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{{distinguish|NLRB election procedures#Decertification elections{{!}}Decertification|Desertion}}
[[File:Desertification map.png|thumb|upright=1.75|World map from 1998 showing global desertification vulnerability]]'''Desertification''' is a type of [[land degradation]] in [[drylands]] in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become arid.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-23 |title=Desertification {{!}} Description, Causes, & Impacts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/desertification |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Desertification - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/desertification |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=www.sciencedirect.com |archive-date=2022-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403121044/https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/desertification |url-status=live }}</ref> It is the spread of arid areas caused by a variety of factors, such as [[overexploitation]] of [[soil]] as a result of human activity and the [[effects of climate change]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Sustainable development of drylands and combating desertification |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/v0265e/v0265e01.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804222104/http://www.fao.org/docrep/v0265e/v0265e01.htm |archive-date=4 August 2017 |access-date=21 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Zeng L17401">{{Cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=Ning |last2=Yoon |first2=Jinho |date=1 September 2009 |title=Expansion of the world's deserts due to vegetation-albedo feedback under global warming |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=36 |issue=17 |page=L17401 |bibcode=2009GeoRL..3617401Z |doi=10.1029/2009GL039699 |issn=1944-8007 |s2cid=1708267 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Geographic areas most affected include the [[Sahel]] region in Africa, the [[Gobi Desert]] and [[Mongolia]] in Asia as well as parts of [[South America]]. [[Drylands]] occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people.<ref name=":5" />
Effects of desertification include [[Sand storm|sand and dust storms]], [[Food security|food insecurity]], vegetation patterning and increasing poverty. There are many possible countermeasures such as [[reforestation]], [[soil restoration]], [[desert reclamation]] and managed [[grazing]].
Throughout geological history, the development of [[desert]]s has occurred naturally. In recent times, the influences of human activity, improper land management, [[deforestation]] and [[climate change]] on desertification is the subject of many scientific investigations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Ye |last2=Xue |first2=Yongkang |title=Expansion of the Sahara Desert and shrinking of frozen land of the Arctic |journal=Scientific Reports |date=5 March 2020 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=4109 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-61085-0 |pmid=32139761 |pmc=7057959 |bibcode=2020NatSR..10.4109L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=An |first1=Hui |last2=Tang |first2=Zhuangsheng |last3=Keesstra |first3=Saskia |last4=Shangguan |first4=Zhouping |title=Impact of desertification on soil and plant nutrient stoichiometry in a desert grassland |journal=Scientific Reports |date=1 July 2019 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=9422 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-45927-0 |pmid=31263198 |pmc=6603008 |bibcode=2019NatSR...9.9422A }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Xueying |last2=Jia |first2=Guangpu |last3=Yang |first3=Guang |last4=Wang |first4=Ning |last5=Liu |first5=Feng |last6=Chen |first6=Haoyu |last7=Guo |first7=Xinyu |last8=Yang |first8=Wenbin |last9=Liu |first9=Jing |title=Spatiotemporal dynamic evolution and driving factors of desertification in the Mu Us Sandy Land in 30 years |journal=Scientific Reports |date=10 December 2020 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=21734 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-78665-9 |pmid=33303886 |pmc=7729393 |bibcode=2020NatSR..1021734H }}</ref>
==Definitions==
As recently as 2005, considerable controversy existed over the proper definition of the term "desertification." Helmut Geist (2005) identified more than 100 formal definitions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Geist |first=Helmut |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315240855/causes-progression-desertification-helmut-geist |title=The Causes and Progression of Desertification |date=2017-10-01 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-24085-5 |location=London |doi=10.4324/9781315240855}}</ref> The most widely accepted of these was that of the [[Princeton University]] Dictionary which defined it as "the process of fertile land ''transforming into desert'' typically as a result of [[deforestation]], [[drought]] or improper/inappropriate agriculture".{{cn|date=October 2023}} This definition clearly demonstrated the interconnectedness of desertification and human activities, in particular land use and land management practices. It also highlighted the economic, social and environmental implications of desertification.<br />However, this original understanding that desertification involved the physical expansion of deserts has been rejected as the concept has further evolved since then.<ref name="EB2">{{cite encyclopedia
| title = Desertification
| first1 = John P.
| last1 = Rafferty
| first2 = Stuart L.
| last2 = Pimm
| encyclopedia =[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
| url = https://www.britannica.com/science/desertification
| access-date = 2019-11-06
| date = January 26, 2023
| quote = The concept does not refer to the physical expansion of existing deserts but rather to the various processes that threaten all dryland ecosystems.
}}</ref> Desertification has been defined in the text of the [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] (UNCCD) as "land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities according to Hulme and Kelly, (1993)."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hulme |first1=Mike |last2=Kelly |first2=Mick |date=1993 |title=Exploring the links between Desertification and Climate Change |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00139157.1993.9929106 |journal=Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development |language=en |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=4–45 |doi=10.1080/00139157.1993.9929106 |bibcode=1993ESPSD..35f...4H |issn=0013-9157}}</ref>
There exists also controversy around the sub-grouping of types of desertification, including, for example, the validity and usefulness of such terms as "man-made desert" and "non-pattern desert".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Geist |first1=Helmut J. |last2=Lambin |first2=Eric F. |date=2004 |title=Dynamic Causal Patterns of Desertification |journal=BioScience |language=en |volume=54 |issue=9 |pages=817 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0817:DCPOD]2.0.CO;2 |issn=0006-3568|doi-access=free }}</ref>
==Geographic areas affected==
[[Drylands]] occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |title=Governing global desertification: linking environmental degradation, poverty and participation |date=2006 |publisher=Ashgate [u.a.] |isbn=978-0-7546-4359-3 |editor-last=Johnson |editor-first=Pierre-Marc |series=Global environmental governance series |location=Aldershot |editor-last2=Johnson |editor-first2=Pierre Marc}}</ref><ref name=":5">https://unemg.org/2018/images/emgdocs/publications/Global_Drylands_Full_Report.pdf</ref> It has been estimated that some 10–20% of drylands are already degraded, the total area affected by desertification being between 6 and 12 million square kilometers, that about 1–6% of the inhabitants of drylands live in desertified areas, and that a billion people are under threat from further desertification.<ref name="holtz">{{cite web|url=https://www.unccd.int/un-decade-deserts-and-fight-against-desertification-impact-and-role-drylands|title=UNCCD: Impact and role of drylands|date=10 October 2017|website=UNCCD|access-date=7 November 2019|archive-date=7 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107121026/https://www.unccd.int/un-decade-deserts-and-fight-against-desertification-impact-and-role-drylands|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=World Bank|title=Gender in agriculture sourcebook|publisher=World Bank Publications|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8213-7587-7|page=454|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxBrq6hTs_UC&pg=PA454|access-date=2016-05-16|archive-date=2023-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730160546/https://books.google.com/books?id=XxBrq6hTs_UC&pg=PA454|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Sahel===
{{Further|Sahel#Desertification and soil loss}}
The impact of climate change and human activities on desertification are exemplified in the [[Sahel]] region of Africa. The region is characterized by a dry hot climate, high temperatures and low rainfall (100–600 mm per year).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nicholson |first=Sharon E. |date=2013-02-17 |title=The West African Sahel: A Review of Recent Studies on the Rainfall Regime and Its Interannual Variability |journal=International Scholarly Research Notices |language=en |volume=2013 |pages=e453521 |doi=10.1155/2013/453521|doi-access=free }}</ref> So, droughts are the rule in the Sahel region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Desertification/desertification2.php|title=Defining Desertification : Feature Articles|last=Riebeek|first=Holli|date=2007-01-03|website=earthobservatory.nasa.gov|access-date=2016-11-30|archive-date=2016-12-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201211259/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Desertification/desertification2.php|url-status=live}}</ref> The Sahel has lost approximately 650,000 km<sup>2</sup> of its productive agricultural land over the past 50 years;<ref>https://www.thegeographeronline.net/uploads/2/6/6/2/26629356/a116_sahel.pdf</ref> the propagation of desertification in this area is considerable.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nicholson |first1=S. E. |last2=Tucker |first2=C. J. |last3=Ba |first3=M. B. |title=Desertification, Drought, and Surface Vegetation: An Example from the West African Sahel |journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society |date=1 May 1998 |volume=79 |issue=5 |pages=815–830 |doi=10.1175/1520-0477(1998)079<0815:DDASVA>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=1998BAMS...79..815N |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Land Resource Stresses and Desertification in Africa|url=https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/use/?cid=nrcs142p2_054025|access-date=24 November 2020|website=United States Department of Agriculture|archive-date=1 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401055308/https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/use/?cid=nrcs142p2_054025|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Village Telly in Mali.jpg|thumb|[[Sahel]] region of Mali]]
The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variations over the last few hundred thousand years,<ref name="Lakes">{{Cite journal | title=Ancient Lakes of the Sahara | journal=American Scientist | volume=94 | year=2006 | pages= 58–65 |author1=Kevin White |author2=David J. Mattingly | issue=1 | doi=10.1511/2006.57.983}}</ref> oscillating between wet (grassland) and dry (desert) every 20,000 years<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.mit.edu/2019/study-regulating-north-african-climate-0102 |title=A "pacemaker" for North African climate |author=Jennifer Chu |date=January 2, 2019 |publisher=MIT News |access-date=January 20, 2020 |archive-date=January 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115093627/https://news.mit.edu/2019/study-regulating-north-african-climate-0102 |url-status=live }}</ref> (a phenomenon believed to be caused by long-term changes in the [[North African climate cycle]] that alters the path of the [[North African Monsoon]], caused by an approximately 40000-year cycle in which the [[axial tilt]] of the earth changes between 22° and 24.5°).<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|last1=Houérou|first1=Henry N.|title=Bioclimatology and Biogeography of Africa|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-85192-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rvs7NkfeLEC&q=Sahara+rainfall+virtually+zero&pg=PA16|language=en|date=2008-12-10|access-date=2020-12-11|archive-date=2023-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730160547/https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rvs7NkfeLEC&q=Sahara+rainfall+virtually+zero&pg=PA16|url-status=live}}</ref> Some statistics have shown that, since 1900, the Sahara has expanded by 250 km to the south over a stretch of land from west to east 6,000 km long.<ref>{{cite web|author=Christian Bouquet|title=Le Sahara entre ses deux rives. Éléments de délimitation par la géohistoire d'un espace de contraintes|website=Géoconfluences|date=December 2017|url=http://geoconfluences.ens-lyon.fr/informations-scientifiques/dossiers-regionaux/afrique-dynamiques-regionales/articles-scientifiques/sahara-entre-deux-rives|quote=Mais il aurait progressé de 250 km vers le sud depuis 1900 (Mainguet, 2003), et dépasserait donc 9 millions de km² soit 30 % de la superficie totale du continent africain.|access-date=2018-01-25|archive-date=2022-02-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210001607/http://geoconfluences.ens-lyon.fr/informations-scientifiques/dossiers-regionaux/afrique-dynamiques-regionales/articles-scientifiques/sahara-entre-deux-rives|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Lake Chad]], located in the Sahel region, has undergone desiccation due to water withdrawal for irrigation and decrease in rainfall.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Okpara |first1=Uche T. |last2=Stringer |first2=Lindsay C. |last3=Dougill |first3=Andrew J. |title=Lake drying and livelihood dynamics in Lake Chad: Unravelling the mechanisms, contexts and responses |journal=Ambio |date=November 2016 |volume=45 |issue=7 |pages=781–795 |doi=10.1007/s13280-016-0805-6 |pmid=27371137 |pmc=5055484 |bibcode=2016Ambio..45..781O }}</ref> The lake has shrunk by over 90% since 1987, displacing millions of inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jiang |first=Ingrid |date=2022-08-12 |title=A Remarkable Size Shrinking in Lake Chad |url=https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/e63a90f8552d4e5f98f4c56a56c06f9d |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=ArcGIS StoryMaps |language=en-ca}}</ref> Recent efforts have managed to make some progress toward its restoration, but it is still considered to be at risk of disappearing entirely.<ref name="Remote sensing appraisal of Lake Ch">{{cite journal |last1=Onamuti |first1=Olapeju Y. |last2=Okogbue |first2=Emmanuel C. |last3=Orimoloye |first3=Israel R. |date=8 November 2017 |title=Remote sensing appraisal of Lake Chad shrinkage connotes severe impacts on green economics and socio-economics of the catchment area |journal=Royal Society Open Science |volume=4 |issue=11 |pages=171120 |doi=10.1098/rsos.171120 |pmc=5717671 |pmid=29291097}}</ref>
To limit desertification the [[Great Green Wall (Africa)]] initiative was started in 2007 involving the planting of vegetation along a stretch of 7,775 kms, 15 kms wide, involving 22 countries to 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Great Green Wall Initiative |url=https://www.unccd.int/our-work/ggwi |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=UNCCD |language=en}}</ref> The purpose of this mammoth planting initiative is to enhance retention of water in the ground following the seasonal rainfall, thus promoting land rehabilitation and future agriculture. Senegal has already contributed to the project by planting 50,000 acres of trees. It is said to have improved land quality and caused an increase in economic opportunity in the region.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/great-green-wall/ | title=The Great Green Wall | National Geographic Society | access-date=2022-12-22 | archive-date=2022-12-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222164123/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/great-green-wall/ | url-status=live }}</ref>
===Gobi Desert and Mongolia===
{{See also|Environmental issues in Mongolia#Desertification}}
Another major area that is being impacted by desertification is the [[Gobi Desert]] located in Northern China and Southern Mongolia. The Gobi Desert is the fastest expanding desert on Earth, as it transforms over {{convert|3600|km2|sqmi|abbr=off}} of grassland into wasteland annually.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rechtschaffen |first=Daniel |title=How China's Growing Deserts Are Choking The Country |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/danielrechtschaffen/2017/09/18/how-chinas-growing-deserts-are-choking-the-country/ |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=2022-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216110308/https://www.forbes.com/sites/danielrechtschaffen/2017/09/18/how-chinas-growing-deserts-are-choking-the-country/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Although the Gobi Desert itself is still a distance away from [[Beijing]], reports from field studies state there are large sand dunes forming only 70 km (43.5 mi) outside the city.<ref>{{cite report|last=Welker|first=Lauren|url=http://www.geo.utexas.edu/courses/371c/project/2009/Welker_Desertification.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140124101958/http://www.geo.utexas.edu/courses/371c/project/2009/Welker_Desertification.pdf |archive-date=2014-01-24 |url-status=live |title=The Desertification of the Gobi Desert and Its Effect on Beijing |date=2009 |type=Unpublished manuscript |publisher=University of Texas-Austin School of Geosciences}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-03-25 |title=Gobi Desert: A Complete Guide to East Asia's Largest Desert |url=https://www.youngpioneertours.com/gobi-desert-guide/ |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=Young Pioneer Tours |language=en |archive-date=2023-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730160548/https://www.youngpioneertours.com/gobi-desert-guide/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
In [[Mongolia]], around 90% of grassland is considered [[vulnerability|vulnerable]] to desertification by the UN. An estimated 13% of desertification in Mongolia is caused by natural factors; the rest is due to human influence particularly overgrazing and increased erosion of soils in cultivated areas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Is Desertification and How Does It Impact Mongolia? |url=https://breathemongolia.org/en/news-article/desertification-impact-mongolia/ |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=Breathe Mongolia – English |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401180828/https://breathemongolia.org/en/news-article/desertification-impact-mongolia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Jie |last2=Dai |first2=Han |last3=Gu |first3=Zhaolin |date=2021-12-01 |title=Sandstorms and desertification in Mongolia, an example of future climate events: a review |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01285-w |journal=Environmental Chemistry Letters |language=en |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=4063–4073 |doi=10.1007/s10311-021-01285-w |issn=1610-3661 |pmc=8302971 |pmid=34335128 |bibcode=2021EnvCL..19.4063H |access-date=2022-04-03 |archive-date=2023-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730160551/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10311-021-01285-w |url-status=live }}</ref> During the period 1940 to 2015, the mean air temperature increased by 2.24 °C.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Jie |last2=Dai |first2=Han |last3=Gu |first3=Zhaolin |date=2021-12-01 |title=Sandstorms and desertification in Mongolia, an example of future climate events: a review |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01285-w |journal=Environmental Chemistry Letters |language=en |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=4063–4073 |doi=10.1007/s10311-021-01285-w |issn=1610-3661 |pmc=8302971 |pmid=34335128|bibcode=2021EnvCL..19.4063H }}</ref> The warmest ten-year period was during the latest decade to 2021. Precipitation has decreased by 7% over this period resulting in increased arid conditions throughout Mongolia. The Gobi desert continues to expand northward, with over 70% of Mongolia’s land degraded through overgrazing, deforestation, and climate change.<ref>https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/31145/making-grasslands-sustainable-mongolia.pdf</ref> In addition, the Mongolia government has listed [[Wildfire|forest fires]], [[blight]]s, unsustainable [[forestry]] and [[mining]] activities as leading causes of desertification in the country.<ref>https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/8918/-Report%20on%20the%20state%20of%20the%20environment%20of%20Mongolia%20(2008-2010)-2011Report-State-of-environment-Mongolia.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y#:~:text=The%20Report%20of%20State%20of,damaged%20by%20mining%20activities%20are</ref> The transition from [[sheep]] to [[goat]] farming in order to meet export demands for [[cashmere wool]] has caused degradation of grazing lands. Compared to sheep, goats do more damage to grazing lands by eating roots and flowers.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Dorj|first1=O.|title=Mongolia: Country Features, the Main Causes of Desertification and Remediation Efforts|date=2013|work=Combating Desertification in Asia, Africa and the Middle East|pages=217–229|editor-last=Heshmati|editor-first=G. Ali|place=Dordrecht|publisher=Springer Netherlands|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6652-5_11|isbn=978-94-007-6651-8|last2=Enkhbold|first2=M.|last3=Lkhamyanjin|first3=S.|last4=Mijiddorj|first4=Kh.|last5=Nosmoo|first5=A.|last6=Puntsagnamil|first6=M.|last7=Sainjargal|first7=U.|editor2-last=Squires|editor2-first=Victor R.}}</ref>
{{excerpt|Gobi Desert#Desertification}}
===South America===
[[South America]] is another area vulnerable by desertification, as 25% of the land is classified as drylands<ref>{{Cite web |title=Soil Degradation Threatens Nutrition in Latin America - World |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/world/soil-degradation-threatens-nutrition-latin-america |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=ReliefWeb |date=16 June 2016 |language=en |archive-date=2022-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403121753/https://reliefweb.int/report/world/soil-degradation-threatens-nutrition-latin-america |url-status=live }}</ref> and over 68% of the land area has undergone soil erosion as a result of deforestation and overgrazing.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2018-06-15 |title=Why We Should Invest in Land Management in Latin America |url=https://www.nrdc.org/bio/carolina-herrera/why-we-should-invest-land-management-latin-america |access-date=2023-09-25 |website=www.nrdc.org |language=en}}</ref> 27 to 43% of the land areas in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru are at risk due to desertification. In Argentina, Mexico and Paraguay greater than half the land area is degraded by desertification and cannot be used for agriculture. In Central America drought has caused increased unemployment and decreased food security - also causing migration of people. Similar impacts have been seen in rural parts of Mexico where about 1000 square kms of land have been lost yearly due to desertification.<ref name=":0" /> In [[Argentina]] desertification has the potential to disrupt the nation's food supply.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Torres |first1=Laura |last2=Abraham |first2=Elena M. |last3=Rubio |first3=Clara |last4=Barbero-Sierra |first4=Celia |last5=Ruiz-Pérez |first5=Manuel |title=Desertification Research in Argentina |journal=Land Degradation & Development |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=433–440 |doi=10.1002/ldr.2392 |date=7 July 2015|bibcode=2015LDeDe..26..433T |hdl=11336/48401 |s2cid=129476957 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
==Causes==
{{See also|Deforestation#Causes}}
{{Multiple image
| direction = vertical
| align = top
| header = Preventing man-made overgrazing
| width1 = 195
| image1 = Cabrasnortechico.JPG
| caption1 = Goats inside of a pen in Norte Chico, Chile. [[Overgrazing]] of drylands by poorly managed traditional herding is one of the primary causes of desertification.
| width2 = 295
| image2 = Wildebeest-during-Great-Migration.JPG
| caption2 = [[Wildebeest]] in Masai Mara during the Great Migration. Overgrazing is not necessarily caused by nomadic [[grazing|grazers]] in large travelling [[herd]] populations.<ref>{{cite book |last=Laduke |first=Winona |date=1999 |title=All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life |url=https://archive.org/details/allourrelationsn00ladu |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=South End Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/allourrelationsn00ladu/page/146 146] |isbn=978-0896085992 |access-date=30 March 2015 |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref name="Duke University">{{cite web |url=https://twp.duke.edu/uploads/assets/Duval.pdf |title=Bison Conservation: Saving an Ecologically and Culturally Keystone Species |last1=Duval |first1=Clay |publisher=Duke University |access-date=April 13, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308011257/http://twp.duke.edu/uploads/assets/Duval.pdf |archive-date=March 8, 2012 }}</ref>
}}
=== Immediate causes ===
The immediate cause of desertification is the loss of most vegetation. This is driven by a number of factors, alone or in combination, such as drought, climatic shifts, tillage for agriculture, overgrazing and [[Deforestation and climate change|deforestation]] for fuel or construction materials. Though vegetation plays a major role in determining the [[soil biology|biological composition of the soil]], studies have shown that, in many environments, the rate of erosion and runoff decreases exponentially with increased vegetation cover.<ref>{{cite book|author=Geeson, Nichola|title=Mediterranean desertification: a mosaic of processes and responses|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2002|isbn=978-0-470-84448-9|page=58|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_0qg0f49GQC&pg=PA58|display-authors=etal|access-date=2016-05-16|archive-date=2023-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730161049/https://books.google.com/books?id=G_0qg0f49GQC&pg=PA58|url-status=live}}</ref> Unprotected, dry soil surfaces blow away with the wind or are washed away by flash floods, leaving infertile lower soil layers that bake in the sun and become an unproductive hardpan.
