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{{for|military history|Military history of Nova Scotia}}
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{{Use Canadian English|date=January 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{History of Nova Scotia}}
The '''history of Nova Scotia''' covers a period from thousands of years ago to the present day. Prior to European colonization, the lands encompassing present-day [[Nova Scotia]] (also historically referred to as [[Mi'kma'ki]] and [[Acadia]]) were inhabited by the [[Mi'kmaq people]]. During the first 150 years of [[French colonization of the Americas|European settlement]], the region was claimed by France and a colony formed, primarily made up of Catholic Acadians and Mi'kmaq. This time period involved six wars in which the Mi'kmaq along with the French and some Acadians resisted the British invasion of the region: the [[French and Indian Wars]], [[Father Rale's War]] and [[Father Le Loutre's War]]. During [[Father Le Loutre's War]], the capital was moved from [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia]], to the newly established [[Halifax, Nova Scotia]] (1749). The warfare ended with the [[Burying the Hatchet Ceremony (Nova Scotia)|Burying the Hatchet ceremony]] (1761). After the colonial wars, [[New England Planters]] and [[Foreign Protestants]] immigrated to Nova Scotia. After the [[American Revolution]], Loyalists immigrated to the colony. During the nineteenth century, Nova Scotia became [[self-governing colony|self-governing]] in 1848 and joined the [[Canadian Confederation]] in 1867.
The colonial history of Nova Scotia includes the present-day Canadian Maritime provinces and northern Maine (see [[Sunbury County, Nova Scotia]]), all of which were at one time part of Nova Scotia. In 1763 Cape Breton Island and St. John's Island (what is now [[Prince Edward Island]]) became part of Nova Scotia. In 1769, St. John's Island became a separate colony. Nova Scotia included present-day [[New Brunswick]] until that province was established in 1784.{{ref|A|A}}
==Early history==
{{Main|Prehistory of the Canadian Maritimes|Paleo-Indians|Last glacial period}}
The glaciers began their retreat from in the Maritimes approximately 13,500 years ago,<ref name="auto">{{cite journal|last1=Stea|first1=Robert|title=Deglaciation of Nova Scotia: Stratigraphy and chronology of lake sediment cores and buried organic sections|url=https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/gpq/1998-v52-n1-gpq155/004871ar/|journal=Géographie physique et Quaternaire|access-date=30 March 2018|date=1998|volume=52|number=1|pages=3–21 |doi=10.7202/004871ar|s2cid=55320508 |doi-access=free}}</ref> with final deglaciation, isostatic rebound, and sea level fluctuation ending and leaving the New England-Maritimes region virtually ice free 11,000 years ago.<ref name="auto"/><ref name="Paleo America">{{cite journal|last1=Lothrop|first1=Jonathon|title=Early Human Settlement of Northeastern North America|journal=Paleoamerica|doi=10.1080/20555563.2016.1212178|volume=2|issue=3|year=2016|pages=192–251|doi-access=free}}</ref> The earliest evidence of Palaeo-Indian settlement in the region follows rapidly after deglaciation. Evidence of settlement found in the [[Debert Palaeo-Indian Site]] dates to 10,600 before present, though settlement seems likely to have occurred earlier,<ref name="Paleo America"/> following large game animals such as the caribou as they expanded into the land revealed by the retreating glaciers. The record of continuous habitation through the paleo and archaic period over ten thousand years culminated in the development of the culture, traditions, and language now known as the Mi’kmaq.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Mi'kmaw History|url=https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/ns/kejimkujik/decouvrir-discover/heritage-cultur/histor-mikmaq|website=Parks Canada|access-date=30 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331040348/https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/ns/kejimkujik/decouvrir-discover/heritage-cultur/histor-mikmaq|archive-date=2018-03-31|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Mi'kmaq ===
{{Main|Mi'kmaq}}
For several thousand years, the territory of the province has been a part of the territory of the [[Mi'kmaq people|Mi'kmaq]] country of Mi'kma'ki. Mi'kma'ki includes what is now the Maritimes, parts of [[Maine]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] and the [[Gaspé Peninsula]]. The Mi'kmaq lived in an annual cycle of seasonal movement between living in dispersed interior winter camps and larger coastal communities during the summer. The climate was unfavourable for agriculture, and small semi-nomadic bands of a few matrilineality related families subsisted on fishing and hunting.<ref name=brasser>{{cite book |last=Brasser |first=T. J. |year=1978 |chapter=Early Indian-European Contacts |pages=78–88 |title=Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15. Northeast |editor=Trigger, Bruce G. |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press}}</ref>{{rp|78}}
[[File:The Mi'kmaq.png|thumb|left|upright=1.3|Settlement areas of the [[Mi'kmaq]] in [[Miꞌkmaꞌki]], which emcompassed present-day Nova Scotia]]
The Mi'kmaq were governed by the [[Santé Mawiómi]] (Grand Council), led by the Kji-saqmaw (Grand council leader) and composed of the seven Nikanus (District Chiefs), Kji-Keptin (Grand Captain, or war chief) as well a Putús (recorder/secretary).<ref>{{cite web|title=Mikmaw Resource Guide|url=http://www.mikmaweydebert.ca/home/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Pg_94_DOC_MikmawResourceGuide.pdf|website=mikmaweydebert.ca/|publisher=Tripartite Education Working Committee|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref> Mi'kma'ki was divided into seven largely sovereign districts, each governed by a Nikanus and council of Sagamaw (local band chiefs), Elders, and other worthy community leaders. The district council enacting laws, ensured justice, apportioning fishing and hunting grounds, made war and sued for peace. Local bands were led by a Sagamaw and council of Elders and consisted of several extended family units.<ref>{{cite thesis|last1=McMillan|first1=Leslie Jane|title=Mi'kmmey Mawio'mi: Changing Roles of the Mi'kmaq Grand Council From the Early Seventeenth Century to the Present|url=http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp04/mq24981.pdf|website=Library & Archives Canada|publisher=Dalhousie University|access-date=30 March 2018|type=Master's thesis}}</ref>
The Mi'kmaq people inhabited region at the time the first European colonists arrived.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://museum.gov.ns.ca/arch/infos/mikmaq1.htm |title=The Mi'kmaq|publisher=Nova Scotia Museum|access-date=2013-07-12|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121121055304/http://museum.gov.ns.ca/arch/infos/mikmaq1.htm|archive-date=November 21, 2012 }}</ref> Mi'kmaq territory was the first portion of North America that Europeans exploited at length for resource extraction. Early European fishermen salted their catch at sea and sailed directly home with it. But they set up camps ashore as early as 1520 for [[Dried and salted cod|dry-curing cod]]. During the second half of the century, dry curing became the preferred preservation method.<ref name=brasser/>{{rp|79, 80}} The local Mi'kmaq peoples began trading with European fishermen when the fishermen began landing in their territories as early as the 1520s. In about 1521–22, the Portuguese under [[João Álvares Fagundes]] established a fishing colony, believed to be on the island of [[Cape Breton]]. Though its fate is unknown, it is mentioned as late as 1570.<ref>{{cite book|author=Francisco de Souza of Madeira|title=Tratado das ilhas novas e descombrimento dellas e outras couzas, 1570|date=1877|editor=Ernesto do Canto|language=pt}}</ref> By 1578 some 350 European ships were operating around the Saint Lawrence estuary. Most were independent fishermen, but increasing numbers were exploring the [[fur trade]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Costain |first=Thomas B. |title =The White and The Gold |publisher =Doubleday & Company|date =1954 |location =Garden City, New York |page =54 }}</ref>
On June 24, 1610, Grand Chief [[Henri Membertou|Membertou]] converted to [[Catholicism]] and was baptized. A Concordat, or treaty, was signed between the Grand Council and the Pope protecting French settlers and priests and affirmed the right of Mi'kmaq to choose either Catholicism or Mi'kmaq tradition. In signing the Concordat the Catholic church affirmed Mi’kmaq sovereignty as a Catholic nation.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Welcher|first1=J|title=Mi'kmaq Spirituality and the Concordat of 1610|url=http://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/jwelcher/MIK%2010%20Class%20Notes/1_concordat.pdf|publisher=J Welcher|access-date=30 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707120724/http://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/jwelcher/MIK%2010%20Class%20Notes/1_concordat.pdf|archive-date=7 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Mi'kmaw Time Line|url=https://www.cbu.ca/indigenous-affairs/unamaki-college/mikmaq-resource-centre/mikmaq-resource-guide/mikmaw-time-line/|website=Cape Breton University|access-date=30 March 2018|url-status=dead|archive-date=2016-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502111902/https://www.cbu.ca/indigenous-affairs/unamaki-college/mikmaq-resource-centre/mikmaq-resource-guide/mikmaw-time-line/}}</ref>
=== European explorers ===
[[File:JohnCabotPlaqueDingleTowerHalifaxNovaScotia.jpg|thumb|A plaque of [[John Cabot]] departing [[Bristol]], [[England]] for [[Atlantic Canada]] (1497), installed at [[Sir Sandford Fleming Park]], [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]]]]
Venetian Italian explorer Zuan Chabotto (Italian: Giovanni Caboto) known in English as [[John Cabot]], was the first European explorer of the North American continent. His voyage of exploration ushered in an irrevocable transformation of global social and economic interaction. Cabot's voyage received financial backing by Italian banking houses in London and the [[Bardi family]] banking firm of Florence.<ref name="bruscoli">{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2281.2012.00597.x | volume=85 | issue=229 | title=John Cabot and his Italian financiers* | year=2012 | journal=Historical Research | pages=372–393 | last1 = Guidi-Bruscoli | first1 = Francesco}}</ref> With financing secure and patent issued by [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] to Cabot and his three sons, he set sail in 1496. Upon landing on 24 June 1497, Cabot raised the Venetian and Papal banners, claiming the land for the King of England and recognising the religious authority of the Roman Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pinkowish|first1=Mary Desmond|last2=D'Epiro|first2=Peter|title=Sprezzatura: 50 Ways Italian Genius Shaped the World|date=2001|publisher=Anchor Books|url=https://archive.org/details/sprezzatura50way00pete|pages=179–180|isbn=978-0-385-72019-9 }}</ref> After this landing, Cabot spent some weeks "discovering the coast", with most "discovered after turning back."<ref name="john day">{{cite web|url=http://www.bris.ac.uk/Depts/History/Maritime/Sources/1497johnday.htm|title=John Day letter to the Lord Grand Admiral, Winter 1497/8|publisher=University of Bristol{access-date=2022-08-26}}</ref> Cabot's expedition is believed to be the first by Europeans to mainland North America since the Vikings five hundred years before. Historian [[Alwyn Ruddock]] who worked on Cabot and his era for 35 years suggested [[Fr. Giovanni Antonio de Carbonariis]] and the other friars who accompanied Cabot's 1498 expedition had stayed in Newfoundland and founded a mission which would have made it the first Christian settlement on the continent.<ref name="journal">{{cite journal|last=Jones|first=Evan T.|title=Alwyn Ruddock: 'John Cabot and the Discovery of America'*|date=2008|journal=Historical Research|volume=81|issue=212|pages=242–249|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2281.2007.00422.x|doi-access=free}}</ref> Nova Scotia was further explored by the [[Portuguese colonization of the Americas|Portuguese]] explorer [[João Álvares Fagundes]] (1520) as he searched south of his fishing settlements in Newfoundland.<ref>{{cite DCB|title=Fagundes, João Álvares |first=L. A. |last=Vigneras|volume=1|url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/fagundes_joao_alvares_1E.html}}</ref>
== 17th century ==
{{See also|Province of Massachusetts Bay}}
===French colonization and Acadia===
{{Main|Acadia}}
[[File:Port Royal, Nova Scotia - circa 1612 - Project Gutenberg etext 20110.jpg|thumb|Depiction of habitation at [[Port-Royal National Historic Site|Port Royal]] in 1612]]
In 1605, [[France|French]] colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada (and the first north of [[Spanish Florida|Florida]]) at [[Port-Royal (Acadia)|Port Royal]], founding what would become known as [[Acadia]].<ref name="Morton1999">{{cite book|first= Desmond|last= Morton|title= Canada: A Millennium Portrait|url= {{Google books|GOxGQZg0KtoC|plainurl=yes}}|date= November 30, 1999|publisher= Dundurn|isbn= 978-1-4597-1085-6|page= 19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/virtual/acadian/|publisher=Nova Scotia Archives|access-date=2013-07-12|title=An Acadian Parish Remembered|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116002459/http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/virtual/acadian/ |archive-date=2013-01-16 }}</ref> The [[France|French]], led by [[Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts]] established the first capital for the colony [[Acadia]] at Port Royal. [[Acadia]] (French: ''Acadie'') was located in the northeastern region of North America comprising what is now the Canadian [[Maritime Provinces]] of [[New Brunswick]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[Prince Edward Island]], Gaspé, in Quebec, and to the [[Kennebec River]] in southern [[Maine]].
