this number significantly decreased by the end of the medieval period.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30">[30]</a></sup>
</p><p>The 13th-century <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assizes_of_Jerusalem" title="Assizes of Jerusalem">Assizes of Jerusalem</a> dealt more with fugitive slaves and the punishments ascribed to them, the prohibition of slaves testifying in court, and manumission of slaves, which could be accomplished, for example, through a will, or by conversion to Christianity. Conversion was apparently used as an excuse to escape slavery by Muslims who would then continue to practise Islam; crusader lords often refused to allow them to convert, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pope_Gregory_IX" title="Pope Gregory IX">Pope Gregory IX</a>, contrary to both the laws of Jerusalem and the canon laws that he himself was partially responsible for compiling, allowed for Muslim slaves to remain enslaved even if they had converted.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Slavery_in_Iberia">Slavery in Iberia</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Slavery in Spain</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Slavery in Portugal</a></div>
<p>Communities of Muslims, Christians, and Jews existed on both sides of the political divide between Muslim and Christian kingdoms in Medieval Iberia: Al-Andalus hosted Jewish and Christian communities while Christian Iberia hosted Muslim and Jewish communities.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup> Christianity had introduced the ethos that banned the enslavement of fellow Christians, an ethos that was reinforced by the banning of the enslavement of co-religionists during the rise of Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup> Additionally, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dar_al-islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Dar al-islam">Dar al-Islam</a> protected ‘people of the book’ (Christians and Jews living in Islamic lands) from enslavement, an immunity which also applied to Muslims living in Christian Iberia. Despite these restrictions, criminal or indebted Muslims and Christians in both regions were still subject to judicially-sanctioned slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Islamic_Iberia">Islamic Iberia</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Slavery in Morocco</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Al-Andalus732.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Al-Andalus732.svg/220px-Al-Andalus732.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Al-Andalus732.svg/330px-Al-Andalus732.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Al-Andalus732.svg/440px-Al-Andalus732.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="717" /></a><figcaption>Al-Andalus in 732</figcaption></figure>
<p>An early economic pillar of the Islamic empire in Iberia (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>) during the eighth century was the slave trade. Due to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a> being a form of piety under Islamic law, slavery in Muslim Spain couldn't maintain the same level of auto-reproduction as societies with older slave populations. Therefore, Al-Andalus relied on trade systems as an external means of replenishing the supply of enslaved people.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup> Forming relations between the Umayyads, Khārijites and 'Abbāsids, the flow of trafficked people from the main routes of the Sahara towards <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup> served as a highly lucrative trade configuration. The archaeological evidence of human trafficking and proliferation of early trade in this case follows numismatics and materiality of text.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup> This monetary structure of consistent gold influx proved to be a tenet in the development of Islamic commerce.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup> In this regard, the slave trade outperformed and was the most commercially successful venture for maximizing capital.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup> This major change in the form of numismatics serves as a paradigm shift from the previous Visigothic economic arrangement. Additionally, it demonstrates profound change from one regional entity to another, the direct transfer of people and pure coinage from one religiously similar semi-autonomous province to another.
</p><p>The medieval <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> was the scene of episodic <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Warfare">warfare</a> among Muslims and Christians (although sometimes Muslims and Christians were allies). Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> to ravage the Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back booty and people. For example, in a raid on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> in 1189 the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Almohad" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohad">Almohad</a> caliph <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yaqub_al-Mansur" title="Yaqub al-Mansur">Yaqub al-Mansur</a> took 3,000 female and child captives, and his governor of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a> took 3,000 Christian slaves in a subsequent attack upon <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Silves_Municipality,_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Silves Municipality, Portugal">Silves</a> in 1191; an offensive by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alfonso_VIII_of_Castile" title="Alfonso VIII of Castile">Alfonso VIII of Castile</a> in 1182 brought him over two-thousand Muslim slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup> These raiding expeditions also included the Sa’ifa (summer) incursions, a tradition produced during the Amir reign of Cordoba. In addition to acquiring wealth, some of these Sa’ifa raids sought to bring mostly male captives, often eunuchs, back to Al-Andalus. They were generically referred to as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a>, the Arab word for Slavs.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup> Slavs’ status as the most common group in the slave trade by the tenth century led to the development of the word “slave.”<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup> The Saqaliba were mostly assigned to palaces as guards, concubines, and eunuchs, although they were sometimes privately owned.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup> Along with Christians and Slavs, Sub-Saharan Africans were also held as slaves, brought back from the caravan trade in the Sahara. Slaves in Islamic lands were generally used for domestic, military, and administrative purposes, rarely used for agriculture or large-scale manufacturing. Christians living in Al-Andalus were not allowed to hold authority over Muslims, but they were permitted to hold non-Muslim slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Christian_Iberia">Christian Iberia</span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Iberia1300.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Iberia1300.png/220px-Iberia1300.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Iberia1300.png/330px-Iberia1300.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Iberia1300.png 2x" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="324" /></a><figcaption>Iberia in AD 1300. (Partially based on Euratlas map of Europe, 1300.)</figcaption></figure>
<p>Contrary to suppositions of historians such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marc_Bloch" title="Marc Bloch">Marc Bloch</a>, slavery thrived as an institution in medieval Christian Iberia.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Slavery existed in the region under the Romans, and continued to do so under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a>. From the fifth to the early 8th century, large portions of the Iberian Peninsula were ruled by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Christian Visigothic Kingdoms</a>, whose rulers worked to codify human bondage. In the 7th century, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chindasuinth" title="Chindasuinth">King Chindasuinth</a> issued the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Visigothic_Code" title="Visigothic Code">Visigothic Code</a> (Liber Iudiciorum), to which subsequent Visigothic kings added new legislation. Although the Visigothic Kingdom collapsed in the early 8th century, portions of the Visigothic Code were still observed in parts of Spain in the following centuries. The Code, with its pronounced and frequent attention to the legal status of slaves, reveals the continuation of slavery as an institution in post-Roman Spain.
</p><p>The Code regulated the social conditions, behavior, and punishments of slaves in early medieval Spain. The marriage of slaves and free or freed people was prohibited. Book III, title II, iii ("Where a Freeborn Woman Marries the Slave of Another or a Freeborn Man the Female Slave of Another") stipulates that if a free woman marries another person’s slave, the couple is to be separated and given 100 lashes. Furthermore, if the woman refuses to leave the slave, then she becomes the property of the slave’s master. Likewise, any children born to the couple would follow the father’s condition and be slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup>
</p><p>Unlike <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, in which only slaves were liable to corporal punishment,<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup> under Visigothic law, people of any social status were subject to corporal punishment. However, the physical punishment, typically beatings, administered to slaves was consistently harsher than that administered to freed or free people. Slaves could also be compelled to give testimony under torture. For example, slaves could be tortured to reveal the adultery of their masters, and it was illegal to free a slave for fear of what he or she might reveal under torture.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup> Slaves' greater liability to physical punishment and judicial torture suggests their inferior social status in the eyes of Visigothic lawmakers.
</p><p>Slavery remained persistent in Christian Iberia after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Umayyad invasions</a> in the 8th century, and the Visigothic law codes continued to control slave ownership. However, as William Phillips notes, medieval Iberia should not be thought of as a slave society, but rather as a society that owned slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup> Slaves accounted for a relatively small percentage of the population, and did not make up a significant portion of the labor pool. Furthermore, while the existence of slavery continued from the earlier period, the use of slaves in post-Visigothic Christian Iberia differed from early periods. Ian Wood has suggests that, under the Visigoths, the majority of the slave population lived and worked on rural estates.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup>
</p><p>After the Muslim invasions, slave owners (especially in the kingdoms of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>) moved away from using slaves as field laborers or in work gangs, and did not press slaves into military service.<sup id="cite_ref-Phillips_19_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillips_19-96">[96]</a></sup> Slaves tended to be owned singly rather than in large groups. There appear to have been many more female than male slaves, and they were most often used as domestic servants, or to supplement free labor.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Phillips_19_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillips_19-96">[96]</a></sup> In this respect, slave institutions in Aragon, especially, closely resembled those of other Mediterranean Christian kingdoms in France and Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the kingdoms of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Leon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Leon">León</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile" title="Kingdom of Castile">Castile</a>, slavery followed the Visigothic model more closely than in the littoral kingdoms. Slaves in León and Castile were more likely to be employed as field laborers, supplanting free labor to support an aristocratic estate society.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup> These trends in slave populations and use changed in the wake of the Black Death in 1348, which significantly increased the demand for slaves across the whole of the peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup>
</p><p>Christians were not the only slaveholders in Christian Iberia. Both Jews and Muslims living under Christian rule owned slaves, though more commonly in Aragon and Valencia than in Castile.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup> After the conquest of Valencia in 1245, the Kingdom of Aragon prohibited the possession of Christian slaves by Jews, though they were still permitted to hold Muslim or pagan slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup> The main role of Iberian Jews in the slave trade came as facilitators: Jews acted as slave brokers and agents of transfer between the Christian and Muslim kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-105">[105]</a></sup>
</p><p>This role caused some degree of fear among Christian populations. A letter from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XI" title="Pope Gregory XI">Pope Gregory XI</a> to the Bishop of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cordoba,_Andalusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cordoba, Andalusia">Cordoba</a> in 1239 addressed rumors that the Jews were involved in kidnapping and selling Christian women and children into slavery while their husbands were away fighting the Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-105">[105]</a></sup> Despite these worries, the primary role of Jewish slave traders lay in facilitating the exchange of captives between Muslim and Christian rulers, one of the primary threads of economic and political connectivity between Christian and Muslim Iberia.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_105-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-105">[105]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the early period after the fall of the Visigothic kingdom in the 8th century, slaves primarily came into Christian Iberia through trade with the Muslim kingdoms of the south.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup> Most were Eastern European, captured in battles and raids, with the heavy majority being <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup> However, the ethnic composition of slaves in Christian Iberia shifted over the course of the Middle Ages. Slaveholders in the Christian kingdoms gradually moved away from owning Christians, in accordance with Church proscriptions. In the middle of the medieval period most slaves in Christian Iberia were Muslim, either captured in battle with the Islamic states from the southern part of the peninsula, or taken from the eastern Mediterranean and imported into Iberia by merchants from cities such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Christian kingdoms of Iberia frequently traded their Muslim captives back across the border for payments of money or kind. Indeed, historian James Broadman writes that this type of redemption offered the best chance for captives and slaves to regain their freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup> The sale of Muslim captives, either back to the Islamic southern states or to third-party slave brokers, supplied one of the means by which Aragon and Castile financed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a>. Battles and sieges provided large numbers of captives; after the siege of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Almeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Almeria">Almeria</a> in 1147, sources report that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alfonso_VII_of_Le%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfonso VII of León">Alfonso VII of León</a> sent almost 10,000 of the city’s Muslim women and children to Genoa to be sold into slavery as partial repayment of Genoese assistance in the campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup>
</p><p>Towards the end of the Reconquista, however, this source of slaves became increasingly exhausted. Muslim rulers were increasingly unable to pay ransoms, and the Christian capture of large centers of population in the south made wholesale enslavement of Muslim populations impractical.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup> The loss of an Iberian Muslim source of slaves further encouraged Christians to look to other sources of manpower. Beginning with the first Portuguese slave raid in sub-Saharan Africa in 1411, the focus of slave importation began to shift from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic World, and the racial composition of slaves in Christian Iberia began to include an increasing number of Sub-Saharan Africans.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup>