=== Influence of human activities ===
Early studies argued one of the most common causes of desertification was overgrazing, over consumption of vegetation by cattle or other livestock.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Charney |first=J. G. |date=April 1975 |title=Dynamics of deserts and drought in the Sahel |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49710142802 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=101 |issue=428 |pages=193–202 |doi=10.1002/qj.49710142802 |bibcode=1975QJRMS.101..193C |access-date=2022-05-24 |archive-date=2023-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730161050/https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49710142802 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the role of local overexploitation in driving desertification in the recent past is controversial.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |date=2016 |editor-last=Behnke |editor-first=Roy |editor2-last=Mortimore |editor2-first=Michael |title=The End of Desertification? |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-16014-1 |journal=Springer Earth System Sciences |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-16014-1 |isbn=978-3-642-16013-4 |s2cid=132424053 |issn=2197-9596}}</ref> Drought in the Sahel region is now thought to be principally the result of seasonal variability in rainfall caused by large-scale [[sea surface temperature]] variations, largely driven by natural variability and anthropogenic emissions of aerosols (reflective [[Particulates|sulphate particles]]) and greenhouse gases.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Biasutti |first=Michela |date=July 2019 |title=Rainfall trends in the African Sahel: Characteristics, processes, and causes |journal=WIREs Climate Change |language=en |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=e591 |doi=10.1002/wcc.591 |issn=1757-7780 |pmc=6617823 |pmid=31341517|bibcode=2019WIRCC..10E.591B }}</ref> As a result, changing ocean temperature and reductions in [[sulfate]] emissions have caused a re-greening of the region.<ref name=":3" /> This has led some scholars to argue that agriculture-induced vegetation loss is a minor factor in desertification.<ref name=":6" />
[[File:Morroco-arid-climate.jpg|thumb|A shepherd guiding his sheep through the high desert outside [[Marrakech]], [[Morocco]]]]
Human population dynamics have a considerable impact on overgrazing, over-farming and deforestation, as previously acceptable techniques have become unsustainable.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Epule|first1=Terence Epule|last2=Peng|first2=Changhui|last3=Lepage|first3=Laurent|date=February 2015|title=Environmental refugees in sub-Saharan Africa: a review of perspectives on the trends, causes, challenges and way forward|journal=GeoJournal|volume=80|issue=1|pages=79–92|doi=10.1007/s10708-014-9528-z|s2cid=154503204|issn=0343-2521}}</ref>
There are multiple reasons farmers use [[intensive farming]] as opposed to [[extensive farming]] but the main reason is to maximize yields.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2019-08-06 |title=Explainer: Desertification and the role of climate change |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-desertification-and-the-role-of-climate-change |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210001559/https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-desertification-and-the-role-of-climate-change |archive-date=2022-02-10 |access-date=2019-10-22 |website=Carbon Brief |language=en}}</ref> By increasing productivity, they require a lot more fertilizer, pesticides, and labor to upkeep machinery. This continuous use of the land rapidly depletes the nutrients of the soil causing desertification to spread.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nations |first=United |title=World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought |url=https://www.un.org/en/observances/desertification-day |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=United Nations |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/intensive-agriculture|title=Intensive agriculture|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2019-11-19|archive-date=2008-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624184604/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9042533/intensive-agriculture|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Natural variations ===
Scientists agree that the existence of a desert in the place where the Sahara desert is now located is due to natural variations in [[Solar irradiance|solar insolation]] due to [[Axial precession|orbital precession]] of the Earth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tierney |first1=Jessica E. |last2=Pausata |first2=Francesco S. R. |last3=deMenocal |first3=Peter B. |date=2017-01-06 |title=Rainfall regimes of the Green Sahara |journal=Science Advances |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=e1601503 |bibcode=2017SciA....3E1503T |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1601503 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=5242556 |pmid=28116352}}</ref> Such variations influence the strength of the West African Monsoon, inducing feedback in vegetation and dust emission that amplify the cycle of wet and dry Sahara climate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pausata |first1=Francesco S. R. |last2=Messori |first2=Gabriele |last3=Zhang |first3=Qiong |date=2016-01-15 |title=Impacts of dust reduction on the northward expansion of the African monsoon during the Green Sahara period |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |language=en |volume=434 |pages=298–307 |bibcode=2016E&PSL.434..298P |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2015.11.049 |issn=0012-821X |doi-access=free}}</ref> There is also a suggestion the transition of the Sahara from savanna to desert during the mid-[[Holocene]] was partially due to overgrazing by the cattle of the local population.<ref name="Humans as Agents in the Termination of the African Humid Period">{{cite journal |last1=K. Wright |first1=David |last2=Rull |first2=Valenti |last3=Roberts |first3=Richard |last4=Marchant |first4=Rob |last5=Gil-Romera |first5=Graciela |date=26 January 2017 |title=Humans as Agents in the Termination of the African Humid Period |journal=Frontiers in Earth Science |volume=5 |pages=4 |bibcode=2017FrEaS...5....4W |doi=10.3389/feart.2017.00004 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
== Effects ==
=== Sand and dust storms ===
[[File:SHB-Red-Dust.jpg|thumb|View of [[Sydney Harbour Bridge]] covered in dust]]
There has been a 25% increase in global annual dust emissions between the late nineteenth century to present day.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stanelle |first1=Tanja |last2=Bey |first2=Isabelle |last3=Raddatz |first3=Thomas |last4=Reick |first4=Christian |last5=Tegen |first5=Ina |date=2014-12-16 |title=Anthropogenically induced changes in twentieth century mineral dust burden and the associated impact on radiative forcing |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=119 |issue=23 |pages=13,526–13,546 |bibcode=2014JGRD..11913526S |doi=10.1002/2014JD022062 |s2cid=128663108 |hdl-access=free |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0024-A9A2-C}}</ref> The increase of desertification has also increased the amount of loose sand and dust that the wind can pick up ultimately resulting in a storm. For example, dust storms in the Middle East “are becoming more frequent and intense in recent years” because “long-term reductions in rainfall [cause] lower [[soil moisture]] and [[vegetative cover]]”.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Namdari |first1=Soodabeh |last2=Karimi |first2=Neamat |last3=Sorooshian |first3=Armin |last4=Mohammadi |first4=GholamHasan |last5=Sehatkashani |first5=Saviz |date=2018-01-01 |title=Impacts of climate and synoptic fluctuations on dust storm activity over the Middle East |journal=Atmospheric Environment |volume=173 |pages=265–276 |bibcode=2018AtmEn.173..265N |doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.11.016 |issn=1352-2310 |pmc=6192056 |pmid=30344444}}</ref>
[[Dust storms]] can contribute to certain respiratory disorders such as pneumonia, skin irritations, asthma and many more.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goudie |first=Andrew S. |date=2014-02-01 |title=Desert dust and human health disorders |journal=Environment International |volume=63 |pages=101–113 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2013.10.011 |issn=0160-4120 |pmid=24275707}}</ref> They can pollute open water, reduce the effectiveness of clean energy efforts, and halt most forms of transportation.
Dust and sand storms can have a negative effect on the climate which can make desertification worse.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Tiantian |last2=Wu |first2=Di |last3=Li |first3=Yaohui |last4=Wang |first4=Chenghai |date=2017-03-28 |title=The Effects of Sandstorms on the Climate of Northwestern China |journal=Advances in Meteorology |language=en |volume=2017 |pages=e4035609 |doi=10.1155/2017/4035609 |issn=1687-9309 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Yao |last2=Wen |first2=Bo |last3=Li |first3=Shanshan |last4=Guo |first4=Yuming |date=2021-06-01 |title=Sand and dust storms in Asia: a call for global cooperation on climate change |journal=The Lancet Planetary Health |language=English |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=e329–e330 |doi=10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00082-6 |issn=2542-5196 |pmid=33915087 |s2cid=233460168 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dust particles in the air scatter incoming radiation from the sun (Hassan, 2012). The dust can provide momentary coverage for the ground temperature but the atmospheric temperature will increase. This can disform and shorten the life time of clouds which can result in less rainfall.<ref name=":2" />
=== Food insecurity ===
Global [[food security]] is being threatened by desertification. The more that [[Population growth|population grows]], the more food that has to be grown. The agricultural business is being displaced from one country to another. For example, Europe on average imports over 50% of its food. Meanwhile, 44% of agricultural land is located in dry lands and it supplies 60% of the world's food production. Desertification is decreasing the amount of sustainable land for agricultural uses but demands are continuously growing. In the near future, the demands will overcome the supply.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WAD {{!}} World Atlas of Desertification |url=https://wad.jrc.ec.europa.eu/globalagriculture |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209170553/https://wad.jrc.ec.europa.eu/globalagriculture |archive-date=2019-12-09 |access-date=2019-11-19 |website=wad.jrc.ec.europa.eu}}</ref> The violent [[herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria]], [[Sudanese nomadic conflicts|Sudan]], [[March 2019 attacks against Fulani herders|Mali]] and other countries in the Sahel region have been exacerbated by [[climate change]], [[land degradation]] and [[population growth]].<ref>{{cite magazine |date=28 June 2018 |title=How Climate Change Is Spurring Land Conflict in Nigeria |url=http://time.com/5324712/climate-change-nigeria/ |magazine=Time}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=22 January 2019 |title=The battle on the frontline of climate change in Mali |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/the-reporters-46921487 |url-status=live |access-date=18 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009175946/https://www.bbc.com/news/the-reporters-46921487 |archive-date=9 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=6 August 2018 |title=Farmer-Herder Conflicts on the Rise in Africa |publisher=ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/world/farmer-herder-conflicts-rise-africa |url-status=live |access-date=18 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417045057/https://reliefweb.int/report/world/farmer-herder-conflicts-rise-africa |archive-date=17 April 2021}}</ref>
=== Vegetation patterning ===
As the desertification takes place, the landscape may progress through different stages and continuously transform in appearance. On gradually sloped terrain, desertification can create increasingly larger empty spaces over a large strip of land, a phenomenon known as "[[Tiger bush|brousse tigrée]]". A mathematical model of this phenomenon proposed by C. Klausmeier attributes this patterning to dynamics in plant-water interaction.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klausmeier |first=Christopher |year=1999 |title=Regular and irregular patterns in semiarid vegetation |journal=Science |volume=284 |issue=5421 |pages=1826–1828 |doi=10.1126/science.284.5421.1826 |pmid=10364553}}</ref> One outcome of this observation suggests an optimal planting strategy for agriculture in arid environments.<ref>{{cite web |last=(www.dw.com) |first=Deutsche Welle |title=Grid of straw squares turns Chinese sand to soil – Environment – DW.COM – 23.06.2011 |url=http://www.dw.de/dw/article/0,,15182754,00.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612123117/https://www.dw.com/en/grid-of-straw-squares-turns-chinese-sand-to-soil/a-15182754 |archive-date=12 June 2020 |access-date=21 June 2016}}</ref>
=== Increasing poverty ===
[[File:Soil erosion, Southfield - geograph.org.uk - 367917.jpg|thumb|[[Soil erosion#Wind erosion|Wind erosion]] outside [[Leuchars]]]]
At least 90% of the inhabitants of drylands live in [[Developing country|developing countries]], where they also suffer from poor economic and social conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2010–2020: UN Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification |url=https://www.un.org/en/events/desertification_decade/index.shtml |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=www.un.org |language=EN}}</ref> This situation is exacerbated by land degradation because of the reduction in productivity, the precariousness of living conditions and the difficulty of access to resources and opportunities.<ref>https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/publications/The%20Global%20Drylands%20Initiative,%202001-09%20-%20Challenge%20Paper-%20Poverty%20and%20the%20Drylands.pdf</ref>
Many underdeveloped countries are affected by overgrazing, [[land exhaustion]] and [[overdrafting]] of groundwater due to pressures to exploit marginal drylands for farming. Decision-makers are understandably averse to invest in arid zones with low potential. This absence of investment contributes to the marginalization of these zones. When unfavorable agri-climatic conditions are combined with an absence of infrastructure and access to markets, as well as poorly adapted production techniques and an underfed and undereducated population, most such zones are excluded from development.<ref name="csf-desertification.org">[http://www.csf-desertification.org/index.php/bibliotheque/doc_details/119-cornet-antoine-2002-desertification-and-its-relationship-to-the-environment-and-development Cornet A., 2002. Desertification and its relationship to the environment and development: a problem that affects us all. In: Ministère des Affaires étrangères/adpf, Johannesburg. World Summit on Sustainable Development. 2002. What is at stake? The contribution of scientists to the debate: 91–125..] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090809142606/http://www.csf-desertification.org/index.php/bibliotheque/doc_details/119-cornet-antoine-2002-desertification-and-its-relationship-to-the-environment-and-development |date=2009-08-09 }}</ref>
Desertification often causes rural lands to become unable to support the same sized populations that previously lived there. This results in mass [[human migration|migrations]] out of rural areas and into urban areas particularly in Africa creating unemployment and [[slum]]s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pasternak, Dov|author2=Schlissel, Arnold|title=Combating desertification with plants|publisher=Springer|year=2001|isbn=978-0-306-46632-8|page=20|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-i8-DPf6xgC&pg=PA20|access-date=2016-05-16|archive-date=2023-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730161050/https://books.google.com/books?id=B-i8-DPf6xgC&pg=PA20|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Briassoulis, Helen|title=Policy integration for complex environmental problems: the example of Mediterranean desertification|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7546-4243-5|page=161|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CpYnV45hVRsC&pg=PA161|access-date=2016-05-16|archive-date=2023-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730161052/https://books.google.com/books?id=CpYnV45hVRsC&pg=PA161|url-status=live}}</ref> The number of these [[Environmental migrant|environmental refugees]] grows every year, with projections for sub-Saharan Africa showing a probable increase from 14 million in 2010 to nearly 200 million by 2050. This presents a future crisis for the region, as neighboring nations do not always have the ability to support large populations of refugees.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=Norman |date=29 April 2002 |title=Environmental refugees: a growing phenomenon of the 21st century |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences |volume=357 |issue=1420 |pages=609–613 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2001.0953 |pmc=1692964 |pmid=12028796}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Epule |first1=Terence Epule |last2=Peng |first2=Changhui |last3=Lepage |first3=Laurent |date=5 February 2014 |title=Environmental refugees in sub-Saharan Africa: a review of perspectives on the trends, causes, challenges and way forward |journal=GeoJournal |volume=80 |pages=79–92 |doi=10.1007/s10708-014-9528-z |s2cid=154503204}}</ref>
In [[Mongolia]] the land is 90% fragile dry land, which causes many herders to migrate to the city for work. With very limited resources the herders that stay on the dry land graze very carefully in order to preserve the land. With the increasing population of Mongolia it is very difficult to stay a herder for long.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-08-01 |title=Mongolia's nomadic way of life under threat |url=https://gulfnews.com/lifestyle/mongolias-nomadic-way-of-life-under-threat-1.2259998 |access-date=2023-10-04 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref>
Agriculture is a main source of income for many desert communities. The increase in desertification in these regions has degraded the land to such an extent where people can no longer productively farm and make a profit. This has negatively impacted the economy and increased poverty rates.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stringer|first1=Lindsay C.|last2=Dyer|first2=Jen C.|last3=Reed|first3=Mark S.|last4=Dougill|first4=Andrew J.|last5=Twyman|first5=Chasca|last6=Mkwambisi|first6=David|title=Adaptations to climate change, drought and desertification: local insights to enhance policy in southern Africa|journal=Environmental Science & Policy|volume=12|issue=7|pages=748–765|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2009.04.002|year=2009}}</ref>
There is, however, increased global advocacy e.g. the UN [[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Goal 15 targets |url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-15-life-on-land/targets.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904001634/https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-15-life-on-land/targets.html |archive-date=2017-09-04 |access-date=2020-09-24 |website=UNDP |language=en}}</ref> to combat desertification and restore affected lands.
==Countermeasures{{anchor|Countermeasures_and_prevention}}==
{{See also|Deforestation#Control}}
[[File:North Sahara. Anti-sand shields.jpg|thumb|Anti-sand shields in north [[Sahara]], [[Tunisia]]]]
[[File:GreeningdesertTharIndia.jpg|thumb|[[Jojoba]] plantations, such as those shown, have played a role in combating edge effects of desertification in the [[Thar Desert]], [[India]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pasternak|first1=D.|last2=Schlissel|first2=Arnold|title=Combating Desertification with Plants|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781461513278|page=38|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6XfgBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|date=2012-12-06}}</ref>]]
[[File:Saxaul planted along roads in Xinjiang near Cherchen to slow desertification.jpg|thumb|[[Saxaul]] planted along roads in Xinjiang near [[Cherchen]] to slow desertification]]
Techniques and countermeasures exist for mitigating or reversing the effects of desertification, and some possess varying levels of difficulty. For some, there are numerous barriers to their implementation. Yet for others, the solution simply requires the exercise of human reason.
One proposed barrier is that the costs of adopting [[sustainable agriculture|sustainable agricultural practices]] sometimes exceed the benefits for individual farmers, even while they are socially and environmentally beneficial.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Drost|first1=Daniel|last2=Long|first2=Gilbert|last3=Wilson|first3=David|last4=Miller|first4=Bruce|last5=Campbell|first5=William|title=Barriers to Adopting Sustainable Agricultural Practices|issue=6|url=https://www.joe.org/joe/1996december/a1.php|journal=Journal of Extension|volume=34|date=1 December 1996|access-date=21 February 2017|archive-date=22 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222053123/https://www.joe.org/joe/1996december/a1.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another issue is a lack of political will, and lack of funding to support [[land reclamation]] and anti-desertification programs.<ref>{{cite book|author=Briassoulis, Helen|title=Policy integration for complex environmental problems: the example of Mediterranean desertification|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7546-4243-5|page=237|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CpYnV45hVRsC&pg=PA237}}</ref>
Desertification is recognized as a major threat to [[biodiversity]]. Some countries have developed [[biodiversity action plan]]s to counter its effects, particularly in relation to the protection of endangered [[flora]] and [[fauna]].<ref>Techniques for Desert Reclamation by Andrew S. Goudie</ref><ref>[http://www.gsafweb.org/TrusteeNews/desertdevelopmen.html Desert reclamation projects] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090103172821/http://www.gsafweb.org/TrusteeNews/desertdevelopmen.html |date=2009-01-03 }}</ref>
=== Reforestation ===
{{Main|Reforestation}}
[[Reforestation]] gets at one of the root causes of desertification and is not just a treatment of the symptoms. Environmental organizations work in places where deforestation and desertification are contributing to extreme [[poverty]]. There they focus primarily on educating the local population about the dangers of deforestation and sometimes employ them to grow seedlings, which they transfer to severely deforested areas during the rainy season.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/desertification/|title=Desertification|website=USGS|date=1997|access-date=2006-06-10|archive-date=2010-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100802200740/http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/desertification/|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] launched the FAO Drylands Restoration Initiative in 2012 to draw together knowledge and experience on dryland restoration.<ref>{{cite web|title=Drylands Restoration Initiative|url=http://www.fao.org/forestry/aridzone/restoration/en/|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|access-date=14 April 2016|archive-date=23 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723220152/http://www.fao.org/forestry/aridzone/restoration/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015, FAO published global guidelines for the restoration of degraded forests and landscapes in drylands, in collaboration with the Turkish Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs and the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency.<ref>{{cite book|title=Global guidelines for the restoration of degraded forests and landscapes in drylands|date=June 2015|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|isbn=978-92-5-108912-5|url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5036e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423203240/http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5036e.pdf |archive-date=2016-04-23 |url-status=live<!-- |access-date=June 2015 -->}}</ref>
The "[[Green Wall of China]]" is a high-profile example of one method that has been finding success in this battle with desertification.<ref>{{Cite web|title=desertification 3D environment|url=https://b2b.partcommunity.com/community/knowledge/en/detail/9815/Desertification#knowledge_article|access-date=2020-09-25|archive-date=2021-02-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228141238/https://b2b.partcommunity.com/community/knowledge/en/detail/9815/Desertification#knowledge_article|url-status=live}}</ref> This wall is a much larger-scale version of what American farmers did in the 1930s to stop the great Midwest dust bowl. This plan was proposed in the late 1970s, and has become a major ecological engineering project that is not predicted to end until the year 2055. According to Chinese reports, there have been nearly 66 billion trees planted in China's great green wall.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/04/china-great-green-wall-gobi-tengger-desertification/| title=China's 'Great Green Wall' Fights Expanding Desert| date=2017-04-21| access-date=2017-05-04| archive-date=2017-08-13| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813110737/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/04/china-great-green-wall-gobi-tengger-desertification/| url-status=dead}}</ref> The green wall of China has decreased desert land in China by an annual average of 1,980 square km.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/26/c_137207841.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526094225/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/26/c_137207841.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 26, 2018 |title=Across China: A guardian of the great green wall against China's second largest desert |last=Hui |first=Lu |date=May 26, 2018 |work=Xinghua News Agency }}</ref> The frequency of sandstorms nationwide have fallen 20% due to the green wall.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Beiser|first=Vince|date=September 1, 2017|title=A tree grows in China: can a "Green Great Wall" stop sand from devouring the countryside?|journal=Mother Jones|volume=83|issue=4}}</ref> Due to the success that China has been finding in stopping the spread of desertification, plans are currently being made in Africa to start a "wall" along the borders of the Sahara desert as well to be financed by the United Nations Global Environment Facility trust.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gadzama|first=Njidda Mamadu|date=2017|title=Attenuation of the effects of desertification through sustainable development of Great Green Wall in the Sahel of Africa|journal=World Journal of Science, Technology and Sustainable Development|volume=14|issue=4|pages=279–289|doi=10.1108/WJSTSD-02-2016-0021}}</ref>
[[File:Great green wall map.svg|thumb|The [[Great Green Wall (Africa)|Great Green Wall]], participating countries and Sahel. In September 2020, it was reported that the GGW had covered only 4% of the planned area.<ref>{{cite news|author=Jonathan Watts|title=Africa's Great Green Wall just 4% complete halfway through schedule|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/07/africa-great-green-wall-just-4-complete-over-halfway-through-schedule|newspaper=The Guardian|date=7 September 2020|issn=0261-3077|via=www.theguardian.com|access-date=18 December 2021|archive-date=6 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506222825/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/07/africa-great-green-wall-just-4-complete-over-halfway-through-schedule|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
In 2007 the [[African Union]] started the [[Great Green Wall (Africa)|Great Green Wall of Africa]] project in order to combat desertification in 20 countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Great Green Wall{{!}}Action Against Desertification{{!}}Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=https://www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification/overview/great-green-wall/en/ |access-date=2022-02-27 |website=www.fao.org |archive-date=2022-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127153831/https://www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification/overview/great-green-wall/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The wall is 8,000 km wide, stretching across the entire width of the continent and has 8 billion dollars in support of the project. The project has restored 36{{nbsp}}million{{nbsp}}hectares of land, and by 2030 the initiative plans to restore a total of 100{{nbsp}}million{{nbsp}}hectares.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gadzama|first=Njidda|date=2017|title=Attenuation of the Effects of Desertification through Sustainable Development of Great Green Wall in the Sahel of Africa|journal=World Journal of Science, Technology and Sustainable Development|volume=14|issue=4|pages=279–289|doi=10.1108/WJSTSD-02-2016-0021}}</ref> The Great Green Wall has created many job opportunities for the participating countries, with over 20,000 jobs created in Nigeria alone.<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|date=2019|title=The Great Green Wall Initiative|url=https://www.unccd.int/actions/great-green-wall-initiative|access-date=2019-12-03|website=United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|archive-date=2019-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202120122/https://www.unccd.int/actions/great-green-wall-initiative|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Soil restoration ===
Techniques focus on two aspects: provisioning of water, and [[Erosion control|fixation]] and hyper-fertilizing soil. Fixating the soil is often done through the use of [[windbreak|shelter belts]], [[woodlot]]s and [[windbreak]]s. Windbreaks are made from trees and bushes and are used to reduce [[soil erosion]] and [[evapotranspiration]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Windbreaks - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/windbreaks |access-date=2022-02-27 |website=www.sciencedirect.com |archive-date=2022-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227003534/https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/windbreaks |url-status=live }}</ref> They were widely encouraged by development agencies from the middle of the 1980s in the [[Sahel]] area of [[Africa]].