By 1621, however, France had ceded territories including Port Royal and Acadia back to the British Crown. In that year King James I (James VI of Scotland) granted [[William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling|Sir William Alexander]] of [[Menstrie]] a charter to create the colony of Nova Scotia (“New Scotland”) which encompassed three Canadian provinces and portions of what is now Maine. The colony, whose capital, Charles Fort, was located near today's town of Annapolis Royal, lasted only until 1623 at which time the attempted settlement was abandoned, leaving the area to the French.<ref>{{cite book|last=Griffiths|first=N.E.S.|author-link=Naomi E. S. Griffiths|title=From Migrant to Acadian: A North American Border People, 1604–1755|url={{Google books|cG4wSmIlziYC|plainurl=yes}}|year=2005|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=978-0-7735-2699-0|pages=33–34}}</ref> Sir William's legacy, however, lives on in the form of the name, flag and arms of the modern Canadian province of Nova Scotia.
There was a slow transition from trading (primarily involving male explorers and traders) to colonization. Ships began to arrive in 1632 that included women and children.<ref name="Griffiths-p54-55">{{cite book|last=Griffiths|first=N.E.S.|author-link=Naomi E. S. Griffiths|title=From Migrant to Acadian: A North American Border People, 1604–1755|url={{Google books|cG4wSmIlziYC|plainurl=yes}}|year=2005|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=978-0-7735-2699-0|pages=54–55}}</ref> The survival of the Acadian settlements was based on successful cooperation with the Indigenous peoples of the region.<ref name=confed>{{cite book|last=Patterson |first=Stephen E.|chapter=1744–1763: Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples|editor1=Phillip Buckner|editor2=John G. Reid|editor-link2=John G. Reid|title=The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History|year=1994|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4875-1676-5|pages=125–155|jstor=10.3138/j.ctt15jjfrm}}</ref><ref name="Griffiths-p54-55"/>{{rp|36}} In 1654 Acadia was first conquered by English forces from Boston, occupying the colony. The [[Treaty of Breda (1667)|Treaty of Breda]], signed 31 July 1667, returned Acadia to France. In 1674, the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] briefly conquered Acadia, renaming the colony [[New Holland (Acadia)|New Holland]].<ref name="champernowne">{{cite book|title=Capt. Francis Champernowne: The Dutch Conquest of Acadie, and Other Historical Papers|date=16 October 2018 |editor-last=Tuttle|editor-first=Charles Wesley|publisher=Creative Media Partners, LLC|isbn=9780343449711|url={{Google books|AJEfzwEACAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> During the last decades of the seventeenth century, [[Acadians]] migrated from the capital, Port Royal, and established what would become the other major Acadian settlements: [[Grand-Pré, Nova Scotia|Grand Pré]], [[Isthmus of Chignecto|Chignecto]], [[Cobequid]] and [[Pisiguit]].
During the Acadian period the British made six attempts to conquer the colony by defeating the capital, ending with the defeat of the French in the [[Siege of Port Royal (1710)]]. Over the following fifty years, the French and their allies made six unsuccessful military attempts to regain the capital.<ref name=dunn>{{cite book|last=Dunn|first=Brenda|title=A History of Port-Royal-Annapolis Royal, 1605–1800|url={{Google books|9c4hPwAACAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|year=2004|publisher=Nimbus|isbn=978-1-55109-740-4}}</ref>
==== Acadian Civil War ====
{{main|Acadian Civil War}}
[[File:Madame La Tour Defending Fort St.Jean.jpg|thumb|left|Depiction of Madame La Tour defending Fort Sainte Marie during the [[Acadian Civil War]] in 1645]]
Acadia was plunged into what some historians have described as a [[civil war]] in Acadia (1640–1645). The war was between Port Royal, where Governor of Acadia [[Charles de Menou d'Aulnay]] de Charnisay was stationed, and present-day [[Saint John, New Brunswick]], where Governor of Acadia [[Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour]] was stationed.<ref>{{cite book|title=Fortune & La Tour: The civil war in Acadia|last=MacDonald|first=M.A.|publisher=Methuen|date=1983}}</ref>
In the war, there were four major battles. la Tour attacked d'Aulnay at Port Royal in 1640.<ref name=dunn/>{{rp|19}} In response to the attack, D'Aulnay sailed out of Port Royal to establish a five-month blockade of La Tour's fort at Saint John, which La Tour eventually defeated (1643). La Tour attacked d'Aulnay again at Port Royal in 1643. d'Aulnay and Port Royal ultimately won the war against La Tour with the 1645 siege of Saint John.<ref name=dunn/>{{rp|20}} After d'Aulnay died (1650), La Tour re-established himself in Acadia.
=== Scottish colony (1629–1632) ===
From 1629–1632, Nova Scotia briefly became a [[Scottish colonization of the Americas|Scottish colony]]. [[William Alexander (the younger)|William Alexander]], the son of the [[William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling|Earl of Stirling]] of [[Menstrie Castle]], [[Scotland]] claimed mainland Nova Scotia and settled at Charlesfort, at what would eventually be renamed [[Port-Royal (Acadia)|Port Royal]] by the French. [[James Stewart, 4th Lord Ochiltree|Lord Ochiltree]] claimed Île Royale (present-day [[Cape Breton Island]]) and settled at [[Baleine, Nova Scotia]]. There were three battles between the Scottish and the French: the Raid on [[Saint John, New Brunswick|St. John]] (1632), the Siege of [[Baleine, Nova Scotia|Baleine]] (1629) as well as Siege of Cap de Sable (present-day [[Port La Tour, Nova Scotia]]) (1630). Nova Scotia was returned to France through a treaty.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Fleeting Empire: Early Stuart Britain and the Merchant Adventures to Canada|last=Nicholls|first=Andrew|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2010}}</ref> The French then established [[Fort Ste. Marie de Grace]] as the capital on the [[LaHave River]] before re-establishing Port Royal.
The French quickly defeated the Scottish at [[Baleine, Nova Scotia|Baleine]] and established settlements on Île Royale at present-day [[Englishtown, Nova Scotia|Englishtown]] (1629) and [[St. Peter's, Nova Scotia|St. Peter's]] (1630). These two settlements remained the only settlements on the island until they were abandoned by [[Nicolas Denys]] in 1659. Île Royale then remained without European occupants for more than fifty years until the communities were re-established when [[Louisbourg]] was established in 1713.
=== English colony (1654–1670) ===
[[File:JohnLeverettInMilitaryUniform.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of [[John Leverett]]. Leverett launched an expedition against Acadia on behalf of England in 1654.]]
In 1654, an expedition was launched against Acadia by [[Robert Sedgwick]] and [[John Leverett]] on behalf of the English. Sedgwick captured the principal Acadian ports of Port Royal and Fort Pentagouet and soon gave up military command of the province to Leverett.<ref name=dunn/>{{rp|23}} During this time he and Sedgwick enforced a virtual trade monopoly on French Acadia for their benefit, leading some in the colony to view Leverett as a predatory opportunist. Leverett funded much of the cost of the occupation himself, and then petitioned the English government for reimbursement. Although they authorized payment, the government made it contingent on the colony performing an audit of Leverett's finances, which never took place. Leverett was consequently still petitioning for compensation after the Restoration (1660).
In 1656, [[Oliver Cromwell]] granted Acadia/Nova Scotia to proprietors Sir [[Thomas Temple]] and [[William Crowne]]. Shortly after, the two bought [[Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour]]’s patent as baronet of Nova Scotia. By this purchase, Crowne and Temple agreed to pay la Tour’s debt of £3,379 to the widow of Maj.-Gen. Edward Gibbons of Boston, and Temple assumed the cost of the English that which had earlier captured the fort on the Saint John River. According to his statement of losses in about 1668, Crowne supplied the money and security for the purchases.<ref>{{cite DCB |title=Crowne, William |last1=In collaboration with |first2=Huia G. |last2=Ryder |volume=1 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/crowne_william_1E.html}}</ref>
The following year Crowne with his son John (but not his wife), Temple and a group of settlers came to Nova Scotia on the ship ''Satisfaction''. Crowne and Temple divided the province between them in February 1658, with Crowne taking the western part, including the fort of Pentagouet (now [[Castine, Maine]]), and building a trading post at "Negu", or "Negu alias Cadascat", on the Penobscot River. The agreement was signed on 15 February 1658, witnessed by John Crowne and Governor [[John Endecott]]. Each party gave a bond of £20,000. On 1 November 1658, Crowne leased his territory to a Captain George Curwin (grandfather of [[George Corwin]], high sheriff during the Salem witch trials) and Ensign [[Joshua Scottow]], then in 1659 he leased it to Temple for a period of four years, at a rate of £110 per annum. Temple did not pay the lease after the first year, but remained in possession of the territory.<ref name="white-449">{{cite journal |title=John Crowne and America |last=White |first=Arthur Franklin |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=447–463 |year=1920 |issn=0030-8129 |journal=PMLA |jstor=457347 |doi=10.2307/457347|s2cid=163990836 }}</ref> During this period, Crowne was living in Boston, Massachusetts, of which he was made a Freeman on 30 May 1660.
Temple had his headquarters at Penobscot (present-day Castine, Maine), keeping garrisons at Port Royal and at Saint John. In 1659, the la Tour fort at the mouth of the Saint John River was abandoned in favour of a new fort at [[Jemseg]], 50 miles (80 km) or so up the river, where Temple established a trading post.<ref>{{cite DCB |title=Temple, Sir Thomas |author=In collaboration with Huia Ryder |volume=1 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/temple_thomas_1E.html}}</ref> The location was advantageous as occupiers were put out of the way of seagoing pirates. Jemseg was also a better place to trade with the descending Maliseet Indians.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www2.gnb.ca/content/dam/gnb/Departments/thc-tpc/pdf/Arch/MIA36english.pdf |title=Wolastoqiyik Ajemseg: The People of the Beautiful River at Jemseg |year=2004 |isbn=1-55396-320-2 |editor-last=Blair |editor-first=Susan |volume=2 |location=New Brunswick |publication-date=2004 |pages=279 |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Congress of Breda.jpg|thumb|Engraving of the peace conference that led to the [[Treaty of Breda (1667)|Treaty of Breda]] in 1667. Acadia was return to the French as a part of the terms of the treaty.]]
With the Restoration in 1660 Crowne returned to England to participate in the coronation of Charles II, and to defend their claim to Nova Scotia. The grant to Crowne and Temple had been made by Cromwell under the Commonwealth; now that Charles had ascended the throne there were a number of other claimants. These included Thomas Elliot (a groom of the bedchamber to Charles II), Sir Lewis Kirke and others (who had taken Acadia in the expedition against Quebec in 1632), and heirs of [[Sir William Alexander]] (the original grantee, from whom Charles de la Tour's father had obtained the grant). In 1661 the French Ambassador claimed the territory for France. On 22 June 1661 he submitted a statement on the manner in which he and Temple became proprietors. While in England, Crowne also pleaded the cause of the colonists before the council and lord chamberlain on 4 December 1661. Temple returned to England in 1662 and was successful in obtaining a new grant as well as a commission as governor. He promised to restore Crowne's territory and make reparations, but did not. Crowne pursued this in the New England courts, but was unsuccessful, the courts eventually deciding they did not have jurisdiction. The colony was eventually restored to France in the 1667 [[Treaty of Breda (1667)|Treaty of Breda]], but the English would not actually give up control until 1670.
== 18th century ==
=== Colonial wars ===
[[File:Acadia 1754.png|thumb|upright=1.3|left|Map of Nova Scotia and the surrounding area in 1754, prior to the outbreak of the [[French and Indian War|Seven Years' War]]]]
There were six colonial wars that took place in Nova Scotia over a seventy-five year period (see the [[French and Indian Wars]] as well as [[Father Rale's War]] and [[Father Le Loutre's War]]). These wars were fought between [[British North America|New England]] and [[New France]] and their respective native allies before the British defeated the French in North America (1763). During these wars, Acadians, Mi'kmaq and Maliseet from the region fought to protect the border of Acadia from New England, which New France defined as the [[Kennebec River]] in southern Maine.<ref>{{cite book|last=Williamson|first=William Durkee|title=The History of the State of Maine: From Its First Discovery, 1602, to the Separation, A. D. 1820, Inclusive|url={{Google books|XEMlAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|volume=II|year=1832|publisher=Glazier, Masters & Company|page=27}}</ref> The wars also involved attempting to prevent the New Englanders from taking the capital of Acadia, Port Royal (See [[Queen Anne's War]]), establishing themselves at [[Canso, Nova Scotia|Canso]] (See [[Father Rale's War]]) and establishing Halifax (See [[Father Le Loutre's War]]).
The seventy-five year period of war ended with the [[Halifax Treaties]] between the British and the Mi'kmaq (1761).