</p><p>Between 1489 and 1497 almost 2,100 black slaves were shipped from Portugal to Valencia.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-117">[117]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto3_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-118">[118]</a></sup> By the end of the 15th century, Spain held the largest population of black Africans in Europe, with a small, but growing community of black ex-slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-117">[117]</a></sup> In the mid 16th century Spain imported up to 2,000 black African slaves annually through Portugal, and by 1565 most of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville’s</a> 6,327 slaves (out of a total population of 85,538) were black Africans.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_117-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-117">[117]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto3_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-118">[118]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Slavery_in_the_Mediterranean">Slavery in the Mediterranean</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Slavery in Malta</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png/220px-Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png/330px-Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png/440px-Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png 2x" data-file-width="943" data-file-height="501" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a> (red) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a> (green) and their trade routes in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mediterranean_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean world">Mediterranean region</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>In the Mediterranean region, individuals became enslaved through war and conquest, piracy, and frontier raiding. Additionally, some courts would sentence people to slavery, and even some people sold themselves or their children into slavery due to extreme poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-119">[119]</a></sup> The incentive for slavery in the Mediterranean was the greed of the slavers. The motivation behind many raids was to make money from the resulting slaves, with no political or religious agenda. Also, state and religious institutions frequently participated in the ransoming of individuals, so piracy became a lucrative market. This meant some individuals were returned home while others were sold away.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-119">[119]</a></sup>
</p><p>For those who traded in the Mediterranean, it was the humanity and intellect of these enslaved peoples that made them valuable merchandise worth commodifying. To purchase an individual was to purchase their labor, autonomy, and faith; religious conversion was often a motivation for these transactions. Additionally, religious division was the fundamental basis of law for the ownership of slaves during this period; it was not legal for Christians, Muslims, or Jewish people to enslave fellow believers. However, the enslavement, and compulsory conversion, of nonbelievers or people from other religions was permissible.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></sup>
</p><p>There were markets throughout the Mediterranean where enslaved people were bought and sold. In Italy the major slave trade centers were Venice and Genoa; in Iberia they were Barcelona and Valencia; and islands off the Mediterranean including Majorca, Sardinia, Sicily, Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus, and Chios also participated in slave markets. From these markets merchants would sell enslaved people domestically, or transport them to somewhere enslaved people were more in demand.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_119-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-119">[119]</a></sup> For example, the Italian slave market often found itself selling to Egypt in order to meet the Mamluk demand for slaves. This demand caused Venice and Genoa to compete with one another for control of Black Sea trading ports.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup>
</p><p>The duties and expectations of slaves varied geographically; however, in the Mediterranean, it was most common for enslaved people to work in the households of elites. Enslaved people also worked in agricultural fields, but this was infrequent across the Mediterranean. It was most common in Venetian Crete, Genoese Chios, and Cyprus where enslaved people worked in vineyards, fields, and sugar mills. These were colonial societies, and enslaved people worked with free laborers in these areas. Enslaved women were sought after the most and therefore sold at the highest prices. This reflects the desire for domestic workers in elite households; however, enslaved women also could face sexual exploitation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_119-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-119">[119]</a></sup> Furthermore, even if freed from their stations, the former masters of these women often maintained power over them by becoming their employers or patrons.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Slavery_in_Moldavia_and_Wallachia">Slavery in Moldavia and Wallachia</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Slavery in Romania</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:%C8%98tefan_cel_Mare._Danie_s%C4%83la%C8%99e_de_%C8%9Bigani_pentru_Episcopia_R%C4%83d%C4%83u%C8%9Bi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/%C8%98tefan_cel_Mare._Danie_s%C4%83la%C8%99e_de_%C8%9Bigani_pentru_Episcopia_R%C4%83d%C4%83u%C8%9Bi.jpg/220px-%C8%98tefan_cel_Mare._Danie_s%C4%83la%C8%99e_de_%C8%9Bigani_pentru_Episcopia_R%C4%83d%C4%83u%C8%9Bi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/%C8%98tefan_cel_Mare._Danie_s%C4%83la%C8%99e_de_%C8%9Bigani_pentru_Episcopia_R%C4%83d%C4%83u%C8%9Bi.jpg/330px-%C8%98tefan_cel_Mare._Danie_s%C4%83la%C8%99e_de_%C8%9Bigani_pentru_Episcopia_R%C4%83d%C4%83u%C8%9Bi.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/%C8%98tefan_cel_Mare._Danie_s%C4%83la%C8%99e_de_%C8%9Bigani_pentru_Episcopia_R%C4%83d%C4%83u%C8%9Bi.jpg/440px-%C8%98tefan_cel_Mare._Danie_s%C4%83la%C8%99e_de_%C8%9Bigani_pentru_Episcopia_R%C4%83d%C4%83u%C8%9Bi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="380" /></a><figcaption>A deed of donation through which <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stephen_III_of_Moldavia" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen III of Moldavia">Stephen III of Moldavia</a> donates a number of <i>sălașe</i> of Roma slaves to the Rădăuţi bishopric</figcaption></figure>
<p><b>Slavery</b> existed on the territory of present-day <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> while under <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">The Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> rulership, from before the founding of the principalities of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a> in 13th–14th century, until it was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">abolished</a> in stages during the 1840s and 1850s before the independence of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Principalities_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia">United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia</a> was allowed, and also until 1783, in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvania</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bukovina" title="Bukovina">Bukovina</a> (parts of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a> and later <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">The Austria-Hungarian Empire</a>). Most slaves were of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roma_minority_in_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Roma minority in Romania">Roma</a> (Gypsy) ethnicity and a significant number of <i>Rumâni</i><a class="external autonumber" href="https://ro.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumâni_(categorie_socială)">[7]</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfdom</a> slavery.
</p><p>Historian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nicolae_Iorga" title="Nicolae Iorga">Nicolae Iorga</a> associated the Roma people’s arrival with the 1241 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a> and considered their slavery as a vestige of that era. The practice of enslaving prisoners may also have been taken from the Mongols. The ethnic identity of the "Tatar slaves" is unknown, they could have been captured Tatars of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cumans" title="Cumans">Cumans</a>, or the slaves of Tatars and Cumans.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup>
</p><p>While it is possible that some Romani people were slaves or auxiliary troops of the Mongols or Tatars and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nogai_Horde" title="Nogai Horde">Nogai Horde</a>, the bulk of them came from south of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> at the end of the 14th century, some time before the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foundation_of_Wallachia" class="mw-redirect" title="Foundation of Wallachia">foundation of Wallachia</a>.
</p><p>The Roma slaves were owned by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boyars_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia">boyars</a> (see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wallachian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Wallachian Revolution of 1848">Wallachian Revolution of 1848</a>), the Christian Orthodox monasteries, or the state. They were used only as smiths, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gold_panning" title="Gold panning">gold panners</a> and as agricultural workers.
</p><p>The Rumâni were only owned by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boyars_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia">Boyars</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romanian_Orthodox_Church" title="Romanian Orthodox Church">Monasteries</a>, until the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Independence_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence of Romania">Independence of Romania</a> from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> on 9th of May 1877. They were considered less valuable because they were taxable, only skilled at agricultural work and couldn't be used at tribute.
</p><p>It was common for both boyars and monasteries to register their Romanian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfs</a> as "Gypsies" so that they would not pay the taxes that were imposed on the serfs.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup> Any Romanian, regardless of gender, marrying a Roma would immediately become a slave that could be used as tribute.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Slavery_in_Russia">Slavery in Russia</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Slavery in Russia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimean%E2%80%93Nogai_slave_raids_in_Eastern_Europe" title="Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe">Crimean slave raids</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></div>
<div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Template (table) of early Slavic status</div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1045330069"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:17.0em;"><caption class="sidebar-outer-title"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Early Slavic status<br /></a></caption><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8.jpg/200px-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8.jpg/300px-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8.jpg/400px-%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1599" data-file-height="885" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Knyaz" title="Knyaz">Knyaz</a> <small>(sovereign)</small></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boyar" title="Boyar">Boyar</a> / <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">Szlachta</a> <small>(noble)</small></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Druzhina" title="Druzhina">Druzhinnik</a> <small>(retainer)</small></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Smerd" title="Smerd">Smerd</a> <small>(free tenant)</small></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a> <small>(slave)</small></td>
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<p>In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kievan_Rus" class="mw-redirect" title="Kievan Rus">Kievan Rus</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, the slaves were usually classified as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">kholops</a>. A kholop’s master had unlimited power over his life: he could kill him, sell him, or use him as payment upon a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Debt" title="Debt">debt</a>. The master, however, was responsible before the law for his kholop’s actions. A person could become a kholop as a result of capture, selling himself or herself, being sold for debts or committed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crimes</a>, or marriage to a kholop. Until the late 10th century, the kholops represented a majority among the servants who worked lordly lands.
</p><p>By the 16th century, slavery in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> consisted mostly of those who sold themselves into slavery owing to poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Hellie_1984_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Hellie_1984-125">[125]</a></sup> They worked predominantly as household servants, among the richest families, and indeed generally produced less than they consumed.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup> Laws forbade the freeing of slaves in times of famine, to avoid feeding them, and slaves generally remained with the family a long time; the <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Domostroy" title="Domostroy">Domostroy</a></i>, an advice book, speaks of the need to choose slaves of good character and to provide for them properly.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></sup> Slavery remained a major institution in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> until 1723, when <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a> converted the household slaves into house <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serfs" class="mw-redirect" title="Serfs">serfs</a>. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">serfs</a> earlier in 1679.<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Hellie_1984_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Hellie_1984-125">[125]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1382 the Golden Horde under Khan <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tokhtamysh" title="Tokhtamysh">Tokhtamysh</a> sacked <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, burning the city and carrying off thousands of inhabitants as slaves. For years the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan" title="Khanate of Kazan">Khanates of Kazan</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Astrakhan_Khanate" title="Astrakhan Khanate">Astrakhan</a> routinely made raids on Russian principalities for
slaves and to plunder towns. Russian chronicles record about 40 raids of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Kazan_khans" title="List of Kazan khans">Kazan Khans</a> on the Russian territories in the first half of the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></sup> In 1521, the combined forces of Crimean Khan <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mehmed_I_Giray" title="Mehmed I Giray">Mehmed I Giray</a> and his Kazan allies attacked Moscow and captured thousands of slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup> About 30 major Tatar raids were recorded into <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Muscovite</a> territories between 1558 and 1596.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></sup> In 1571, the Crimean Tatars attacked and sacked Moscow, burning everything but the Kremlin and taking thousands of captives as slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup> In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>, about 75% of the population consisted of slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Slavery_in_Poland_and_Lithuania">Slavery in Poland and Lithuania</span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Lithuanian_Statute_I.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Lithuanian_Statute_I.jpg/170px-Lithuanian_Statute_I.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Lithuanian_Statute_I.jpg/255px-Lithuanian_Statute_I.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Lithuanian_Statute_I.jpg/340px-Lithuanian_Statute_I.jpg 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="551" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statutes_of_Lithuania" title="Statutes of Lithuania">Statutes of Lithuania</a> banned slavery, 1529</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Slavery in Poland</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Lithuania" title="Slavery in Lithuania">Slavery in Lithuania</a></div>
<p>Slavery in Poland existed on the territory of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(Piasts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (Piasts)">Kingdom of Poland</a> during the times of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Piast_dynasty" title="Piast dynasty">Piast dynasty</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-bardach40-41_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bardach40-41-133">[133]</a></sup> however, slavery was restricted to those captured during war. In some special cases and for limited periods <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> was also applied to debtors.
</p><p>Slavery was banned officially in 1529 and prohibition on slavery was one of the most important of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statutes_of_Lithuania" title="Statutes of Lithuania">Statutes of Lithuania</a>, which had to be implemented before the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a> could join the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> in 1569.