Some soils (for example, [[clay]]), due to lack of water can become [[Consolidation (soil)|consolidated]] rather than porous (as in the case of sandy soils). Some techniques as [[zaï]] or [[tillage]] are then used to still allow the planting of crops.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/09/soil/mann-text.html|title=Our Good Earth – National Geographic Magazine|access-date=21 June 2016|archive-date=25 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425181742/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/09/soil/mann-text.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Another technique that is useful is [[contour trenching]]. This involves the digging of 150 m long, 1 m deep trenches in the soil. The trenches are made parallel to the height lines of the landscape, preventing the water from flowing within the trenches and causing erosion. Stone walls are placed around the trenches to prevent the trenches from closing up again. This method was invented by Peter Westerveld.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nagafoundation.org/|title=Home – Justdiggit|access-date=21 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402205707/https://nagafoundation.org/|archive-date=2 April 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Enriching of the soil and restoration of its fertility is often achieved by plants. Of these, [[legume|leguminous plants]] which extract [[nitrogen]] from the air and fix it in the soil, [[succulents]] (such as [[Opuntia]]),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nefzaoui |first1=Ali |title=Cactus as a Tool to Mitigate Drought and to Combat Desertification |journal=Journal of Arid Land Studies |volume=24 |issue=1 |date=30 January 2014 |pages=121–124 |hdl=20.500.11766/7319 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and food crops/trees as [[grain]]s, [[barley]], [[beans]] and [[Phoenix dactylifera|date]]s are the most important. [[Sand fence]]s can also be used to control drifting of soil and sand erosion.
Another way to restore soil fertility is through the use of nitrogen-rich fertilizer. Due to the higher cost of this fertilizer, many [[smallholding|smallholder]] farmers are reluctant to use it, especially in areas where [[subsistence agriculture|subsistence farming]] is common.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krah |first1=Kwabena |last2=Michelson |first2=Hope |last3=Perge |first3=Emilie |last4=Jindal |first4=Rohit |title=Constraints to adopting soil fertility management practices in Malawi: A choice experiment approach |journal=World Development |volume=124 |pages=104651 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104651 |date=1 December 2019|s2cid=202302505 }}</ref> Several nations, including India, Zambia, and Malawi have responded to this by implementing [[subsidization|subsidies]] to help encourage adoption of this technique.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Duflo |first1=Esther |last2=Kremer |first2=Michael |last3=Robinson |first3=Jonathan |title=Nudging Farmers to Use Fertilizer: Theory and Experimental Evidence from Kenya |journal=American Economic Review |volume=101 |issue=6 |pages=2350–2390 |doi=10.1257/aer.101.6.2350 |date=October 2011|url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w15131.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002053100/http://www.nber.org/papers/w15131.pdf |archive-date=2015-10-02 |url-status=live |hdl=1721.1/63964 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
Some research centres (such as Bel-Air Research Center IRD/ISRA/UCAD) are also experimenting with the inoculation of tree species with [[mycorrhiza]] in arid zones. The mycorrhiza are basically fungi attaching themselves to the roots of the plants. They hereby create a symbiotic relation with the trees, increasing the surface area of the tree's roots greatly (allowing the tree to gather much more nutrient from the soil).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://196.1.95.4/fst/biologie-vegetale/labo_commun.htm|title=Département Biologie Végétale – Laboratoire Commun de Microbiologie IRD-ISRA-UCAD|access-date=21 June 2016|archive-date=24 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624015819/http://196.1.95.4/fst/biologie-vegetale/labo_commun.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The [[Genetically modified organism|bioengineering]] of soil microbes, particularly photosynthesizers, has also been suggested and theoretically modeled as a method to protect drylands. The aim would be to enhance the existing cooperative loops between soil microbes and vegetation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bioengineered soil microbes may help prevent desertification|url=https://phys.org/news/2020-08-bioengineered-soil-microbes-desertification.html|access-date=2020-08-26|website=phys.org|language=en|archive-date=2020-08-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200827204631/https://phys.org/news/2020-08-bioengineered-soil-microbes-desertification.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Desert reclamation ===
As there are many different types of deserts, there are also different types of desert reclamation [[methodologies]]. An example for this is the salt flats in the [[Rub' al Khali]] desert in [[Saudi Arabia]]. These salt flats are one of the most promising desert areas for seawater agriculture and could be revitalized without the use of freshwater or much energy.<ref>[http://www.prototype-creation.de/rethinking_landscapes.pdf Rethinking landscapes, Nicol-André Berdellé July 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817063318/http://www.prototype-creation.de/rethinking_landscapes.pdf |date=2016-08-17 }} H2O magazine</ref>
[[Farmer-managed natural regeneration]] (FMNR) is another technique that has produced successful results for desert reclamation. Since 1980, this method to reforest degraded landscape has been applied with some success in Niger. This simple and low-cost method has enabled farmers to regenerate some 30,000 square kilometers in Niger. The process involves enabling native sprouting tree growth through selective pruning of shrub shoots. The residue from pruned trees can be used to provide mulching for fields thus increasing [[Soil water (retention)|soil water retention]] and reducing evaporation. Additionally, properly spaced and pruned trees can increase crop yields. The Humbo Assisted Regeneration Project which uses FMNR techniques in Ethiopia has received money from The World Bank's BioCarbon Fund, which supports projects that sequester or conserve carbon in forests or agricultural ecosystems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2011/10/18/sprouting-trees-from-the-underground-forest-a-simple-way-to-fight-desertification-and-climate-change/ |title=Sprouting Trees From the Underground Forest — A Simple Way to Fight Desertification and Climate Change – Water Matters – State of the Planet |publisher=Blogs.ei.columbia.edu |date=2011-10-18 |access-date=2012-08-11 |archive-date=2012-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120623022554/http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2011/10/18/sprouting-trees-from-the-underground-forest-a-simple-way-to-fight-desertification-and-climate-change/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Managed grazing===
Restored grasslands store CO<sub>2</sub> from the atmosphere as organic plant material. [[Grazing]] livestock, usually not left to wander, consume the grass and minimize its growth.<ref name="Tlovell">{{cite news|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/environment/2011/01/lovell-carbon-ward-climate|title=How fences could save the planet|publisher=newstatesman.com|access-date=May 5, 2013|date=January 13, 2011|archive-date=August 14, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814221316/http://www.newstatesman.com/environment/2011/01/lovell-carbon-ward-climate|url-status=live}}</ref> A method proposed to restore grasslands uses fences with many small paddocks, moving herds from one paddock to another after a day or two in order to mimic natural grazers and allowing the grass to grow optimally.<ref name="Tlovell" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0221-soil_carbon_lovell_interview.html|title=Restoring soil carbon can reverse global warming, desertification and biodiversity|publisher=mongabay.com|access-date=May 5, 2013|date=February 21, 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130625040133/http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0221-soil_carbon_lovell_interview.html|archive-date=June 25, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1953692,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117215802/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1953692,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 17, 2010|title=How eating grass-fed beef could help fight climate change|publisher=time.com|access-date=May 11, 2013|date=January 25, 2010|first=Lisa|last=Abend}}</ref> Proponents of managed grazing methods estimate that increasing this method could increase carbon content of the soils in the world's 3.5 billion hectares of agricultural grassland and offset nearly 12 years of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions.<ref name="Tlovell" />
== History ==
{{Further|Historic desertification}}
The world's most noted [[deserts]] have been formed by natural processes interacting over long intervals of time. During most of these times, deserts have grown and shrunk independently of human activities. Paleodeserts are large [[sand sea]]s now inactive because they are stabilized by vegetation, some extending beyond the present margins of core deserts, such as the [[Sahara]], the largest hot desert.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Desertification |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/desertification/ |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=pubs.usgs.gov}}</ref>
Historical evidence shows that the serious and extensive land deterioration occurring several centuries ago in arid regions had three centers: the Mediterranean, the Mesopotamian Valley, and the [[Loess Plateau]] of China, where population was dense.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dregne |first=H.E. |title=Desertification of Arid Lands |url=http://www.ciesin.columbia.edu/docs/002-193/002-193.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428120939/http://www.ciesin.columbia.edu/docs/002-193/002-193.html |archive-date=28 April 2023 |access-date=3 December 2013 |publisher=Columbia University}}</ref>
The earliest known discussion of the topic arose soon after the [[French colonization]] of [[West Africa]], when the Comité d'Etudes commissioned a study on ''desséchement progressif'' to explore the prehistoric expansion of the Sahara Desert.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Mortimore, Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dx89AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12 |title=Adapting to drought: farmers, famines, and desertification in West Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-521-32312-3 |page=12 |access-date=2016-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730160046/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dx89AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12 |archive-date=2023-07-30 |url-status=live}}</ref> The modern study of desertification emerged from the study of the [[Sahel drought|1980s drought]] in the [[Sahel]].<ref name=":6" />
== See also ==
* [[Aridification]]
* [[Desert greening]]
* [[Detention basin]]
* [[Ecological engineering]]
* [[Oasification]]
* [[Soil retrogression and degradation]]
* [[Water scarcity]]
* [[World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought]]
'''Other related portals:'''
{{Portal bar|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Biology|Global warming}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
=== Sources ===
*{{USGS|title=Desertification|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/desertification/|accessdate=2021-05-04}}
==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://www.unccd.int Official website of the Secretariat] of the [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] (UNCCD)
** [http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/unccd/unccd.html Procedural history and related documents] on the UNCCD, from the [[United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]]
* [http://www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification Official website] of Action Against Desertification, a [[United Nations]] [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] initiative of the [[African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States]]
*[https://www.unenvironment.org/resources/report/global-deserts-outlook ''Global Deserts Outlook''] (2006), thematic assessment report in the [[Global Environment Outlook]] (GEO) series of the [[United Nations Environment Program]] (UNEP).
{{Deforestation and desertification}}
{{Human impact on the environment}}{{Climate change}}{{Doomsday}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Desertification| ]]
[[Category:Environmental soil science]]
[[Category:Paleoclimatology]]' |
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==Causes==
{{See also|Deforestation#Causes}}
{{Multiple image
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| header = Preventing man-made overgrazing
| width1 = 195
| image1 = Cabrasnortechico.JPG
| caption1 = Goats inside of a pen in Norte Chico, Chile. [[Overgrazing]] of drylands by poorly managed traditional herding is one of the primary causes of desertification.
| width2 = 295
| image2 = Wildebeest-during-Great-Migration.JPG
| caption2 = [[Wildebeest]] in Masai Mara during the Great Migration. Overgrazing is not necessarily caused by nomadic [[grazing|grazers]] in large travelling [[herd]] populations.<ref>{{cite book |last=Laduke |first=Winona |date=1999 |title=All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life |url=https://archive.org/details/allourrelationsn00ladu |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=South End Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/allourrelationsn00ladu/page/146 146] |isbn=978-0896085992 |access-date=30 March 2015 |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref name="Duke University">{{cite web |url=https://twp.duke.edu/uploads/assets/Duval.pdf |title=Bison Conservation: Saving an Ecologically and Culturally Keystone Species |last1=Duval |first1=Clay |publisher=Duke University |access-date=April 13, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308011257/http://twp.duke.edu/uploads/assets/Duval.pdf |archive-date=March 8, 2012 }}</ref>
}}
=== Immediate causes ===
The immediate cause of desertification is the loss of most vegetation. This is driven by a number of factors, alone or in combination, such as drought, climatic shifts, tillage for agriculture, overgrazing and [[Deforestation and climate change|deforestation]] for fuel or construction materials. Though vegetation plays a major role in determining the [[soil biology|biological composition of the soil]], studies have shown that, in many environments, the rate of erosion and runoff decreases exponentially with increased vegetation cover.<ref>{{cite book|author=Geeson, Nichola|title=Mediterranean desertification: a mosaic of processes and responses|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2002|isbn=978-0-470-84448-9|page=58|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_0qg0f49GQC&pg=PA58|display-authors=etal|access-date=2016-05-16|archive-date=2023-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730161049/https://books.google.com/books?id=G_0qg0f49GQC&pg=PA58|url-status=live}}</ref> Unprotected, dry soil surfaces blow away with the wind or are washed away by flash floods, leaving infertile lower soil layers that bake in the sun and become an unproductive hardpan.
=== Influence of human activities ===
Early studies argued one of the most common causes of desertification was overgrazing, over consumption of vegetation by cattle or other livestock.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Charney |first=J. G. |date=April 1975 |title=Dynamics of deserts and drought in the Sahel |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49710142802 |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |language=en |volume=101 |issue=428 |pages=193–202 |doi=10.1002/qj.49710142802 |bibcode=1975QJRMS.101..193C |access-date=2022-05-24 |archive-date=2023-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730161050/https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49710142802 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the role of local overexploitation in driving desertification in the recent past is controversial.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |date=2016 |editor-last=Behnke |editor-first=Roy |editor2-last=Mortimore |editor2-first=Michael |title=The End of Desertification? |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-16014-1 |journal=Springer Earth System Sciences |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-16014-1 |isbn=978-3-642-16013-4 |s2cid=132424053 |issn=2197-9596}}</ref> Drought in the Sahel region is now thought to be principally the result of seasonal variability in rainfall caused by large-scale [[sea surface temperature]] variations, largely driven by natural variability and anthropogenic emissions of aerosols (reflective [[Particulates|sulphate particles]]) and greenhouse gases.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Biasutti |first=Michela |date=July 2019 |title=Rainfall trends in the African Sahel: Characteristics, processes, and causes |journal=WIREs Climate Change |language=en |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=e591 |doi=10.1002/wcc.591 |issn=1757-7780 |pmc=6617823 |pmid=31341517|bibcode=2019WIRCC..10E.591B }}</ref> As a result, changing ocean temperature and reductions in [[sulfate]] emissions have caused a re-greening of the region.<ref name=":3" /> This has led some scholars to argue that agriculture-induced vegetation loss is a minor factor in desertification.<ref name=":6" />
[[File:Morroco-arid-climate.jpg|thumb|A shepherd guiding his sheep through the high desert outside [[Marrakech]], [[Morocco]]]]
Human population dynamics have a considerable impact on overgrazing, over-farming and deforestation, as previously acceptable techniques have become unsustainable.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Epule|first1=Terence Epule|last2=Peng|first2=Changhui|last3=Lepage|first3=Laurent|date=February 2015|title=Environmental refugees in sub-Saharan Africa: a review of perspectives on the trends, causes, challenges and way forward|journal=GeoJournal|volume=80|issue=1|pages=79–92|doi=10.1007/s10708-014-9528-z|s2cid=154503204|issn=0343-2521}}</ref>
There are multiple reasons farmers use [[intensive farming]] as opposed to [[extensive farming]] but the main reason is to maximize yields.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2019-08-06 |title=Explainer: Desertification and the role of climate change |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-desertification-and-the-role-of-climate-change |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210001559/https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-desertification-and-the-role-of-climate-change |archive-date=2022-02-10 |access-date=2019-10-22 |website=Carbon Brief |language=en}}</ref> By increasing productivity, they require a lot more fertilizer, pesticides, and labor to upkeep machinery. This continuous use of the land rapidly depletes the nutrients of the soil causing desertification to spread.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nations |first=United |title=World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought |url=https://www.un.org/en/observances/desertification-day |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=United Nations |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/intensive-agriculture|title=Intensive agriculture|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2019-11-19|archive-date=2008-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624184604/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9042533/intensive-agriculture|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Natural variations ===
Scientists agree that the existence of a desert in the place where the Sahara desert is now located is due to natural variations in [[Solar irradiance|solar insolation]] due to [[Axial precession|orbital precession]] of the Earth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tierney |first1=Jessica E. |last2=Pausata |first2=Francesco S. R. |last3=deMenocal |first3=Peter B. |date=2017-01-06 |title=Rainfall regimes of the Green Sahara |journal=Science Advances |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=e1601503 |bibcode=2017SciA....3E1503T |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1601503 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=5242556 |pmid=28116352}}</ref> Such variations influence the strength of the West African Monsoon, inducing feedback in vegetation and dust emission that amplify the cycle of wet and dry Sahara climate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pausata |first1=Francesco S. R. |last2=Messori |first2=Gabriele |last3=Zhang |first3=Qiong |date=2016-01-15 |title=Impacts of dust reduction on the northward expansion of the African monsoon during the Green Sahara period |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |language=en |volume=434 |pages=298–307 |bibcode=2016E&PSL.434..298P |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2015.11.049 |issn=0012-821X |doi-access=free}}</ref> There is also a suggestion the transition of the Sahara from savanna to desert during the mid-[[Holocene]] was partially due to overgrazing by the cattle of the local population.<ref name="Humans as Agents in the Termination of the African Humid Period">{{cite journal |last1=K. Wright |first1=David |last2=Rull |first2=Valenti |last3=Roberts |first3=Richard |last4=Marchant |first4=Rob |last5=Gil-Romera |first5=Graciela |date=26 January 2017 |title=Humans as Agents in the Termination of the African Humid Period |journal=Frontiers in Earth Science |volume=5 |pages=4 |bibcode=2017FrEaS...5....4W |doi=10.3389/feart.2017.00004 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
== Effects ==
=== Sand and dust storms ===
[[File:SHB-Red-Dust.jpg|thumb|View of [[Sydney Harbour Bridge]] covered in dust]]
There has been a 25% increase in global annual dust emissions between the late nineteenth century to present day.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stanelle |first1=Tanja |last2=Bey |first2=Isabelle |last3=Raddatz |first3=Thomas |last4=Reick |first4=Christian |last5=Tegen |first5=Ina |date=2014-12-16 |title=Anthropogenically induced changes in twentieth century mineral dust burden and the associated impact on radiative forcing |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=119 |issue=23 |pages=13,526–13,546 |bibcode=2014JGRD..11913526S |doi=10.1002/2014JD022062 |s2cid=128663108 |hdl-access=free |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0024-A9A2-C}}</ref> The increase of desertification has also increased the amount of loose sand and dust that the wind can pick up ultimately resulting in a storm. For example, dust storms in the Middle East “are becoming more frequent and intense in recent years” because “long-term reductions in rainfall [cause] lower [[soil moisture]] and [[vegetative cover]]”.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Namdari |first1=Soodabeh |last2=Karimi |first2=Neamat |last3=Sorooshian |first3=Armin |last4=Mohammadi |first4=GholamHasan |last5=Sehatkashani |first5=Saviz |date=2018-01-01 |title=Impacts of climate and synoptic fluctuations on dust storm activity over the Middle East |journal=Atmospheric Environment |volume=173 |pages=265–276 |bibcode=2018AtmEn.173..265N |doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.11.016 |issn=1352-2310 |pmc=6192056 |pmid=30344444}}</ref>
[[Dust storms]] can contribute to certain respiratory disorders such as pneumonia, skin irritations, asthma and many more.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goudie |first=Andrew S. |date=2014-02-01 |title=Desert dust and human health disorders |journal=Environment International |volume=63 |pages=101–113 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2013.10.011 |issn=0160-4120 |pmid=24275707}}</ref> They can pollute open water, reduce the effectiveness of clean energy efforts, and halt most forms of transportation.
Dust and sand storms can have a negative effect on the climate which can make desertification worse.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Tiantian |last2=Wu |first2=Di |last3=Li |first3=Yaohui |last4=Wang |first4=Chenghai |date=2017-03-28 |title=The Effects of Sandstorms on the Climate of Northwestern China |journal=Advances in Meteorology |language=en |volume=2017 |pages=e4035609 |doi=10.1155/2017/4035609 |issn=1687-9309 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Yao |last2=Wen |first2=Bo |last3=Li |first3=Shanshan |last4=Guo |first4=Yuming |date=2021-06-01 |title=Sand and dust storms in Asia: a call for global cooperation on climate change |journal=The Lancet Planetary Health |language=English |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=e329–e330 |doi=10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00082-6 |issn=2542-5196 |pmid=33915087 |s2cid=233460168 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dust particles in the air scatter incoming radiation from the sun (Hassan, 2012). The dust can provide momentary coverage for the ground temperature but the atmospheric temperature will increase. This can disform and shorten the life time of clouds which can result in less rainfall.<ref name=":2" />
=== Food insecurity ===
Global [[food security]] is being threatened by desertification. The more that [[Population growth|population grows]], the more food that has to be grown. The agricultural business is being displaced from one country to another. For example, Europe on average imports over 50% of its food. Meanwhile, 44% of agricultural land is located in dry lands and it supplies 60% of the world's food production. Desertification is decreasing the amount of sustainable land for agricultural uses but demands are continuously growing. In the near future, the demands will overcome the supply.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WAD {{!}} World Atlas of Desertification |url=https://wad.jrc.ec.europa.eu/globalagriculture |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209170553/https://wad.jrc.ec.europa.eu/globalagriculture |archive-date=2019-12-09 |access-date=2019-11-19 |website=wad.jrc.ec.europa.eu}}</ref> The violent [[herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria]], [[Sudanese nomadic conflicts|Sudan]], [[March 2019 attacks against Fulani herders|Mali]] and other countries in the Sahel region have been exacerbated by [[climate change]], [[land degradation]] and [[population growth]].<ref>{{cite magazine |date=28 June 2018 |title=How Climate Change Is Spurring Land Conflict in Nigeria |url=http://time.com/5324712/climate-change-nigeria/ |magazine=Time}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=22 January 2019 |title=The battle on the frontline of climate change in Mali |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/the-reporters-46921487 |url-status=live |access-date=18 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009175946/https://www.bbc.com/news/the-reporters-46921487 |archive-date=9 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=6 August 2018 |title=Farmer-Herder Conflicts on the Rise in Africa |publisher=ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/world/farmer-herder-conflicts-rise-africa |url-status=live |access-date=18 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417045057/https://reliefweb.int/report/world/farmer-herder-conflicts-rise-africa |archive-date=17 April 2021}}</ref>
=== Vegetation patterning ===
As the desertification takes place, the landscape may progress through different stages and continuously transform in appearance. On gradually sloped terrain, desertification can create increasingly larger empty spaces over a large strip of land, a phenomenon known as "[[Tiger bush|brousse tigrée]]". A mathematical model of this phenomenon proposed by C. Klausmeier attributes this patterning to dynamics in plant-water interaction.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klausmeier |first=Christopher |year=1999 |title=Regular and irregular patterns in semiarid vegetation |journal=Science |volume=284 |issue=5421 |pages=1826–1828 |doi=10.1126/science.284.5421.1826 |pmid=10364553}}</ref> One outcome of this observation suggests an optimal planting strategy for agriculture in arid environments.<ref>{{cite web |last=(www.dw.com) |first=Deutsche Welle |title=Grid of straw squares turns Chinese sand to soil – Environment – DW.COM – 23.06.2011 |url=http://www.dw.de/dw/article/0,,15182754,00.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612123117/https://www.dw.com/en/grid-of-straw-squares-turns-chinese-sand-to-soil/a-15182754 |archive-date=12 June 2020 |access-date=21 June 2016}}</ref>
=== Increasing poverty ===
[[File:Soil erosion, Southfield - geograph.org.uk - 367917.jpg|thumb|[[Soil erosion#Wind erosion|Wind erosion]] outside [[Leuchars]]]]
At least 90% of the inhabitants of drylands live in [[Developing country|developing countries]], where they also suffer from poor economic and social conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2010–2020: UN Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification |url=https://www.un.org/en/events/desertification_decade/index.shtml |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=www.un.org |language=EN}}</ref> This situation is exacerbated by land degradation because of the reduction in productivity, the precariousness of living conditions and the difficulty of access to resources and opportunities.<ref>https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/publications/The%20Global%20Drylands%20Initiative,%202001-09%20-%20Challenge%20Paper-%20Poverty%20and%20the%20Drylands.pdf</ref>
Many underdeveloped countries are affected by overgrazing, [[land exhaustion]] and [[overdrafting]] of groundwater due to pressures to exploit marginal drylands for farming. Decision-makers are understandably averse to invest in arid zones with low potential. This absence of investment contributes to the marginalization of these zones. When unfavorable agri-climatic conditions are combined with an absence of infrastructure and access to markets, as well as poorly adapted production techniques and an underfed and undereducated population, most such zones are excluded from development.<ref name="csf-desertification.org">[http://www.csf-desertification.org/index.php/bibliotheque/doc_details/119-cornet-antoine-2002-desertification-and-its-relationship-to-the-environment-and-development Cornet A., 2002. Desertification and its relationship to the environment and development: a problem that affects us all. In: Ministère des Affaires étrangères/adpf, Johannesburg. World Summit on Sustainable Development. 2002. What is at stake? The contribution of scientists to the debate: 91–125..] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090809142606/http://www.csf-desertification.org/index.php/bibliotheque/doc_details/119-cornet-antoine-2002-desertification-and-its-relationship-to-the-environment-and-development |date=2009-08-09 }}</ref>
Desertification often causes rural lands to become unable to support the same sized populations that previously lived there. This results in mass [[human migration|migrations]] out of rural areas and into urban areas particularly in Africa creating unemployment and [[slum]]s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pasternak, Dov|author2=Schlissel, Arnold|title=Combating desertification with plants|publisher=Springer|year=2001|isbn=978-0-306-46632-8|page=20|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-i8-DPf6xgC&pg=PA20|access-date=2016-05-16|archive-date=2023-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730161050/https://books.google.com/books?id=B-i8-DPf6xgC&pg=PA20|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Briassoulis, Helen|title=Policy integration for complex environmental problems: the example of Mediterranean desertification|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7546-4243-5|page=161|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CpYnV45hVRsC&pg=PA161|access-date=2016-05-16|archive-date=2023-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730161052/https://books.google.com/books?id=CpYnV45hVRsC&pg=PA161|url-status=live}}</ref> The number of these [[Environmental migrant|environmental refugees]] grows every year, with projections for sub-Saharan Africa showing a probable increase from 14 million in 2010 to nearly 200 million by 2050. This presents a future crisis for the region, as neighboring nations do not always have the ability to support large populations of refugees.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=Norman |date=29 April 2002 |title=Environmental refugees: a growing phenomenon of the 21st century |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences |volume=357 |issue=1420 |pages=609–613 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2001.0953 |pmc=1692964 |pmid=12028796}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Epule |first1=Terence Epule |last2=Peng |first2=Changhui |last3=Lepage |first3=Laurent |date=5 February 2014 |title=Environmental refugees in sub-Saharan Africa: a review of perspectives on the trends, causes, challenges and way forward |journal=GeoJournal |volume=80 |pages=79–92 |doi=10.1007/s10708-014-9528-z |s2cid=154503204}}</ref>
In [[Mongolia]] the land is 90% fragile dry land, which causes many herders to migrate to the city for work. With very limited resources the herders that stay on the dry land graze very carefully in order to preserve the land. With the increasing population of Mongolia it is very difficult to stay a herder for long.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-08-01 |title=Mongolia's nomadic way of life under threat |url=https://gulfnews.com/lifestyle/mongolias-nomadic-way-of-life-under-threat-1.2259998 |access-date=2023-10-04 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref>
Agriculture is a main source of income for many desert communities. The increase in desertification in these regions has degraded the land to such an extent where people can no longer productively farm and make a profit. This has negatively impacted the economy and increased poverty rates.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stringer|first1=Lindsay C.|last2=Dyer|first2=Jen C.|last3=Reed|first3=Mark S.|last4=Dougill|first4=Andrew J.|last5=Twyman|first5=Chasca|last6=Mkwambisi|first6=David|title=Adaptations to climate change, drought and desertification: local insights to enhance policy in southern Africa|journal=Environmental Science & Policy|volume=12|issue=7|pages=748–765|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2009.04.002|year=2009}}</ref>
There is, however, increased global advocacy e.g. the UN [[Sustainable Development Goal 15|SDG 15]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Goal 15 targets |url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-15-life-on-land/targets.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904001634/https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-15-life-on-land/targets.html |archive-date=2017-09-04 |access-date=2020-09-24 |website=UNDP |language=en}}</ref> to combat desertification and restore affected lands.