==== Expulsion of the Acadians ====
{{main|Expulsion of the Acadians}}
The Expulsion (1755–1764) occurred during the [[French and Indian War]] (the North American theatre of the [[Seven Years' War]]){{ref|F|F}} and was part of the British military campaign against [[New France]]. The British first deported Acadians to the [[Thirteen Colonies]], and after 1758, transported additional Acadians to Britain and France. In all, of the 14,100 Acadians in the region, approximately 11,500 Acadians were deported.
After Britain won the [[French and Indian War]], between 1759 and 1768, about 8,000 [[New England Planters]] responded to Governor [[Charles Lawrence (British Army officer)|Charles Lawrence]]'s request for settlers from the New England colonies.
===Government changes===
[[File:JonathanBelcherByCopley.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of [[Jonathan Belcher (jurist)|Jonathan Belcher]] in 1757. He served as the first Chief Justice for the [[Nova Scotia Supreme Court]] from 1754 to 1776.]]
The colony's jurisdiction changed during this time. Nova Scotia was granted a supreme court in 1754 with the appointment of [[Jonathan Belcher (jurist)|Jonathan Belcher]] and a [[Legislative Assembly of Nova Scotia|Legislative Assembly]] in 1758. In 1763 [[Cape Breton Island]] became part of Nova Scotia. In 1769, St. John's Island (now [[Prince Edward Island]]) became a separate colony. The county of [[Sunbury County, Nova Scotia|Sunbury]] was created in 1765, and included all of the territory of current-day [[New Brunswick]] and eastern [[Maine]] as far as the Penobscot River. In 1784, the western, mainland portion of the colony was separated and became the province of [[New Brunswick]]. Maine became part of the newly independent American state of [[Massachusetts]], but the international boundary was vague. Cape Breton became a separate colony in 1784; it was returned to Nova Scotia in 1820.
Confronted with a large Yankee element sympathetic to the [[American Revolution]], Nova Scotian politicians in 1774–75 adopted a policy of enlightened moderation and humanism. Governing a marginal colony that received little attention from London, the royal governor, [[Francis Legge]] (1772 to 1776) battled the popularly elected assembly for control of the policies regarding trade, commerce, and taxation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Brebner|first=John|title=The Neutral Yankees of Nova Scotia: A Marginal Colony During the Revolutionary Years|orig-year=1937|publisher=Russell & Russell|year=1970|type=reprint|url={{Google books|ipkqAAAAYAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> [[Desserud]] shows that [[John Day (Nova Scotia legislator)|John Day]], elected to the assembly in 1774, called for [[Montesquieu]]-type fundamental reforms that would balance political power among the three branches of government. Day argued that taxes should be assessed according to actual wealth, and to discourage patronage there should be term limits for all officials. He thought members of the Executive Council should own at least £1000 of property to connect their personal interest in the welfare of the colony as a whole. He wanted the dismissal of judges who misused their offices. These reforms were not as yet enacted, but they suggest that politicians in Nova Scotia were aware of the demands being made by Americans, and hoped their moderate proposals would reduce possible tensions with the British government.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Desserud | first1 = Donald A. | year = 1999 | title = An Outpost's Response: The Language and Politics of Moderation in Eighteenth-century Nova Scotia | journal = American Review of Canadian Studies | volume = 29 | issue = 3| pages = 379–405 | doi=10.1080/02722019909481634}}</ref>
=== Scottish settlers ===
In 1762, the earliest of the ''Fuadaich nan Gàidheal'' ([[Highland Clearances|Scottish Highland Clearances]]) forced many [[Gaels|Gaelic]] families off their ancestral lands. The first ship loaded with [[Hebridean]] colonists arrived on "St. John's Island" (Prince Edward Island) in 1770, with later ships following in 1772 and 1774.<ref name="scots">{{cite web|last=Bumstead |first=J. M. |year=2006 |title=Scots |url=http://multiculturalcanada.ca/Encyclopedia/A-Z/s2/12 |publisher=Multicultural Canada |access-date=2006-08-30 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121226073110/http://www.multiculturalcanada.ca/Encyclopedia/A-Z/s2/12 |archive-date=2012-12-26 }}</ref> In 1773, a ship named ''The [[Hector (ship)|Hector]]'' landed in [[Pictou]], Nova Scotia, with 169 settlers mostly originating from the [[Isle of Skye]].<ref>{{cite web|year=2005|title=Hector Festival|url=http://www.decostecentre.ca/hector_festival.php |publisher=DeCoste Centre |access-date=2006-08-30 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221061823/http://decostecentre.ca/hector_festival.php |archive-date=2009-02-21 }}</ref> In 1784, the last barrier to Scottish settlement—a law restricting land-ownership on Cape Breton Island—was repealed, and soon both PEI and Nova Scotia were predominantly Gaelic-speaking.<ref name="study">{{cite web|last=Kennedy |first=Michael |year=2002 |title=Gaelic Economic-impact Study |url=http://museum.gov.ns.ca/pubs/Gaelic-Report.pdf |publisher=Nova Scotia Museum |access-date=2006-08-30 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060828100950/http://museum.gov.ns.ca/pubs/Gaelic-Report.pdf |archive-date=2006-08-28 }}</ref> It is estimated more than 50,000 Gaelic settlers immigrated to Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island between 1815 and 1870.<ref name="scots" />
[[File:The Hector (replica), Pictou, Nova Scotia.jpg|thumb|left|Replica of the ship ''[[Hector (ship)|Hector]]'' in 2009. The original ship brought 169 settlers from the [[Isle of Skye]] to Nova Scotia in 1773.]]
====Scottish clans====
In the Scottish Highlands, the traditional clan system was ended after the failed Rising of 1745. However, Ommer shows that the Scottish settlers reconstituted clan settlements in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, that persisted into the early 20th century. The clan system was tribal, involving an extended kin group that held land in common. Property was typically owned by the whole kinship group. In Scotland, clansmen rejected feudal claims of landlordship. The pioneers to Cape Breton sought out their own kin and settled alongside them. Farms passed from one branch of a family to another through succeeding generations but continued to be occupied by members of the same clan. Clan members helped each other with communal barn raising and shared labour and tools. In Nova Scotia, the system was maintained through arranged marriages, mutual aid and communal tenure. The system enabled survival and efficiency in a harsh pioneering environment.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ommer | first1 = Rosemary E. | year = 1986 | title = Primitive Accumulation and the Scottish 'Clann' in the Old World and the New | journal = Journal of Historical Geography | volume = 12 | issue = 2| pages = 121–141 | doi=10.1016/s0305-7488(86)80047-0}}</ref>
=== American Revolution ===
{{Main|Nova Scotia in the American Revolution}}
The [[American Revolution]] (1776–1783) had a significant impact on shaping Nova Scotia. Initially there was ambivalence in Nova Scotia, "the 14th American Colony" as some called it, over whether the colony should join the rebelling [[Thirteen Colonies]] in the war against Britain. A small number of Nova Scotians went south to serve with the [[Continental Army]] against the British; after the war, between 1798 and 1812, the [[United States Congress]] granted such supporters land in the [[Refugee Tract]] in [[Ohio]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://wardepartmentpapers.org/searchresults.php?searchClass=fulltextSearch&fulltextQuery=refugee+tract|title=Papers of the War Department|website= wardepartmentpapers.org|access-date=2017-02-20|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181114141655/http://wardepartmentpapers.org/searchresults.php?searchClass=fulltextSearch&fulltextQuery=refugee+tract|archive-date=2018-11-14|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:SackofLunenburgByAJWrightNSARMno1979-147no64.jpg|thumb|Depiction of the [[Raid on Lunenburg, Nova Scotia (1782)|raid on Lunenburg]] in 1782 by American privateers, during the [[American Revolutionary War]]]]
Rebellions flared at the [[Battle of Fort Cumberland]] (November 1776), the [[Siege of Saint John (1777)]], the [[Maugerville, New Brunswick|Maugerville Rebellion]] in 1776 and the [[Miramichi, New Brunswick|Battle at Miramichi]] in 1779. However the Nova Scotia government in Halifax was controlled by an Anglo-European mercantile elite{{Who|date=March 2014}} for whom loyalty was more profitable than rebellion. Facing attacks which forced choices of loyalty, rebellion or neutrality, settlers outside Halifax experienced a religious revival that expressed some of their anxieties.<ref>{{cite journal|last= Cahill|first= Barry|title= The Treason of the Merchants: Dissent and Repression in Halifax in the Era of the American Revolution|journal= Acadiensis |year= 1996|volume=26|number=1|pages=52–70}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Stewart|first1=Gordon T.|last2= Rawlyk |first2= George A.|title=A People Highly Favoured of God: The Nova Scotia Yankees and the American Revolution |year= 1972 |publisher= Archon Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last= Armstrong|first= Maurice|title= Neutrality and Religion in Revolutionary Nova Scotia|journal=The New England Quarterly|volume= 19|number= 1|year= 1946 |pages= 50–62|doi=10.2307/361206 |jstor=36120 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/36120}}</ref> Throughout the war, United States [[privateers]] devastated the maritime economy by raiding many of Nova Scotia's coastal communities. In addition to capturing 225 vessels either leaving or arriving at Nova Scotia ports,<ref>{{cite book|last= Gwyn|first= Julian|title= Frigates and Foremasts|publisher= University of British Columbia|year= 2003 |page= 56}}</ref> American privateers made regular land raids, attacking [[Raid on Lunenburg (1782)|Lunenburg]], [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia|Annapolis Royal]], [[Canso, Nova Scotia|Canso]] and [[Liverpool, Nova Scotia|Liverpool]]. American privateers repeatedly raided [[Canso, Nova Scotia]] in 1775 and 1779, destroying the fisheries, which were worth £50,000 a year to Britain.{{ref|B|B}} These American raids alienated many sympathetic or neutral Nova Scotians into supporting the British. By the end of the war a number of Nova Scotian privateers were outfitted to attack American shipping.<ref>{{cite book|last= Marsters|first= Roger |title= Bold Privateers: Terror, Plunder and Profit on Canada's Atlantic Coast|year=2004|publisher=Formac Publishing Company|pages=87–89}}</ref>
To guard against repeated American privateer attacks, the [[84th Regiment of Foot (Royal Highland Emigrants)]] was garrisoned at forts around [[Atlantic Canada]] to strengthen the small and ill-equipped militia companies of the colony. [[Fort Edward (Nova Scotia)]] in [[Windsor, Nova Scotia]], was the Regiment's headquarters to prevent a possible American land assault on Halifax from the Bay of Fundy. There was an American attack on Nova Scotia by land, the [[Battle of Fort Cumberland]] followed by the [[Siege of Saint John (1777)]]
The British naval squadron based at Halifax was successful in deterring any American invasion and in blocking American support for Nova Scotia rebels; it launched some attacks on New England, such as the [[Battle of Machias (1777)]]. However the Royal Navy was unable to establish [[naval supremacy]]. While many American privateers were captured in battles such as the [[Naval battle off Halifax]], many more continued attacks on shipping and settlements until the final months of the war. The Royal Navy struggled to maintain British supply-lines, defending convoys from American and in 1781 (after the [[Franco-American alliance]] against [[Great Britain]]) from French attacks - such as a fiercely-fought convoy battle, the [[Naval battle off Cape Breton|naval engagement]] with a French fleet at [[Sydney, Nova Scotia]], near Spanish River, Cape Breton.<ref name=akins95>{{cite book|last=Akins|first=Thomas B.|author-link=Thomas Beamish Akins|title=History of Halifax City|url= https://archive.org/details/historyhalifaxc00akingoog|year=1895|publisher=Nova Scotia Historical Society |location= Halifax|page=82}}</ref>
[[File:BriggObserveregagingtheJack29May1782HalifaxPublRDodd1Sept1784BerleyRobisonCollectionUSNavalAcademy.jpg|thumb|HMS ''Observer'' engages an American privateer ship ''Jack'' during a [[Battle off Halifax (1782)|naval battle off Halifax]] in 1782]]
As the [[New England Planters]] (1759 onwards) and [[United Empire Loyalists]] began to arrive in Mi'kmaki (the Maritimes) in greater numbers, economic, environmental and cultural pressures were put on the Mi'kmaq with the erosion of the intent of the treaties. The Mi'kmaq tried to enforce the treaties through threat of force. At the beginning of the [[American Revolution]], many Mi'kmaq and Maliseet tribes were supportive of the Americans against the British. They participated in the [[Maugerville, New Brunswick|Maugerville Rebellion]] and the [[Battle of Fort Cumberland]] in 1776. (Mí'kmaq delegates concluded the first international treaty, the [[Treaty of Watertown]], with the [[United States]] soon after it declared its independence in July 1776. These delegates did not officially represent the Mi'kmaq government, although many individual Mi'kmaq did privately join the Continental Army as a result.) During the [[St. John River expedition]] of June 1777, [[John Allan (colonel)|Col. Allan]]'s untiring effort to gain the friendship and support of the Maliseet and Mi'kmaq for the Revolution was somewhat successful. There was a significant exodus of Maliseet from the [[Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)|St John River]] to join the American forces at [[Machias, Maine]].<ref>{{cite book |title= The history of Acadia : from its first discovery to its surrender to England by the Treaty of Paris|last= Hannay|first= James|url= https://archive.org/details/historyofacadiaf00hannuoft|year= 1879 |publisher= J. & A. McMillan|page=119}}</ref> On Sunday, July 13, 1777, a party of between 400 and 500 men, women, and children, embarked in 128 canoes from the [[Meductic Indian Village / Fort Meductic|Old Fort Meduetic]] (8 miles below Woodstock) for Machias. The party arrived at a very opportune moment for the Americans, and afforded material assistance in the defence of that post during [[Battle of Machias (1777)|the attack]] made by Sir [[George Collier]] from 13 to 15 August. The British did only minimal damage to the place, and the services of the Indians on the occasion earned for them the thanks of the [[Massachusetts Governor's Council|council of Massachusetts]].<ref name=Raymond>{{cite book|title=Colonel Alexander McNutt and the Pre-Loyalist Settlements of Nova Scotia|last= Raymond|first= W.O.|publisher= Royal Society of Canada|year= 2011|url= {{Google books| IBwbxAEACAAJ |plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> In June 1779, Mi’kmaq in the [[Miramichi, New Brunswick|Miramichi]] attacked and plundered some of the British in the area. The following month, British Captain Augustus Harvey, in command of [[HMS Viper (1777)|HMS ''Viper'']], arrived in the area and battled with the Mi’kmaq. One Mi’kmaq was killed and 16 were taken prisoner to Quebec. The prisoners were eventually brought to Halifax, where they were later released upon signing the Oath of Allegiance to the British Crown on 28 July 1779.<ref>{{cite DCB |first=L. F. S. |last=Upton |title=Julien, John |volume=5 |url= http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/julien_john_5E.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|title=Sessional Papers, Volume 5 |publisher= The Canadian Parliament|year= 1779}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title= The Maritime Provinces of British North America and the American Revolution|last= Brenton Kerr|first= Wilfred|date= 1970|publisher= Russell & Russell |isbn=9780846213932|page=96}}</ref>{{ref|C|C}}
=== Migration of Loyalists ===
After the British were defeated in the Thirteen Colonies, some former Nova Scotian territory in Maine entered the control of the newly independent American state of [[Massachusetts]]. British troops from Nova Scotia helped evacuate approximately 30,000 [[United Empire Loyalists]] (American Tories), who settled in Nova Scotia, with land grants by the Crown as some compensation for their losses. Of these, 14,000 went to present-day New Brunswick and in response the mainland portion of the Nova Scotia colony was separated and became the province of [[New Brunswick]] with Sir [[Thomas Carleton]] the first governor on August 16, 1784.<ref>{{cite book|title=This Unfriendly Soil: The Loyalist Experience in Nova Scotia, 1783-1791|last=Mackinnon|first=Neil|year=1986|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|jstor=j.ctt130hhc2 |isbn=9780773507197 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt130hhc2}}</ref> Loyalist settlements also led [[Cape Breton Island]] to become a separate colony in 1784, only to be returned to Nova Scotia in 1820.