</p><p>The First Statute was drafted in 1522 and came into power in 1529 by the initiative of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithuanian_Council_of_Lords" title="Lithuanian Council of Lords">Lithuanian Council of Lords</a>. It has been proposed that the codification was initiated by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grand_Chancellor_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Chancellor of Lithuania">Grand Chancellor of Lithuania</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Miko%C5%82aj_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82_(1470%E2%80%931521)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikołaj Radziwiłł (1470–1521)">Mikołaj Radziwiłł</a> as a reworking and expansion of the 15th century <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Casimir%27s_Code" title="Casimir's Code">Casimir's Code</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Slavery_in_Scandinavia">Slavery in Scandinavia</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Denmark">Slavery in Denmark</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Sweden">Slavery in Sweden</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></div>
<p>The evidence indicates that slavery in Scandinavia was more common in southern regions, as there are  fewer northern provincial laws that contain mentions of slavery. Likewise, slaves were likely numerous but consolidated under the ownership of elites as chattel labor on large farm estates.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-135">[135]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></sup>
</p>
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<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Germanic_kingship" title="Germanic kingship">Konungr</a> <small>(sovereign)</small></td>
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<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jarl_(title)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jarl (title)">Jarl</a> <small>(prince)</small></td>
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<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Housecarl" title="Housecarl">Húskarl</a> / <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hird" title="Hird">Hird</a> <small>(retainer)</small></td>
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<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Churl" title="Churl">Karl</a> <small>(free tenant)</small></td>
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<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leysingi" title="Leysingi">Frjálsi</a> <small>(freedman)</small></td>
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<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Þræll</a> <small>(slave)</small></td>
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<p>The laws from 12th and 13th centuries describe the legal status of two categories. According to the Norwegian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gulating" title="Gulating">Gulating</a> code (in about 1160), domestic slaves could not, unlike foreign slaves, be sold out of the country. This and other laws defined slaves as their master’s property at the same level as cattle; if either were harmed then the perpetrator was responsible for damages, but if either caused damage to property then the owners were held accountable.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-31">[31]</a></sup> It also described a procedure for giving a slave their freedom. According to the Law of Scania<sup id="cite_ref-:7_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-137">[137]</a></sup> slaves could be granted freedom or redeem it themselves, upon which they must then be accepted into a new kin group or face societal ostracization.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-137">[137]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Law of Scania indicates free men may become slaves as a way to atone for a crime with the implication they would be eventually freed. Likewise, the Gotlander Guta Lag indicates slavery could be for a fixed period and as a method to pay for debt.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></sup> Within the Older Västgöta Law widows are only allowed to remarry if an enslaved fostre or fostra could manage the farm in her absence. Likewise, the Younger Västgöta Law indicates further trust for fostre and fostra as they could occasionally be entrusted with the master’s keys. Likewise, some fostre were in such a trusted position they could undertake military actions while a slave.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-31">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_137-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-137">[137]</a></sup> Yet, for all their independence, any children of fostre or fostra were still property of their masters.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-31">[31]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfessel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfessel.jpg/170px-LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfessel.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfessel.jpg/255px-LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfessel.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfessel.jpg/340px-LSR_Wikinger_-_Sklavenfessel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Viking-era slave chains</figcaption></figure>
<p>A freed slave did not have full legal status; for example, the punishment for killing a former slave was low. A former slave’s son also had a low status, but higher than that of his parents. Women were commonly taken as slaves and forced into concubinage for lords. The children of these women had little formal rights with inheritance and legitimacy possible should they be needed for succession or favored by their parents, but nothing was guaranteed.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></sup>
</p><p>Slavery began to be replaced by a feudal-style tenant farmer economy wherein free men tied to the land worked farms for a lord reducing the need for slaves<sup id="cite_ref-:7_137-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-137">[137]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_135-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-135">[135]</a></sup> The Norwegian law code from 1274, <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Landslov" class="mw-redirect" title="Landslov">Landslov</a></i> (Land’s law), does not mention slaves, but former slaves. Thus it seems like slavery was abolished in Norway by this time.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In Denmark, slavery was gradually replaced by serfdom (hoveriet) in the 13th-century, and in Sweden, slavery was abolished in 1334 and not replaced with serfdom, which never excisted in Sweden.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Slavery_in_the_British_Isles">Slavery in the British Isles</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery in Britain</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_Ireland" title="Slavery in Ireland">Slavery in Ireland</a></div>
<p>British <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Wales">Wales</a> and Gaelic <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_Ireland_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Ireland (disambiguation)">Ireland</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Scotland">Scotland</a> were among the last areas of Christian Europe to give up their institution of slavery. Under Gaelic custom, prisoners of war were routinely taken as slaves. During the period that slavery was disappearing across most of western Europe, it was reaching its height in the British Isles: the Viking invasions and the subsequent warring between Scandinavians and the natives, the number of captives taken as slaves drastically increased. The Irish church was vehemently opposed to slavery and blamed the 1169 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman invasion of Ireland">Norman invasion</a> on divine punishment for the practice, along with local acceptance of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">polygyny</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a>.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Serfdom_versus_slavery">Serfdom versus slavery</span></h2>
<p>In considering how serfdom evolved from slavery, historians who study the divide between slavery and serfdom encounter several issues of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> and methodology. Some historians believe that slavery transitioned into serfdom (a view that has only been around for the last 200 years), though there is disagreement among them regarding how rapid this transition was.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></sup> Pierre Bonnassie, a medieval historian, thought that the chattel slavery of the ancient world ceased to exist in the Europe of the 10th century and was followed by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal</a> serfdom.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></sup> Jean-Pierre Devroey thinks that the shift from slavery to serfdom was gradual as well in some parts of the continent.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a></sup> Other areas, though, did not have what he calls "western-style serfdom" after the end of slavery, such as the rural areas of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-144">[144]</a></sup> Complicating this issue is that regions in Europe often had both serfs and slaves simultaneously. In northwestern Europe, a transition from slavery to serfdom happened by the 12th century. The Catholic Church promoted the transformation by giving the example. Enslavement of fellow Catholics was prohibited in 992 and manumission was declared to be a pious act. However it remained legal to enslave people of other religions and dogmas.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-145">[145]</a></sup>
</p><p>Generally speaking, regarding how slaves differed from serfs, the underpinnings of slavery and serfdom are debated as well. Dominique Barthélemy, among others, has questioned the very premises for neatly distinguishing serfdom from slavery, arguing that a binary classification masks the many shades of servitude.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></sup> Of particular interest to historians is the role of serfdom and slavery within the state, and the implications that held for both serf and slave. Some think that slavery was the exclusion of people from the public sphere and its institutions, whereas serfdom was a complex form of dependency that usually lacked a codified basis in the legal system.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></sup> Wendy Davies argues that serfs, like slaves, also became excluded from the public judicial system and that judicial matters were attended to in the private courts of their respective lords.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></sup>
</p><p>Despite the scholarly disagreement, it is possible to piece together a general picture of slavery and serfdom. Slaves typically owned no property, and were in fact the property of their masters. Slaves worked full-time for their masters and operated under a negative <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Incentives" class="mw-redirect" title="Incentives">incentive structure</a>; in other words, failure to work resulted in physical punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-149">[149]</a></sup> Serfs held plots of land, which was essentially a form of "payment" that the lord offered in exchange for the serf’s service.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></sup> Serfs worked part-time for the masters and part-time for themselves and had opportunities to accumulate personal wealth that often did not exist for the slave.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_149-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-149">[149]</a></sup>
</p><p>Slaves were generally imported from foreign countries or continents, via the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave trade">slave trade</a>. Serfs were typically indigenous Europeans and were not subject to the same involuntary movements as slaves. Serfs worked in family units, whereas the concept of family was generally murkier for slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a></sup> At any given moment, a slave’s family could be torn apart via trade, and masters often used this threat to coerce compliant behavior from the slave.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></sup>
</p><p>The end of serfdom is also debated, with Georges Duby pointing to the early 12th century as a rough end point for "serfdom in the strict sense of the term".<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></sup> Other historians dispute this assertion, citing discussions and the mention of serfdom as an institution during later dates (such as in 13th century <a href="/enwiki/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, or in Central Europe, where the rise of serfdom coincided with its decline in Western Europe). There are several approaches to get a time span for the transition, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">lexicography</a> is one such method. There is supposedly a clear shift in diction when referencing those who were either slaves or serfs at approximately 1000, though there is not a consensus on how significant this shift is, or if it even exists.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></sup>
</p><p>In addition, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Numismatists" class="mw-redirect" title="Numismatists">numismatists</a> shed light on the decline of serfdom. There is a widespread theory that the introduction of currency hastened the decline of serfdom because it was preferable to pay for labor rather than depend on feudal obligations. Some historians argue that landlords began selling serfs their land – and hence, their freedom – during periods of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_inflation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic inflation">economic inflation</a> across Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></sup> Other historians argue that the end of slavery came from the royalty, who gave serfs freedom through edicts and legislation in an attempt to broaden their tax base.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a></sup>
</p><p>The absence of serfdom in some parts of medieval Europe raises several questions. Devroey thinks it is because slavery was not born out of economic structures in these areas, but was rather a societal practice.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_144-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-144">[144]</a></sup> Heinrich Fichtenau points out that in Central Europe, there was not a labor market strong enough for slavery to become a necessity.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Justifications_for_slavery">Justifications for slavery</span></h2>
<p>In late Rome, the official attitude toward slavery was ambivalent. According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Justinian’s legal code</a>, slavery was defined as "an institution according to the law of nations whereby one person falls under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">property rights</a> of another, contrary to nature".<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></sup>
</p><p>Justifications for slavery throughout the medieval period were dominated by the perception of religious difference. Slaves were often outsiders taken in war. As such, Hebrew and Islamic thinking both conceived of the slave as an "enemy within".<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a></sup> In the Christian tradition, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagans</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heretics" class="mw-redirect" title="Heretics">heretics</a> were similarly considered enemies of the faith who could be justly enslaved. In theory, slaves who converted could embark on the path to freedom, but practices were inconsistent: masters were not obliged to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumit</a> them and the practice of baptising slaves was often discouraged.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayborn,_p.93_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayborn,_p.93-160">[160]</a></sup> The enslavement of co-religionists was discouraged, if not forbidden, for Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike. Consequently, northern European pagans and black Africans were a target for all three religious groups. Ethnic and religious difference were conflated in the justification of slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayborn,_p.93_160-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayborn,_p.93-160">[160]</a></sup>
</p><p>A major Christian justification for the use of slavery, especially against those with dark skin, was the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Curse_of_Ham" title="Curse of Ham">Curse of Ham</a>. The Curse of Ham refers to a biblical parable (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%209:20-27">Gen. 9:20–27</a>) in which <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ham_(son_of_Noah)" title="Ham (son of Noah)">Ham</a>, the son of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noah</a>, sins by seeing his father inebriated and naked, although scholars differ on the exact nature of Ham’s transgression. Noah then curses Ham’s offspring, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>, with being a "servant of servants unto his brethren". Although race or skin color is not mentioned, many Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars began to interpret the passage as a curse of both slavery and black skin, in an attempt to justify the enslavement of people of color, specifically those of African descent.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a></sup> In the medieval period, however, it was also used by some Christians as a justification for serfdom. Muslim sources in the 7th century allude to the Curse of Ham gaining relevance as a justifying myth for the Islamic world’s longstanding enslavement of Africans.