==Countermeasures{{anchor|Countermeasures_and_prevention}}==
{{See also|Deforestation#Control}}
[[File:North Sahara. Anti-sand shields.jpg|thumb|Anti-sand shields in north [[Sahara]], [[Tunisia]]]]
[[File:GreeningdesertTharIndia.jpg|thumb|[[Jojoba]] plantations, such as those shown, have played a role in combating edge effects of desertification in the [[Thar Desert]], [[India]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pasternak|first1=D.|last2=Schlissel|first2=Arnold|title=Combating Desertification with Plants|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781461513278|page=38|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6XfgBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|date=2012-12-06}}</ref>]]
[[File:Saxaul planted along roads in Xinjiang near Cherchen to slow desertification.jpg|thumb|[[Saxaul]] planted along roads in Xinjiang near [[Cherchen]] to slow desertification]]
Techniques and countermeasures exist for mitigating or reversing the effects of desertification, and some possess varying levels of difficulty. For some, there are numerous barriers to their implementation. Yet for others, the solution simply requires the exercise of human reason.
One proposed barrier is that the costs of adopting [[sustainable agriculture|sustainable agricultural practices]] sometimes exceed the benefits for individual farmers, even while they are socially and environmentally beneficial.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Drost|first1=Daniel|last2=Long|first2=Gilbert|last3=Wilson|first3=David|last4=Miller|first4=Bruce|last5=Campbell|first5=William|title=Barriers to Adopting Sustainable Agricultural Practices|issue=6|url=https://www.joe.org/joe/1996december/a1.php|journal=Journal of Extension|volume=34|date=1 December 1996|access-date=21 February 2017|archive-date=22 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222053123/https://www.joe.org/joe/1996december/a1.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another issue is a lack of political will, and lack of funding to support [[land reclamation]] and anti-desertification programs.<ref>{{cite book|author=Briassoulis, Helen|title=Policy integration for complex environmental problems: the example of Mediterranean desertification|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7546-4243-5|page=237|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CpYnV45hVRsC&pg=PA237}}</ref>
Desertification is recognized as a major threat to [[biodiversity]]. Some countries have developed [[biodiversity action plan]]s to counter its effects, particularly in relation to the protection of endangered [[flora]] and [[fauna]].<ref>Techniques for Desert Reclamation by Andrew S. Goudie</ref><ref>[http://www.gsafweb.org/TrusteeNews/desertdevelopmen.html Desert reclamation projects] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090103172821/http://www.gsafweb.org/TrusteeNews/desertdevelopmen.html |date=2009-01-03 }}</ref>
=== Reforestation ===
{{Main|Reforestation}}
[[Reforestation]] gets at one of the root causes of desertification and is not just a treatment of the symptoms. Environmental organizations work in places where deforestation and desertification are contributing to extreme [[poverty]]. There they focus primarily on educating the local population about the dangers of deforestation and sometimes employ them to grow seedlings, which they transfer to severely deforested areas during the rainy season.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/desertification/|title=Desertification|website=USGS|date=1997|access-date=2006-06-10|archive-date=2010-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100802200740/http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/desertification/|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] launched the FAO Drylands Restoration Initiative in 2012 to draw together knowledge and experience on dryland restoration.<ref>{{cite web|title=Drylands Restoration Initiative|url=http://www.fao.org/forestry/aridzone/restoration/en/|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|access-date=14 April 2016|archive-date=23 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723220152/http://www.fao.org/forestry/aridzone/restoration/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015, FAO published global guidelines for the restoration of degraded forests and landscapes in drylands, in collaboration with the Turkish Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs and the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency.<ref>{{cite book|title=Global guidelines for the restoration of degraded forests and landscapes in drylands|date=June 2015|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|isbn=978-92-5-108912-5|url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5036e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423203240/http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5036e.pdf |archive-date=2016-04-23 |url-status=live<!-- |access-date=June 2015 -->}}</ref>
The "[[Green Wall of China]]" is a high-profile example of one method that has been finding success in this battle with desertification.<ref>{{Cite web|title=desertification 3D environment|url=https://b2b.partcommunity.com/community/knowledge/en/detail/9815/Desertification#knowledge_article|access-date=2020-09-25|archive-date=2021-02-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228141238/https://b2b.partcommunity.com/community/knowledge/en/detail/9815/Desertification#knowledge_article|url-status=live}}</ref> This wall is a much larger-scale version of what American farmers did in the 1930s to stop the great Midwest dust bowl. This plan was proposed in the late 1970s, and has become a major ecological engineering project that is not predicted to end until the year 2055. According to Chinese reports, there have been nearly 66 billion trees planted in China's great green wall.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/04/china-great-green-wall-gobi-tengger-desertification/| title=China's 'Great Green Wall' Fights Expanding Desert| date=2017-04-21| access-date=2017-05-04| archive-date=2017-08-13| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813110737/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/04/china-great-green-wall-gobi-tengger-desertification/| url-status=dead}}</ref> The green wall of China has decreased desert land in China by an annual average of 1,980 square km.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/26/c_137207841.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526094225/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/26/c_137207841.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 26, 2018 |title=Across China: A guardian of the great green wall against China's second largest desert |last=Hui |first=Lu |date=May 26, 2018 |work=Xinghua News Agency }}</ref> The frequency of sandstorms nationwide have fallen 20% due to the green wall.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Beiser|first=Vince|date=September 1, 2017|title=A tree grows in China: can a "Green Great Wall" stop sand from devouring the countryside?|journal=Mother Jones|volume=83|issue=4}}</ref> Due to the success that China has been finding in stopping the spread of desertification, plans are currently being made in Africa to start a "wall" along the borders of the Sahara desert as well to be financed by the United Nations Global Environment Facility trust.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gadzama|first=Njidda Mamadu|date=2017|title=Attenuation of the effects of desertification through sustainable development of Great Green Wall in the Sahel of Africa|journal=World Journal of Science, Technology and Sustainable Development|volume=14|issue=4|pages=279–289|doi=10.1108/WJSTSD-02-2016-0021}}</ref>
[[File:Great green wall map.svg|thumb|The [[Great Green Wall (Africa)|Great Green Wall]], participating countries and Sahel. In September 2020, it was reported that the GGW had covered only 4% of the planned area.<ref>{{cite news|author=Jonathan Watts|title=Africa's Great Green Wall just 4% complete halfway through schedule|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/07/africa-great-green-wall-just-4-complete-over-halfway-through-schedule|newspaper=The Guardian|date=7 September 2020|issn=0261-3077|via=www.theguardian.com|access-date=18 December 2021|archive-date=6 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506222825/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/07/africa-great-green-wall-just-4-complete-over-halfway-through-schedule|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
In 2007 the [[African Union]] started the [[Great Green Wall (Africa)|Great Green Wall of Africa]] project in order to combat desertification in 20 countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Great Green Wall{{!}}Action Against Desertification{{!}}Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=https://www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification/overview/great-green-wall/en/ |access-date=2022-02-27 |website=www.fao.org |archive-date=2022-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127153831/https://www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification/overview/great-green-wall/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The wall is 8,000 km wide, stretching across the entire width of the continent and has 8 billion dollars in support of the project. The project has restored 36{{nbsp}}million{{nbsp}}hectares of land, and by 2030 the initiative plans to restore a total of 100{{nbsp}}million{{nbsp}}hectares.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gadzama|first=Njidda|date=2017|title=Attenuation of the Effects of Desertification through Sustainable Development of Great Green Wall in the Sahel of Africa|journal=World Journal of Science, Technology and Sustainable Development|volume=14|issue=4|pages=279–289|doi=10.1108/WJSTSD-02-2016-0021}}</ref> The Great Green Wall has created many job opportunities for the participating countries, with over 20,000 jobs created in Nigeria alone.<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|date=2019|title=The Great Green Wall Initiative|url=https://www.unccd.int/actions/great-green-wall-initiative|access-date=2019-12-03|website=United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|archive-date=2019-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202120122/https://www.unccd.int/actions/great-green-wall-initiative|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Soil restoration ===
Techniques focus on two aspects: provisioning of water, and [[Erosion control|fixation]] and hyper-fertilizing soil. Fixating the soil is often done through the use of [[windbreak|shelter belts]], [[woodlot]]s and [[windbreak]]s. Windbreaks are made from trees and bushes and are used to reduce [[soil erosion]] and [[evapotranspiration]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Windbreaks - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/windbreaks |access-date=2022-02-27 |website=www.sciencedirect.com |archive-date=2022-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227003534/https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/windbreaks |url-status=live }}</ref> They were widely encouraged by development agencies from the middle of the 1980s in the [[Sahel]] area of [[Africa]].
Some soils (for example, [[clay]]), due to lack of water can become [[Consolidation (soil)|consolidated]] rather than porous (as in the case of sandy soils). Some techniques as [[zaï]] or [[tillage]] are then used to still allow the planting of crops.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/09/soil/mann-text.html|title=Our Good Earth – National Geographic Magazine|access-date=21 June 2016|archive-date=25 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425181742/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/09/soil/mann-text.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Another technique that is useful is [[contour trenching]]. This involves the digging of 150 m long, 1 m deep trenches in the soil. The trenches are made parallel to the height lines of the landscape, preventing the water from flowing within the trenches and causing erosion. Stone walls are placed around the trenches to prevent the trenches from closing up again. This method was invented by Peter Westerveld.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nagafoundation.org/|title=Home – Justdiggit|access-date=21 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402205707/https://nagafoundation.org/|archive-date=2 April 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Enriching of the soil and restoration of its fertility is often achieved by plants. Of these, [[legume|leguminous plants]] which extract [[nitrogen]] from the air and fix it in the soil, [[succulents]] (such as [[Opuntia]]),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nefzaoui |first1=Ali |title=Cactus as a Tool to Mitigate Drought and to Combat Desertification |journal=Journal of Arid Land Studies |volume=24 |issue=1 |date=30 January 2014 |pages=121–124 |hdl=20.500.11766/7319 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and food crops/trees as [[grain]]s, [[barley]], [[beans]] and [[Phoenix dactylifera|date]]s are the most important. [[Sand fence]]s can also be used to control drifting of soil and sand erosion.
Another way to restore soil fertility is through the use of nitrogen-rich fertilizer. Due to the higher cost of this fertilizer, many [[smallholding|smallholder]] farmers are reluctant to use it, especially in areas where [[subsistence agriculture|subsistence farming]] is common.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krah |first1=Kwabena |last2=Michelson |first2=Hope |last3=Perge |first3=Emilie |last4=Jindal |first4=Rohit |title=Constraints to adopting soil fertility management practices in Malawi: A choice experiment approach |journal=World Development |volume=124 |pages=104651 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104651 |date=1 December 2019|s2cid=202302505 }}</ref> Several nations, including India, Zambia, and Malawi have responded to this by implementing [[subsidization|subsidies]] to help encourage adoption of this technique.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Duflo |first1=Esther |last2=Kremer |first2=Michael |last3=Robinson |first3=Jonathan |title=Nudging Farmers to Use Fertilizer: Theory and Experimental Evidence from Kenya |journal=American Economic Review |volume=101 |issue=6 |pages=2350–2390 |doi=10.1257/aer.101.6.2350 |date=October 2011|url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w15131.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002053100/http://www.nber.org/papers/w15131.pdf |archive-date=2015-10-02 |url-status=live |hdl=1721.1/63964 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
Some research centres (such as Bel-Air Research Center IRD/ISRA/UCAD) are also experimenting with the inoculation of tree species with [[mycorrhiza]] in arid zones. The mycorrhiza are basically fungi attaching themselves to the roots of the plants. They hereby create a symbiotic relation with the trees, increasing the surface area of the tree's roots greatly (allowing the tree to gather much more nutrient from the soil).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://196.1.95.4/fst/biologie-vegetale/labo_commun.htm|title=Département Biologie Végétale – Laboratoire Commun de Microbiologie IRD-ISRA-UCAD|access-date=21 June 2016|archive-date=24 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624015819/http://196.1.95.4/fst/biologie-vegetale/labo_commun.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The [[Genetically modified organism|bioengineering]] of soil microbes, particularly photosynthesizers, has also been suggested and theoretically modeled as a method to protect drylands. The aim would be to enhance the existing cooperative loops between soil microbes and vegetation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bioengineered soil microbes may help prevent desertification|url=https://phys.org/news/2020-08-bioengineered-soil-microbes-desertification.html|access-date=2020-08-26|website=phys.org|language=en|archive-date=2020-08-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200827204631/https://phys.org/news/2020-08-bioengineered-soil-microbes-desertification.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Desert reclamation ===
As there are many different types of deserts, there are also different types of desert reclamation [[methodologies]]. An example for this is the salt flats in the [[Rub' al Khali]] desert in [[Saudi Arabia]]. These salt flats are one of the most promising desert areas for seawater agriculture and could be revitalized without the use of freshwater or much energy.<ref>[http://www.prototype-creation.de/rethinking_landscapes.pdf Rethinking landscapes, Nicol-André Berdellé July 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817063318/http://www.prototype-creation.de/rethinking_landscapes.pdf |date=2016-08-17 }} H2O magazine</ref>
[[Farmer-managed natural regeneration]] (FMNR) is another technique that has produced successful results for desert reclamation. Since 1980, this method to reforest degraded landscape has been applied with some success in Niger. This simple and low-cost method has enabled farmers to regenerate some 30,000 square kilometers in Niger. The process involves enabling native sprouting tree growth through selective pruning of shrub shoots. The residue from pruned trees can be used to provide mulching for fields thus increasing [[Soil water (retention)|soil water retention]] and reducing evaporation. Additionally, properly spaced and pruned trees can increase crop yields. The Humbo Assisted Regeneration Project which uses FMNR techniques in Ethiopia has received money from The World Bank's BioCarbon Fund, which supports projects that sequester or conserve carbon in forests or agricultural ecosystems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2011/10/18/sprouting-trees-from-the-underground-forest-a-simple-way-to-fight-desertification-and-climate-change/ |title=Sprouting Trees From the Underground Forest — A Simple Way to Fight Desertification and Climate Change – Water Matters – State of the Planet |publisher=Blogs.ei.columbia.edu |date=2011-10-18 |access-date=2012-08-11 |archive-date=2012-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120623022554/http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2011/10/18/sprouting-trees-from-the-underground-forest-a-simple-way-to-fight-desertification-and-climate-change/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Managed grazing===
Restored grasslands store CO<sub>2</sub> from the atmosphere as organic plant material. [[Grazing]] livestock, usually not left to wander, consume the grass and minimize its growth.<ref name="Tlovell">{{cite news|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/environment/2011/01/lovell-carbon-ward-climate|title=How fences could save the planet|publisher=newstatesman.com|access-date=May 5, 2013|date=January 13, 2011|archive-date=August 14, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814221316/http://www.newstatesman.com/environment/2011/01/lovell-carbon-ward-climate|url-status=live}}</ref> A method proposed to restore grasslands uses fences with many small paddocks, moving herds from one paddock to another after a day or two in order to mimic natural grazers and allowing the grass to grow optimally.<ref name="Tlovell" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0221-soil_carbon_lovell_interview.html|title=Restoring soil carbon can reverse global warming, desertification and biodiversity|publisher=mongabay.com|access-date=May 5, 2013|date=February 21, 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130625040133/http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0221-soil_carbon_lovell_interview.html|archive-date=June 25, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1953692,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117215802/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1953692,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 17, 2010|title=How eating grass-fed beef could help fight climate change|publisher=time.com|access-date=May 11, 2013|date=January 25, 2010|first=Lisa|last=Abend}}</ref> Proponents of managed grazing methods estimate that increasing this method could increase carbon content of the soils in the world's 3.5 billion hectares of agricultural grassland and offset nearly 12 years of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions.<ref name="Tlovell" />
== History ==
{{Further|Historic desertification}}
The world's most noted [[deserts]] have been formed by natural processes interacting over long intervals of time. During most of these times, deserts have grown and shrunk independently of human activities. Paleodeserts are large [[sand sea]]s now inactive because they are stabilized by vegetation, some extending beyond the present margins of core deserts, such as the [[Sahara]], the largest hot desert.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Desertification |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/desertification/ |access-date=2023-09-11 |website=pubs.usgs.gov}}</ref>
Historical evidence shows that the serious and extensive land deterioration occurring several centuries ago in arid regions had three centers: the Mediterranean, the Mesopotamian Valley, and the [[Loess Plateau]] of China, where population was dense.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dregne |first=H.E. |title=Desertification of Arid Lands |url=http://www.ciesin.columbia.edu/docs/002-193/002-193.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428120939/http://www.ciesin.columbia.edu/docs/002-193/002-193.html |archive-date=28 April 2023 |access-date=3 December 2013 |publisher=Columbia University}}</ref>
The earliest known discussion of the topic arose soon after the [[French colonization]] of [[West Africa]], when the Comité d'Etudes commissioned a study on ''desséchement progressif'' to explore the prehistoric expansion of the Sahara Desert.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Mortimore, Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dx89AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12 |title=Adapting to drought: farmers, famines, and desertification in West Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-521-32312-3 |page=12 |access-date=2016-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730160046/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dx89AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12 |archive-date=2023-07-30 |url-status=live}}</ref> The modern study of desertification emerged from the study of the [[Sahel drought|1980s drought]] in the [[Sahel]].<ref name=":6" />
== See also ==
* [[Aridification]]
* [[Desert greening]]
* [[Detention basin]]
* [[Ecological engineering]]
* [[Oasification]]
* [[Soil retrogression and degradation]]
* [[Water scarcity]]
* [[World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought]]
'''Other related portals:'''
{{Portal bar|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Biology|Global warming}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
=== Sources ===
*{{USGS|title=Desertification|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/desertification/|accessdate=2021-05-04}}
==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://www.unccd.int Official website of the Secretariat] of the [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] (UNCCD)
** [http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/unccd/unccd.html Procedural history and related documents] on the UNCCD, from the [[United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]]
* [http://www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification Official website] of Action Against Desertification, a [[United Nations]] [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] initiative of the [[African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States]]
*[https://www.unenvironment.org/resources/report/global-deserts-outlook ''Global Deserts Outlook''] (2006), thematic assessment report in the [[Global Environment Outlook]] (GEO) series of the [[United Nations Environment Program]] (UNEP).
{{Deforestation and desertification}}
{{Human impact on the environment}}{{Climate change}}{{Doomsday}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Desertification| ]]
[[Category:Environmental soil science]]
[[Category:Paleoclimatology]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,50 +1,5 @@
-{{short description|Process by which fertile areas of land become increasingly arid}}
-{{distinguish|NLRB election procedures#Decertification elections{{!}}Decertification|Desertion}}
-[[File:Desertification map.png|thumb|upright=1.75|World map from 1998 showing global desertification vulnerability]]'''Desertification''' is a type of [[land degradation]] in [[drylands]] in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become arid.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-23 |title=Desertification {{!}} Description, Causes, & Impacts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/desertification |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Desertification - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/desertification |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=www.sciencedirect.com |archive-date=2022-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403121044/https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/desertification |url-status=live }}</ref> It is the spread of arid areas caused by a variety of factors, such as [[overexploitation]] of [[soil]] as a result of human activity and the [[effects of climate change]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Sustainable development of drylands and combating desertification |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/v0265e/v0265e01.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804222104/http://www.fao.org/docrep/v0265e/v0265e01.htm |archive-date=4 August 2017 |access-date=21 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Zeng L17401">{{Cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=Ning |last2=Yoon |first2=Jinho |date=1 September 2009 |title=Expansion of the world's deserts due to vegetation-albedo feedback under global warming |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=36 |issue=17 |page=L17401 |bibcode=2009GeoRL..3617401Z |doi=10.1029/2009GL039699 |issn=1944-8007 |s2cid=1708267 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Geographic areas most affected include the [[Sahel]] region in Africa, the [[Gobi Desert]] and [[Mongolia]] in Asia as well as parts of [[South America]]. [[Drylands]] occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people.<ref name=":5" />
+{{short description|Process by nigga
-Effects of desertification include [[Sand storm|sand and dust storms]], [[Food security|food insecurity]], vegetation patterning and increasing poverty. There are many possible countermeasures such as [[reforestation]], [[soil restoration]], [[desert reclamation]] and managed [[grazing]].