[[File:LoyalistMonumentMiddletonNovaScotia.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Monument to the [[United Empire Loyalists|loyalists]] that settled [[Middleton, Nova Scotia|Middleton]]]]
The Loyalists exodus created new communities across Nova Scotia, including [[Shelburne, Nova Scotia|Shelburne]], which was briefly one of the larger British settlements in North America, and infused the province with additional capital and skills. The Loyalist migration also caused political tensions between Loyalist leaders and the leaders of the existing [[New England Planters]] settlement. Some Loyalist leaders felt that the elected leaders in Nova Scotia represented a Yankee population which had been sympathetic to the American Revolutionary movement, and which disparaged the intensely anti-American, anti-republican attitudes of the Loyalists. "They [the loyalists]," Colonel Thomas Dundas wrote in 1786, "have experienced every possible injury from the old inhabitants of Nova Scotia, who are even more disaffected towards the British Government than any of the new States ever were. This makes me much doubt their remaining long dependent."<ref>{{cite book|title=Movements of Political Protest in Canada, 1640–1840|last=Clark|first=S.D.|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=1959|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt1gxxqnt|pages=50–51|jstor=10.3138/j.ctt1gxxqnt |isbn=9781442639188 }}</ref>
The Loyalist influx also created pressure for settlement land which pushed Nova Scotia's Mi'kmaq People to the margins as Loyalist land grants encroached on ill-defined native lands. Approximately 3,000 members of the Loyalist migration were [[Black Loyalist]]s who founded the largest free Black settlement in North America at [[Birchtown, Nova Scotia|Birchtown]], near Shelburne. However unfair treatment and harsh conditions caused about one-third of the Black Loyalists to combine forces with British abolitionists and the [[Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor]] to resettle in [[Sierra Leone]]. In 1792, Black Loyalists from Nova Scotia founded [[Freetown, Sierra Leone|Freetown]] and became known in Africa as the [[Nova Scotian Settlers (Sierra Leone)|Nova Scotian Settlers]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves and the American Revolution|last=Schama|first=Simon|author-link=Simon Schama|publisher=Viking Canada|year=2006|page=11}}</ref>
Large numbers of [[Canadian Gaelic|Gaelic-speaking]] [[Highland Scots]] immigrated to Cape Breton and the western part of the mainland during the late 18th century and 19th century. In 1812 [[Sir Hector Maclean, 7th Baronet|Sir Hector Maclean]] (the [[Maclean Baronets|7th Baronet of Morvern]] and 23rd Chief of the [[Clan Maclean]]) emigrated to Pictou from [[Glensanda|Glensanda and Kingairloch]] in Scotland bringing along almost the entire population of 500.<ref>{{cite book|title=Beyond the Atlantic Roar: A Study of the Nova Scotia Scots|last1=Campbell|first1=Donald Fraser|last2=Campbell|first2=Douglas F.|last3=MacLean|first3=R.A.|publisher=McGill-Queen University Press|year=1974|url={{Google books|-dOXr1lRCcAC|plainurl=yes}}|page=3}}</ref>
==== Decline of slavery (1787–1812) ====
[[File:AricanNovaScotianByCaptain William Booth1788.png|thumb|A [[Black Loyalist]] wood cutter at [[Shelburne, Nova Scotia|Shelburne]] in 1788]]
While many blacks who arrived in Nova Scotia during the American Revolution were free, others were not.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Slavery in the Maritime Provinces|first=William Renwick|last=Riddell|date=July 1920|journal=The Journal of Negro History|volume=5|issue=3|pages=359–375|jstor=2713627|doi=10.2307/2713627|s2cid=149557314}}</ref> Black slaves also arrived in Nova Scotia as the property of [[White American]] Loyalists. In 1772, prior to the American Revolution, Britain [[Somerset v Stewart|outlawed the slave trade in the British Isles]] followed by the ''[[Joseph Knight (slave)|Knight v. Wedderburn]]'' decision in Scotland in 1778. This decision, in turn, influenced the colony of Nova Scotia. In 1788, abolitionist [[James Drummond MacGregor]] from Pictou published the first anti-slavery literature in Canada and began purchasing slaves' freedom and chastising his colleagues in the Presbyterian church who owned slaves.<ref>{{cite DCB |first=Susan |last=Buggey |title=MacGregor, James Drummond |volume=6 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/macgregor_james_drummond_6E.html}}</ref> In 1790 [[John Burbidge]] freed his slaves. Led by [[Richard John Uniacke]], in 1787, 1789 and again on January 11, 1808, the Nova Scotian legislature refused to legalise slavery.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pachai|first1=Bridglal|last2=Bishop|first2=Henry|title=Historic Black Nova Scotia|url={{Google books|QVepAAAACAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|year=2006|publisher=Nimbus|isbn=978-1-55109-551-6|page=8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The immigration and settlement of the black refugees of the War of 1812 in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick|last=Grant|first=John N.|year=1990|publisher=Genre Books|page=31}}</ref> Two chief justices, [[Thomas Andrew Lumisden Strange]] (1790–1796) and [[Sampson Salter Blowers]] (1797–1832) waged "judicial war" in their efforts to free slaves from their owners in Nova Scotia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Winks|first=Robin W.|title=The Blacks in Canada: A History|url={{Google books|Eeh4L1CulqYC|plainurl=yes}}|year=1997|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=978-0-7735-1632-8|page=102}}</ref><ref>{{cite DCB |first=Donald F. |last=Chard |title=Strange, Sir Thomas Andrew Lumisden |volume=7 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/strange_thomas_andrew_lumisden_7E.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://courts.ns.ca/History_of_Courts/history_noframes/milestones.htm|title=Legal Milestones
|date=2004|publisher=The Courts of Nova Scotia}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Barry |last=Cahill |title=Slavery and the Judges of Loyalist Nova Scotia |journal=UNB Law Journal |volume=43 |date=1994 |pages=73–135 |url=https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/unblj/article/view/29646}}</ref>{{ref|D|D}} They were held in high regard in the colony. By the end of the [[War of 1812]] and the arrival of the Black Refugees, there were few slaves left in Nova Scotia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://novascotia.ca/archives/virtual/africanns/results.asp?Search=&SearchList1=3&Language=English|title=Website Update – Nova Scotia Archives|website=novascotia.ca|date=20 April 2020|url-status=dead|archive-date=2014-12-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214133303/https://novascotia.ca/archives/virtual/africanns/results.asp?Search=&SearchList1=3&Language=English}}</ref> (The [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]] outlawed the slave trade in the British Empire in 1807 and the [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833|Slavery Abolition Act]] of 1833 outlawed slavery altogether.)
== 19th century ==
===Early 19th century===
====Renewed wars with France====
The French Revolutionary and later Napoleonic Wars at first created confusion and hardship as the fishery was disrupted and Nova Scotia's West Indies trade suffered severe French attacks. However, military spending in the strategic colony gradually led to increasing prosperity. Many Nova Scotian merchants outfitted their own privateers to attack French and Spanish shipping in the West Indies. The maturing colony built new roads and lighthouses and in 1801 established a lifesaving station on [[Sable Island]] to deal with the many international shipwrecks on the island.
==== War of 1812 ====
[[File:John Christian Schetky, H.M.S. Shannon Leading Her Prize the American Frigate Chesapeake into Halifax Harbour (c. 1830).jpg|left|thumb|{{HMS|Shannon|1806|6}} leading the captured {{USS|Chesapeake|1799|6}} in [[Halifax Harbour]] during the [[War of 1812]]]]
During the [[War of 1812]] with the United States, Nova Scotia became an even larger military base for the British as the centre for the British Royal Navy's blockade and naval raids on the United States. The colony also contributed to the war effort by purchasing or building various privateer ships to seize 250 American vessels.<ref name=boileau>{{cite book|title=Half-Hearted Enemies: Nova Scotia, New England and the War of 1812|date=2005-05-06|publisher=Formac Publishing|last=Boileau|first=John|url={{Google books|d4qgBAAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}|page=53}}</ref> The colony's privateers were led by the town of [[Liverpool, Nova Scotia]], notably by the schooner [[Liverpool Packet]] which captured over fifty ships in the war – the most of any privateer in Canada.<ref name=boileau/> The [[Sir John Sherbrooke (Halifax)]], jointly owned between Liverpool and Halifax was also very successful during the war, being the largest privateer from British North America. Other communities also joined the privateer campaign, including [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia|Annapolis Royal]], [[Windsor, Nova Scotia|Windsor]], and in [[Lunenburg, Nova Scotia]], three members of the town of purchased a privateer schooner and named it ''Lunenburg'' on August 8, 1814.<ref>{{cite book|last=Snider|first=C.H.J.|title=Under the Red Jack: privateers of the Maritime Provinces of Canada in the War of 1812|year=1928|publisher= Martin Hopkinson & Co. Ltd|pages=225–258|url=http://www.1812privateers.org/Ca/canada.htm#LG|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100816030429/http://www.1812privateers.org/Ca/canada.htm |archive-date=2010-08-16}})</ref> The Nova Scotian privateer vessel captured seven American vessels.
Perhaps the most dramatic moment in the war for Nova Scotia was when {{HMS|Shannon|1806|6}} led the [[Capture of USS Chesapeake|captured American frigate USS ''Chesapeake'']] into [[Halifax Harbour]] (1813). The captain of the ''Shannon'' was injured, and Nova Scotian [[Provo Wallis]] took command of the ship to escort the ''Chesapeake'' to Halifax. Many of the prisoners were kept at [[Deadman's Island, Halifax]].<ref name=boileau/> At the same time, there was {{HMS|Hogue|1811|6}}{{'}}s traumatic capture of the American privateer ''[[Young Teazer]]'' off [[Chester, Nova Scotia]].