</p><p>The apparent discrepancy between the notion of human liberty founded in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> and the recognition of slavery by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a> was resolved by a legal "compromise": enslavement was allowable given a just cause, which could then be defined by papal authority.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a></sup> The state of slavery was thought to be closely tied to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></sup> Towards the middle of the 15th century, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholic Church</a>, in particular the Papacy, took an active role in offering justifications for the enslavement of Saracens, pagans, infidels, and "other enemies of Christ". In 1452, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a> entitled <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dum_Diversas" title="Dum Diversas">Dum Diversas</a> authorized <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afonso_V_of_Portugal" title="Afonso V of Portugal">King Afonso V of Portugal</a> to enslave any "Saracens" or "pagans" he encountered. The Pope, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V" title="Pope Nicholas V">Pope Nicholas V</a>, recognized King Alfonso’s military action as legitimate in the form of the papal bull, and declared the
</p>
<blockquote><p>full and free power, through the Apostolic authority by this edict, to invade, conquer, fight, and subjugate the Saracens and pagans, and other infidels and other enemies of Christ, and ... to reduce their persons into perpetual servitude ...<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>In a follow-up bull, released in 1455 and entitled <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romanus_Pontifex" title="Romanus Pontifex">Romanus Pontifex</a>, Pope Nicholas V reiterated his support for the enslavement of infidels in the context of Portugal’s monopoly on North African trade routes.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a></sup>
</p><p>Historians such as Timothy Rayborn have contended that religious justifications served to mask the economic necessities underlying the institution of slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayborn,_p.93_160-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayborn,_p.93-160">[160]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1147244281">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholic Church and slavery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christianity_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity and slavery">Christianity and slavery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">History of slavery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islamic views on slavery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Slavery in ancient Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery in ancient Rome</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Slavery in antiquity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">The Bible and slavery</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFRio2017" class="citation book cs1">Rio, Alice (30 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V6OpDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23"><i>Slavery After Rome, 500-1100</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 23. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100902-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100902-0"><bdi>978-0-19-100902-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+After+Rome%2C+500-1100&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017-03-30&rft.isbn=978-0-19-100902-0&rft.aulast=Rio&rft.aufirst=Alice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV6OpDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez1997" class="citation book cs1">Rodriguez, Junius P. (December 1997). "Slavery in medieval Europe". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA596"><i>The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery [2 Volumes]</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 596. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-885-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-885-7"><bdi>978-0-87436-885-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+medieval+Europe&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Encyclopedia+of+World+Slavery+%5B2+Volumes%5D&rft.pages=596&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=1997-12&rft.isbn=978-0-87436-885-7&rft.aulast=Rodriguez&rft.aufirst=Junius+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DATq5_6h2AT0C%26pg%3DPA596&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBiermannJankowiak2021" class="citation book cs1">Biermann, Felix; Jankowiak, Marek (18 November 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t_FPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44"><i>The Archaeology of Slavery in Early Medieval Northern Europe: The Invisible Commodity</i></a>. Springer Nature. p. 44. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-73291-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-73291-2"><bdi>978-3-030-73291-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Slavery+in+Early+Medieval+Northern+Europe%3A+The+Invisible+Commodity&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2021-11-18&rft.isbn=978-3-030-73291-2&rft.aulast=Biermann&rft.aufirst=Felix&rft.au=Jankowiak%2C+Marek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt_FPEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg4-4.htm#l1">"Book IV, Title IV: The Visigothic Code: (Forum judicum)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Book+IV%2C+Title+IV%3A+The+Visigothic+Code%3A+%28Forum+judicum%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibro.uca.edu%2Fvcode%2Fvg4-4.htm%23l1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-1.htm#l3">[1]</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-3.htm#l3">[2]</a>, & <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-4.htm#l1">[3]</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBiermannJankowiak2021" class="citation book cs1">Biermann, Felix; Jankowiak, Marek (18 November 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t_FPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43"><i>The Archaeology of Slavery in Early Medieval Northern Europe: The Invisible Commodity</i></a>. Springer Nature. p. 43. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-73291-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-73291-2"><bdi>978-3-030-73291-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Slavery+in+Early+Medieval+Northern+Europe%3A+The+Invisible+Commodity&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2021-11-18&rft.isbn=978-3-030-73291-2&rft.aulast=Biermann&rft.aufirst=Felix&rft.au=Jankowiak%2C+Marek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt_FPEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Fouracre, Richard A. Gerberding (1996), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uifpAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA111">Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography, 640–720</a></i>, Manchester University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-4791-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-4791-9">0-7190-4791-9</a>, p. 97–99 & 111.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090227083435/http://www.domesdaybook.net/helpfiles/hs2970.htm">"Domesday Book Slave"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.domesdaybook.net/helpfiles/hs2970.htm">the original</a> on 27 February 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Domesday+Book+Slave&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.domesdaybook.net%2Fhelpfiles%2Fhs2970.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-PAF-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PAF_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perry Anderson, <i>Passages from antiquity to feudalism</i> (1996) p 141</span>
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<li id="cite_note-dictslave-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dictslave_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dictslave_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dictslave_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dictslave_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dictslave_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dictslave_10-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dictslave_10-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dictslave_10-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Slavery, Slave Trade.</i> ed. Strayer, Joseph R. Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Volume 11. New York: Scribner, 1982. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0684190730" title="Special:BookSources/978-0684190730">978-0684190730</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-britannicasurvey-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britannicasurvey_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannicasurvey_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24159">"Historical survey The international slave trade"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Historical+survey+The+international+slave+trade&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fblackhistory%2Farticle-24159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-battuta-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-battuta_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-battuta_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160729095759/http://ibnbattuta.berkeley.edu/5anatolia.html">"Battuta's Trip: Anatolia (Turkey) 1330–1331"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ibnbattuta.berkeley.edu/5anatolia.html">the original</a> on 29 July 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Battuta%27s+Trip%3A+Anatolia+%28Turkey%29+1330%E2%80%931331&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fibnbattuta.berkeley.edu%2F5anatolia.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-lotharii-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lotharii_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lotharii_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Il <i>pactum Lotharii</i> del 840 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roberto_Cessi" title="Roberto Cessi">Cessi, Roberto</a>. (1939–1940) – In: Atti. Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, Classe di Scienze Morali e Lettere Ser. 2, vol. 99 (1939–40) p. 11–49</span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160626095624/http://arielcaliban.org/PX_pacta_veneta.pdf">"Pacta Veneta. A chronology in four steps. PAX TIBI MARCE Venice: government, law, jurisprudence Venezia: istituzioni, diritto, giurisprudenza"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arielcaliban.org/PX_pacta_veneta.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 June 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pacta+Veneta.+A+chronology+in+four+steps.+PAX+TIBI+MARCE+Venice%3A+government%2C+law%2C+jurisprudence+Venezia%3A+istituzioni%2C+diritto%2C+giurisprudenza&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arielcaliban.org%2FPX_pacta_veneta.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/1171latrsale.asp">"Internet History Sourcebooks Project"</a>. <i>sourcebooks.fordham.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sourcebooks.fordham.edu&rft.atitle=Internet+History+Sourcebooks+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fsource%2F1171latrsale.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-dirhams-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dirhams_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dirhams_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJankowiak2012" class="citation journal cs1">Jankowiak, Marek (27 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1764468">"Dirhams for slaves. Investigating the Slavic slave trade in the tenth century"</a>. <i>Medieval Seminar, All Souls</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medieval+Seminar%2C+All+Souls&rft.atitle=Dirhams+for+slaves.+Investigating+the+Slavic+slave+trade+in+the+tenth+century&rft.date=2012-02-27&rft.aulast=Jankowiak&rft.aufirst=Marek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1764468&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Duchesne, Louis Marie Olivier. <i>XCIII Zacharias (741–752).</i> Le Liber pontificalis; texte, introduction et commentaire par L. Duchesne (Volume 1). 1886. p. 426–439. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/duchesne01">Available on archive.org</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15743b.htm">"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope St. Zachary"</a>. <i>newadvent.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=newadvent.org&rft.atitle=CATHOLIC+ENCYCLOPEDIA%3A+Pope+St.+Zachary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F15743b.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reverend Alban Butler. "St. Zachary, Pope and Confessor". <i>The Lives of the Saints</i>, Volume 3. 1866. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.bartleby.com/210/3/152.html">[4]</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-rafftolls-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rafftolls_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MGH, Leges, Capitularia regum Francorum, II, ed. by A. Boretius, Hanovre, 1890, p. 250–252 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/capitulariaregum01bore">(available on-line)</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-valante-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-valante_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-valante_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-valante_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFValante2013" class="citation book cs1">Valante, Mary A. (2013). "Castrating Monks: Vikings, the Slave Trade, and the Value of Eunuchs". In Tracy, Larissa (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt2tt1pr"><i>Castration and Culture in the Middle Ages</i></a>. Boydell & Brewer. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84384-351-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84384-351-1"><bdi>978-1-84384-351-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt2tt1pr">10.7722/j.ctt2tt1pr</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Castrating+Monks%3A+Vikings%2C+the+Slave+Trade%2C+and+the+Value+of+Eunuchs&rft.btitle=Castration+and+Culture+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7722%2Fj.ctt2tt1pr%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-84384-351-1&rft.aulast=Valante&rft.aufirst=Mary+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7722%2Fj.ctt2tt1pr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C&pg=PA45">Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800</a></i>. Robert Davis (2004). p.45. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4039-4551-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-4039-4551-9">1-4039-4551-9</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-lughod-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lughod_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lughod_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Janet L. Abu-Lughod, <i>Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350</i> Oxford University Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195067746" title="Special:BookSources/0195067746">0195067746</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081223185836/http://www.roxie.org/books/shoulders/ch02-labor.html">Rawlins, Gregory J.E. Rebooting Reality — Chapter 2, Labor (archive from December 23, 2008)</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-radhanites-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-radhanites_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Olivia Remie Constable (1996). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M-CVlhPb21MC&pg=PA203">Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula, 900–1500</a></i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 203–204. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521565030" title="Special:BookSources/0521565030">0521565030</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-auto1-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCollins1995" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Roger (1995). <i>Early Medieval Spain – Springer</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-24135-4">10.1007/978-1-349-24135-4</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-64171-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-64171-2"><bdi>978-0-333-64171-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Medieval+Spain+%E2%80%93+Springer&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-349-24135-4&rft.isbn=978-0-333-64171-2&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apps.brepolis.net/LTool/Entrance.aspx?w=12&a=%2fllta%2fpages%2fToc.aspx">"BREPOLiS – Login"</a>. <i>apps.brepolis.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=apps.brepolis.net&rft.atitle=BREPOLiS+%E2%80%93+Login&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.brepolis.net%2FLTool%2FEntrance.aspx%3Fw%3D12%26a%3D%252fllta%252fpages%252fToc.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-vikings-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vikings_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJunius_P_Rodriguez,_PhD1997" class="citation book cs1">Junius P Rodriguez, PhD (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA674"><i>The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery. vol 1. A – K</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 674. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780874368857" title="Special:BookSources/9780874368857"><bdi>9780874368857</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Encyclopedia+of+World+Slavery.+vol+1.+A+%E2%80%93+K&rft.pages=674&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780874368857&rft.au=Junius+P+Rodriguez%2C+PhD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DATq5_6h2AT0C%26pg%3DPA674&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn1973" class="citation book cs1">Kuhn, Hans (1973). <i>Amt. 1. Sprachlichee</i>. RGA 1:258. p. 258.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Amt.+1.+Sprachlichee&rft.pages=258&rft.pub=RGA+1%3A258&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:0-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSusan_Jane_Allen2017" class="citation book cs1">Susan Jane Allen (2017). <i>An Introduction to the Crusades</i>. North York, Ontario, Canada. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-0023-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-0023-2"><bdi>978-1-4426-0023-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/983482121">983482121</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Crusades&rft.place=North+York%2C+Ontario%2C+Canada&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F983482121&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-0023-2&rft.au=Susan+Jane+Allen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:3-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_31-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSawyer2000" class="citation book cs1">Sawyer, Birgit (2000). <i>The Viking-Age Rune-Stones: custom and commemoration in early medieval Scandinavia</i>. OUP Oxford.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Viking-Age+Rune-Stones%3A+custom+and+commemoration+in+early+medieval+Scandinavia&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Sawyer&rft.aufirst=Birgit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBrink2021" class="citation web cs1">Brink, Stefan (23 September 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197532355.003.0004">"Scandinavian Slavery"</a>. <i>Thraldom</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 70–76. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197532355.003.0004">10.1093/oso/9780197532355.003.0004</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-753235-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-753235-5"><bdi>978-0-19-753235-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Thraldom&rft.atitle=Scandinavian+Slavery&rft.pages=70-76&rft.date=2021-09-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197532355.003.0004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-753235-5&rft.aulast=Brink&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197532355.003.0004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHeebøll-Holm2020" class="citation journal cs1">Heebøll-Holm, Thomas K. (4 June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03468755.2020.1748106">"Piratical slave-raiding – the demise of a Viking practice in high medieval Denmark"</a>. <i>Scandinavian Journal of History</i>. <b>46</b> (4): 431–454. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03468755.2020.1748106">10.1080/03468755.2020.1748106</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0346-8755">0346-8755</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219919380">219919380</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scandinavian+Journal+of+History&rft.atitle=Piratical+slave-raiding+%E2%80%93+the+demise+of+a+Viking+practice+in+high+medieval+Denmark&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=431-454&rft.date=2020-06-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219919380%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0346-8755&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03468755.2020.1748106&rft.aulast=Heeb%C3%B8ll-Holm&rft.aufirst=Thomas+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1080%2F03468755.2020.1748106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mnh.si.edu/vikings/voyage/subset/iceland/history.html">Iceland History</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFReuter2013" class="citation cs2">Reuter, Timothy (1 January 2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.7765/9781526112736.00009">"The text – The Annals of Fulda"</a>, <i>The Annals of Fulda</i>, Manchester University Press, p. 88, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7765%2F9781526112736.00009">10.7765/9781526112736.00009</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781526112736" title="Special:BookSources/9781526112736"><bdi>9781526112736</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2021</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Annals+of+Fulda&rft.atitle=The+text+%E2%80%93+The+Annals+of+Fulda&rft.pages=88&rft.date=2013-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7765%2F9781526112736.00009&rft.isbn=9781526112736&rft.aulast=Reuter&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.7765%2F9781526112736.00009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFE.g._Mac_Airt_and_Mac_Niocaill1983" class="citation book cs1">E.g. Mac Airt and Mac Niocaill (1983). <i>The Annals of Ulster, to AD 1131</i>. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. p. 311.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Annals+of+Ulster%2C+to+AD+1131&rft.place=Dublin&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Dublin+Institute+for+Advanced+Studies&rft.date=1983&rft.au=E.g.+Mac+Airt+and+Mac+Niocaill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFTschan1959" class="citation book cs1">Tschan, Francis J., ed. (1959). <i>Adam of Bremen. History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 190, bk. 4, ch.6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam+of+Bremen.+History+of+the+Archbishops+of+Hamburg-Bremen&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=190%2C+bk.+4%2C+ch.6&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1959&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMagnussonPalsson1969" class="citation book cs1">Magnusson, Magnus; Palsson, Hermann (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/223343478"><i>Laxdaela saga ; Translated with an introduction by Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Palsson</i></a>. Penguin. p. 64. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/223343478">223343478</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Laxdaela+saga+%3B+Translated+with+an+introduction+by+Magnus+Magnusson+and+Hermann+Palsson.&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F223343478&rft.aulast=Magnusson&rft.aufirst=Magnus&rft.au=Palsson%2C+Hermann&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F223343478&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKrag1982" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Krag, Claus (1982). "Treller og Trellehold". <i>Historisk Tidsskrift 61</i>. no. 3: 209–227.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historisk+Tidsskrift+61&rft.atitle=Treller+og+Trellehold&rft.volume=no.+3&rft.pages=209-227&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Krag&rft.aufirst=Claus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Niels Skyum-Nielsen, "Nordic Slavery in an International Context," <i>Medieval Scandinavia</i> 11 (1978–79) 126–48</span>
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<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131001082748/http://www.uib.no/jais/v003ht/03-001-025Montgom1.htm">"James E. Montgomery, IBN FAḌLĀN AND THE RŪSIYYAH"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uib.no/jais/v003ht/03-001-025Montgom1.htm">the original</a> on 1 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+E.+Montgomery%2C+IBN+FA%E1%B8%8CL%C4%80N+AND+THE+R%C5%AASIYYAH&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uib.no%2Fjais%2Fv003ht%2F03-001-025Montgom1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medievalists.net/2014/04/medieval-slave-traders-go-finland/">"Why did Medieval Slave Traders go to Finland?"</a>. 17 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+did+Medieval+Slave+Traders+go+to+Finland%3F&rft.date=2014-04-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medievalists.net%2F2014%2F04%2Fmedieval-slave-traders-go-finland%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Medieval slave trade routes in Eastern Europe extended from Finland and the Baltic Countries to Central Asia <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.uef.fi/en/-/ita-euroopan-orjakaupan-reitit-ulottuivat-keskiajalla-suomesta-ja-baltiasta-keski-aasiaan">[5]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141210083057/http://www.uef.fi/en/-/ita-euroopan-orjakaupan-reitit-ulottuivat-keskiajalla-suomesta-ja-baltiasta-keski-aasiaan">Archived</a> 10 December 2014 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Korpela, Jukka. The Baltic Finnic People in the Medieval and Pre-Modern Eastern European Slave Trade, in 'Russian History, Volume 41, Issue 1' p. 85-117 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/18763316-04101006">[6]</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSomerville2014" class="citation book cs1">Somerville, Angus A., trans. (2014). <i>The Viking Age: A Reader</i>. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 195–198.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Viking+Age%3A+A+Reader&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=195-198&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Somerville&rft.aufirst=Angus+A.%2C+trans.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/rubruck.html">"William of Rubruck's Account of the Mongols"</a>. <i>depts.washington.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=depts.washington.edu&rft.atitle=William+of+Rubruck%27s+Account+of+the+Mongols&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdepts.washington.edu%2Fsilkroad%2Ftexts%2Frubruck.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091026193520/http://geocities.com/medievalnovgorod/nov10.html">"Life in 13th Century Novgorod – Women and Class Structure"</a>. 26 October 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geocities.com/medievalnovgorod/nov10.html">the original</a> on 26 October 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Life+in+13th+Century+Novgorod+%E2%80%93+Women+and+Class+Structure&rft.date=2009-10-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeocities.com%2Fmedievalnovgorod%2Fnov10.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sras.org/news2.phtml?m=477">"The Effects of the Mongol Empire on Russia"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Effects+of+the+Mongol+Empire+on+Russia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sras.org%2Fnews2.phtml%3Fm%3D477&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157">Historical survey > Slave societies</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGalina_I._Yermolenko2010" class="citation book cs1">Galina I. Yermolenko (15 July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xjyVS72I2ocC"><i>Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture</i></a>. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 111. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6761-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6761-2"><bdi>978-0-7546-6761-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roxolana+in+European+Literature%2C+History+and+Culture&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2010-07-15&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-6761-2&rft.au=Galina+I.+Yermolenko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxjyVS72I2ocC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCampbelly2011" class="citation book cs1">Campbelly, Jamesetta (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UN8CAR5EEmgC">"Part I: The Romans to the Norman Conquest, 500 BC – AD 1066"</a>. In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/J._C._D._Clark" title="J. C. D. Clark">Clark, Jonathan</a> (ed.). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldbyitselfhis0000clar/page/23"><i>A World by Itself: A History of the British Isles</i></a></span>. Random House. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldbyitselfhis0000clar/page/23">23</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780712664967" title="Special:BookSources/9780712664967"><bdi>9780712664967</bdi></a>. <q>Whatever currency was in use [in Ireland in antiquity], it was not coin – as in other pre-coin economies, there was a system of conventional valuations in which female slaves, for example, were important units.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+I%3A+The+Romans+to+the+Norman+Conquest%2C+500+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+1066&rft.btitle=A+World+by+Itself%3A+A+History+of+the+British+Isles&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780712664967&rft.aulast=Campbelly&rft.aufirst=Jamesetta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUN8CAR5EEmgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKeenan2004" class="citation book cs1">Keenan, Desmond (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k2Ol_XFFH_oC"><i>The True Origins of Irish Society</i></a>. Xlibris Corporation. p. 152. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781465318695" title="Special:BookSources/9781465318695"><bdi>9781465318695</bdi></a>. <q>For the slave raiders, slaves were a valuable currency. You could sell them to buy wine and other luxury goods. There was always a market for them. There was always an unending supply of them, if only you were stronger than your neighbour. [...] For the Irish, slave-raiding was a lucrative extension to the cattle-raiding.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+True+Origins+of+Irish+Society&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=Xlibris+Corporation&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781465318695&rft.aulast=Keenan&rft.aufirst=Desmond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk2Ol_XFFH_oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCrawley1910" class="citation cs2">Crawley, John J. (1910), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ewtn.com/library/MARY/ANSELM.HTM"><i>Lives of the Saints</i></a>, John J. Crawley & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lives+of+the+Saints&rft.pub=John+J.+Crawley+%26+Co.&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Crawley&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ewtn.com%2Flibrary%2FMARY%2FANSELM.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSturges2015" class="citation book cs1">Sturges, Robert S. (2015). <i>Aucassin and Nicolette</i>. East Lansing: Michigan State UP. p. xv. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781611861570" title="Special:BookSources/9781611861570"><bdi>9781611861570</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aucassin+and+Nicolette&rft.place=East+Lansing&rft.pages=xv&rft.pub=Michigan+State+UP&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781611861570&rft.aulast=Sturges&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/1248serfs5.asp">"Internet History Sourcebooks Project"</a>. <i>sourcebooks.fordham.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sourcebooks.fordham.edu&rft.atitle=Internet+History+Sourcebooks+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fsource%2F1248serfs5.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAnne_Taylor2007" class="citation journal cs1">Anne Taylor, Julie (1 April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13602000701308889">"Freedom and Bondage among Muslims in Southern Italy during the Thirteenth Century"</a>. <i>Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs</i>. <b>27</b> (1): 72–73. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13602000701308889">10.1080/13602000701308889</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1360-2004">1360-2004</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216117913">216117913</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Muslim+Minority+Affairs&rft.atitle=Freedom+and+Bondage+among+Muslims+in+Southern+Italy+during+the+Thirteenth+Century&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=72-73&rft.date=2007-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A216117913%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1360-2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13602000701308889&rft.aulast=Anne+Taylor&rft.aufirst=Julie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F13602000701308889&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCassar1968" class="citation journal cs1">Cassar, P (24 July 1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1033829">"A medical service for slaves in Malta during the rule of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem"</a>. <i>Medical History</i>. <b>12</b> (3): 270–277. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025727300013314">10.1017/s0025727300013314</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1033829">1033829</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4875614">4875614</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+History&rft.atitle=A+medical+service+for+slaves+in+Malta+during+the+rule+of+the+Order+of+St.+John+of+Jerusalem.&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=270-277&rft.date=1968-07-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1033829%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4875614&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0025727300013314&rft.aulast=Cassar&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1033829&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090112130548/http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/hospitallers/hospitallers.html">"Brief History of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem"</a>. Hmml.org. 23 September 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/hospitallers/hospitallers.html">the original</a> on 12 January 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Brief+History+of+the+Knights+of+St.