-
-Throughout geological history, the development of [[desert]]s has occurred naturally. In recent times, the influences of human activity, improper land management, [[deforestation]] and [[climate change]] on desertification is the subject of many scientific investigations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Ye |last2=Xue |first2=Yongkang |title=Expansion of the Sahara Desert and shrinking of frozen land of the Arctic |journal=Scientific Reports |date=5 March 2020 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=4109 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-61085-0 |pmid=32139761 |pmc=7057959 |bibcode=2020NatSR..10.4109L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=An |first1=Hui |last2=Tang |first2=Zhuangsheng |last3=Keesstra |first3=Saskia |last4=Shangguan |first4=Zhouping |title=Impact of desertification on soil and plant nutrient stoichiometry in a desert grassland |journal=Scientific Reports |date=1 July 2019 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=9422 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-45927-0 |pmid=31263198 |pmc=6603008 |bibcode=2019NatSR...9.9422A }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Xueying |last2=Jia |first2=Guangpu |last3=Yang |first3=Guang |last4=Wang |first4=Ning |last5=Liu |first5=Feng |last6=Chen |first6=Haoyu |last7=Guo |first7=Xinyu |last8=Yang |first8=Wenbin |last9=Liu |first9=Jing |title=Spatiotemporal dynamic evolution and driving factors of desertification in the Mu Us Sandy Land in 30 years |journal=Scientific Reports |date=10 December 2020 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=21734 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-78665-9 |pmid=33303886 |pmc=7729393 |bibcode=2020NatSR..1021734H }}</ref>
-
-==Definitions==
-As recently as 2005, considerable controversy existed over the proper definition of the term "desertification." Helmut Geist (2005) identified more than 100 formal definitions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Geist |first=Helmut |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315240855/causes-progression-desertification-helmut-geist |title=The Causes and Progression of Desertification |date=2017-10-01 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-24085-5 |location=London |doi=10.4324/9781315240855}}</ref> The most widely accepted of these was that of the [[Princeton University]] Dictionary which defined it as "the process of fertile land ''transforming into desert'' typically as a result of [[deforestation]], [[drought]] or improper/inappropriate agriculture".{{cn|date=October 2023}} This definition clearly demonstrated the interconnectedness of desertification and human activities, in particular land use and land management practices. It also highlighted the economic, social and environmental implications of desertification.<br />However, this original understanding that desertification involved the physical expansion of deserts has been rejected as the concept has further evolved since then.<ref name="EB2">{{cite encyclopedia
-| title = Desertification
-| first1 = John P.
-| last1 = Rafferty
-| first2 = Stuart L.
-| last2 = Pimm
-| encyclopedia =[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
-| url = https://www.britannica.com/science/desertification
-| access-date = 2019-11-06
-| date = January 26, 2023
-| quote = The concept does not refer to the physical expansion of existing deserts but rather to the various processes that threaten all dryland ecosystems.
-
-}}</ref> Desertification has been defined in the text of the [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] (UNCCD) as "land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities according to Hulme and Kelly, (1993)."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hulme |first1=Mike |last2=Kelly |first2=Mick |date=1993 |title=Exploring the links between Desertification and Climate Change |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00139157.1993.9929106 |journal=Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development |language=en |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=4–45 |doi=10.1080/00139157.1993.9929106 |bibcode=1993ESPSD..35f...4H |issn=0013-9157}}</ref>
-
-There exists also controversy around the sub-grouping of types of desertification, including, for example, the validity and usefulness of such terms as "man-made desert" and "non-pattern desert".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Geist |first1=Helmut J. |last2=Lambin |first2=Eric F. |date=2004 |title=Dynamic Causal Patterns of Desertification |journal=BioScience |language=en |volume=54 |issue=9 |pages=817 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0817:DCPOD]2.0.CO;2 |issn=0006-3568|doi-access=free }}</ref>
-
-==Geographic areas affected==
-[[Drylands]] occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |title=Governing global desertification: linking environmental degradation, poverty and participation |date=2006 |publisher=Ashgate [u.a.] |isbn=978-0-7546-4359-3 |editor-last=Johnson |editor-first=Pierre-Marc |series=Global environmental governance series |location=Aldershot |editor-last2=Johnson |editor-first2=Pierre Marc}}</ref><ref name=":5">https://unemg.org/2018/images/emgdocs/publications/Global_Drylands_Full_Report.pdf</ref> It has been estimated that some 10–20% of drylands are already degraded, the total area affected by desertification being between 6 and 12 million square kilometers, that about 1–6% of the inhabitants of drylands live in desertified areas, and that a billion people are under threat from further desertification.<ref name="holtz">{{cite web|url=https://www.unccd.int/un-decade-deserts-and-fight-against-desertification-impact-and-role-drylands|title=UNCCD: Impact and role of drylands|date=10 October 2017|website=UNCCD|access-date=7 November 2019|archive-date=7 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107121026/https://www.unccd.int/un-decade-deserts-and-fight-against-desertification-impact-and-role-drylands|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=World Bank|title=Gender in agriculture sourcebook|publisher=World Bank Publications|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8213-7587-7|page=454|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxBrq6hTs_UC&pg=PA454|access-date=2016-05-16|archive-date=2023-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730160546/https://books.google.com/books?id=XxBrq6hTs_UC&pg=PA454|url-status=live}}</ref>
-
-===Sahel===
-{{Further|Sahel#Desertification and soil loss}}
-The impact of climate change and human activities on desertification are exemplified in the [[Sahel]] region of Africa. The region is characterized by a dry hot climate, high temperatures and low rainfall (100–600 mm per year).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nicholson |first=Sharon E. |date=2013-02-17 |title=The West African Sahel: A Review of Recent Studies on the Rainfall Regime and Its Interannual Variability |journal=International Scholarly Research Notices |language=en |volume=2013 |pages=e453521 |doi=10.1155/2013/453521|doi-access=free }}</ref> So, droughts are the rule in the Sahel region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Desertification/desertification2.php|title=Defining Desertification : Feature Articles|last=Riebeek|first=Holli|date=2007-01-03|website=earthobservatory.nasa.gov|access-date=2016-11-30|archive-date=2016-12-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201211259/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Desertification/desertification2.php|url-status=live}}</ref> The Sahel has lost approximately 650,000 km<sup>2</sup> of its productive agricultural land over the past 50 years;<ref>https://www.thegeographeronline.net/uploads/2/6/6/2/26629356/a116_sahel.pdf</ref> the propagation of desertification in this area is considerable.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nicholson |first1=S. E. |last2=Tucker |first2=C. J. |last3=Ba |first3=M. B. |title=Desertification, Drought, and Surface Vegetation: An Example from the West African Sahel |journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society |date=1 May 1998 |volume=79 |issue=5 |pages=815–830 |doi=10.1175/1520-0477(1998)079<0815:DDASVA>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=1998BAMS...79..815N |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Land Resource Stresses and Desertification in Africa|url=https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/use/?cid=nrcs142p2_054025|access-date=24 November 2020|website=United States Department of Agriculture|archive-date=1 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401055308/https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/use/?cid=nrcs142p2_054025|url-status=dead}}</ref>
-[[File:Village Telly in Mali.jpg|thumb|[[Sahel]] region of Mali]]
-The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variations over the last few hundred thousand years,<ref name="Lakes">{{Cite journal | title=Ancient Lakes of the Sahara | journal=American Scientist | volume=94 | year=2006 | pages= 58–65 |author1=Kevin White |author2=David J. Mattingly | issue=1 | doi=10.1511/2006.57.983}}</ref> oscillating between wet (grassland) and dry (desert) every 20,000 years<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.mit.edu/2019/study-regulating-north-african-climate-0102 |title=A "pacemaker" for North African climate |author=Jennifer Chu |date=January 2, 2019 |publisher=MIT News |access-date=January 20, 2020 |archive-date=January 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115093627/https://news.mit.edu/2019/study-regulating-north-african-climate-0102 |url-status=live }}</ref> (a phenomenon believed to be caused by long-term changes in the [[North African climate cycle]] that alters the path of the [[North African Monsoon]], caused by an approximately 40000-year cycle in which the [[axial tilt]] of the earth changes between 22° and 24.5°).<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|last1=Houérou|first1=Henry N.|title=Bioclimatology and Biogeography of Africa|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-85192-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rvs7NkfeLEC&q=Sahara+rainfall+virtually+zero&pg=PA16|language=en|date=2008-12-10|access-date=2020-12-11|archive-date=2023-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730160547/https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rvs7NkfeLEC&q=Sahara+rainfall+virtually+zero&pg=PA16|url-status=live}}</ref> Some statistics have shown that, since 1900, the Sahara has expanded by 250 km to the south over a stretch of land from west to east 6,000 km long.<ref>{{cite web|author=Christian Bouquet|title=Le Sahara entre ses deux rives. Éléments de délimitation par la géohistoire d'un espace de contraintes|website=Géoconfluences|date=December 2017|url=http://geoconfluences.ens-lyon.fr/informations-scientifiques/dossiers-regionaux/afrique-dynamiques-regionales/articles-scientifiques/sahara-entre-deux-rives|quote=Mais il aurait progressé de 250 km vers le sud depuis 1900 (Mainguet, 2003), et dépasserait donc 9 millions de km² soit 30 % de la superficie totale du continent africain.|access-date=2018-01-25|archive-date=2022-02-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210001607/http://geoconfluences.ens-lyon.fr/informations-scientifiques/dossiers-regionaux/afrique-dynamiques-regionales/articles-scientifiques/sahara-entre-deux-rives|url-status=live}}</ref>
-
-[[Lake Chad]], located in the Sahel region, has undergone desiccation due to water withdrawal for irrigation and decrease in rainfall.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Okpara |first1=Uche T. |last2=Stringer |first2=Lindsay C. |last3=Dougill |first3=Andrew J. |title=Lake drying and livelihood dynamics in Lake Chad: Unravelling the mechanisms, contexts and responses |journal=Ambio |date=November 2016 |volume=45 |issue=7 |pages=781–795 |doi=10.1007/s13280-016-0805-6 |pmid=27371137 |pmc=5055484 |bibcode=2016Ambio..45..781O }}</ref> The lake has shrunk by over 90% since 1987, displacing millions of inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jiang |first=Ingrid |date=2022-08-12 |title=A Remarkable Size Shrinking in Lake Chad |url=https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/e63a90f8552d4e5f98f4c56a56c06f9d |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=ArcGIS StoryMaps |language=en-ca}}</ref> Recent efforts have managed to make some progress toward its restoration, but it is still considered to be at risk of disappearing entirely.<ref name="Remote sensing appraisal of Lake Ch">{{cite journal |last1=Onamuti |first1=Olapeju Y. |last2=Okogbue |first2=Emmanuel C. |last3=Orimoloye |first3=Israel R. |date=8 November 2017 |title=Remote sensing appraisal of Lake Chad shrinkage connotes severe impacts on green economics and socio-economics of the catchment area |journal=Royal Society Open Science |volume=4 |issue=11 |pages=171120 |doi=10.1098/rsos.171120 |pmc=5717671 |pmid=29291097}}</ref>
-
-To limit desertification the [[Great Green Wall (Africa)]] initiative was started in 2007 involving the planting of vegetation along a stretch of 7,775 kms, 15 kms wide, involving 22 countries to 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Great Green Wall Initiative |url=https://www.unccd.int/our-work/ggwi |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=UNCCD |language=en}}</ref> The purpose of this mammoth planting initiative is to enhance retention of water in the ground following the seasonal rainfall, thus promoting land rehabilitation and future agriculture. Senegal has already contributed to the project by planting 50,000 acres of trees. It is said to have improved land quality and caused an increase in economic opportunity in the region.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/great-green-wall/ | title=The Great Green Wall | National Geographic Society | access-date=2022-12-22 | archive-date=2022-12-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222164123/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/great-green-wall/ | url-status=live }}</ref>
-
-===Gobi Desert and Mongolia===
-{{See also|Environmental issues in Mongolia#Desertification}}
-Another major area that is being impacted by desertification is the [[Gobi Desert]] located in Northern China and Southern Mongolia. The Gobi Desert is the fastest expanding desert on Earth, as it transforms over {{convert|3600|km2|sqmi|abbr=off}} of grassland into wasteland annually.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rechtschaffen |first=Daniel |title=How China's Growing Deserts Are Choking The Country |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/danielrechtschaffen/2017/09/18/how-chinas-growing-deserts-are-choking-the-country/ |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=2022-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216110308/https://www.forbes.com/sites/danielrechtschaffen/2017/09/18/how-chinas-growing-deserts-are-choking-the-country/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Although the Gobi Desert itself is still a distance away from [[Beijing]], reports from field studies state there are large sand dunes forming only 70 km (43.5 mi) outside the city.<ref>{{cite report|last=Welker|first=Lauren|url=http://www.geo.utexas.edu/courses/371c/project/2009/Welker_Desertification.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140124101958/http://www.geo.utexas.edu/courses/371c/project/2009/Welker_Desertification.pdf |archive-date=2014-01-24 |url-status=live |title=The Desertification of the Gobi Desert and Its Effect on Beijing |date=2009 |type=Unpublished manuscript |publisher=University of Texas-Austin School of Geosciences}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-03-25 |title=Gobi Desert: A Complete Guide to East Asia's Largest Desert |url=https://www.youngpioneertours.com/gobi-desert-guide/ |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=Young Pioneer Tours |language=en |archive-date=2023-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730160548/https://www.youngpioneertours.com/gobi-desert-guide/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
-
-In [[Mongolia]], around 90% of grassland is considered [[vulnerability|vulnerable]] to desertification by the UN. An estimated 13% of desertification in Mongolia is caused by natural factors; the rest is due to human influence particularly overgrazing and increased erosion of soils in cultivated areas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Is Desertification and How Does It Impact Mongolia? |url=https://breathemongolia.org/en/news-article/desertification-impact-mongolia/ |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=Breathe Mongolia – English |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401180828/https://breathemongolia.org/en/news-article/desertification-impact-mongolia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Jie |last2=Dai |first2=Han |last3=Gu |first3=Zhaolin |date=2021-12-01 |title=Sandstorms and desertification in Mongolia, an example of future climate events: a review |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01285-w |journal=Environmental Chemistry Letters |language=en |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=4063–4073 |doi=10.1007/s10311-021-01285-w |issn=1610-3661 |pmc=8302971 |pmid=34335128 |bibcode=2021EnvCL..19.4063H |access-date=2022-04-03 |archive-date=2023-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730160551/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10311-021-01285-w |url-status=live }}</ref> During the period 1940 to 2015, the mean air temperature increased by 2.24 °C.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Jie |last2=Dai |first2=Han |last3=Gu |first3=Zhaolin |date=2021-12-01 |title=Sandstorms and desertification in Mongolia, an example of future climate events: a review |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01285-w |journal=Environmental Chemistry Letters |language=en |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=4063–4073 |doi=10.1007/s10311-021-01285-w |issn=1610-3661 |pmc=8302971 |pmid=34335128|bibcode=2021EnvCL..19.4063H }}</ref> The warmest ten-year period was during the latest decade to 2021. Precipitation has decreased by 7% over this period resulting in increased arid conditions throughout Mongolia. The Gobi desert continues to expand northward, with over 70% of Mongolia’s land degraded through overgrazing, deforestation, and climate change.<ref>https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/31145/making-grasslands-sustainable-mongolia.pdf</ref> In addition, the Mongolia government has listed [[Wildfire|forest fires]], [[blight]]s, unsustainable [[forestry]] and [[mining]] activities as leading causes of desertification in the country.<ref>https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/8918/-Report%20on%20the%20state%20of%20the%20environment%20of%20Mongolia%20(2008-2010)-2011Report-State-of-environment-Mongolia.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y#:~:text=The%20Report%20of%20State%20of,damaged%20by%20mining%20activities%20are</ref> The transition from [[sheep]] to [[goat]] farming in order to meet export demands for [[cashmere wool]] has caused degradation of grazing lands. Compared to sheep, goats do more damage to grazing lands by eating roots and flowers.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Dorj|first1=O.|title=Mongolia: Country Features, the Main Causes of Desertification and Remediation Efforts|date=2013|work=Combating Desertification in Asia, Africa and the Middle East|pages=217–229|editor-last=Heshmati|editor-first=G. Ali|place=Dordrecht|publisher=Springer Netherlands|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6652-5_11|isbn=978-94-007-6651-8|last2=Enkhbold|first2=M.|last3=Lkhamyanjin|first3=S.|last4=Mijiddorj|first4=Kh.|last5=Nosmoo|first5=A.|last6=Puntsagnamil|first6=M.|last7=Sainjargal|first7=U.|editor2-last=Squires|editor2-first=Victor R.}}</ref>
-
-{{excerpt|Gobi Desert#Desertification}}
-
-===South America===
-[[South America]] is another area vulnerable by desertification, as 25% of the land is classified as drylands<ref>{{Cite web |title=Soil Degradation Threatens Nutrition in Latin America - World |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/world/soil-degradation-threatens-nutrition-latin-america |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=ReliefWeb |date=16 June 2016 |language=en |archive-date=2022-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403121753/https://reliefweb.int/report/world/soil-degradation-threatens-nutrition-latin-america |url-status=live }}</ref> and over 68% of the land area has undergone soil erosion as a result of deforestation and overgrazing.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2018-06-15 |title=Why We Should Invest in Land Management in Latin America |url=https://www.nrdc.org/bio/carolina-herrera/why-we-should-invest-land-management-latin-america |access-date=2023-09-25 |website=www.nrdc.org |language=en}}</ref> 27 to 43% of the land areas in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru are at risk due to desertification. In Argentina, Mexico and Paraguay greater than half the land area is degraded by desertification and cannot be used for agriculture. In Central America drought has caused increased unemployment and decreased food security - also causing migration of people. Similar impacts have been seen in rural parts of Mexico where about 1000 square kms of land have been lost yearly due to desertification.<ref name=":0" /> In [[Argentina]] desertification has the potential to disrupt the nation's food supply.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Torres |first1=Laura |last2=Abraham |first2=Elena M. |last3=Rubio |first3=Clara |last4=Barbero-Sierra |first4=Celia |last5=Ruiz-Pérez |first5=Manuel |title=Desertification Research in Argentina |journal=Land Degradation & Development |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=433–440 |doi=10.1002/ldr.2392 |date=7 July 2015|bibcode=2015LDeDe..26..433T |hdl=11336/48401 |s2cid=129476957 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
+5 |pages=433–440 |doi=10.1002/ldr.2392 |date=7 July 2015|bibcode=2015LDeDe..26..433T |hdl=11336/48401 |s2cid=129476957 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
==Causes==
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0 => '{{short description|Process by which fertile areas of land become increasingly arid}}',
1 => '{{distinguish|NLRB election procedures#Decertification elections{{!}}Decertification|Desertion}}',
2 => '[[File:Desertification map.png|thumb|upright=1.75|World map from 1998 showing global desertification vulnerability]]'''Desertification''' is a type of [[land degradation]] in [[drylands]] in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become arid.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-23 |title=Desertification {{!}} Description, Causes, & Impacts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/desertification |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Desertification - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/desertification |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=www.sciencedirect.com |archive-date=2022-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403121044/https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/desertification |url-status=live }}</ref> It is the spread of arid areas caused by a variety of factors, such as [[overexploitation]] of [[soil]] as a result of human activity and the [[effects of climate change]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Sustainable development of drylands and combating desertification |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/v0265e/v0265e01.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804222104/http://www.fao.org/docrep/v0265e/v0265e01.htm |archive-date=4 August 2017 |access-date=21 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Zeng L17401">{{Cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=Ning |last2=Yoon |first2=Jinho |date=1 September 2009 |title=Expansion of the world's deserts due to vegetation-albedo feedback under global warming |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=36 |issue=17 |page=L17401 |bibcode=2009GeoRL..3617401Z |doi=10.1029/2009GL039699 |issn=1944-8007 |s2cid=1708267 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Geographic areas most affected include the [[Sahel]] region in Africa, the [[Gobi Desert]] and [[Mongolia]] in Asia as well as parts of [[South America]]. [[Drylands]] occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people.<ref name=":5" />',
3 => 'Effects of desertification include [[Sand storm|sand and dust storms]], [[Food security|food insecurity]], vegetation patterning and increasing poverty. There are many possible countermeasures such as [[reforestation]], [[soil restoration]], [[desert reclamation]] and managed [[grazing]].',
4 => '',
5 => 'Throughout geological history, the development of [[desert]]s has occurred naturally. In recent times, the influences of human activity, improper land management, [[deforestation]] and [[climate change]] on desertification is the subject of many scientific investigations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Ye |last2=Xue |first2=Yongkang |title=Expansion of the Sahara Desert and shrinking of frozen land of the Arctic |journal=Scientific Reports |date=5 March 2020 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=4109 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-61085-0 |pmid=32139761 |pmc=7057959 |bibcode=2020NatSR..10.4109L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=An |first1=Hui |last2=Tang |first2=Zhuangsheng |last3=Keesstra |first3=Saskia |last4=Shangguan |first4=Zhouping |title=Impact of desertification on soil and plant nutrient stoichiometry in a desert grassland |journal=Scientific Reports |date=1 July 2019 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=9422 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-45927-0 |pmid=31263198 |pmc=6603008 |bibcode=2019NatSR...9.9422A }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Xueying |last2=Jia |first2=Guangpu |last3=Yang |first3=Guang |last4=Wang |first4=Ning |last5=Liu |first5=Feng |last6=Chen |first6=Haoyu |last7=Guo |first7=Xinyu |last8=Yang |first8=Wenbin |last9=Liu |first9=Jing |title=Spatiotemporal dynamic evolution and driving factors of desertification in the Mu Us Sandy Land in 30 years |journal=Scientific Reports |date=10 December 2020 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=21734 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-78665-9 |pmid=33303886 |pmc=7729393 |bibcode=2020NatSR..1021734H }}</ref>',
6 => '',
7 => '==Definitions==',
8 => 'As recently as 2005, considerable controversy existed over the proper definition of the term "desertification." Helmut Geist (2005) identified more than 100 formal definitions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Geist |first=Helmut |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315240855/causes-progression-desertification-helmut-geist |title=The Causes and Progression of Desertification |date=2017-10-01 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-24085-5 |location=London |doi=10.4324/9781315240855}}</ref> The most widely accepted of these was that of the [[Princeton University]] Dictionary which defined it as "the process of fertile land ''transforming into desert'' typically as a result of [[deforestation]], [[drought]] or improper/inappropriate agriculture".{{cn|date=October 2023}} This definition clearly demonstrated the interconnectedness of desertification and human activities, in particular land use and land management practices. It also highlighted the economic, social and environmental implications of desertification.<br />However, this original understanding that desertification involved the physical expansion of deserts has been rejected as the concept has further evolved since then.<ref name="EB2">{{cite encyclopedia',
9 => '| title = Desertification',
10 => '| first1 = John P.',
11 => '| last1 = Rafferty',
12 => '| first2 = Stuart L.',
13 => '| last2 = Pimm',
14 => '| encyclopedia =[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]',
15 => '| url = https://www.britannica.com/science/desertification',
16 => '| access-date = 2019-11-06',
17 => '| date = January 26, 2023',
18 => '| quote = The concept does not refer to the physical expansion of existing deserts but rather to the various processes that threaten all dryland ecosystems.',
19 => '',
20 => '}}</ref> Desertification has been defined in the text of the [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] (UNCCD) as "land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities according to Hulme and Kelly, (1993)."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hulme |first1=Mike |last2=Kelly |first2=Mick |date=1993 |title=Exploring the links between Desertification and Climate Change |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00139157.1993.9929106 |journal=Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development |language=en |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=4–45 |doi=10.1080/00139157.1993.9929106 |bibcode=1993ESPSD..35f...4H |issn=0013-9157}}</ref>',
21 => '',