On September 3, 1814, a British fleet from [[City of Halifax|Halifax, Nova Scotia]], began to [[Battle of Hampden|lay siege to Maine]] to re-establish British title to Maine east of the [[Penobscot River]], an area the British had renamed "New Ireland". Carving off "New Ireland" from New England had been a goal of the British government and settlers of Nova Scotia ("New Scotland") since the American Revolution.<ref name=seymour/>{{rp|10}} The British expedition involved eight war-ships and ten transports (carrying 3,500 British regulars) that were under the overall command of Sir [[John Coape Sherbrooke]], then Lt. Gov. of [[Nova Scotia]].<ref name=seymour>{{cite book|title=Tom Seymour's Maine: A Maine Anthology|last=Seymour|first=Tom|date=2003}}</ref>{{rp|10–17}} On July 3, 1814, the expedition captured the coastal town of [[Castine, Maine]] and then went on to raid [[Belfast, Maine|Belfast]], [[Machias, Maine|Machias]], [[Eastport, Maine|Eastport]], [[Hampden, Maine|Hampden]] and [[Bangor, Maine|Bangor]](See [[Battle of Hampden]]). After the war, Maine was returned to America through the [[Treaty of Ghent]]. The British returned to Halifax and, with the spoils of war they had taken from Maine, they built [[Dalhousie University]] (established 1818).<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Halifax-Castine Expedition|journal=Dalhousie Review|url=http://hdl.handle.net/10222/57480|volume=18|number=2|year=1938|last=Harvey|first=D.C.|author-link=Daniel Cobb Harvey|pages=207–213|hdl=10222/57480 }}</ref>
[[File:Gabriel Hall, Nova Scotia.png|thumb|upright|Photo of Gabriel Hall, a [[Black Refugee (War of 1812)|black refugee from the War of 1812]]]]
The [[Black Refugee (War of 1812)|Black Refugees]] from the [[War of 1812]] were [[African American]] slaves who fought for the [[United Kingdom|British]] and were relocated to Nova Scotia. The Black Refugees were the second group of [[African Americans]], after the [[Black Loyalists]], to defect to the British side and be relocated to Nova Scotia. However, there was also migration out of the colony because of the hardships immigrants faced. Reverend [[Norman McLeod (minister)|Norman McLeod]] led a large group of approximately 800 Scottish residents from the [[St. Anns, Nova Scotia]], to [[Waipu, New Zealand]], during the 1850s.
====Labour conditions====
The Halifax Naval Yard during the 1775–1820 era had officials who took bribes from workers and practiced widespread nepotism. The laborers endured poor working conditions and limited personal freedoms. However, the laborers were willing to remain there for many years because wages were high and more steady than any alternative. Unlike almost any other jobs the yards paid disability benefits for men injured at work and gave retirement pensions to those who spent their career in the yards.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gwyn | first1 = Julian | year = 1999 | title = the Culture of Work in the Halifax Naval Yard Before 1820 | journal = Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society | volume = 2 | pages = 118–144 }}</ref>
Nova Scotia had one of the first labour organizations in what became Canada. By 1799 workers set up a Carpenters' Society at Halifax, and soon there were attempts at organization by other craftsmen and tradesmen. Businessmen complained, and in 1816 Nova Scotia passed an act against trade unions, the preamble of which declared that great numbers of master tradesmen, journeymen, and workmen in the town of Halifax and other parts of the province had, by unlawful meetings and combinations, endeavored to regulate the rate of wages and effectuate other illegal aims. Unions remained illegal until 1851.<ref name=confed/>{{rp|338}}
====Responsible government====
Nova Scotia was the first colony in [[British North America]] and in the [[British Empire]] to achieve [[responsible government]] in January–February 1848 and become [[self-governing colony|self-governing]] through the efforts of [[Joseph Howe]].<ref name=beck>{{cite book|last=Beck|first=J. Murray|year=1983|title=Joseph Howe: The Briton Becomes Canadian 1848–1873|volume=2|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=0-7735-0388-9}}</ref> (In 1758, Nova Scotia also became the first British colony to establish [[representative government]], commemorated in 1908 by erecting the [[Sir Sandford Fleming Park|Dingle Tower]].)
===Latter 19th century===
The first school for the [[deaf]] in [[Atlantic Canada]], the [[Halifax School for the Deaf]], was established on Göttingen St., Halifax (1856). The [[Halifax School for the Blind]] was opened on Morris Street in 1871. It was the first residential school for the blind in Canada.
[[File:Welsford-Parker Monument at the entrance to the Old Burying Ground in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Sebastopol Monument]] in 2007. It was unveiled in Halifax in 1860 to commemorate the British victory at the [[Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)|siege of Sevastopol]] and the [[Crimean War]].]]
Nova Scotians fought in the [[Crimean War]]. The [[Welsford-Parker Monument]] in Halifax is the oldest war monument in Canada (1860) and the only Crimean War monument in North America. It commemorates the [[Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)]]. Nova Scotians also participated in the [[Indian Mutiny]]. Two of the most famous were [[William Hall (VC)]] and Sir [[John Eardley Inglis]], both of whom participated in the [[Siege of Lucknow]]. The [[78th (Highlanders) Regiment of Foot]] were famous for their involvement with the siege and were later posted to [[Citadel Hill (Fort George)]].
==== American Civil War ====
{{See also|Canada and the American Civil War}}
Over 200 Nova Scotians have been identified as fighting in the [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865). Most joined Maine or Massachusetts infantry regiments, but one in ten served the Confederacy (South). The total likely reached two thousand as many young men had migrated to the U.S. before 1860. Pacifism, neutrality, anti-Americanism, and anti-"Yankee" sentiments all operated to keep the numbers down, but on the other hand, there were strong cash incentives to join the well-paid Northern army and the long tradition of emigrating out of Nova Scotia, combined with a zest for adventure, attracted many young men.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marquis|first=Greg|title=Mercenaries or Killer Angels? Nova Scotians in the American Civil War|journal=Collections of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society|year=1995|volume=44|pages=83–84}}</ref>
The British Empire (including Nova Scotia) declared neutrality, and Nova Scotia prospered greatly from trade with the Union. Nova Scotia was the site of two minor international incidents during the war: the [[Chesapeake Affair]] and the escape from [[Halifax Harbour]] of the [[CSS Tallahassee|CSS ''Tallahassee'']], aided by Confederate sympathizers.<ref name=shadow>{{cite book|last=Marquis|first=Greg|title=In Armageddon's Shadow: The Civil War and Canada's Maritime Provinces|publisher=McGill-Queen’s University Press|year=1998}}</ref> Nova Scotia was a center for [[Confederate Secret Service]] agents and Confederate sympathizers and had a role in engaging in [[blockade runners of the American Civil War|blockade running with arms largely from Britain]]. [[Blockade runner]]s stopped in Halifax to rest and refuel where they were to pass through the [[Union blockade]] to deliver supplies to the [[Confederate States Army|Confederate Army]]. Nova Scotia's role in [[arms trafficking]] to the South was so noticeable that the ''[[Acadian Recorder]]'' in 1864 described Halifax's effort as a "[[mercenary]] aid to a fratricidal war, which, without outside intervention, would have long ago ended."<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.cnrs-scrn.org/northern_mariner/vol08/nm_8_1_1-19.pdf#page=4|title=The Ports of Halifax and Saint John and the American Civil War|author=Greg Marquis|page=4|volume=8|issue=1|date=January 1998|publisher=[[The Northern Mariner]]}}</ref> [[United States Secretary of State|U.S. Secretary of State]] [[William H. Seward]] complained on March 14, 1865:
<blockquote>
Halifax has been for more than one year, and yet is, a naval station for vessels which, running the blockade, furnish supplies and munitions of war to our enemy, and it has been made a rendezvous for those piratical cruisers which come out from [[Liverpool]] and [[Glasgow]], to destroy our commerce on the high seas, and even to carry war into the ports of the United States. Halifax is a postal and despatch station in the correspondence between the rebels at Richmond and their emissaries in Europe. Halifax merchants are known to have surreptitiously imported provisions, arms, and ammunition from our seaports, and then transshipped them to the rebels. The governor of Nova Scotia has been neutral, just, and friendly; so were the judges of the province who presided on the trial of the Chesapeake. But then it is understood that, on the other hand, merchant shippers of Halifax, and many of the people of Halifax, are willing agents and abettors of the enemies of the United States, and their hostility has proved not merely offensive but deeply injurious.<ref>{{cite thesis|url=https://prism.ucalgary.ca/server/enwiki/api/core/bitstreams/fce3cc3a-b506-4cf1-a42b-4f939db75ac5/content#page=14|title=Between King Cotton and Queen Victoria: Confederate Informal Diplomacy and Privatized Violence in British America During the American Civil War|author=Beau Cleland|page=2|publisher=[[University of Calgary]]}}</ref>
</blockquote>
The war left many fearful that the North might attempt to annex [[British North America]], particularly after the [[Fenian raids]] began (many Americans considered the Fenian raids as retribution against British-Canadian tolerance of and even aid to the Confederate activities in Canada against the Union during the Civil War (such as the ''Chesapeake'' Affair and the [[St. Albans Raid]]).<ref>{{cite news|title=Historicist: Confederates and Conspirators|url=https://www.the-american-interest.com/2011/09/01/as-others-saw-us/|author=Kevin Plummer|date=May 21, 2011|publisher=Torontoist}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=10 ways Canada fought the American Civil War|url=https://macleans.ca/society/10-ways-canada-fought-the-american-civil-war/|date=August 4, 2014|publisher=[[Maclean's]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-confederate-spy-ring-spreading-terror-to-the-union/|title=The Confederate Spy Ring: Spreading Terror to the Union|author=Peter Kross|date=Fall 2015|publisher=Warfare History network}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.barakabooks.com/catalogue/montreal-city-of-secrets-civil-war/|title=Montreal, City of Secrets: Confederate Operations in Montreal During the American Civil War|publisher=Baraka Books}}</ref> In response, volunteer regiments were raised across Nova Scotia. British commander and Lt Governor of Nova Scotia [[Charles Hastings Doyle]] (after whom [[Port Hastings, Nova Scotia|Port Hastings]] is named) led 700 troops out of Halifax to crush a Fenian attack on the New Brunswick border with Maine. This rather baseless scare was one of the main reasons why Britain sanctioned the creation of Canada (1867); to avoid another possible conflict with America and to leave the defence of Nova Scotia to a Canadian Government.<ref>Marquis, ''In Armageddon’s Shadow''</ref>
==== Canadian Confederation ====
[[File:Cross Roads.jpg|thumb|Political cartoon from 1868 where Nova Scotia, represented by the girl ''Acadia'', is choosing between [[Charles Tupper]] and [[Canadian Confederation]], or [[Joseph Howe]] and union with the US. Although Howe was only anti-Confederation, some had perceived he preferred joining the US.]]
The [[British North America Act, 1867|British North America Act]], by which Nova Scotia became part of the Dominion of Canada, went into effect on July 1, 1867. Premier [[Charles Tupper]] had worked energetically to bring about the union. But it was controversial because localism, Protestant fears of Catholics and distrust of Canadians generally, and worries about losing free trade with America, were all intensified by the refusal of Tupper to consult Nova Scotia's voters on the subject. A movement for withdrawal from Canada developed, led by [[Joseph Howe]]. Howe's [[Anti-Confederation Party]] swept the next election, on September 18, 1867, winning 18 out of 19 federal seats, and 36 out of 38 seats in the provincial legislature. A motion passed by the Nova Scotia House of Assembly in 1868 refusing to recognise the legitimacy of Confederation has never been rescinded. With the great [[Hants County, Nova Scotia|Hants County]] by-election of 1869, Howe was successful in turning the province away from appealing confederation to simply seeking "better terms" within it.<ref name=beck/> Despite its temporary popularity, Howe's movement failed in its goal to withdraw from Canada because London was determined the union go forward. Howe did succeed in getting better financial terms for the province, and gained a national office for himself.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-09 |title=Joseph Howe {{!}} Nova Scotian, journalist, politician {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Howe |access-date=2024-01-08 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
Long-term adverse factors came into play. In 1865 came the end of the American Civil War and all the extra business it had generated. In 1866 came the end of [[Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty]], which led to higher and damaging American tariffs on goods imported from Nova Scotia. In the long run the transition at sea from wood-wind-water sailing to steel steamships undercut the advantages Nova Scotia had enjoyed before 1867. Many residents for decades grumbled that Confederation had slowed the economic progress of the province and it lagged other parts of Canada. Repeal, as anti-confederation became known, would rear its head again in the 1880s, and transform into the [[Maritime Rights Movement]] in the 1920s. Some [[Flag of Nova Scotia|Nova Scotia flags]] flew at half mast on [[Dominion Day]] as late as that time.
==== Golden Age of Sail ====
[[File:WilliamDLawrenceMaitlandNovaScotia.jpg|thumb|Photo of ''[[William D. Lawrence (ship)|William D. Lawrence]]'' being built at [[Maitland, Nova Scotia|Maitland]] in 1873. The ship was the [[List of longest wooden ships|longest wooden ship]] built in Canada.]]