+John+of+Jerusalem&rft.pub=Hmml.org&rft.date=2010-09-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hmml.org%2Fcenters%2Fmalta%2Fhospitallers%2Fhospitallers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFZilfi2016" class="citation journal cs1">Zilfi, Madeline C. (25 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/jemh/20/6/article-p592_6.xml">"Mediterranean Slavery Revisited (500-1800): Neue Perspektiven auf Mediterrane Sklaverei (500-1800), written by Stefan Hanss and Juliane Schiel"</a>. <i>Journal of Early Modern History</i>. <b>20</b> (6): 594–595. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15700658-00200006-05">10.1163/15700658-00200006-05</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1385-3783">1385-3783</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Early+Modern+History&rft.atitle=Mediterranean+Slavery+Revisited+%28500-1800%29%3A+Neue+Perspektiven+auf+Mediterrane+Sklaverei+%28500-1800%29%2C+written+by+Stefan+Hanss+and+Juliane+Schiel&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=594-595&rft.date=2016-11-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15700658-00200006-05&rft.issn=1385-3783&rft.aulast=Zilfi&rft.aufirst=Madeline+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fjemh%2F20%2F6%2Farticle-p592_6.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMalamat1976" class="citation book cs1">Malamat, Abraham (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC&pg=PR9"><i>A History of the Jewish People</i></a>. Harvard University Press. pp. ix, 564. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6"><bdi>978-0-674-39731-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pages=ix%2C+564&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-674-39731-6&rft.aulast=Malamat&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2kSovzudhFUC%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFToch2013" class="citation book cs1">Toch, Michael (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bf8yAQAAQBAJ"><i>The Economic History of European Jews: Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages</i></a>. Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill nV. pp. 178–190. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004235397" title="Special:BookSources/9789004235397"><bdi>9789004235397</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+History+of+European+Jews%3A+Late+Antiquity+and+Early+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pages=178-190&rft.pub=Koninklijke+Brill+nV&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9789004235397&rft.aulast=Toch&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBf8yAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Klein, Herbert. <i>The Atlantic Slave Trade</i>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez1997" class="citation book cs1">Rodriguez, Junius P. (December 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ATq5_6h2AT0C&pg=PA550"><i>The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery [2 Volumes]</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 550. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-885-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-885-7"><bdi>978-0-87436-885-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Encyclopedia+of+World+Slavery+%5B2+Volumes%5D&rft.pages=550&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=1997-12&rft.isbn=978-0-87436-885-7&rft.aulast=Rodriguez&rft.aufirst=Junius+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DATq5_6h2AT0C%26pg%3DPA550&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBerman1977" class="citation journal cs1">Berman, Harold J. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1340133">"The Origins of Western Legal Science"</a>. <i>Harvard Law Review</i>. <b>90</b> (5): 894–943, 898. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1340133">10.2307/1340133</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0017-811X">0017-811X</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1340133">1340133</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+Western+Legal+Science&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=894-943%2C+898&rft.date=1977&rft.issn=0017-811X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1340133%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1340133&rft.aulast=Berman&rft.aufirst=Harold+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1340133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAlburn1959" class="citation book cs1">Alburn, Cary R. (June 1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rxLudzNw2h4C&pg=PA564">"Corpus Juris Civilis: A Hisotrical Romance"</a>. <i>ABA Journal</i>. American Bar Association. p. 564.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Corpus+Juris+Civilis%3A+A+Hisotrical+Romance&rft.btitle=ABA+Journal&rft.pages=564&rft.pub=American+Bar+Association&rft.date=1959-06&rft.aulast=Alburn&rft.aufirst=Cary+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrxLudzNw2h4C%26pg%3DPA564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFordham_University,_Internet_History_Sourcebooks_Project" class="citation web cs1">Fordham University, Internet History Sourcebooks Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/535institutes.asp">"Book I: Of Persons, Section III: Law of Persons"</a>. <i>Corpus Iurus Civilis: The Institutes, 535 CE</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Corpus+Iurus+Civilis%3A+The+Institutes%2C+535+CE&rft.atitle=Book+I%3A+Of+Persons%2C+Section+III%3A+Law+of+Persons&rft.au=Fordham+University%2C+Internet+History+Sourcebooks+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fbasis%2F535institutes.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFordham_University,_Internet_History_Sourcebooks_Project." class="citation web cs1">Fordham University, Internet History Sourcebooks Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/535institutes.asp">"Book I: Of Persons, Section V: Freedmen"</a>. <i>Corpus Iurus Civilis: The Institutes, 535 CE</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Corpus+Iurus+Civilis%3A+The+Institutes%2C+535+CE&rft.atitle=Book+I%3A+Of+Persons%2C+Section+V%3A+Freedmen.&rft.au=Fordham+University%2C+Internet+History+Sourcebooks+Project.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fbasis%2F535institutes.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britsattheirbest.com/freedom/f_time_12th_century.htm">"BRITISH HISTORY THE STORY of FREEDOM LIBERTY! THE TIMELINE Freedom & justice go hand in hand"</a>. <i>britsattheirbest.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=britsattheirbest.com&rft.atitle=BRITISH+HISTORY+THE+STORY+of+FREEDOM+LIBERTY%21+THE+TIMELINE+Freedom+%26+justice+go+hand+in+hand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britsattheirbest.com%2Ffreedom%2Ff_time_12th_century.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160">"Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Welcome+to+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%27s+Guide+to+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fblackhistory%2Farticle-24160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:4-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKaplan2018" class="citation book cs1">Kaplan, Lindsay (7 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eFByDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA144"><i>Figuring Racism in Medieval Christianity</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 144. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-067824-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-067824-1"><bdi>978-0-19-067824-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Figuring+Racism+in+Medieval+Christianity&rft.pages=144&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018-12-07&rft.isbn=978-0-19-067824-1&rft.aulast=Kaplan&rft.aufirst=Lindsay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeFByDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAllain2012" class="citation book cs1">Allain, Jean (27 September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n_KAvAjkEbsC&pg=PA38"><i>The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary</i></a>. OUP Oxford. p. 38. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966046-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966046-9"><bdi>978-0-19-966046-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legal+Understanding+of+Slavery%3A+From+the+Historical+to+the+Contemporary&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2012-09-27&rft.isbn=978-0-19-966046-9&rft.aulast=Allain&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn_KAvAjkEbsC%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjamin Z. Kedar, "The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant", in <i>The Crusades: The Essential Readings</i>, ed. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_F._Madden" title="Thomas F. Madden">Thomas F. Madden</a>, Blackwell, 2002, p. 244. Originally published in <i>Muslims Under Latin Rule, 1100–1300</i>, ed. James M. Powell, Princeton University Press, 1990. Kedar quotes his numbers from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joshua_Prawer" title="Joshua Prawer">Joshua Prawer</a>, <i>Histoire du royaume latin de Jérusalem</i>, tr. G. Nahon, Paris, 1969, vol. 1, pp. 498, 568–72.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christopher_Tyerman" title="Christopher Tyerman">Christopher Tyerman</a>, <i>God’s War, A new History of the Crusades</i> pp. 226–228. quote = "Just as non-muslim communities survived under Islam, so non-Christians lived unfree but largely unmolested in Frankish outremer. After the early massacres, displacements and expulsions of Muslims and Jews from conquered cities, coexistence, rather than integration or persecution prevailed ... At Acre, where the two faiths shared a converted mosque as well as a suburban shrine, Muslim visitors were treated fairly and efficiently. Mosques still operated openly in Tyre and elsewhere."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher Tyerman, <i>God’s War, A new History of the Crusades,</i> p. 230.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Hans_E._Mayer_1982_pp._531-533-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hans_E._Mayer_1982_pp._531-533_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hans_E._Mayer_1982_pp._531-533_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hans E. Mayer, "The Concordat of Nablus" (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Journal_of_Ecclesiastical_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Ecclesiastical History">Journal of Ecclesiastical History</a> 33 (October 1982)), pp. 531–533.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjamin Z. Kedar, <i>On the origins of the earliest laws of Frankish Jerusalem: The canons of the Council of Nablus, 1120</i> (<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Speculum_(journal)" title="Speculum (journal)">Speculum</a></i> 74, 1999), pp. 330–331; Marwan Nader, <i>Burgesses and Burgess Law in the Latin Kingdoms of Jerusalem and Cyprus (1099–1325) (Ashgate: 2006), pg. 45.</i></span>
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<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFD.2014" class="citation book cs1">D., Phillips, William (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/913510589"><i>Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 20. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4491-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4491-5"><bdi>978-0-8122-4491-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/913510589">913510589</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Iberia&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F913510589&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4491-5&rft.aulast=D.&rft.aufirst=Phillips%2C+William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F913510589&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFynn-Paul2009" class="citation journal cs1">Fynn-Paul, Jeffrey (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40586930">"Empire, Monotheism and Slavery in the Greater Mediterranean Region from Antiquity to the Early Modern Era"</a>. <i>Past & Present</i> (205): 13. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-2746">0031-2746</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40586930">40586930</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=Empire%2C+Monotheism+and+Slavery+in+the+Greater+Mediterranean+Region+from+Antiquity+to+the+Early+Modern+Era&rft.issue=205&rft.pages=13&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40586930%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0031-2746&rft.aulast=Fynn-Paul&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40586930&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFynn-Paul2017" class="citation cs2">Fynn-Paul, Jeffrey (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004346611_021">"Empire, Monotheism and Slavery in the Greater Mediterranean Region from Antiquity to the Early Modern Era"</a>, <i>Critical Readings on Global Slavery (4 vols.)</i>, Brill, pp. 553–587, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004346611_021">10.1163/9789004346611_021</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004346611" title="Special:BookSources/9789004346611"><bdi>9789004346611</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2021</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Readings+on+Global+Slavery+%284+vols.%29&rft.atitle=Empire%2C+Monotheism+and+Slavery+in+the+Greater+Mediterranean+Region+from+Antiquity+to+the+Early+Modern+Era&rft.pages=553-587&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004346611_021&rft.isbn=9789004346611&rft.aulast=Fynn-Paul&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F9789004346611_021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fynn-Paul, p. 26.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJankowiak2017" class="citation journal cs1">Jankowiak, Marek (20 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0020743816001240">"What Does the Slave Trade in the Saqaliba Tell Us about Early Islamic Slavery?"</a>. <i>International Journal of Middle East Studies</i>. <b>49</b> (1): 171. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0020743816001240">10.1017/s0020743816001240</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7438">0020-7438</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165127852">165127852</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=What+Does+the+Slave+Trade+in+the+Saqaliba+Tell+Us+about+Early+Islamic+Slavery%3F&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=171&rft.date=2017-01-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165127852%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0020-7438&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0020743816001240&rft.aulast=Jankowiak&rft.aufirst=Marek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252Fs0020743816001240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gaiser, A. (2014) "Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa" in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 42.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gaiser, A. (2014) "Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa" in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 44.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gutierrez, J. and Valor, M. (2014) "Trade, Transport and Travel" in Valor, M. and Gutierrez, A. (eds.) The Archaeology of Medieval Spain 1100–1500, Sheffield: Equinox, pp. 124.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gaiser, A. (2014) "Slaves and Silver across the Strait of Gibraltar: Politics and Trade between Umayyad Iberia and Khārijite North Africa" in Liang, Y.G. et al. (eds.) Spanning the Strait: Studies in Unity in the Western Mediterranean, Leiden: Brill, pp. 45.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libro.uca.edu/rc/rc1.htm">"Ransoming Captives, Chapter One"</a>. <i>libro.uca.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=libro.uca.edu&rft.atitle=Ransoming+Captives%2C+Chapter+One&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibro.uca.edu%2Frc%2Frc1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWenner1980" class="citation journal cs1">Wenner, Manfred W. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743800027136">"The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe"</a>. <i>International Journal of Middle East Studies</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 62, 63. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0020743800027136">10.1017/s0020743800027136</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7438">0020-7438</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162537404">162537404</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Arab%2FMuslim+Presence+in+Medieval+Central+Europe&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=62%2C+63&rft.date=1980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162537404%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0020-7438&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0020743800027136&rft.aulast=Wenner&rft.aufirst=Manfred+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1017%2Fs0020743800027136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips, p. 17.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jankowiak, p. 169.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips, p. 18.