22 => 'There exists also controversy around the sub-grouping of types of desertification, including, for example, the validity and usefulness of such terms as "man-made desert" and "non-pattern desert".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Geist |first1=Helmut J. |last2=Lambin |first2=Eric F. |date=2004 |title=Dynamic Causal Patterns of Desertification |journal=BioScience |language=en |volume=54 |issue=9 |pages=817 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0817:DCPOD]2.0.CO;2 |issn=0006-3568|doi-access=free }}</ref>',
23 => '',
24 => '==Geographic areas affected==',
25 => '[[Drylands]] occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |title=Governing global desertification: linking environmental degradation, poverty and participation |date=2006 |publisher=Ashgate [u.a.] |isbn=978-0-7546-4359-3 |editor-last=Johnson |editor-first=Pierre-Marc |series=Global environmental governance series |location=Aldershot |editor-last2=Johnson |editor-first2=Pierre Marc}}</ref><ref name=":5">https://unemg.org/2018/images/emgdocs/publications/Global_Drylands_Full_Report.pdf</ref> It has been estimated that some 10–20% of drylands are already degraded, the total area affected by desertification being between 6 and 12 million square kilometers, that about 1–6% of the inhabitants of drylands live in desertified areas, and that a billion people are under threat from further desertification.<ref name="holtz">{{cite web|url=https://www.unccd.int/un-decade-deserts-and-fight-against-desertification-impact-and-role-drylands|title=UNCCD: Impact and role of drylands|date=10 October 2017|website=UNCCD|access-date=7 November 2019|archive-date=7 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107121026/https://www.unccd.int/un-decade-deserts-and-fight-against-desertification-impact-and-role-drylands|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=World Bank|title=Gender in agriculture sourcebook|publisher=World Bank Publications|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8213-7587-7|page=454|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxBrq6hTs_UC&pg=PA454|access-date=2016-05-16|archive-date=2023-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730160546/https://books.google.com/books?id=XxBrq6hTs_UC&pg=PA454|url-status=live}}</ref>',
26 => '',
27 => '===Sahel===',
28 => '{{Further|Sahel#Desertification and soil loss}}',
29 => 'The impact of climate change and human activities on desertification are exemplified in the [[Sahel]] region of Africa. The region is characterized by a dry hot climate, high temperatures and low rainfall (100–600 mm per year).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nicholson |first=Sharon E. |date=2013-02-17 |title=The West African Sahel: A Review of Recent Studies on the Rainfall Regime and Its Interannual Variability |journal=International Scholarly Research Notices |language=en |volume=2013 |pages=e453521 |doi=10.1155/2013/453521|doi-access=free }}</ref> So, droughts are the rule in the Sahel region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Desertification/desertification2.php|title=Defining Desertification : Feature Articles|last=Riebeek|first=Holli|date=2007-01-03|website=earthobservatory.nasa.gov|access-date=2016-11-30|archive-date=2016-12-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201211259/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Desertification/desertification2.php|url-status=live}}</ref> The Sahel has lost approximately 650,000 km<sup>2</sup> of its productive agricultural land over the past 50 years;<ref>https://www.thegeographeronline.net/uploads/2/6/6/2/26629356/a116_sahel.pdf</ref> the propagation of desertification in this area is considerable.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nicholson |first1=S. E. |last2=Tucker |first2=C. J. |last3=Ba |first3=M. B. |title=Desertification, Drought, and Surface Vegetation: An Example from the West African Sahel |journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society |date=1 May 1998 |volume=79 |issue=5 |pages=815–830 |doi=10.1175/1520-0477(1998)079<0815:DDASVA>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=1998BAMS...79..815N |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Land Resource Stresses and Desertification in Africa|url=https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/use/?cid=nrcs142p2_054025|access-date=24 November 2020|website=United States Department of Agriculture|archive-date=1 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401055308/https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/use/?cid=nrcs142p2_054025|url-status=dead}}</ref>',
30 => '[[File:Village Telly in Mali.jpg|thumb|[[Sahel]] region of Mali]]',
31 => 'The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variations over the last few hundred thousand years,<ref name="Lakes">{{Cite journal | title=Ancient Lakes of the Sahara | journal=American Scientist | volume=94 | year=2006 | pages= 58–65 |author1=Kevin White |author2=David J. Mattingly | issue=1 | doi=10.1511/2006.57.983}}</ref> oscillating between wet (grassland) and dry (desert) every 20,000 years<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.mit.edu/2019/study-regulating-north-african-climate-0102 |title=A "pacemaker" for North African climate |author=Jennifer Chu |date=January 2, 2019 |publisher=MIT News |access-date=January 20, 2020 |archive-date=January 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115093627/https://news.mit.edu/2019/study-regulating-north-african-climate-0102 |url-status=live }}</ref> (a phenomenon believed to be caused by long-term changes in the [[North African climate cycle]] that alters the path of the [[North African Monsoon]], caused by an approximately 40000-year cycle in which the [[axial tilt]] of the earth changes between 22° and 24.5°).<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|last1=Houérou|first1=Henry N.|title=Bioclimatology and Biogeography of Africa|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-85192-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rvs7NkfeLEC&q=Sahara+rainfall+virtually+zero&pg=PA16|language=en|date=2008-12-10|access-date=2020-12-11|archive-date=2023-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730160547/https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rvs7NkfeLEC&q=Sahara+rainfall+virtually+zero&pg=PA16|url-status=live}}</ref> Some statistics have shown that, since 1900, the Sahara has expanded by 250 km to the south over a stretch of land from west to east 6,000 km long.<ref>{{cite web|author=Christian Bouquet|title=Le Sahara entre ses deux rives. Éléments de délimitation par la géohistoire d'un espace de contraintes|website=Géoconfluences|date=December 2017|url=http://geoconfluences.ens-lyon.fr/informations-scientifiques/dossiers-regionaux/afrique-dynamiques-regionales/articles-scientifiques/sahara-entre-deux-rives|quote=Mais il aurait progressé de 250 km vers le sud depuis 1900 (Mainguet, 2003), et dépasserait donc 9 millions de km² soit 30 % de la superficie totale du continent africain.|access-date=2018-01-25|archive-date=2022-02-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210001607/http://geoconfluences.ens-lyon.fr/informations-scientifiques/dossiers-regionaux/afrique-dynamiques-regionales/articles-scientifiques/sahara-entre-deux-rives|url-status=live}}</ref> ',
32 => '',
33 => '[[Lake Chad]], located in the Sahel region, has undergone desiccation due to water withdrawal for irrigation and decrease in rainfall.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Okpara |first1=Uche T. |last2=Stringer |first2=Lindsay C. |last3=Dougill |first3=Andrew J. |title=Lake drying and livelihood dynamics in Lake Chad: Unravelling the mechanisms, contexts and responses |journal=Ambio |date=November 2016 |volume=45 |issue=7 |pages=781–795 |doi=10.1007/s13280-016-0805-6 |pmid=27371137 |pmc=5055484 |bibcode=2016Ambio..45..781O }}</ref> The lake has shrunk by over 90% since 1987, displacing millions of inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jiang |first=Ingrid |date=2022-08-12 |title=A Remarkable Size Shrinking in Lake Chad |url=https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/e63a90f8552d4e5f98f4c56a56c06f9d |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=ArcGIS StoryMaps |language=en-ca}}</ref> Recent efforts have managed to make some progress toward its restoration, but it is still considered to be at risk of disappearing entirely.<ref name="Remote sensing appraisal of Lake Ch">{{cite journal |last1=Onamuti |first1=Olapeju Y. |last2=Okogbue |first2=Emmanuel C. |last3=Orimoloye |first3=Israel R. |date=8 November 2017 |title=Remote sensing appraisal of Lake Chad shrinkage connotes severe impacts on green economics and socio-economics of the catchment area |journal=Royal Society Open Science |volume=4 |issue=11 |pages=171120 |doi=10.1098/rsos.171120 |pmc=5717671 |pmid=29291097}}</ref>',
34 => '',
35 => 'To limit desertification the [[Great Green Wall (Africa)]] initiative was started in 2007 involving the planting of vegetation along a stretch of 7,775 kms, 15 kms wide, involving 22 countries to 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Great Green Wall Initiative |url=https://www.unccd.int/our-work/ggwi |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=UNCCD |language=en}}</ref> The purpose of this mammoth planting initiative is to enhance retention of water in the ground following the seasonal rainfall, thus promoting land rehabilitation and future agriculture. Senegal has already contributed to the project by planting 50,000 acres of trees. It is said to have improved land quality and caused an increase in economic opportunity in the region.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/great-green-wall/ | title=The Great Green Wall | National Geographic Society | access-date=2022-12-22 | archive-date=2022-12-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222164123/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/great-green-wall/ | url-status=live }}</ref>',
36 => '',
37 => '===Gobi Desert and Mongolia===',
38 => '{{See also|Environmental issues in Mongolia#Desertification}}',
39 => 'Another major area that is being impacted by desertification is the [[Gobi Desert]] located in Northern China and Southern Mongolia. The Gobi Desert is the fastest expanding desert on Earth, as it transforms over {{convert|3600|km2|sqmi|abbr=off}} of grassland into wasteland annually.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rechtschaffen |first=Daniel |title=How China's Growing Deserts Are Choking The Country |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/danielrechtschaffen/2017/09/18/how-chinas-growing-deserts-are-choking-the-country/ |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=2022-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216110308/https://www.forbes.com/sites/danielrechtschaffen/2017/09/18/how-chinas-growing-deserts-are-choking-the-country/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Although the Gobi Desert itself is still a distance away from [[Beijing]], reports from field studies state there are large sand dunes forming only 70 km (43.5 mi) outside the city.<ref>{{cite report|last=Welker|first=Lauren|url=http://www.geo.utexas.edu/courses/371c/project/2009/Welker_Desertification.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140124101958/http://www.geo.utexas.edu/courses/371c/project/2009/Welker_Desertification.pdf |archive-date=2014-01-24 |url-status=live |title=The Desertification of the Gobi Desert and Its Effect on Beijing |date=2009 |type=Unpublished manuscript |publisher=University of Texas-Austin School of Geosciences}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-03-25 |title=Gobi Desert: A Complete Guide to East Asia's Largest Desert |url=https://www.youngpioneertours.com/gobi-desert-guide/ |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=Young Pioneer Tours |language=en |archive-date=2023-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730160548/https://www.youngpioneertours.com/gobi-desert-guide/ |url-status=live }}</ref>',
40 => '',
41 => 'In [[Mongolia]], around 90% of grassland is considered [[vulnerability|vulnerable]] to desertification by the UN. An estimated 13% of desertification in Mongolia is caused by natural factors; the rest is due to human influence particularly overgrazing and increased erosion of soils in cultivated areas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Is Desertification and How Does It Impact Mongolia? |url=https://breathemongolia.org/en/news-article/desertification-impact-mongolia/ |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=Breathe Mongolia – English |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401180828/https://breathemongolia.org/en/news-article/desertification-impact-mongolia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Jie |last2=Dai |first2=Han |last3=Gu |first3=Zhaolin |date=2021-12-01 |title=Sandstorms and desertification in Mongolia, an example of future climate events: a review |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01285-w |journal=Environmental Chemistry Letters |language=en |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=4063–4073 |doi=10.1007/s10311-021-01285-w |issn=1610-3661 |pmc=8302971 |pmid=34335128 |bibcode=2021EnvCL..19.4063H |access-date=2022-04-03 |archive-date=2023-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730160551/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10311-021-01285-w |url-status=live }}</ref> During the period 1940 to 2015, the mean air temperature increased by 2.24 °C.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Jie |last2=Dai |first2=Han |last3=Gu |first3=Zhaolin |date=2021-12-01 |title=Sandstorms and desertification in Mongolia, an example of future climate events: a review |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01285-w |journal=Environmental Chemistry Letters |language=en |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=4063–4073 |doi=10.1007/s10311-021-01285-w |issn=1610-3661 |pmc=8302971 |pmid=34335128|bibcode=2021EnvCL..19.4063H }}</ref> The warmest ten-year period was during the latest decade to 2021. Precipitation has decreased by 7% over this period resulting in increased arid conditions throughout Mongolia. The Gobi desert continues to expand northward, with over 70% of Mongolia’s land degraded through overgrazing, deforestation, and climate change.<ref>https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/31145/making-grasslands-sustainable-mongolia.pdf</ref> In addition, the Mongolia government has listed [[Wildfire|forest fires]], [[blight]]s, unsustainable [[forestry]] and [[mining]] activities as leading causes of desertification in the country.<ref>https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/8918/-Report%20on%20the%20state%20of%20the%20environment%20of%20Mongolia%20(2008-2010)-2011Report-State-of-environment-Mongolia.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y#:~:text=The%20Report%20of%20State%20of,damaged%20by%20mining%20activities%20are</ref> The transition from [[sheep]] to [[goat]] farming in order to meet export demands for [[cashmere wool]] has caused degradation of grazing lands. Compared to sheep, goats do more damage to grazing lands by eating roots and flowers.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Dorj|first1=O.|title=Mongolia: Country Features, the Main Causes of Desertification and Remediation Efforts|date=2013|work=Combating Desertification in Asia, Africa and the Middle East|pages=217–229|editor-last=Heshmati|editor-first=G. Ali|place=Dordrecht|publisher=Springer Netherlands|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6652-5_11|isbn=978-94-007-6651-8|last2=Enkhbold|first2=M.|last3=Lkhamyanjin|first3=S.|last4=Mijiddorj|first4=Kh.|last5=Nosmoo|first5=A.|last6=Puntsagnamil|first6=M.|last7=Sainjargal|first7=U.|editor2-last=Squires|editor2-first=Victor R.}}</ref>',
42 => '',
43 => '{{excerpt|Gobi Desert#Desertification}}',
44 => '',
45 => '===South America===',
46 => '[[South America]] is another area vulnerable by desertification, as 25% of the land is classified as drylands<ref>{{Cite web |title=Soil Degradation Threatens Nutrition in Latin America - World |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/world/soil-degradation-threatens-nutrition-latin-america |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=ReliefWeb |date=16 June 2016 |language=en |archive-date=2022-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403121753/https://reliefweb.int/report/world/soil-degradation-threatens-nutrition-latin-america |url-status=live }}</ref> and over 68% of the land area has undergone soil erosion as a result of deforestation and overgrazing.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2018-06-15 |title=Why We Should Invest in Land Management in Latin America |url=https://www.nrdc.org/bio/carolina-herrera/why-we-should-invest-land-management-latin-america |access-date=2023-09-25 |website=www.nrdc.org |language=en}}</ref> 27 to 43% of the land areas in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru are at risk due to desertification. In Argentina, Mexico and Paraguay greater than half the land area is degraded by desertification and cannot be used for agriculture. In Central America drought has caused increased unemployment and decreased food security - also causing migration of people. Similar impacts have been seen in rural parts of Mexico where about 1000 square kms of land have been lost yearly due to desertification.<ref name=":0" /> In [[Argentina]] desertification has the potential to disrupt the nation's food supply.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Torres |first1=Laura |last2=Abraham |first2=Elena M. |last3=Rubio |first3=Clara |last4=Barbero-Sierra |first4=Celia |last5=Ruiz-Pérez |first5=Manuel |title=Desertification Research in Argentina |journal=Land Degradation & Development |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=433–440 |doi=10.1002/ldr.2392 |date=7 July 2015|bibcode=2015LDeDe..26..433T |hdl=11336/48401 |s2cid=129476957 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>'
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88 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015LDeDe..26..433T'
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Process by nigga
5 </div><p></ref>
</p><div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Causes"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Causes</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Immediate_causes"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Immediate causes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Influence_of_human_activities"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Influence of human activities</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Natural_variations"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Natural variations</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Effects"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Effects</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Sand_and_dust_storms"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sand and dust storms</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Food_insecurity"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Food insecurity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Vegetation_patterning"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Vegetation patterning</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Increasing_poverty"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Increasing poverty</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Countermeasures"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Countermeasures</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Reforestation"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Reforestation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Soil_restoration"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Soil restoration</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Desert_reclamation"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Desert reclamation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Managed_grazing"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Managed grazing</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Causes">Causes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deforestation#Causes" title="Deforestation">Deforestation § Causes</a></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:299px;max-width:299px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Preventing man-made overgrazing</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:197px;max-width:197px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Cabrasnortechico.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Cabrasnortechico.JPG/195px-Cabrasnortechico.JPG" decoding="async" width="195" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Cabrasnortechico.JPG/293px-Cabrasnortechico.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Cabrasnortechico.JPG/390px-Cabrasnortechico.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Goats inside of a pen in Norte Chico, Chile. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a> of drylands by poorly managed traditional herding is one of the primary causes of desertification.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:297px;max-width:297px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Wildebeest-during-Great-Migration.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Wildebeest-during-Great-Migration.JPG/295px-Wildebeest-during-Great-Migration.JPG" decoding="async" width="295" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Wildebeest-during-Great-Migration.JPG/443px-Wildebeest-during-Great-Migration.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Wildebeest-during-Great-Migration.JPG/590px-Wildebeest-during-Great-Migration.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4532" data-file-height="2282" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wildebeest" title="Wildebeest">Wildebeest</a> in Masai Mara during the Great Migration. Overgrazing is not necessarily caused by nomadic <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">grazers</a> in large travelling <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herd" title="Herd">herd</a> populations.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Duke_University_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duke_University-2">[2]</a></sup></div></div></div></div></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Immediate_causes">Immediate causes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Immediate causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The immediate cause of desertification is the loss of most vegetation. This is driven by a number of factors, alone or in combination, such as drought, climatic shifts, tillage for agriculture, overgrazing and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">deforestation</a> for fuel or construction materials. Though vegetation plays a major role in determining the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soil_biology" title="Soil biology">biological composition of the soil</a>, studies have shown that, in many environments, the rate of erosion and runoff decreases exponentially with increased vegetation cover.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> Unprotected, dry soil surfaces blow away with the wind or are washed away by flash floods, leaving infertile lower soil layers that bake in the sun and become an unproductive hardpan.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Influence_of_human_activities">Influence of human activities</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Influence of human activities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Early studies argued one of the most common causes of desertification was overgrazing, over consumption of vegetation by cattle or other livestock.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> However, the role of local overexploitation in driving desertification in the recent past is controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-5">[5]</a></sup> Drought in the Sahel region is now thought to be principally the result of seasonal variability in rainfall caused by large-scale <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a> variations, largely driven by natural variability and anthropogenic emissions of aerosols (reflective <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">sulphate particles</a>) and greenhouse gases.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6">[6]</a></sup> As a result, changing ocean temperature and reductions in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfate</a> emissions have caused a re-greening of the region.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6">[6]</a></sup> This has led some scholars to argue that agriculture-induced vegetation loss is a minor factor in desertification.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-5">[5]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Morroco-arid-climate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Morroco-arid-climate.jpg/220px-Morroco-arid-climate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Morroco-arid-climate.jpg/330px-Morroco-arid-climate.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Morroco-arid-climate.jpg/440px-Morroco-arid-climate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1108" /></a><figcaption>A shepherd guiding his sheep through the high desert outside <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marrakech" class="mw-redirect" title="Marrakech">Marrakech</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Human population dynamics have a considerable impact on overgrazing, over-farming and deforestation, as previously acceptable techniques have become unsustainable.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p><p>There are multiple reasons farmers use <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">intensive farming</a> as opposed to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extensive_farming" title="Extensive farming">extensive farming</a> but the main reason is to maximize yields.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8">[8]</a></sup> By increasing productivity, they require a lot more fertilizer, pesticides, and labor to upkeep machinery. This continuous use of the land rapidly depletes the nutrients of the soil causing desertification to spread.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Natural_variations">Natural variations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Natural variations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Scientists agree that the existence of a desert in the place where the Sahara desert is now located is due to natural variations in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">solar insolation</a> due to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Axial_precession" title="Axial precession">orbital precession</a> of the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> Such variations influence the strength of the West African Monsoon, inducing feedback in vegetation and dust emission that amplify the cycle of wet and dry Sahara climate.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> There is also a suggestion the transition of the Sahara from savanna to desert during the mid-<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> was partially due to overgrazing by the cattle of the local population.<sup id="cite_ref-Humans_as_Agents_in_the_Termination_of_the_African_Humid_Period_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humans_as_Agents_in_the_Termination_of_the_African_Humid_Period-13">[13]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Effects">Effects</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sand_and_dust_storms">Sand and dust storms</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sand and dust storms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:SHB-Red-Dust.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/SHB-Red-Dust.jpg/220px-SHB-Red-Dust.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/SHB-Red-Dust.jpg/330px-SHB-Red-Dust.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/SHB-Red-Dust.jpg/440px-SHB-Red-Dust.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>View of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sydney_Harbour_Bridge" title="Sydney Harbour Bridge">Sydney Harbour Bridge</a> covered in dust</figcaption></figure>
<p>There has been a 25% increase in global annual dust emissions between the late nineteenth century to present day.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> The increase of desertification has also increased the amount of loose sand and dust that the wind can pick up ultimately resulting in a storm. For example, dust storms in the Middle East “are becoming more frequent and intense in recent years” because “long-term reductions in rainfall [cause] lower <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soil_moisture" title="Soil moisture">soil moisture</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vegetative_cover" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegetative cover">vegetative cover</a>”.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dust_storms" class="mw-redirect" title="Dust storms">Dust storms</a> can contribute to certain respiratory disorders such as pneumonia, skin irritations, asthma and many more.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> They can pollute open water, reduce the effectiveness of clean energy efforts, and halt most forms of transportation.