Nova Scotia became a world leader in both building and owning wooden sailing ships in the second half of the century. Nova Scotia produced internationally recognized ship builders [[Donald McKay]], [[John M. Blaikie]] and [[William Dawson Lawrence]] and ship designers such as [[Ebenezer Moseley]] as well the propeller inventor [[John Patch]]. Notable ships included the [[barque]] [[Stag (barque)|''Stag'']], a clipper renowned for speed and the [[full-rigged ship|ship]] [[William D. Lawrence (ship)|''William D. Lawrence'']], the largest wooden [[full-rigged ship|ship]] ever built in Canada. Mariners such a [[Research (1861 ship)|Capt. George "Rudder" Churchill]] of [[Yarmouth, Nova Scotia|Yarmouth]] became famous for their voyages. The province also produced a notable 19th-century female mariner, [[Bessie Hall]] from [[Annapolis Royal]]. The most famous of the sailors from Nova Scotia was [[Joshua Slocum]] who became the first man to sail single-handedly around the world (1895). Competition from steamships in the late 19th century ended the Golden Age of Sail, although the legacy continued to inspire mariners and the public into the following century with the many racing victories of the [[Bluenose]] schooner.
The population grew steadily from 277,000 in 1851 to 388,000 in 1871, mostly from natural increase since immigration was slight. The era is often called the province's golden age due to the economic growth, growth of towns and villages, maturing of business and institutions and the success of industries like shipbuilding. The idea of a past golden age came to prominence in the early 20th century by economic reformers in the [[Maritime Rights Movement]] and was exploited by the tourism industry in the 1930s to lure tourists to a romantic era of tall ships and antiques.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McKay|first=Ian|title=History and the Tourist Gaze: The Politics of Commemoration in Nova Scotia, 1935–1964|journal=Acadiensis|date=1993|volume=22|issue=2|pages=102–138}}</ref> Recent historians using census data have challenged the idea of Nova Scotia's golden age. In 1851–1871 there was an overall increase in per capita wealth holding. However, typical of [[Gilded Age|19th century capitalism]], most of the gains went to the urban elites, especially businessmen and financiers living in Halifax. The wealth held by the top 10 percent rose considerably over the two decades, but there was little improvement in the wealth levels in rural areas, which comprised the great majority of the population.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gwyn|first1=Julian|last2=Siddiq|first2=Fazley|title=Wealth distribution in Nova Scotia during the Confederation era, 1851 and 1871|journal=Canadian Historical Review|year=1992|volume=73|issue=4|pages=435–452|doi=10.3138/CHR-073-04-01 |s2cid=161430261 }}</ref> Likewise Gwyn reports that gentlemen, merchants, bankers, colliery owners, shipowners, shipbuilders, and master mariners flourished. However the great majority of families were headed by farmers, fishermen, craftsmen and laborers. Many of them—and many widows—lived in poverty. Outmigration increased as the 19th century wore on.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gwyn|first=Julian|title=Golden Age or Bronze Moment? Wealth and Poverty in Nova Scotia: The 1850s and 1860s|journal=Canadian Papers in Rural History|year=1992|volume=8|pages=195–230}}</ref>{{ref|E|E}} Thus the era was indeed a golden age but mainly for a small and powerful elite.
==== North-West Rebellion ====
[[File:SwiftCurrent.jpg|thumb|Members of the [[Halifax Provisional Battalion]] fording a stream near [[Swift Current, Saskatchewan]] during the [[North-West Rebellion]]]]
The [[Halifax Provisional Battalion]] was a military unit from [[Nova Scotia]], Canada, which was sent to fight in the [[North-West Rebellion]] in 1885. The battalion was under command of Lieut.-Colonel James J. Bremner and consisted of 168 non-commissioned officers and men of [[The Princess Louise Fusiliers]], 100 of the [[The Halifax Rifles (RCAC)|63rd Battalion Rifles]], and 84 of the [[1st (Halifax-Dartmouth) Field Artillery Regiment, RCA|Halifax Garrison Artillery]], with 32 officers. The battalion left Halifax under orders for the North-West on Saturday, April 11, 1885, and they stayed for almost three months.<ref>{{cite book|title=The History of the North-west Rebellion of 1885: Comprising a Full and Impartial Account of the Origin and Progress of the War, Scenes in the Field, the Camp, and the Cabin; Including a History of the Indian Tribes of North-western Canada|last=Pelham Mulvany|first=Charles|publisher=A.H. Hovey & Company|year=1886|page=410}}</ref>
Prior to Nova Scotia's involvement, the province remained hostile to Canada in the aftermath of [[Anti-Confederation Party|how the colony was forced into Canada]]. The celebration that followed the Halifax Provisional Battalion's return by train across the county ignited a national patriotism in Nova Scotia. Prime Minister Robert Borden, stated that "up to this time Nova Scotia hardly regarded itself as included in the Canadian Confederation... The rebellion evoked a new spirit... The Riel Rebellion did more to unite Nova Scotia with the rest of Canada than any event that had occurred since Confederation." Similarly, in 1907 Governor General Earl Grey declared, "This Battalion... went out Nova Scotians, they returned Canadians." The wrought iron gates at the [[Halifax Public Gardens]] were made in the Battalion's honour.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sutherland|first=David A.|title=Halifax Encounter with the North-West Uprising of 1885|journal=Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society|volume=13|year=2010|page=73}}</ref>
===19th century economic growth===
[[File:Alexander Keith Brewery, Halifax, Nova Scotia.jpg|thumb|Depiction of [[Alexander Keith's Brewery]], {{circa|1865–70}}. The brewery was established in Nova Scotia in 1820.]]
Throughout the nineteenth century, there were numerous businesses that were developed in Nova Scotia that became of national and international importance: The [[Starr Manufacturing Company]], [[Moosehead Brewery|Susannah Oland and Sons Co.]], the [[Bank of Nova Scotia]], [[Cunard Line]], [[Alexander Keith's Brewery]], [[Morse's Tea Company]], among others.
Most people were farmers and agriculture dominated the economy, despite all the attention given to ships. The rural situation peaked in 1891 in terms of total rural population, farmland, grain production, cattle production, and number of farms, then fell steadily into the 21st century. Apples and dairy products resisted the downward trend in the 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Inwood | first1 = Kris | last2 = Wagg | first2 = Phyllis | year = 1994 | title = Wealth and Prosperity in Nova Scotia Agriculture, 1851–71 | url = https://muse.jhu.edu/article/574588/summary | journal = Canadian Historical Review | volume = 75 | issue = 2| pages = 239–264 }}</ref>
The pattern of Nova Scotia's trade and tariffs between 1830 and 1866 suggests that the colony was already moving toward free trade before the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 with the U.S. took effect. The treaty produced modest additional direct gains. The Reciprocity Treaty complemented the earlier movement toward free trade and stimulated the export of commodities sold primarily to the United States, especially coal.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gerriets | first1 = Marilyn | last2 = Gwyn | first2 = Julian | year = 1996 | title = Tariffs, Trade and Reciprocity: Nova Scotia, 1830–1866 | journal = Acadiensis | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 62–81 }}</ref>
Halifax was the home of [[Samuel Cunard]]. With his father, Abraham, a master ship's carpenter, he founded the A. Cunard & Co. cargo shipping company and later the [[Cunard Line]], a pride of the British Empire. Samuel parlayed his father's modest waterfront properties into a succession of businesses that revolutionized transatlantic shipping and passenger travel with the introduction of steam and steel. Cunard was a booster who was active in philanthropy and helped found the Chamber of Commerce, where he found business partners for his ventures in banking, mining, and other businesses. In the process he became one of the largest landholders in the Maritime Provinces.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Langley | first1 = John G. | year = 2005 | title = Samuel Cunard 1787–1865: 'As Fine a Specimen of a Self-made Man as this Western Continent Can Boast Of.' | journal = Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society | volume = 8 | pages = 92–115 }}</ref>
[[File:Statue of Samuel Cunard in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Statue of [[Samuel Cunard]] in 2006. Cunard started his steamship business in Nova Scotia.]]
[[John Fitzwilliam Stairs]] (1848–1904), scion of the powerful Stairs family, enlarged the family's multiple businesses by merging the cordage firms and sugar refineries and then creating the steel industry in the province. In order to develop new regional sources of capital, Stairs became an innovator in building legal and regulatory frameworks for these new forms of financial structure. Frost contrasts Stairs's success in promoting regional development with the obstacles that he had encountered in promoting regional interests, particularly at the federal level. The family finally sold its businesses in 1971, after 160 years.<ref>{{cite DCB |first=J. B. |last=Cahill |title=Stairs, John Fitzwilliam |volume=13 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/stairs_william_james_13E.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Merchant Princes: Halifax's First Family of Finance, Ships and Steel|last=Frost|first=James D.|publisher=James Lorimer Limited|date=2003-09-22|isbn=9781550288032|url={{Google books|wJlpAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref>
After Confederation, boosters of Halifax expected federal help to make the city's natural harbor Canada's official winter port and a gateway for trade with Europe. Halifax's advantages included its location just off the Great Circle route made it the closest to Europe of any mainland North American port. But the new [[Intercolonial Railway]] (ICR) took an indirect, southerly route for military and political reasons, and the national government made little effort to promote Halifax as Canada's winter port. Ignoring appeals to nationalism and the ICR's own attempts to promote traffic to Halifax, most Canadian exporters sent their wares by train though Boston or Portland. No one was interested in financing the large-scale port facilities Halifax lacked. It took the First World War to at last boost Halifax's harbor into prominence on the North Atlantic.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Frost | first1 = James D. | year = 2005 | title = Halifax: the Wharf of the Dominion, 1867–1914 | journal = Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society | volume = 8 | pages = 35–48 }}</ref>
Unionization, legal after 1851, was based on skilled crafts except in the coal mines and steel plants, where unskilled men could also join. There has been an increase in [[industrial unionism]] with the expansion of industry. International unionism with a strong American influence became important, as international unions began in 1869, when a local of the International Typographical Union was chartered in Halifax. In 1870 the woodworking trades started their union. Different unions banded together to support strike action, as seen in the organization of the Amalgamated Trade Unions of Halifax in 1889, which was succeeded by the Halifax District Trades and Labour Council in 1898. By the end of the 19th century there were more than 70 local unions in the province.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McKay|first=Ian|url=https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/llt/1986-v18-llt_18/llt18art01.pdf|title="By Wisdom, Wile or War" The Provincial Workmen's Association and the Struggle for Working-Class Independence in Nova Scotia, 1879-97|journal=Labour/Le Travail|year=1986|volume=18|publisher=Canadian Committee on Labour History|pages=13–62}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=MacEwan|first=Paul|title=Miners and Steelworkers: Labour in Cape Breton|year=1976|publisher=S. Stevens|isbn=9780888665331|url={{Google books|dhkEAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref>
== 20th century ==
Established in 1894, the [[Local Council of Women of Halifax]] (LCWH) became a prominent suffragette group in the province during the early 20th century, having been devoted to improving the lives of women and children. One of the most significant achievements of the LCWH was its 24-year struggle for women's right to vote in 1918.