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFScott" class="citation web cs1">Scott, S.P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-2.pdf">"The Visigothic Code"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Library of Iberian Resources Online</i>. Book III, Title II, Section III.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Library+of+Iberian+Resources+Online&rft.atitle=The+Visigothic+Code&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=S.P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibro.uca.edu%2Fvcode%2Fvg3-2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKamen2010" class="citation journal cs1">Kamen, Deborah (2010). "A Corpus of Inscriptions: representing slave marks in Antiquity". <i>Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome</i>. University of Michigan Press. <b>55</b>: 95–110. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41419689">41419689</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+American+Academy+in+Rome&rft.atitle=A+Corpus+of+Inscriptions%3A+representing+slave+marks+in+Antiquity.&rft.volume=55&rft.pages=95-110&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41419689%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kamen&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFScott" class="citation web cs1">Scott, S.P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/vg3-4.pdf">"The Visigothic Code"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Library of Iberian References Online</i>. Book III, Title IV, Section VI.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Library+of+Iberian+References+Online&rft.atitle=The+Visigothic+Code&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=S.P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibro.uca.edu%2Fvcode%2Fvg3-4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2014" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, William (2014). <i>Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia</i>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Iberia&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWood1999" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Ian (1999). "Social Relations in the Visigothic Kingdom from the Fifth to the Seventh Century". <i>The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century: An Ethnographic Perspective</i>. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. p. 195.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+Relations+in+the+Visigothic+Kingdom+from+the+Fifth+to+the+Seventh+Century&rft.btitle=The+Visigoths+from+the+Migration+Period+to+the+Seventh+Century%3A+An+Ethnographic+Perspective&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pages=195&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Phillips_19-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Phillips_19_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Phillips_19_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips p.19</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSaunders1982" class="citation book cs1">Saunders, A.C. de C.M. (1982). <i>A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal: 1441–1555</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 84–85.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Social+History+of+Black+Slaves+and+Freedmen+in+Portugal%3A+1441%E2%80%931555&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=84-85&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Saunders&rft.aufirst=A.C.+de+C.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phiilps pages 14–15, 19</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBlumenthal2009" class="citation book cs1">Blumenthal, Debra (2009). <span class="cs1-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/enemiesfamiliars00blum"><i>Enemies and Familiars: Slavery and Mastery in Fifteenth-Century Valencia</i></a></span>. Cornell University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/enemiesfamiliars00blum/page/2">2</a>–3. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801445026" title="Special:BookSources/9780801445026"><bdi>9780801445026</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enemies+and+Familiars%3A+Slavery+and+Mastery+in+Fifteenth-Century+Valencia&rft.pages=2-3&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780801445026&rft.aulast=Blumenthal&rft.aufirst=Debra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenemiesfamiliars00blum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBarton1997" class="citation book cs1">Barton, Simon (1997). <i>The Aristocracy of Twelfth-Century Leon and Castile</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 83.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aristocracy+of+Twelfth-Century+Leon+and+Castile&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Barton&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips p.21</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRoth1994" class="citation book cs1">Roth, Norman (1994). <i>Jews, Visigoths & Muslims in Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict</i>. Leiden: Brill. pp. 160–161.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews%2C+Visigoths+%26+Muslims+in+Medieval+Spain%3A+Cooperation+and+Conflict&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=160-161&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips pp.20–21</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roth pp.156, 160</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_105-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Roth p.160</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBroadman1986" class="citation book cs1">Broadman, James William (1986). <i>Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier</i>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. passim.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ransoming+Captives+in+Crusader+Spain%3A+The+Order+of+Merced+on+the+Christian-Islamic+Frontier&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=passim&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Broadman&rft.aufirst=James+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2014" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Kathryn (2014). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Reflections on Reciprocity: A Late Medieval Islamic Perspective on Christian-Muslim Commitment to Captive Exchange."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". In Trivellato, Francesca; Halevi, Leor; Antunes, Catia (eds.). <i>Religion and Trade: Cross Cultural Exchanges in World History, 1000–1900</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 131–159.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22Reflections+on+Reciprocity%3A+A+Late+Medieval+Islamic+Perspective+on+Christian-Muslim+Commitment+to+Captive+Exchange.%22&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Trade%3A+Cross+Cultural+Exchanges+in+World+History%2C+1000%E2%80%931900&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=131-159&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Kathryn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFConstable1994" class="citation book cs1">Constable, Olivia (1994). <i>Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula, 900–1500</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 47.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trade+and+Traders+in+Muslim+Spain%3A+The+Commercial+Realignment+of+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+900%E2%80%931500&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Constable&rft.aufirst=Olivia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips p.17</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips p.61</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Broadman p.6</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2007" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, Jonathan (2007). <i>The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 260.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+Crusade%3A+Extending+the+Frontiers+of+Christendom&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=260&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFO'Callaghan2003" class="citation book cs1">O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (2003). <i>Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain</i>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 140.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconquest+and+Crusade+in+Medieval+Spain&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=140&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=O%27Callaghan&rft.aufirst=Joseph+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillips pp.60–61</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blumenthal p.20</span>
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<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Saunders pp.5–7</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_117-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLawrance2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jeremy_Lawrance" title="Jeremy Lawrance">Lawrance, Jeremey</a> (2005). "Black Africans in Renaissance Spanish Literature". In Earle, T.F.; Lowe, K.J.P. (eds.). <i>Black Africans in Renaissance Europe</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 70.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Black+Africans+in+Renaissance+Spanish+Literature&rft.btitle=Black+Africans+in+Renaissance+Europe&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Lawrance&rft.aufirst=Jeremey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-auto3-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_118-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_118-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Saunders p.29</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:1-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_119-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_119-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connell,_Monique,_1974–2016" class="citation book cs1">O'Connell, Monique, 1974– (23 May 2016). <i>The Mediterranean world : from the fall of Rome to the rise of Napoleon</i>. Dursteler, Eric. Baltimore. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1901-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1901-5"><bdi>978-1-4214-1901-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/921240187">921240187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mediterranean+world+%3A+from+the+fall+of+Rome+to+the+rise+of+Napoleon&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.date=2016-05-23&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F921240187&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-1901-5&rft.au=O%27Connell%2C+Monique%2C+1974%E2%80%93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBarker2019" class="citation book cs1">Barker, Hannah (27 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.9783/9780812296488/html"><i>That Most Precious Merchandise</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 209–212. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.9783%2F9780812296488">10.9783/9780812296488</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812296488" title="Special:BookSources/9780812296488"><bdi>9780812296488</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219875156">219875156</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=That+Most+Precious+Merchandise&rft.pages=209-212&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2019-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219875156%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.9783%2F9780812296488&rft.isbn=9780812296488&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.9783%2F9780812296488%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barker, p. 211.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barker, p. 210.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Viorel Achim, The Roma in Romanian History, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_European_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Central European University Press">Central European University Press</a>, Budapest, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/963-9241-84-9" title="Special:BookSources/963-9241-84-9">963-9241-84-9</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marushiakova and Vesselin, p. 103</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Richard_Hellie_1984-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Hellie_1984_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Hellie_1984_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Richard_Hellie" title="Richard Hellie">Richard Hellie</a>, <i>Slavery in Russia, 1450–1725</i> (1984)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carolyn Johnston Pouncey, <i>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Domostroy" title="Domostroy">Domostroi</a>: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible</i>, p15 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-9689-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-9689-6">0-8014-9689-6</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carolyn Johnston Pouncey, <i>The Domostroi: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible</i>, p33 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-9689-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-9689-6">0-8014-9689-6</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Full Collection of the Russian Annals, vol.13, SPb, 1904</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Crimean_Khanate">"The Tatar Khanate of Crimea – All Empires"</a>. <i>allempires.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=allempires.com&rft.atitle=The+Tatar+Khanate+of+Crimea+%E2%80%93+All+Empires&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allempires.com%2Farticle%2Findex.php%3Fq%3DThe_Crimean_Khanate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html">"Supply of Slaves"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Supply+of+Slaves&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcoursesa.matrix.msu.edu%2F~fisher%2Fhst373%2Freadings%2Finalcik6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/cities/printStory.cfm?obj_id=9141603&city_id=MCW">"Gulliver"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Gulliver&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fcities%2FprintStory.cfm%3Fobj_id%3D9141603%26city_id%3DMCW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157">"Historical survey > Slave societies (broken link)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Historical+survey+%3E+Slave+societies+%28broken+link%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fblackhistory%2Farticle-24157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-bardach40-41-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bardach40-41_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Juliusz Bardach, Bogusław Lesnodorski, and Michał Pietrzak, <i>Historia państwa i prawa polskiego</i> (Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987; p. 40–41</span>
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<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Lithuanian)</span> E. Gudavičius, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ausis.gf.vu.lt/mg/nr/2002/09/09stat.html">Stages of the Lithuanian Statute</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060927164324/http://ausis.gf.vu.lt/mg/nr/2002/09/09stat.html">Archived</a> 27 September 2006 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:6-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_135-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_135-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFIversen2019" class="citation book cs1">Iversen, Frode (2019). <i>Nordic Elites in Transformation, c. 1050–1250, Volume I</i>. Routledge. pp. 60–79. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780429262210" title="Special:BookSources/9780429262210"><bdi>9780429262210</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nordic+Elites+in+Transformation%2C+c.+1050%E2%80%931250%2C+Volume+I&rft.pages=60-79&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780429262210&rft.aulast=Iversen&rft.aufirst=Frode&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRaffield2019" class="citation journal cs1">Raffield, Ben (December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0144039X.2019.1592976">"The Slave Markets of the Viking World: Comparative Perspectives on an 'Invisible Archaeology"</a>. <i>Slavery & Abolition</i>. <b>40</b> (4): 682–705. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0144039X.2019.1592976">10.1080/0144039X.2019.1592976</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151255018">151255018</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavery+%26+Abolition&rft.atitle=The+Slave+Markets+of+the+Viking+World%3A+Comparative+Perspectives+on+an+%27Invisible+Archaeology&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=682-705&rft.date=2019-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0144039X.2019.1592976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151255018%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Raffield&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F0144039X.2019.1592976&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:7-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_137-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_137-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_137-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_137-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFTammVogt2016" class="citation book cs1">Tamm, Ditlev; Vogt, Helle (2016). <i>The Danish medieval laws : the laws of Scania, Zealand and Jutland</i>. London: Routledge medieval translations. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315646374" title="Special:BookSources/9781315646374"><bdi>9781315646374</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Danish+medieval+laws+%3A+the+laws+of+Scania%2C+Zealand+and+Jutland&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge+medieval+translations&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781315646374&rft.aulast=Tamm&rft.aufirst=Ditlev&rft.au=Vogt%2C+Helle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPeel2015" class="citation book cs1">Peel, Christine (2015). <i>Guta Lag and Guta Saga : the Law and History of the Gotlanders</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315735863" title="Special:BookSources/9781315735863"><bdi>9781315735863</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guta+Lag+and+Guta+Saga+%3A+the+Law+and+History+of+the+Gotlanders&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781315735863&rft.aulast=Peel&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKarras1990" class="citation journal cs1">Karras, Ruth (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40919117">"Concubinage and Slavery in the Viking Age"</a>. <i>Scandinavian Studies</i>. <b>62</b> (2): 141–162. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40919117">40919117</a> – via JSTOR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scandinavian+Studies&rft.atitle=Concubinage+and+Slavery+in+the+Viking+Age&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=141-162&rft.date=1990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40919117%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Karras&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40919117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dick Harrison (2006). Slaveri: Forntiden till renässansen. Lund: Historiska media. ISBN 91-85057-81-9</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBarthélemy2009" class="citation book cs1">Barthélemy, Dominique (2009). <span class="cs1-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart"><i>The Serf the Knight and the Historian</i></a></span>. Cornell University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/70">70</a>–71. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801436802" title="Special:BookSources/9780801436802"><bdi>9780801436802</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Serf+the+Knight+and+the+Historian&rft.pages=70-71&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780801436802&rft.aulast=Barth%C3%A9lemy&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fserfknighthistor00bart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBarthélemy2009" class="citation book cs1">Barthélemy, Dominique (2009). <span class="cs1-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart"><i>The Serf the Knight and the Historian</i></a></span>. Cornell University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/68">68</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801436802" title="Special:BookSources/9780801436802"><bdi>9780801436802</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Serf+the+Knight+and+the+Historian&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780801436802&rft.aulast=Barth%C3%A9lemy&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fserfknighthistor00bart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDevroey2007" class="citation journal cs1">Devroey, Jean-Pierre (2007). "Men and Women in Early Medieval Serfdom: the Ninth-Century North Frankish Evidence". <i>Past and Present</i>. <b>166</b>: 17. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F166.1.3">10.1093/past/166.1.3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+and+Present&rft.atitle=Men+and+Women+in+Early+Medieval+Serfdom%3A+the+Ninth-Century+North+Frankish+Evidence&rft.volume=166&rft.pages=17&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F166.1.3&rft.aulast=Devroey&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_144-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_144-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDevroey2000" class="citation journal cs1">Devroey, Jean-Pierre (2000). "Men and Women in Early Medieval Serfdom: The Ninth-Century North Frankish Evidence". <i>Past and Present</i>. <b>166</b>: 28. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F166.1.3">10.1093/past/166.1.3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+and+Present&rft.atitle=Men+and+Women+in+Early+Medieval+Serfdom%3A+The+Ninth-Century+North+Frankish+Evidence&rft.volume=166&rft.pages=28&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F166.1.3&rft.aulast=Devroey&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-auto2-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-auto2_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFClarence-Smith2006" class="citation book cs1">Clarence-Smith, W. G. (24 December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZW9DjTAox6EC"><i>Religions and the abolition of slavery – a comparative approach</i></a>. C. Hurst & Company. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781850657088" title="Special:BookSources/9781850657088"><bdi>9781850657088</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religions+and+the+abolition+of+slavery+%E2%80%93+a+comparative+approach&rft.pub=C.+Hurst+%26+Company&rft.date=2006-12-24&rft.isbn=9781850657088&rft.aulast=Clarence-Smith&rft.aufirst=W.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZW9DjTAox6EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBarthélemy2009" class="citation book cs1">Barthélemy, Dominique (2009). <span class="cs1-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart"><i>The Serf the Knight and the Historian</i></a></span>. Cornell University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/71">71</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801436802" title="Special:BookSources/9780801436802"><bdi>9780801436802</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Serf+the+Knight+and+the+Historian&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780801436802&rft.aulast=Barth%C3%A9lemy&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fserfknighthistor00bart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBarthélemy2009" class="citation book cs1">Barthélemy, Dominique (2009). <span class="cs1-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart"><i>The Serf the Knight and the Historian</i></a></span>. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/68">68</a>–69. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801436802" title="Special:BookSources/9780801436802"><bdi>9780801436802</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Serf+the+Knight+and+the+Historian&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+NY&rft.pages=68-69&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780801436802&rft.aulast=Barth%C3%A9lemy&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fserfknighthistor00bart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1996" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Wendy (1996). "On Servile Status in the Early Middle Ages". <i>Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage</i>. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. pp. 236–238.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+Servile+Status+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages&rft.btitle=Serfdom+and+Slavery%3A+Studies+in+Legal+Bondage&rft.place=London&rft.pages=236-238&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley+Longman+Limited&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:2-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_149-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_149-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFEngerman1996" class="citation book cs1">Engerman, Stanley (1996). "Slavery, Serfdom, and Other Forms of Coerced Labour: Similarities and Differences". <i>Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage</i>. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. pp. 31–32.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery%2C+Serfdom%2C+and+Other+Forms+of+Coerced+Labour%3A+Similarities+and+Differences&rft.btitle=Serfdom+and+Slavery%3A+Studies+in+Legal+Bondage&rft.place=London&rft.pages=31-32&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley+Longman+Limited&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Engerman&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBush1996" class="citation book cs1">Bush, Michael (1996). "Introduction". <i>Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage</i>. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Serfdom+and+Slavery%3A+Studies+in+Legal+Bondage&rft.place=London&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley+Longman+Limited&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Bush&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBush1996" class="citation book cs1">Bush, Michael (1996). "Introduction". <i>Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage</i>. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. p. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Serfdom+and+Slavery%3A+Studies+in+Legal+Bondage&rft.place=London&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley+Longman+Limited&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Bush&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFEngerman1996" class="citation book cs1">Engerman, Stanley (1996). "Slavery, serfdom and other forms of coerced labour: similarities and differences". <i>Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage</i>. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. pp. 24–26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery%2C+serfdom+and+other+forms+of+coerced+labour%3A+similarities+and+differences&rft.btitle=Serfdom+and+Slavery%3A+Studies+in+Legal+Bondage&rft.place=London&rft.pages=24-26&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley+Longman+Limited&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Engerman&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBarthélemy2009" class="citation book cs1">Barthélemy, Dominique (2009). <span class="cs1-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart"><i>The Serf the Knight and the Historian</i></a></span>. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/79">79</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801436802" title="Special:BookSources/9780801436802"><bdi>9780801436802</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Serf+the+Knight+and+the+Historian&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+NY&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780801436802&rft.aulast=Barth%C3%A9lemy&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fserfknighthistor00bart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBarthélemy2009" class="citation book cs1">Barthélemy, Dominique (2009). <span class="cs1-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart"><i>The Serf the Knight and the Historian</i></a></span>. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/serfknighthistor00bart/page/69">69</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801436802" title="Special:BookSources/9780801436802"><bdi>9780801436802</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Serf+the+Knight+and+the+Historian&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+NY&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780801436802&rft.aulast=Barth%C3%A9lemy&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fserfknighthistor00bart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBush" class="citation book cs1">Bush, Michael. "Introduction". <i>Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage</i>. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. p. 12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Serfdom+and+Slavery%3A+Studies+in+Legal+Bondage&rft.place=London&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley+Longman+Limited&rft.aulast=Bush&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFEngerman" class="citation book cs1">Engerman, Stanley. "Slavery, serfdom and other forms of coerced labour: similarities and differences". <i>Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage</i>. London: Addison Wesley Longman Limited. p. 38.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery%2C+serfdom+and+other+forms+of+coerced+labour%3A+similarities+and+differences&rft.btitle=Serfdom+and+Slavery%3A+Studies+in+Legal+Bondage&rft.place=London&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley+Longman+Limited&rft.aulast=Engerman&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFichtenau1984" class="citation book cs1">Fichtenau, Heinrich (1984). <i>Living in the 10th century: Mentalities and Social Orders</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 372.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+in+the+10th+century%3A+Mentalities+and+Social+Orders&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=372&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Fichtenau&rft.aufirst=Heinrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+in+medieval+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Graeber, <i>Debt: The First 5000 Years</i> (Brooklyn, New York: Melville House, 2011), ch. 7.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Orlando_Patterson" title="Orlando Patterson">Orlando Patterson</a>, <i>Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study</i> (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 40–41.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Rayborn,_p.93-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rayborn,_p.93_160-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayborn,_p.93_160-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayborn,_p.93_160-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Timothy Rayborn, <i>The Violent Pilgrimage: Christians, Muslims and Holy Conflicts, 850–1150</i>, Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2013, p. 93.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David M. Goldenberg, <i>The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam</i> (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter Ullmann, <i>Medieval Papalism</i> (Routledge, 1949), p. 57.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966), pp. 92–94.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pope Nicholas V, "Dum diversas" (1452), in <i>Bullarium patronatus Portugalliae regum in ecclesiis Africae, Asiae atque Oceaniae</i> (1868) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6NDmAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22in%20perpetuam%20servitutem%22&pg=PA22">p. 22.</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pope Nicholas V (1452), "Dum Diversas (English Translation)", <i>Unam Sanctam Catholicam</i>, 5 February 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://unamsanctamcatholicam.blogspot.com/2011/02/dum-diversas-english-translation.html">http://unamsanctamcatholicam.blogspot.com/2011/02/dum-diversas-english-translation.html</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frances Gardiner Davenport, <i>European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies to 1648</i> (Washington, D.C.), pp. 20–26.</span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span></h2>
<ul><li>Barker, Hannah "Slavery in Medieval Europe." <i>Oxford Bibliographies</i> (2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396584/obo-9780195396584-0276.xml">[8]</a></li>
<li>Barker, Hannah <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/That_Most_Precious_Merchandise:_The_Mediterranean_Trade_in_Black_Sea_Slaves,_1260-1500" title="That Most Precious Merchandise: The Mediterranean Trade in Black Sea Slaves, 1260-1500">That Most Precious Merchandise: The Mediterranean Trade in Black Sea Slaves, 1260-1500</a></i> (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019)</li>
<li>Campbell, Gwyn <i>et al.</i> eds. <i>Women and Slavery, Vol. 1: Africa, the Indian Ocean World, and the Medieval North Atlantic</i> (2007)</li>
<li>Dockès, Pierre. <i>Medieval Slavery and Liberation</i> (1989)</li>
<li>Frantzen, Allen J., and Douglas Moffat, eds. <i>The Work of Work: Servitude, Slavery and Labor in Medieval England</i> (1994)</li>
<li>Karras, Ruth Mazo. <i>Slavery and Society in Medieval Scandinavia</i> (Yale University Press, 1988)</li>
<li>Perry, Craig <i>et al.</i> eds. <i>The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2 AD500-AD1420 (Cambridge University Press, 2021)</i></li>
<li>Phillips, William D. <i>Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade</i> (Manchester University Press, 1985)</li>
<li>Rio, Alice. <i>Slavery After Rome, 500-1100</i> (Oxford University Press, 2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=54675">online review</a></li>
<li>Stuard, Susan Mosher. "Ancillary evidence for the decline of medieval slavery." <i>Past & Present</i> 149 (1995): 3-28 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/651097">online</a>.</li>
<li>Verhulst, Adriaan. "The decline of slavery and the economic expansion of the Early Middle Ages." <i>Past & Present</i> No. 133 (Nov., 1991), pp. 195–203 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/650772">online</a></li>
<li>Wyatt David R. <i>Slaves and warriors in medieval Britain and Ireland, 800–1200</i> (2009)</li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decline_of_Greco-Roman_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1025%E2%80%931385)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)">Kingdom of Poland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the Late Middle Ages">Crisis of the Late Middle Ages</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li>
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<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li></ul>
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</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1694041446' |