</p><p>Dust and sand storms can have a negative effect on the climate which can make desertification worse.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> Dust particles in the air scatter incoming radiation from the sun (Hassan, 2012). The dust can provide momentary coverage for the ground temperature but the atmospheric temperature will increase. This can disform and shorten the life time of clouds which can result in less rainfall.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8">[8]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Food_insecurity">Food insecurity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Food insecurity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Global <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a> is being threatened by desertification. The more that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population grows</a>, the more food that has to be grown. The agricultural business is being displaced from one country to another. For example, Europe on average imports over 50% of its food. Meanwhile, 44% of agricultural land is located in dry lands and it supplies 60% of the world's food production. Desertification is decreasing the amount of sustainable land for agricultural uses but demands are continuously growing. In the near future, the demands will overcome the supply.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> The violent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herder%E2%80%93farmer_conflicts_in_Nigeria" title="Herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria">herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sudanese_nomadic_conflicts" title="Sudanese nomadic conflicts">Sudan</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/March_2019_attacks_against_Fulani_herders" class="mw-redirect" title="March 2019 attacks against Fulani herders">Mali</a> and other countries in the Sahel region have been exacerbated by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">land degradation</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Vegetation_patterning">Vegetation patterning</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vegetation patterning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>As the desertification takes place, the landscape may progress through different stages and continuously transform in appearance. On gradually sloped terrain, desertification can create increasingly larger empty spaces over a large strip of land, a phenomenon known as "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tiger_bush" title="Tiger bush">brousse tigrée</a>". A mathematical model of this phenomenon proposed by C. Klausmeier attributes this patterning to dynamics in plant-water interaction.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> One outcome of this observation suggests an optimal planting strategy for agriculture in arid environments.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Increasing_poverty">Increasing poverty</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Increasing poverty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Soil_erosion,_Southfield_-_geograph.org.uk_-_367917.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Soil_erosion%2C_Southfield_-_geograph.org.uk_-_367917.jpg/220px-Soil_erosion%2C_Southfield_-_geograph.org.uk_-_367917.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Soil_erosion%2C_Southfield_-_geograph.org.uk_-_367917.jpg/330px-Soil_erosion%2C_Southfield_-_geograph.org.uk_-_367917.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Soil_erosion%2C_Southfield_-_geograph.org.uk_-_367917.jpg/440px-Soil_erosion%2C_Southfield_-_geograph.org.uk_-_367917.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soil_erosion#Wind_erosion" title="Soil erosion">Wind erosion</a> outside <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leuchars" title="Leuchars">Leuchars</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>At least 90% of the inhabitants of drylands live in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a>, where they also suffer from poor economic and social conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> This situation is exacerbated by land degradation because of the reduction in productivity, the precariousness of living conditions and the difficulty of access to resources and opportunities.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p>Many underdeveloped countries are affected by overgrazing, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_exhaustion" class="mw-redirect" title="Land exhaustion">land exhaustion</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">overdrafting</a> of groundwater due to pressures to exploit marginal drylands for farming. Decision-makers are understandably averse to invest in arid zones with low potential. This absence of investment contributes to the marginalization of these zones. When unfavorable agri-climatic conditions are combined with an absence of infrastructure and access to markets, as well as poorly adapted production techniques and an underfed and undereducated population, most such zones are excluded from development.<sup id="cite_ref-csf-desertification.org_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-csf-desertification.org-27">[27]</a></sup>
</p><p>Desertification often causes rural lands to become unable to support the same sized populations that previously lived there. This results in mass <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">migrations</a> out of rural areas and into urban areas particularly in Africa creating unemployment and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slum" title="Slum">slums</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> The number of these <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_migrant" title="Environmental migrant">environmental refugees</a> grows every year, with projections for sub-Saharan Africa showing a probable increase from 14 million in 2010 to nearly 200 million by 2050. This presents a future crisis for the region, as neighboring nations do not always have the ability to support large populations of refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup>
</p><p>In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> the land is 90% fragile dry land, which causes many herders to migrate to the city for work. With very limited resources the herders that stay on the dry land graze very carefully in order to preserve the land. With the increasing population of Mongolia it is very difficult to stay a herder for long.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>Agriculture is a main source of income for many desert communities. The increase in desertification in these regions has degraded the land to such an extent where people can no longer productively farm and make a profit. This has negatively impacted the economy and increased poverty rates.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>There is, however, increased global advocacy e.g. the UN <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_15" title="Sustainable Development Goal 15">SDG 15</a><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> to combat desertification and restore affected lands.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Countermeasures">Countermeasures<span class="anchor" id="Countermeasures_and_prevention"></span></span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Countermeasures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deforestation#Control" title="Deforestation">Deforestation § Control</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:North_Sahara._Anti-sand_shields.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/North_Sahara._Anti-sand_shields.jpg/220px-North_Sahara._Anti-sand_shields.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/North_Sahara._Anti-sand_shields.jpg/330px-North_Sahara._Anti-sand_shields.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/North_Sahara._Anti-sand_shields.jpg/440px-North_Sahara._Anti-sand_shields.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2709" data-file-height="1916" /></a><figcaption>Anti-sand shields in north <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:GreeningdesertTharIndia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/GreeningdesertTharIndia.jpg/220px-GreeningdesertTharIndia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/GreeningdesertTharIndia.jpg/330px-GreeningdesertTharIndia.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/GreeningdesertTharIndia.jpg/440px-GreeningdesertTharIndia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="873" data-file-height="617" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jojoba" title="Jojoba">Jojoba</a> plantations, such as those shown, have played a role in combating edge effects of desertification in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thar_Desert" title="Thar Desert">Thar Desert</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Saxaul_planted_along_roads_in_Xinjiang_near_Cherchen_to_slow_desertification.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Saxaul_planted_along_roads_in_Xinjiang_near_Cherchen_to_slow_desertification.jpg/220px-Saxaul_planted_along_roads_in_Xinjiang_near_Cherchen_to_slow_desertification.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Saxaul_planted_along_roads_in_Xinjiang_near_Cherchen_to_slow_desertification.jpg/330px-Saxaul_planted_along_roads_in_Xinjiang_near_Cherchen_to_slow_desertification.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Saxaul_planted_along_roads_in_Xinjiang_near_Cherchen_to_slow_desertification.jpg/440px-Saxaul_planted_along_roads_in_Xinjiang_near_Cherchen_to_slow_desertification.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="753" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saxaul" class="mw-redirect" title="Saxaul">Saxaul</a> planted along roads in Xinjiang near <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cherchen" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherchen">Cherchen</a> to slow desertification</figcaption></figure>
<p>Techniques and countermeasures exist for mitigating or reversing the effects of desertification, and some possess varying levels of difficulty. For some, there are numerous barriers to their implementation. Yet for others, the solution simply requires the exercise of human reason.
</p><p>One proposed barrier is that the costs of adopting <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">sustainable agricultural practices</a> sometimes exceed the benefits for individual farmers, even while they are socially and environmentally beneficial.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> Another issue is a lack of political will, and lack of funding to support <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">land reclamation</a> and anti-desertification programs.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p><p>Desertification is recognized as a major threat to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. Some countries have developed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biodiversity_action_plan" title="Biodiversity action plan">biodiversity action plans</a> to counter its effects, particularly in relation to the protection of endangered <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Reforestation">Reforestation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Reforestation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a></div>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> gets at one of the root causes of desertification and is not just a treatment of the symptoms. Environmental organizations work in places where deforestation and desertification are contributing to extreme <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>. There they focus primarily on educating the local population about the dangers of deforestation and sometimes employ them to grow seedlings, which they transfer to severely deforested areas during the rainy season.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization_of_the_United_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations</a> launched the FAO Drylands Restoration Initiative in 2012 to draw together knowledge and experience on dryland restoration.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> In 2015, FAO published global guidelines for the restoration of degraded forests and landscapes in drylands, in collaboration with the Turkish Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs and the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup>
</p><p>The "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_Wall_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Wall of China">Green Wall of China</a>" is a high-profile example of one method that has been finding success in this battle with desertification.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> This wall is a much larger-scale version of what American farmers did in the 1930s to stop the great Midwest dust bowl. This plan was proposed in the late 1970s, and has become a major ecological engineering project that is not predicted to end until the year 2055. According to Chinese reports, there have been nearly 66 billion trees planted in China's great green wall.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> The green wall of China has decreased desert land in China by an annual average of 1,980 square km.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> The frequency of sandstorms nationwide have fallen 20% due to the green wall.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> Due to the success that China has been finding in stopping the spread of desertification, plans are currently being made in Africa to start a "wall" along the borders of the Sahara desert as well to be financed by the United Nations Global Environment Facility trust.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Great_green_wall_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Great_green_wall_map.svg/220px-Great_green_wall_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Great_green_wall_map.svg/330px-Great_green_wall_map.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Great_green_wall_map.svg/440px-Great_green_wall_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="313" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(Africa)" title="Great Green Wall (Africa)">Great Green Wall</a>, participating countries and Sahel. In September 2020, it was reported that the GGW had covered only 4% of the planned area.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>In 2007 the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a> started the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(Africa)" title="Great Green Wall (Africa)">Great Green Wall of Africa</a> project in order to combat desertification in 20 countries.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> The wall is 8,000 km wide, stretching across the entire width of the continent and has 8 billion dollars in support of the project. The project has restored 36<span class="nowrap"> </span>million<span class="nowrap"> </span>hectares of land, and by 2030 the initiative plans to restore a total of 100<span class="nowrap"> </span>million<span class="nowrap"> </span>hectares.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> The Great Green Wall has created many job opportunities for the participating countries, with over 20,000 jobs created in Nigeria alone.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Soil_restoration">Soil restoration</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Soil restoration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Techniques focus on two aspects: provisioning of water, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">fixation</a> and hyper-fertilizing soil. Fixating the soil is often done through the use of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Windbreak" title="Windbreak">shelter belts</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Woodlot" title="Woodlot">woodlots</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Windbreak" title="Windbreak">windbreaks</a>. Windbreaks are made from trees and bushes and are used to reduce <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evapotranspiration" title="Evapotranspiration">evapotranspiration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> They were widely encouraged by development agencies from the middle of the 1980s in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> area of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>.
</p><p>Some soils (for example, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a>), due to lack of water can become <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Consolidation_(soil)" class="mw-redirect" title="Consolidation (soil)">consolidated</a> rather than porous (as in the case of sandy soils). Some techniques as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Za%C3%AF" title="Zaï">zaï</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tillage" title="Tillage">tillage</a> are then used to still allow the planting of crops.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup>
</p><p>Another technique that is useful is <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Contour_trenching" title="Contour trenching">contour trenching</a>. This involves the digging of 150 m long, 1 m deep trenches in the soil. The trenches are made parallel to the height lines of the landscape, preventing the water from flowing within the trenches and causing erosion. Stone walls are placed around the trenches to prevent the trenches from closing up again. This method was invented by Peter Westerveld.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup>
</p><p>Enriching of the soil and restoration of its fertility is often achieved by plants. Of these, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">leguminous plants</a> which extract <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> from the air and fix it in the soil, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Succulents" class="mw-redirect" title="Succulents">succulents</a> (such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Opuntia" title="Opuntia">Opuntia</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> and food crops/trees as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grain" title="Grain">grains</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beans" class="mw-redirect" title="Beans">beans</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phoenix_dactylifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenix dactylifera">dates</a> are the most important. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sand_fence" title="Sand fence">Sand fences</a> can also be used to control drifting of soil and sand erosion.
</p><p>Another way to restore soil fertility is through the use of nitrogen-rich fertilizer. Due to the higher cost of this fertilizer, many <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Smallholding" title="Smallholding">smallholder</a> farmers are reluctant to use it, especially in areas where <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture" title="Subsistence agriculture">subsistence farming</a> is common.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> Several nations, including India, Zambia, and Malawi have responded to this by implementing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Subsidization" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsidization">subsidies</a> to help encourage adoption of this technique.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some research centres (such as Bel-Air Research Center IRD/ISRA/UCAD) are also experimenting with the inoculation of tree species with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">mycorrhiza</a> in arid zones. The mycorrhiza are basically fungi attaching themselves to the roots of the plants. They hereby create a symbiotic relation with the trees, increasing the surface area of the tree's roots greatly (allowing the tree to gather much more nutrient from the soil).<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">bioengineering</a> of soil microbes, particularly photosynthesizers, has also been suggested and theoretically modeled as a method to protect drylands. The aim would be to enhance the existing cooperative loops between soil microbes and vegetation.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Desert_reclamation">Desert reclamation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Desert reclamation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>As there are many different types of deserts, there are also different types of desert reclamation <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Methodologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodologies">methodologies</a>. An example for this is the salt flats in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rub%27_al_Khali" title="Rub' al Khali">Rub' al Khali</a> desert in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>. These salt flats are one of the most promising desert areas for seawater agriculture and could be revitalized without the use of freshwater or much energy.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Farmer-managed_natural_regeneration" title="Farmer-managed natural regeneration">Farmer-managed natural regeneration</a> (FMNR) is another technique that has produced successful results for desert reclamation. Since 1980, this method to reforest degraded landscape has been applied with some success in Niger. This simple and low-cost method has enabled farmers to regenerate some 30,000 square kilometers in Niger. The process involves enabling native sprouting tree growth through selective pruning of shrub shoots. The residue from pruned trees can be used to provide mulching for fields thus increasing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soil_water_(retention)" title="Soil water (retention)">soil water retention</a> and reducing evaporation. Additionally, properly spaced and pruned trees can increase crop yields. The Humbo Assisted Regeneration Project which uses FMNR techniques in Ethiopia has received money from The World Bank's BioCarbon Fund, which supports projects that sequester or conserve carbon in forests or agricultural ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Managed_grazing">Managed grazing</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Managed grazing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Restored grasslands store CO<sub>2</sub> from the atmosphere as organic plant material. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">Grazing</a> livestock, usually not left to wander, consume the grass and minimize its growth.<sup id="cite_ref-Tlovell_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tlovell-62">[62]</a></sup> A method proposed to restore grasslands uses fences with many small paddocks, moving herds from one paddock to another after a day or two in order to mimic natural grazers and allowing the grass to grow optimally.<sup id="cite_ref-Tlovell_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tlovell-62">[62]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup> Proponents of managed grazing methods estimate that increasing this method could increase carbon content of the soils in the world's 3.5 billion hectares of agricultural grassland and offset nearly 12 years of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-Tlovell_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tlovell-62">[62]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historic_desertification" title="Historic desertification">Historic desertification</a></div>
<p>The world's most noted <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deserts" class="mw-redirect" title="Deserts">deserts</a> have been formed by natural processes interacting over long intervals of time. During most of these times, deserts have grown and shrunk independently of human activities. Paleodeserts are large <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sand_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand sea">sand seas</a> now inactive because they are stabilized by vegetation, some extending beyond the present margins of core deserts, such as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>, the largest hot desert.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup>
</p><p>Historical evidence shows that the serious and extensive land deterioration occurring several centuries ago in arid regions had three centers: the Mediterranean, the Mesopotamian Valley, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Loess_Plateau" title="Loess Plateau">Loess Plateau</a> of China, where population was dense.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>The earliest known discussion of the topic arose soon after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="French colonization">French colonization</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, when the Comité d'Etudes commissioned a study on <i>desséchement progressif</i> to explore the prehistoric expansion of the Sahara Desert.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup> The modern study of desertification emerged from the study of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sahel_drought" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahel drought">1980s drought</a> in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aridification" title="Aridification">Aridification</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Desert_greening" title="Desert greening">Desert greening</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Detention_basin" title="Detention basin">Detention basin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oasification" title="Oasification">Oasification</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soil_retrogression_and_degradation" title="Soil retrogression and degradation">Soil retrogression and degradation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_Day_to_Combat_Desertification_and_Drought" title="World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought">World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought</a></li></ul>
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<b>Other related portals:</b>
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typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg/21px-Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg/32px-Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg/42px-Change_in_Average_Temperature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="816" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Global warming">Global warming</a></li></ul></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFLaduke1999" class="citation book cs1">Laduke, Winona (1999). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/allourrelationsn00ladu"><i>All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life</i></a></span>. Cambridge, MA: South End Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/allourrelationsn00ladu/page/146">146</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0896085992" title="Special:BookSources/978-0896085992"><bdi>978-0896085992</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All+Our+Relations%3A+Native+Struggles+for+Land+and+Life&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=South+End+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0896085992&rft.aulast=Laduke&rft.aufirst=Winona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fallourrelationsn00ladu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Duke_University-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Duke_University_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDuval" class="citation web cs1">Duval, Clay. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120308011257/http://twp.duke.edu/uploads/assets/Duval.pdf">"Bison Conservation: Saving an Ecologically and Culturally Keystone Species"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Duke University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://twp.duke.edu/uploads/assets/Duval.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on March 8, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 13,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bison+Conservation%3A+Saving+an+Ecologically+and+Culturally+Keystone+Species&rft.pub=Duke+University&rft.aulast=Duval&rft.aufirst=Clay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftwp.duke.edu%2Fuploads%2Fassets%2FDuval.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGeeson,_Nichola2002" class="citation book cs1">Geeson, Nichola; et al. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G_0qg0f49GQC&pg=PA58"><i>Mediterranean desertification: a mosaic of processes and responses</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 58. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-84448-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-84448-9"><bdi>978-0-470-84448-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230730161049/https://books.google.com/books?id=G_0qg0f49GQC&pg=PA58">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-05-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mediterranean+desertification%3A+a+mosaic+of+processes+and+responses&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-470-84448-9&rft.au=Geeson%2C+Nichola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG_0qg0f49GQC%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCharney1975" class="citation journal cs1">Charney, J. G. (April 1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49710142802">"Dynamics of deserts and drought in the Sahel"</a>. <i>Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society</i>. <b>101</b> (428): 193–202. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975QJRMS.101..193C">1975QJRMS.101..193C</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fqj.49710142802">10.1002/qj.49710142802</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230730161050/https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qj.49710142802">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+the+Royal+Meteorological+Society&rft.atitle=Dynamics+of+deserts+and+drought+in+the+Sahel&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=428&rft.pages=193-202&rft.date=1975-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fqj.49710142802&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1975QJRMS.101..193C&rft.aulast=Charney&rft.aufirst=J.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2Fqj.49710142802&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:6-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBehnkeMortimore2016" class="citation journal cs1">Behnke, Roy; Mortimore, Michael, eds. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-16014-1">"The End of Desertification?"</a>. <i>Springer Earth System Sciences</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-16014-1">10.1007/978-3-642-16014-1</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-16013-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-16013-4"><bdi>978-3-642-16013-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2197-9596">2197-9596</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:132424053">132424053</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Springer+Earth+System+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+End+of+Desertification%3F&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-16014-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A132424053%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2197-9596&rft.isbn=978-3-642-16013-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-16014-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:3-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBiasutti2019" class="citation journal cs1">Biasutti, Michela (July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6617823">"Rainfall trends in the African Sahel: Characteristics, processes, and causes"</a>. <i>WIREs Climate Change</i>. <b>10</b> (4): e591. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019WIRCC..10E.591B">2019WIRCC..10E.591B</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fwcc.591">10.1002/wcc.591</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1757-7780">1757-7780</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6617823">6617823</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31341517">31341517</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WIREs+Climate+Change&rft.atitle=Rainfall+trends+in+the+African+Sahel%3A+Characteristics%2C+processes%2C+and+causes&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e591&rft.date=2019-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6617823%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019WIRCC..10E.591B&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31341517&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fwcc.591&rft.issn=1757-7780&rft.aulast=Biasutti&rft.aufirst=Michela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6617823&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFEpulePengLepage2015" class="citation journal cs1">Epule, Terence Epule; Peng, Changhui; Lepage, Laurent (February 2015). "Environmental refugees in sub-Saharan Africa: a review of perspectives on the trends, causes, challenges and way forward". <i>GeoJournal</i>. <b>80</b> (1): 79–92. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10708-014-9528-z">10.1007/s10708-014-9528-z</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0343-2521">0343-2521</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154503204">154503204</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GeoJournal&rft.atitle=Environmental+refugees+in+sub-Saharan+Africa%3A+a+review+of+perspectives+on+the+trends%2C+causes%2C+challenges+and+way+forward&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=79-92&rft.date=2015-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154503204%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0343-2521&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10708-014-9528-z&rft.aulast=Epule&rft.aufirst=Terence+Epule&rft.au=Peng%2C+Changhui&rft.au=Lepage%2C+Laurent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:2-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-desertification-and-the-role-of-climate-change">"Explainer: Desertification and the role of climate change"</a>. <i>Carbon Brief</i>. 2019-08-06. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220210001559/https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-desertification-and-the-role-of-climate-change">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-10-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Carbon+Brief&rft.atitle=Explainer%3A+Desertification+and+the+role+of+climate+change&rft.date=2019-08-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.carbonbrief.org%2Fexplainer-desertification-and-the-role-of-climate-change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREF(www.dw.com)" class="citation web cs1">(www.dw.com), Deutsche Welle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dw.de/dw/article/0,,15182754,00.html">"Grid of straw squares turns Chinese sand to soil – Environment – DW.COM – 23.06.2011"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200612123117/https://www.dw.com/en/grid-of-straw-squares-turns-chinese-sand-to-soil/a-15182754">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Grid+of+straw+squares+turns+Chinese+sand+to+soil+%E2%80%93+Environment+%E2%80%93+DW.COM+%E2%80%93+23.06.2011&rft.aulast=%28www.dw.com%29&rft.aufirst=Deutsche+Welle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.de%2Fdw%2Farticle%2F0%2C%2C15182754%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/en/events/desertification_decade/index.shtml">"2010–2020: UN Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification"</a>. <i>www.un.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-09-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.un.org&rft.atitle=2010%E2%80%932020%3A+UN+Decade+for+Deserts+and+the+Fight+against+Desertification&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fevents%2Fdesertification_decade%2Findex.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPasternakSchlissel2012" class="citation book cs1">Pasternak, D.; Schlissel, Arnold (2012-12-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6XfgBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38"><i>Combating Desertification with Plants</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 38. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781461513278" title="Special:BookSources/9781461513278"><bdi>9781461513278</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Combating+Desertification+with+Plants&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2012-12-06&rft.isbn=9781461513278&rft.aulast=Pasternak&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Schlissel%2C+Arnold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6XfgBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDrostLongWilsonMiller1996" class="citation journal cs1">Drost, Daniel; Long, Gilbert; Wilson, David; Miller, Bruce; Campbell, William (1 December 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170222053123/https://www.joe.org/joe/1996december/a1.php">"Barriers to Adopting Sustainable Agricultural Practices"</a>. <i>Journal of Extension</i>. <b>34</b> (6). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.joe.org/joe/1996december/a1.php">the original</a> on 22 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Extension&rft.atitle=Barriers+to+Adopting+Sustainable+Agricultural+Practices&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=6&rft.date=1996-12-01&rft.aulast=Drost&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Long%2C+Gilbert&rft.au=Wilson%2C+David&rft.au=Miller%2C+Bruce&rft.au=Campbell%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.joe.org%2Fjoe%2F1996december%2Fa1.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBriassoulis,_Helen2005" class="citation book cs1">Briassoulis, Helen (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CpYnV45hVRsC&pg=PA237"><i>Policy integration for complex environmental problems: the example of Mediterranean desertification</i></a>. Ashgate Publishing. p. 237. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4243-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4243-5"><bdi>978-0-7546-4243-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Policy+integration+for+complex+environmental+problems%3A+the+example+of+Mediterranean+desertification&rft.pages=237&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-4243-5&rft.au=Briassoulis%2C+Helen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCpYnV45hVRsC%26pg%3DPA237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Techniques for Desert Reclamation by Andrew S. Goudie</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gsafweb.org/TrusteeNews/desertdevelopmen.html">Desert reclamation projects</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090103172821/http://www.gsafweb.org/TrusteeNews/desertdevelopmen.html">Archived</a> 2009-01-03 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/desertification/">"Desertification"</a>. <i>USGS</i>. 1997. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100802200740/http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/desertification/">Archived</a> from the original on 2010-08-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-06-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USGS&rft.atitle=Desertification&rft.date=1997&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.usgs.gov%2Fgip%2Fdeserts%2Fdesertification%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/forestry/aridzone/restoration/en/">"Drylands Restoration Initiative"</a>. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160723220152/http://www.fao.org/forestry/aridzone/restoration/en/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 July 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Drylands+Restoration+Initiative&rft.pub=Food+and+Agriculture+Organization+of+the+United+Nations&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2Fforestry%2Faridzone%2Frestoration%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5036e.pdf"><i>Global guidelines for the restoration of degraded forests and landscapes in drylands</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. June 2015. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-5-108912-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-5-108912-5"><bdi>978-92-5-108912-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160423203240/http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5036e.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2016-04-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+guidelines+for+the+restoration+of+degraded+forests+and+landscapes+in+drylands&rft.pub=Food+and+Agriculture+Organization+of+the+United+Nations&rft.date=2015-06&rft.isbn=978-92-5-108912-5&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2F3%2Fa-i5036e.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://b2b.partcommunity.com/community/knowledge/en/detail/9815/Desertification#knowledge_article">"desertification 3D environment"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210228141238/https://b2b.partcommunity.com/community/knowledge/en/detail/9815/Desertification#knowledge_article">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-02-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=desertification+3D+environment&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fb2b.partcommunity.com%2Fcommunity%2Fknowledge%2Fen%2Fdetail%2F9815%2FDesertification%23knowledge_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170813110737/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/04/china-great-green-wall-gobi-tengger-desertification/">"China's 'Great Green Wall' Fights Expanding Desert"</a>. 2017-04-21. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/04/china-great-green-wall-gobi-tengger-desertification/">the original</a> on 2017-08-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=China%27s+%27Great+Green+Wall%27+Fights+Expanding+Desert&rft.date=2017-04-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2F2017%2F04%2Fchina-great-green-wall-gobi-tengger-desertification%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHui2018" class="citation news cs1">Hui, Lu (May 26, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180526094225/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/26/c_137207841.htm">"Across China: A guardian of the great green wall against China's second largest desert"</a>. <i>Xinghua News Agency</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/26/c_137207841.htm">the original</a> on May 26, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Xinghua+News+Agency&rft.atitle=Across+China%3A+A+guardian+of+the+great+green+wall+against+China%27s+second+largest+desert&rft.date=2018-05-26&rft.aulast=Hui&rft.aufirst=Lu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.xinhuanet.com%2Fenglish%2F2018-05%2F26%2Fc_137207841.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBeiser2017" class="citation journal cs1">Beiser, Vince (September 1, 2017). "A tree grows in China: can a "Green Great Wall" stop sand from devouring the countryside?". <i>Mother Jones</i>. <b>83</b> (4).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mother+Jones&rft.atitle=A+tree+grows+in+China%3A+can+a+%22Green+Great+Wall%22+stop+sand+from+devouring+the+countryside%3F&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2017-09-01&rft.aulast=Beiser&rft.aufirst=Vince&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGadzama2017" class="citation journal cs1">Gadzama, Njidda Mamadu (2017). "Attenuation of the effects of desertification through sustainable development of Great Green Wall in the Sahel of Africa". <i>World Journal of Science, Technology and Sustainable Development</i>. <b>14</b> (4): 279–289. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2FWJSTSD-02-2016-0021">10.1108/WJSTSD-02-2016-0021</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Journal+of+Science%2C+Technology+and+Sustainable+Development&rft.atitle=Attenuation+of+the+effects+of+desertification+through+sustainable+development+of+Great+Green+Wall+in+the+Sahel+of+Africa&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=279-289&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2FWJSTSD-02-2016-0021&rft.aulast=Gadzama&rft.aufirst=Njidda+Mamadu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_Watts2020" class="citation news cs1">Jonathan Watts (7 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/07/africa-great-green-wall-just-4-complete-over-halfway-through-schedule">"Africa's Great Green Wall just 4% complete halfway through schedule"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220506222825/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/sep/07/africa-great-green-wall-just-4-complete-over-halfway-through-schedule">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 December</span> 2021</span> – via www.theguardian.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Africa%27s+Great+Green+Wall+just+4%25+complete+halfway+through+schedule&rft.date=2020-09-07&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.au=Jonathan+Watts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2020%2Fsep%2F07%2Fafrica-great-green-wall-just-4-complete-over-halfway-through-schedule&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification/overview/great-green-wall/en/">"Great Green Wall|Action Against Desertification|Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations"</a>. <i>www.fao.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220127153831/https://www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification/overview/great-green-wall/en/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.fao.org&rft.atitle=Great+Green+Wall%7CAction+Against+Desertification%7CFood+and+Agriculture+Organization+of+the+United+Nations&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2Fin-action%2Faction-against-desertification%2Foverview%2Fgreat-green-wall%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGadzama2017" class="citation journal cs1">Gadzama, Njidda (2017). "Attenuation of the Effects of Desertification through Sustainable Development of Great Green Wall in the Sahel of Africa". <i>World Journal of Science, Technology and Sustainable Development</i>. <b>14</b> (4): 279–289. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2FWJSTSD-02-2016-0021">10.1108/WJSTSD-02-2016-0021</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Journal+of+Science%2C+Technology+and+Sustainable+Development&rft.atitle=Attenuation+of+the+Effects+of+Desertification+through+Sustainable+Development+of+Great+Green+Wall+in+the+Sahel+of+Africa&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=279-289&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2FWJSTSD-02-2016-0021&rft.aulast=Gadzama&rft.aufirst=Njidda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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</li>