===Early 20th century economy===
[[File:ReserveColliery DominioncoalCompanyCa1900.jpg|thumb|A [[Dominion Steel and Coal Corporation]] colliery in [[Reserve Mines]], Nova Scotia, {{circa|1900}}]]
In the early 20th century Leah Tibert Steel and Coal Company (known as Scotia) became a vertically integrated industrial giant. It grew rapidly and made handsome profits from exports of coal, pig iron and steel products to Canadian and international markets. At first its convenient tidewater location and control over all steps of production boosted growth, as it grew through mergers and acquisitions. However the long term negative factors included fragmentation, limited Maritime region markets, rising costs, low quality raw materials, and the lack of external economies.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = McCann | first1 = L. D. | year = 1994 | title = Fragmented Integration: the Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company and the Anatomy of an Urban-industrial Landscape, c. 1912 | journal = Urban History Review | volume = 22 | issue = 2| pages = 139–158 | doi=10.7202/1016714ar| doi-access = free }}</ref> When Scotia (now called DOSCO--[[Dominion Steel and Coal Corporation]]) finally closed in the 1960s it was a blow to numerous towns that had counted on its well paid jobs and the political activism of its workers, such as [[Florence, Nova Scotia|Florence]], [[Reserve Mines, Nova Scotia|Reserve Mines]], Sydney Mines, Trenton, and [[New Glasgow, Nova Scotia|New Glasgow]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Company Store: J. B. McLachlan and the Cape Breton Coal Miners 1900-1925|last=Mellor|first=John|year=1983|publisher=Formac Publishing|url={{Google books|4nIgAQAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=9780887801266}}</ref>
However, rural areas steadily lost population, especially the eastern counties. Liberal premiers [[George Henry Murray]] (1896–1923) and [[Ernest H. Armstrong]] (1923–25) implemented programs to improve rural life and modernize agricultural industry. They secured federal assistance through loans and grants for agriculture, roads, and immigration. Murray was criticized for being too cautious in his reforms, while Armstrong, even with a Liberal federal government behind him, was unable to keep the assistance flowing. The situation only worsened with the post-war downturn which brought the United Farmers Party to power in 1920 in the hardest hit areas of eastern Nova Scotia. The Liberals' failure to stem the decline of the area brought their defeat in 1925 by "rejuvenated" Conservatives who capitalized on Armstrong's weakness.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brown | first1 = Paul | year = 1998 | title = 'Come East, Young Man!' the Politics of Rural Depopulation in Nova Scotia, 1900–1925 | journal = Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society | volume = 1 | pages = 47–78 }}</ref>
====Labour unions====
The Provincial Workmen's Association began in 1879 as a miners' union; in 1898, faced by a challenge from the [[Knights of Labor]], it sought to embrace unions in all the industries of the province. The first local union of the [[United Mine Workers]] was established in 1908. After a struggle for control of the labour movement among the miners, the Provincial Workmen's Association was dissolved in 1917, and by 1919 the [[United Mine Workers]] took control of the coal miners. Success was due to the aggressive leadership of J. B. McLachlan (1869–1937), who left the coal mines of Scotland for Canada in 1902, became a Communist (1922 to 1936) and promoted a strong union and a tradition of independent labour politics. McLachlan's battles with the American UMWA leadership, particularly the dictatorial [[John L. Lewis]], demonstrated his commitment to democratic unionism for the miners and a fighting union, but Lewis won and ousted McLachlan from power.<ref>{{cite book|last=Frank|first=David|title=J. B. McLachlan: A Biography: The Story of a Legendary Labour Leader and the Cape Breton Coal Miners|publisher=James Lorimer & Company|url={{Google books|2kRuaPmhPs4C|plainurl=yes}}|year=1999|isbn=9781550286762|page=97}}</ref>
Women played an important, though quiet, role in support of the union movement in coal towns during the troubled 1920s and 1930s. They never worked for the mines but provided psychological support especially during strikes when the pay packets did not arrive. They were the family financiers and encouraged other wives who otherwise might have coaxed their menfolk to accept company terms. Women's labor leagues organized a variety of social, educational, and fund-raising functions. Women also violently confronted "[[Scab labour|scabs]]", policemen, and soldiers. They had to stretch the food dollar and show inventiveness in clothing their families.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Steven | first1 = Penfold | year = 1994 | title = 'Have You No Manhood in You?' Gender and Class in the Cape Breton Coal Towns, 1920–1926 | journal = Acadiensis | volume = 23 | issue = 2| pages = 21–44 }}</ref>
===Second Boer War===
[[File:Boer War Monument, Province House, Halifax (3609960252).jpg|thumb|upright|left|Boer War memorial outside [[Province House (Nova Scotia)|Province House]]]]
During the [[Second Boer War]] (1899–1902), the First Contingent was composed of seven Companies from across Canada. The Nova Scotia Company (H) consisted of 125 men. (The total First Contingent was a total force of 1,019. Eventually over 8600 Canadians served.) The mobilization of the Contingent took place at Quebec. On October 30, 1899, the ship Sardinian sailed the troops for four weeks to Cape Town.
The Boer War marked the first occasion in which large contingents of Nova Scotian troops served abroad (individual Nova Scotians had served in the Crimean War).
The [[Battle of Paardeberg]] in February 1900 represented the second time Canadian soldiers saw battle abroad (the first being the Canadian involvement in the [[Nile Expedition]]).<ref>{{cite web|author=Canadian War Museum |year=2008 |title=Battle of Paardeberg|url=http://www.civilisations.ca/cwm/boer/battlepaardeberg_e.html |publisher=[[Canadian War Museum]] |access-date=2008-05-10 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070718053710/http://www.civilisations.ca/cwm/boer/battlepaardeberg_e.html |archive-date=2007-07-18 }}</ref> Canadians also saw action at the Battle of Faber's Put on May 30, 1900.<ref>{{cite web|author=Canadian War Museum |year=2008|title=Battle of Faber's Put|url=http://www.civilisations.ca/cwm/boer/battlefabersput_e.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070718053710/http://www.civilisations.ca/cwm/boer/battlefabersput_e.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2007-07-18|publisher=[[Canadian War Museum]]|access-date=2008-05-10}}</ref> On November 7, 1900, the [[Royal Canadian Dragoons]] engaged the Boers in the [[Battle of Leliefontein]], where they saved British guns from capture during a retreat from the banks of the [[Komati River]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Canadian War Museum |year=2008|title=Battle of Leliefontein|url=http://www.civilisations.ca/cwm/boer/battleleliefontein_e.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120324145751/http://www.civilisations.ca/cwm/boer/battleleliefontein_e.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-03-24|publisher=[[Canadian War Museum]]|access-date=2008-05-10}}</ref>
Approximately 267 Canadians died in the War. 89 men were killed in action, 135 died of disease, and the remainder died of accident or injury. 252 were wounded.
Of all the Canadians who died during the war, the most famous was the young Lt. [[Harold Lothrop Borden]] of [[Canning, Nova Scotia]]. Harold Borden's father was Sir [[Frederick W. Borden]], Canada's Minister of Militia who was a strong proponent of Canadian participation in the war.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://angloboerwarmuseum.com/Boer70g_hero7_borden1.html|title=Capt. Harold Borden, Canning Nova Scotia|website=angloboerwarmuseum.com|url-status=usurped|archive-date=2008-11-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120183130/http://angloboerwarmuseum.com/Boer70g_hero7_borden1.html}}</ref> Another famous Nova Scotian casualty of the war was [[Charles Carroll Wood]], son of the renowned Confederate naval captain [[John Taylor Wood]] and the first Canadian to die in the war.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bell|first=John|title=Confederate Seadog: John Taylor Wood in War and Exile|url={{Google books|S--g6L74BoMC|plainurl=yes}}|year=2002|publisher=McFarland|isbn=9780786413522|page=59}}</ref>
===First World War===
During [[World War I]], Halifax became a major international [[port]] and [[Navy|naval]] facility. The harbour became a major shipment point for war supplies, [[troop ship]]s to Europe from Canada and the [[United States]] and [[hospital ship]]s returning the wounded. These factors drove a major military, industrial and residential expansion of the city.<ref>{{cite book|last=Armstrong|first=John|title=The Halifax Explosion and the Royal Canadian Navy|publisher=University of British Columbia Press|year=2002|pages=10–11}}</ref>
[[File:Halifax Explosion - harbour view - restored.jpg|thumb|View of the devastated neighbourhood of Richmond in Halifax after the [[Halifax Explosion]]]]
On Thursday, December 6, 1917, the city of Halifax was devastated by [[Halifax Explosion|the huge detonation]] of a French cargo ship, loaded with wartime explosives. It had accidentally collided with a Norwegian ship in "The Narrows" section of the [[Halifax Harbour]]. Approximately 2,000 people were killed by debris, fires, or collapsed buildings, and over 9,000 people were injured.<ref name=cbc>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/halifaxexplosion/he2_ruins/he2_ruins_explosion.html|title=The Explosion|website=cbc.ca|url-status=dead|archive-date=2003-10-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031005034715/http://www.cbc.ca/halifaxexplosion/he2_ruins/he2_ruins_explosion.html}}</ref> This is still the [[List of the largest artificial non-nuclear explosions|world's largest man-made accidental explosion]].<ref name="Jay White 1994 p. 266">{{cite book|chapter=Exploding Myths: The Halifax Explosion in Historical Context|last=White|first=Jay|title=Ground Zero: A Reassessment of the 1917 explosion in Halifax|publisher=Nimbus Publishing|editor-last1=Ruffman|editor-first1=Alan|editor-last2=Howell|editor-first2=Colin D.|year=1994|page=266}}</ref>
===Interwar Period and the Second World War===
[[File:Gabriel Sylliboy, Mi'kmaq Chief.jpg|thumb|Photo of [[Gabriel Sylliboy]] in 1930. Sylliboy helped fight for recognition of a [[Treaty of 1752|treaty signed between the Mi'kmaq and Nova Scotia]] in 1752.]]
[[Gabriel Sylliboy]] was the first Mi'kmaq elected as Grand Chief (1919) and the first to fight for treaty recognition – specifically, the [[Treaty of 1752]] – in the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia (1929).
Nova Scotia was hard hit by the worldwide [[Great Depression]] that began in 1929 as demand plunged for coal and steel, as did the prices for fish and lumber. Prosperity returned in World War II, especially as Halifax again became a major staging point for convoys to Britain. Liberal premier [[Angus L. Macdonald]] dominated the political scene as premier (1933–1940 and 1945–1954). Macdonald dealt with the mass unemployment of the 1930s by putting the jobless to work on highway projects. He felt direct government relief payments would weaken moral character, undermine self-respect and discourage personal initiative.<ref>{{cite book|title=Angus L. Macdonald: A Provincial Liberal|last=Henderson|first=Terence Stephen|year=2007|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=9780802092311|url={{Google books|VNd5AAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|pages=3–9}}</ref> However, he also faced the reality that his financially strapped government could not afford to participate fully in federal relief programs that required matching contributions from the provinces.<ref>{{cite book|title=Challenging the Regional Stereotype: Essays on the 20th Century Maritimes|last=Forbes|first=Ernest R.|year=1989|publisher=Acadiensis Press|isbn=9780919107229|page=148}}</ref>
The [[Antigonish Movement]] emerged offering a "middle way" to helping people distressed hit by the depression through cooperative ventures under popular control. It was a Catholic operation started by Reverend Moses Coady of St Francis Xavier University in 1928. He sought a Church-approved alternative to socialism or capitalism. The cooperatives were organized at the grass roots and brought together fishermen, farmers, miners and factory workers, especially in the eastern districts. They set up local fish processing plants, credit unions, housing co-ops, and co-operative stores. Ownership and control was in the hands of the people directly involved It declined after 1950.<ref>{{cite book|title=Big Picture: The Antigonish Movement of Eastern Nova Scotia|last1=Dodaro|first1=Santo|last2=Pluta|first2=Leonard|series=McGill-Queen's Studies in the History of Religion|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2012|jstor=j.ctt1283xq |isbn=9780773540149 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1283xq}}</ref>
During [[World War II]], thousands of Nova Scotians went overseas. Halifax became a key staging point for the Atlantic convoys, and the Navy base at [[CFB Halifax]] became the HQs of Rear Admiral [[Leonard W. Murray]] during the [[Battle of the Atlantic]]. One Nova Scotian, [[Mona Louise Parsons]], joined the [[Dutch resistance]] and was eventually captured and imprisoned by the [[Nazis]] for almost four years.
=== Latter 20th century (1945–2000) ===
[[File:WilliamPearlyOliver, 1934.png|thumb|left|upright|[[William Pearly Oliver]] in 1934. Oliver led the [[Nova Scotia Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] when it was first formed in 1945.]]Led by minister [[William Pearly Oliver]], the [[Nova Scotia Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] was formed in 1945 out of the [[Cornwallis Street Baptist Church]]. The organization was intent of improving the standard of living for [[Black Nova Scotians]]. The organization also attempted to improve black-white relations in co-operation with private and governmental agencies. The organization was joined by 500 Black Nova Scotians.<ref name=thomson>{{cite book|title=Born with a Call: A Biography of Dr. William Pearly Oliver, C.M.|last=Thomson|first=Colin A.|publisher=Black Cultural Centre for Nova Scotia|year=1986|url={{Google books|9jF6AAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=9780921201014}}</ref>{{rp|79}} By 1956, the NSAACP had branches in Halifax, Cobequid Road, Digby, Wegymouth Falls, Beechville, Inglewooe, Hammonds Plains and Yarmouth. Preston and Africville branches were added in 1962, the same year New Road, Cherrybrook, and Preston East requested branches.<ref name=thomson/>{{rp|81}} In 1947, the Association successfully took the case of [[Viola Desmond]] to the Supreme Court of Canada<ref name=thomson/>{{rp|93}} It also pressured the Children's Hospital in Halifax to allow for black women to become nurses; it advocated for inclusion and challenged racist curriculum in the Department of Education. The Association also developed an Adult Education program with the government department.
After the war Angus L. Macdonald initiated large-scale spending programs for such services as health, education, labor union protection measures, and pensions.
Conservative [[Robert L. Stanfield]] served as premier during 1956–1967. The pragmatic Stanfield, though in favor of some government intervention in economic affairs, was cautious about social policy and was unwilling to promote the welfare state. Nevertheless, new hospitals were built, funded by a sales tax. After 1960 there was increased emphasis on provincial assistance for local municipalities in health and education, with finances for university expansion. Generally, Stanfield, though a conservative, took a positive view of the state's role in helping citizens overcome poverty, ill-health, and discrimination and accepted the need to raise taxes to pay for such services.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = Jennifer | year = 2003 | title = The Stanfield Government and Social Policy in Nova Scotia: 1956–1967 | journal = Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society | volume = 6 | pages = 1–16 }}</ref>
On September 2, 1998, [[Swissair Flight 111]] crashed into the Atlantic Ocean in [[St. Margarets Bay, Nova Scotia|St. Margaret's Bay]]. All 229 people on board the [[McDonnell Douglas MD-11]] were killed. There are two memorials dedicated to the victims. One memorial is located at The Whalesback just northwest of [[Peggy's Cove, Nova Scotia|Peggy's Cove]], and the other is located at [[Bayswater, Nova Scotia|Bayswater]], the recovery site of the aircraft's wreckage.