</ol></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usgs.gov/information-policies-and-instructions/copyrights-and-credits">public domain material</a> from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/desertification/"><i>Desertification</i></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">United States Geological Survey</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Desertification&rft.pub=United+States+Geological+Survey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.usgs.gov%2Fgip%2Fdeserts%2Fdesertification%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADesertification" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Desertification&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Desertification" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Desertification">Desertification</a></span>.</div></div>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unccd.int">Official website of the Secretariat</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_to_Combat_Desertification" title="United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification">United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification</a> (UNCCD)
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/unccd/unccd.html">Procedural history and related documents</a> on the UNCCD, from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_Audiovisual_Library_of_International_Law" title="United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law">United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification">Official website</a> of Action Against Desertification, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> initiative of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/African,_Caribbean_and_Pacific_Group_of_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States">African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unenvironment.org/resources/report/global-deserts-outlook"><i>Global Deserts Outlook</i></a> (2006), thematic assessment report in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_Environment_Outlook" title="Global Environment Outlook">Global Environment Outlook</a> (GEO) series of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Environment Program">United Nations Environment Program</a> (UNEP).</li></ul>
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.navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Deforestation_and_desertification" title="Template:Deforestation and desertification"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Deforestation_and_desertification" title="Template talk:Deforestation and desertification"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Deforestation_and_desertification" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Deforestation and desertification"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Deforestation_and_desertification" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> and <a class="mw-selflink selflink">desertification</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assarting" title="Assarting">Assarting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deforestation_by_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation by region">Deforestation by region</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mountaintop_removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountaintop removal">Mountaintop removal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">Slash-and-burn</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slash-and-char" title="Slash-and-char">Slash-and-char</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Manantenina_bushfire.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Illegal slash and burn in Madagascar"><img alt="Illegal slash and burn in Madagascar" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Manantenina_bushfire.jpg/140px-Manantenina_bushfire.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Manantenina_bushfire.jpg/210px-Manantenina_bushfire.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Manantenina_bushfire.jpg/280px-Manantenina_bushfire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2166" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Desertification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aridification" title="Aridification">Aridification</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historic_desertification" title="Historic desertification">Historic desertification</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moisture_recycling" title="Moisture recycling">Moisture recycling</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soil_retrogression_and_degradation" title="Soil retrogression and degradation">Soil retrogression and degradation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li>
<li>By region:
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Desertification_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in China">China</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Desertification_in_the_Gobi_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in the Gobi Desert">Gobi Desert</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Desertification_in_Lebanon" title="Desertification in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Desertification_in_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in Libya">Libya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Desertification_in_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in Mali">Mali</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Desertification_in_Mauritania" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Desertification_in_Mongolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Desertification_in_the_Sahel" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in the Sahel">Sahel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Desertification_in_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mitigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">Afforestation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arid_Lands_Information_Network" title="Arid Lands Information Network">Arid Lands Information Network</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">Biochar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conservation_grazing" title="Conservation grazing">Conservation grazing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Desert_greening" title="Desert greening">Desert greening</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecoforestry" title="Ecoforestry">Ecoforestry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Farmer-managed_natural_regeneration" title="Farmer-managed natural regeneration">Farmer-managed regeneration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flexible_Mechanisms" title="Flexible Mechanisms">Flexible Mechanisms</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(Africa)" title="Great Green Wall (Africa)">Great Green Wall (Africa)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(China)" title="Great Green Wall (China)">Great Green Wall (China)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Managed_intensive_rotational_grazing" class="mw-redirect" title="Managed intensive rotational grazing">Managed intensive rotational grazing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oasification" title="Oasification">Oasification</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_to_Combat_Desertification" title="United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification">United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forest_Landscape_Integrity_Index" title="Forest Landscape Integrity Index">Forest Landscape Integrity Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape" title="Intact forest landscape">Intact forest landscape</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Land use, land-use change and forestry">Land use, land-use change and forestry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_landscape" title="Natural landscape">Natural landscape</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">Terra preta</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_impact_on_the_environment" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template talk:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_impact_on_the_environment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">Environmental issues</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">list of issues</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Impact assessment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Agriculture</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">animal agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cannabis_cultivation" title="Environmental impact of cannabis cultivation">cannabis cultivation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_irrigation" title="Environmental effects of irrigation">irrigation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">meat production</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cocoa_production" title="Environmental impact of cocoa production">cocoa production</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_and_environmental_impact_of_palm_oil" title="Social and environmental impact of palm oil">palm oil</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_bitcoin" title="Environmental effects of bitcoin">Bitcoin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">Energy industry</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">biofuels</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_biodiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of biodiesel">biodiesel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">coal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">nuclear power</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">oil shale</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" title="Environmental impact of the petroleum industry">petroleum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">reservoirs</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_impact_of_explosives" title="Ecological impact of explosives">Explosives</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_use#Environment" title="Land use">Land use</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cleaning_products" title="Environmental impact of cleaning products">cleaning agents</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">concrete</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plastic#Environmental_effects" title="Plastic">plastics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paint" title="Environmental effects of paint">paint</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper" title="Environmental effects of paper">paper</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides" title="Environmental impact of pesticides">pesticides</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">pharmaceuticals and personal care</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">fishing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web" title="Fishing down the food web">fishing down the food web</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">Overconsumption</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">Reservoirs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Impacts_of_tourism" title="Impacts of tourism">Tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transport</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" title="Environmental effects of aviation">aviation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of rail">rail</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">roads</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" title="Environmental effects of shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biodiversity_threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiversity threats">Biodiversity threats</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">decline in amphibian populations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">runaway climate change</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Coral reefs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Desertification</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Freshwater_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater cycle">Freshwater cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle" title="Human impact on the nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">Loss of green belts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle#Human_influences" title="Phosphorus cycle">Phosphorus cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ocean_acidification#Possible_impacts" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Water degradation">Water degradation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mitigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_engineering" title="Climate engineering">Climate engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Community_resilience" title="Community resilience">Community resilience</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eco-economic_decoupling" title="Eco-economic decoupling">Decoupling</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_mitigation" title="Environmental mitigation">Environmental mitigation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mitigation_banking" title="Mitigation banking">Mitigation banking</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Restoration_ecology" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Sustainable consumption</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimization</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Environmental impact">Commons</a></li>
<li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_source" title="Category:Environmental impact by source">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_country" title="Category:Environmental impact by country">by country</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Category:Environmental impact assessment">assessment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Environmental_mitigation" title="Category:Environmental mitigation">mitigation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Climate_change" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Climate_change" title="Template:Climate change"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Climate_change" title="Template talk:Climate change"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Climate_change" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Climate change"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Climate_change" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Overview" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Attribution_of_recent_climate_change" title="Attribution of recent climate change">Attribution of recent climate change</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country_and_region" title="Category:Climate change by country and region">By country and region</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Causes</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview<br /></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Attribution_of_recent_climate_change" title="Attribution of recent climate change">Attribution of recent climate change</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations conferences</a></li>
<li>Years in climate change
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Glacier retreat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_ecosystems" title="Effects of climate change on ecosystems">Ecosystems</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk from climate change</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_impacts_of_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic impacts of climate change">Economic impacts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_and_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_island_nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of climate change on island nations">Island nations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_migrant" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate migrant">Migration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">By country & region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_in_South_Asia" title="Climate change in South Asia">South Asia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_credit" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon credit">Carbon credit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_neutrality" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon neutrality">Carbon neutrality</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_offset" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon offset">Carbon offset</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of mitigation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Low-carbon_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-carbon energy">Low-carbon energy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li>
<li>Forest management (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business responses</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_grief" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate grief">Climate grief</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" title="School Strike for Climate">school strike</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_economy_of_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Political economy of climate change">Political economy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Climate risk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flood_control" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">climate fiction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_warming_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming game">games</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nationally_Determined_Contributions" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationally Determined Contributions">Nationally Determined Contributions</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy (climate)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurements" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite temperature measurements">Satellite measurements</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cloud_forcing" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iris_hypothesis" title="Iris hypothesis">Iris hypothesis</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_feedback" title="Climate change feedback">Feedbacks</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paleotempestology" title="Paleotempestology">Paleotempestology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Solar_geoengineering" title="Solar geoengineering">Solar geoengineering</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></b></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary</a></b></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles" title="Index of climate change articles">Index</a></b></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Climate_change" title="Category:Climate change">Category</a></b></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Global_catastrophic_risks" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Template:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Template talk:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Global_catastrophic_risks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risks</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future of the Earth</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Future of an expanding universe</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">Ultimate fate of the universe</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyberattack" title="Cyberattack">Cyberattack</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyberterrorism" title="Cyberterrorism">Cyberterrorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cybergeddon" title="Cybergeddon">Cybergeddon</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gray_goo" title="Gray goo">Gray goo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrial_applications_of_nanotechnology#Weapons" title="Industrial applications of nanotechnology">Nanoweapons</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kinetic_bombardment" title="Kinetic bombardment">Kinetic bombardment</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kinetic_energy_weapon" title="Kinetic energy weapon">Kinetic energy weapon</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear warfare</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction" title="Mutual assured destruction">Mutual assured destruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dead_Hand" title="Dead Hand">Dead Hand</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doomsday_Clock" title="Doomsday Clock">Doomsday Clock</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doomsday_device" title="Doomsday device">Doomsday device</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antimatter_weapon" title="Antimatter weapon">Antimatter weapon</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse" title="Electromagnetic pulse">Electromagnetic pulse</a> (EMP)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Safety_of_high-energy_particle_collision_experiments" title="Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments">Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Micro_black_hole" title="Micro black hole">Micro black hole</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Strangelet" title="Strangelet">Strangelet</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Synthetic_intelligence" title="Synthetic intelligence">Synthetic intelligence</a> / <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/AI_takeover" title="AI takeover">AI takeover</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence">Existential risk from artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sociological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anthropogenic_hazard" title="Anthropogenic hazard">Anthropogenic hazard</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Collapsology" title="Collapsology">Collapsology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doomsday_argument" title="Doomsday argument">Doomsday argument</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Self-indication_assumption_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Self-referencing_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_collapse" title="Economic collapse">Economic collapse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order (conspiracy theory)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cobalt_bomb" title="Cobalt bomb">cobalt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">famine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">winter</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">Societal collapse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_III" title="World War III">World War III</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ecological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate change</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cataclysmic_pole_shift_hypothesis" title="Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis">Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Climate change and civilizational collapse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Desertification</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk from climate change</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">Flood basalt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_terrestrial_stilling" title="Global terrestrial stilling">Global terrestrial stilling</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Global warming</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hypercane" title="Hypercane">Hypercane</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">Ice age</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">coral reefs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supervolcano" title="Supervolcano">Supervolcano</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Volcanic_winter" title="Volcanic winter">winter</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Verneshot" title="Verneshot">Verneshot</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">Human extinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_extinction_events" title="List of extinction events">List of extinction events</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genetic_erosion" title="Genetic erosion">Genetic erosion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">Decline in amphibian populations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">Decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biotechnology_risk" title="Biotechnology risk">Biotechnology risk</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological agent</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">Bioterrorism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colony_collapse_disorder" title="Colony collapse disorder">Colony collapse disorder</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Interplanetary_contamination" title="Interplanetary contamination">Interplanetary contamination</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pollinator_decline" title="Pollinator decline">Pollinator decline</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">Overfishing</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Big_Crunch" title="Big Crunch">Big Crunch</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Big_Rip" title="Big Rip">Big Rip</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">Coronal mass ejection</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">Geomagnetic storm</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/False_vacuum_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="False vacuum decay">False vacuum decay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">Gamma-ray burst</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">Heat death of the universe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay">Proton decay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virtual_black_hole" title="Virtual black hole">Virtual black hole</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">Impact event</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Asteroid impact avoidance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asteroid_impact_prediction" title="Asteroid impact prediction">Asteroid impact prediction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth object</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Impact_winter" title="Impact winter">winter</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rogue_planet" title="Rogue planet">Rogue planet</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Near-Earth_supernova" title="Near-Earth supernova">Near-Earth supernova</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Micronova" title="Micronova">Micronova</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stellar_collision" title="Stellar collision">Stellar collision</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Buddhist</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Three_Ages_of_Buddhism" title="Three Ages of Buddhism">Three Ages</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindu_eschatology" title="Hindu eschatology">Hindu</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kalki" title="Kalki">Kalki</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kali_Yuga" title="Kali Yuga">Kali Yuga</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Book_of_Enoch" title="Book of Enoch">1 Enoch</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abomination_of_desolation" title="Abomination of desolation">Abomination of desolation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prophecy_of_Seventy_Weeks" title="Prophecy of Seventy Weeks">Prophecy of Seventy Weeks</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Christian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Futurism_(Christianity)" title="Futurism (Christianity)">Futurism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historicism_(Christianity)" title="Historicism (Christianity)">Historicism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historicist_interpretations_of_the_Book_of_Revelation" title="Historicist interpretations of the Book of Revelation">Interpretations of Revelation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Idealism_(Christian_eschatology)" title="Idealism (Christian eschatology)"> Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Preterism" title="Preterism">Preterism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2_Esdras" title="2 Esdras">2 Esdras</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_the_Thessalonians" title="Second Epistle to the Thessalonians">2 Thessalonians</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Man_of_sin" title="Man of sin">Man of sin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Katechon" title="Katechon">Katechon</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antichrist" title="Antichrist">Antichrist</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Events_of_Revelation" title="Events of Revelation">Events</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Four_Horsemen_of_the_Apocalypse" title="Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse">Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lake_of_fire" title="Lake of fire">Lake of fire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Number_of_the_beast" title="Number of the beast">Number of the Beast</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seven_bowls" title="Seven bowls">Seven bowls</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seven_seals" title="Seven seals">Seven seals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Beast_(Revelation)" title="The Beast (Revelation)">The Beast</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Two_witnesses" title="Two witnesses">Two witnesses</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_in_Heaven" title="War in Heaven">War in Heaven</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon" title="Whore of Babylon">Whore of Babylon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Apostasy" title="Great Apostasy">Great Apostasy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Earth_(Christianity)" title="New Earth (Christianity)">New Earth</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Jerusalem" title="New Jerusalem">New Jerusalem</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Olivet_Discourse" title="Olivet Discourse">Olivet Discourse</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Tribulation" title="Great Tribulation">Great Tribulation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Son_of_perdition" title="Son of perdition">Son of perdition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Sheep_and_the_Goats" title="The Sheep and the Goats">Sheep and Goats</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qa%27im_Al_Muhammad" title="Qa'im Al Muhammad">Al-Qa'im</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beast_of_the_Earth" title="Beast of the Earth">Beast of the Earth</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dhu_al-Qarnayn" title="Dhu al-Qarnayn">Dhu al-Qarnayn</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dhul-Suwayqatayn" title="Dhul-Suwayqatayn">Dhul-Suwayqatayn</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Masih_ad-Dajjal" title="Al-Masih ad-Dajjal">Dajjal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Israfil" title="Israfil">Israfil</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sufyani" title="Sufyani">Sufyani</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Jewish</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">War of Gog and Magog</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_Temple" title="Third Temple">Third Temple</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ragnar%C3%B6k" title="Ragnarök">Norse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frashokereti" title="Frashokereti">Zoroastrian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saoshyant" title="Saoshyant">Saoshyant</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2011_end_times_prediction" title="2011 end times prediction">2011 end times prediction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apocalypse" title="Apocalypse">Apocalypse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apocalyptic_literature" title="Apocalyptic literature">Apocalyptic literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Armageddon" title="Armageddon">Armageddon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blood_moon_prophecy" title="Blood moon prophecy">Blood moon prophecy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Earth_Changes" title="Earth Changes">Earth Changes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">End time</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">Gog and Magog</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_dates_predicted_for_apocalyptic_events" title="List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events">List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Messianism" title="Messianism">Messianism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Messianic_Age" title="Messianic Age">Messianic Age</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Millenarianism" title="Millenarianism">Millenarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Millennialism" title="Millennialism">Millennialism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Premillennialism" title="Premillennialism">Premillennialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amillennialism" title="Amillennialism">Amillennialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Postmillennialism" title="Postmillennialism">Postmillennialism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nemesis_(hypothetical_star)" title="Nemesis (hypothetical star)">Nemesis (hypothetical star)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rapture" title="Rapture">Rapture</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rapture#Prewrath_premillennialism" title="Rapture">Prewrath</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Post-tribulation_rapture" title="Post-tribulation rapture">Post-tribulation rapture</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Universal_resurrection" title="Universal resurrection">Resurrection of the dead</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_to_come" title="World to come">World to come</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fictional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alien_invasion" title="Alien invasion">Alien invasion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_films" title="List of apocalyptic films">List of apocalyptic films</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">Climate fiction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disaster_film" title="Disaster film">Disaster films</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_disaster_films" title="List of disaster films">List of disaster films</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_fictional_doomsday_devices" title="List of fictional doomsday devices">List of fictional doomsday devices</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zombie_apocalypse" title="Zombie apocalypse">Zombie apocalypse</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zombie" title="Zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Centre_for_the_Study_of_Existential_Risk" title="Centre for the Study of Existential Risk">Centre for the Study of Existential Risk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Future_of_Humanity_Institute" title="Future of Humanity Institute">Future of Humanity Institute</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Future_of_Life_Institute" title="Future of Life Institute">Future of Life Institute</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_Threat_Initiative" title="Nuclear Threat Initiative">Nuclear Threat Initiative</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Droughts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">Famine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">Riots</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_crisis" title="Social crisis">Social crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Survivalism" title="Survivalism">Survivalism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></b></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> Categories
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Apocalypticism" title="Category:Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Future_problems" title="Category:Future problems">Future problems</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Hazards" title="Category:Hazards">Hazards</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Risk_analysis" title="Category:Risk analysis">Risk analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Doomsday_scenarios" title="Category:Doomsday scenarios">Doomsday scenarios</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183481#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Désertification"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11967198m">France</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Désertification"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11967198m">BnF data</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007550441105171">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Desertification"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85037156">United States</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00576839">Japan</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="desertifikace"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph390001&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="사막화"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KSH2002017713">Korea</a></span></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1706108350' |