====Provincial relations with Acadians and Mi'kmaqs in the late 20th century====
[[File:EcoleRoseDesVents GreenwoodNS.jpg|thumb|[[École Rose-des-Vents (Nova Scotia)|École Rose-des-Vents]] in 2009. The school is operated by [[Conseil scolaire acadien provincial]], a French-language school board established in 1996.]]
The [[Acadian Federation of Nova Scotia]] ({{Lang|fr|Fédération acadienne de la Nouvelle-Écosse|italic=no}}) was created in 1968 with a mission to "promote the growth and global development of the Acadian and Francophone community of Nova Scotia."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acadiene.ca/federation-acadienne/who-are-we|title=Who are we?|publisher=Fédération acadienne de la Nouvelle-Écosse}}</ref> The Fédération acadienne is the official voice of the Acadian and Francophone population of Nova Scotia. The Fédération acadienne presently has 29 regional, provincial and institutional members. In 1996, the Federation was instrumental in establishing the Acadian School Board ([[Conseil scolaire acadien provincial]]) in the province.
In 1997, the [[Mi'kmaq-Nova Scotia-Canada Tripartite Forum]] was established. The Nova Scotia government and the Mi’kmaq community have made the [[Miꞌkmaw Kinaꞌmatnewey]], which is a very successful First Nation Education Program in Canada.<ref name=benjamin>{{cite book|title=Indian School Road: Legacies of the Shubenacadie Residential School|last=Benjamin|first=Chris|publisher=Nimbus Press|year=2014}}</ref>{{rp|226}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mi'kmaw Kina'matnewey |url=https://innovation.gg.ca/winner/mikmaw-kinamatnewey/ |access-date=2024-01-08 |website=Governor General’s Innovation Awards |language=en-US}}</ref> In 1982, the first Mi’kmaq operated school opened in Nova Scotia.<ref name=benjamin/>{{rp|208}} By 1997, all education for Mi’kmaq on reserves were given the responsibility for their own education.<ref name=benjamin/>{{rp|210}} There are now 11 band run schools in Nova Scotia.<ref name=benjamin/>{{rp|211}} Now Nova Scotia has the highest rate of retention of aboriginal students in schools in the country.<ref name=benjamin/>{{rp|211}} More than half the teachers are Mi’kmaq.<ref name=benjamin/>{{rp|211}} From 2011 to 2012 there was a 25 percent increase of Mi’kmaq students going to university. Atlantic Canada has the highest rate of aboriginal students attending university in the country.<ref name=benjamin/>{{rp|214}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thechronicleherald.ca/novascotia/1244586-number-of-mi-kmaq-graduates-continues-to-rise|title=Number of Mi'kmaq graduates continues to rise|last=Pottie|first=Erin|date=17 October 2014|website=thechronicleherald.ca|url-status=dead|archive-date=2014-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020000213/http://thechronicleherald.ca/novascotia/1244586-number-of-mi-kmaq-graduates-continues-to-rise}}</ref>
==21st century==
[[File:Viola Desmond Grave Site - Halifax, Nova Scotia (44403974182).jpg|thumb|Headstone and signage marking [[Viola Desmond]]'s grave in 2018. In 2010 she was [[wikt:Special:Search/posthumous|posthumously]] pardoned by the [[Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia|provincial lieutenant governor]].]]
On April 14, 2010, the [[Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia]], [[Mayann Francis]], on the advice of [[Premier of Nova Scotia|her premier]], invoked the [[Royal Prerogative]] and granted [[Viola Desmond]] a [[Posthumous recognition|posthumous]] free [[pardon]], the first such to be granted in Canada.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nationalpost.com/news/story.html?id=2907492|last=Carlson|first=Kathryn Blaze|date=2010-04-14|title='Canada's Rosa Parks,' Viola Desmond, posthumously pardoned|publisher=National Post|access-date=2022-08-27|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-04-18|archive-url=https://archive.today/20100418043517/http://www.nationalpost.com/news/story.html?id=2907492}}</ref>
The free pardon, an extraordinary remedy granted under the [[Royal Prerogative of Mercy]] only in the rarest of circumstances and the first one granted posthumously, differs from a simple pardon in that it is based on innocence and recognizes that a conviction was in error. The government of Nova Scotia also apologised. This initiative happened by Desmond's younger sister Wanda Robson, and a professor of Cape Breton University, Graham Reynolds, working with the Government of Nova Scotia to ensure that Desmond's name was cleared and the government admitted its error. In honour of Desmond, the provincial government has named the first [[Family Day (Canada)#Nova Scotia Heritage Day|Nova Scotia Heritage Day]] after her.
In the same year, on August 31, the governments of Canada and Nova Scotia signed a historic agreement with the Mi'kmaq Nation, establishing a process whereby the federal government must consult with the Mi'kmaq Grand Council before engaging in any activities or projects that affect the Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia. This covers most, if not all, actions these governments might take within that jurisdiction. This is the first such collaborative agreement in Canadian history including all the First Nations within an entire province.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marketwire.com/press-release/Mikmaq-of-Nova-Scotia-Province-of-Nova-Scotia-and-Canada-Sign-Landmark-Agreement-1311913.htm|title=Mi'kmaq of Nova Scotia, Province of Nova Scotia and Canada Sign Landmark Agreement|publisher=Market Wire|date=2010-08-31|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-10-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022171539/http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/Mikmaq-of-Nova-Scotia-Province-of-Nova-Scotia-and-Canada-Sign-Landmark-Agreement-1311913.htm}}</ref>
===2020 killing spree===
{{main|2020 Nova Scotia attacks}}
In the hours between April 18 and 19, 2020, a [[spree killing]] consisting of [[shooting]]s and [[arson]]s took place across several communities in Nova Scotia. 22 people were killed, including a [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP) officer, before another officer killed the perpetrator, 51-year-old Gabriel Wortman, following a car chase.<ref name="CBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/rcmp-weapon-lockdown-portapique-1.5537598|title=RCMP officer among the dead after Nova Scotia gunman's rampage|access-date=April 19, 2020|date=April 19, 2020|publisher=CBC}}</ref><ref name=nyt-nova-scotia-shooting-gabriel-wortman>{{Cite news|title=Nova Scotia Shooting Kills at Least 16, Police Say|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/19/world/canada/nova-scotia-shooting-gabriel-wortman.html|last1=Diaz|first1=Johnny|date=April 19, 2020|access-date=April 19, 2020|last2=Bilefsky|first2=Dan|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> It was the deadliest rampage in Canadian history.<ref name="AP">{{cite news|url=https://apnews.com/7c9a33ae52420e0ddbfb5275898a7e79|title=Gunman kills 16 in rampage, deadliest in Canadian history|last=Gillies|first=Rob|publisher=Associated Press|access-date=April 19, 2020|date=April 19, 2020}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Canada}}
* [[Acadiensis]], scholarly history journal covering Atlantic Canada
*[[Nova Scotia Federation of Labour]]
*[[List of National Historic Sites of Canada in Nova Scotia|List of National Historic Sites in Nova Scotia]]
*[[History of Acadia]]
*[[Black Nova Scotians]]
*[[Military history of Nova Scotia]]
*[[Military history of the Mi’kmaq People]]
*[[Military history of the Maliseet people]]
*[[Military history of the Acadians]]
*[[History of the Acadians]]
*[[History of the Halifax Regional Municipality]]
* [[Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society]]
==Notes==
:A.{{ref|A|A}} In 1765, the county of [[Sunbury County, Nova Scotia|Sunbury]] was created, and included the territory of present-day [[New Brunswick]] and eastern [[Maine]] as far as the Penobscot River.
:B.{{ref|B|B}} Lieutenant Governor Sir Richard Hughes stated in a dispatch to Lord Germaine that "rebel cruisers" made the attack.
:C.{{ref|C|C}} Among the annual festivals of the old times, now lost sight of, was the celebration of St. Aspinquid's Day, known as the Indian Saint. St. Aspinquid appeared in the Nova Scotia almanacks from 1774 to 1786. The festival was celebrated on or immediately after the last quarter of the moon in the month of May. The tide being low at that time, many of the principal inhabitants of the town, on these occasions, assembled on the shore of the North West Arm and partook of a dish of clam soup, the clams being collected on the spot at low water. There is a tradition that during the American troubles when agents of the revolted colonies were active to gain over the good people of Halifax, in the year 1786, were celebrating St. Aspinquid, the wine having been circulated freely, the Union Jack was suddenly hauled down and replaced by the Stars and Stripes. This was soon reversed, but all those persons who held public offices immediately left the grounds, and St. Aspinquid was never after celebrated at Halifax.<ref name=akins95/>{{rp|218 note 94}}
:D.{{ref|D|D}} According to Thomas Akins, a portrait of Thomas Andrew Lumisden Strange by Benjamin West hung in the legislature of [[Province House (Nova Scotia)]] in 1847 that now hangs in the National Gallery of Scotland<ref name=akins95/>{{rp|189}}
:E.{{ref|E|E}} Rural poverty is the theme of Rusty Bittermann, Robert A. Mackinnon, and Graeme Wynn's ''Of inequality and interdependence in the Nova Scotian countryside, 1850–70.''<ref>{{cite journal|title=Of inequality and interdependence in the Nova Scotian countryside, 1850–70|last1=Bittermann|first1=Rusty|last2=Mackinnon|first2=Robert A.|last3=Wynn|first3=Graeme|journal=Canadian Historical Review|year=1993|volume=74|issue=1|pages=1–43|doi=10.3138/CHR-074-01-01 |s2cid=161486086 }}</ref>
:F.{{ref|F|F}} This conflict is also referred to as "Anglo French Rivalry of 1749–63" and War of British Conquest.
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
{{main|Bibliography of Nova Scotia}}
=== 18th–19th century publications ===
* Statutes at large:
** [https://archive.org/stream/cihm_29056#page/n5/mode/2up 1758 to 1804]
** [https://archive.org/stream/cihm_47464#page/n5/mode/2up 1805 to 1816]
** [https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/010475980?type%5B%5D=all&lookfor%5B%5D=statutes%20at%20large&ft= 1817 to 1826]
** [https://archive.org/stream/statutesatlarge00graygoog#page/n7/mode/2up 1827 to 1835]
** [http://eco.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.64651/20?r=0&s=1 Statutes to 1826 (?)]
* by [[Thomas Beamish Akins]]:
** [https://archive.org/details/selectionsfrompu00nova Acadian French. Selections from the public documents of the province of Nova Scotia (1869)]
** [https://archive.org/stream/selectionsfrompu00nova#page/n198/mode/1up Papers related to the French encroachment on Nova Scotia (1749–1754), and the War in North America (1754–1761), Vol. 3]
** [https://archive.org/stream/selectionsfrompu00nova#page/n386/mode/1up Papers related to the first establishment of a Representative Assembly in Nova Scotia (1755–1761), Vol. 5]
* by [[Beamish Murdoch]]:
** {{cite book |title=A History of Nova-Scotia, Or Acadie |volume=I |date=1865 |publisher=J. Barnes |location=Halifax |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorynovasco00murdgoog}}
** {{cite book |title=A History of Nova-Scotia, Or Acadie |volume=II |date=1866 |publisher=J. Barnes |location=Halifax |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorynovasco01murdgoog}}
** {{cite book |title=A History of Nova-Scotia, Or Acadie |volume=III |date=1867 |publisher=J. Barnes |location=Halifax |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorynovasco02murdgoog}}
* by [[John George Bourinot (younger)]]:
** [https://archive.org/details/buildersofnovasc00bour/page/n40 Builders of Nova Scotia : a historical review, with an appendix containing copies of rare documents relating to the early days of the province]
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20160812014129/http://www.ourroots.ca/e/toc.aspx?id=725 Historical and Descriptive Account of Cape Breton, and of its memorials of the French regime]
*[http://eco.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.8_04743 Nova Scotia Illustrated 1895]
=== 20th–21st century publications ===
* Ian McKay and Robin Bates. ''In the Province of History: The Making of the Public Past in Twentieth-Century Nova Scotia'' (2010)
* Dr. Ed Whitcomb. ''A Short History of Nova Scotia''. Ottawa. From Sea To Sea Enterprises, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-9694667-9-6}}. 72 pp.
* Duncan Campbell, ''History of Nova Scotia, for Schools'' BiblioLife, 2009 {{ISBN|1-115-65980-4}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=UmGa73sExSIC excerpt]
* {{cite book|last=Grenier|first=John|title=The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760|url={{Google books|jVG5h6G5fWMC|plainurl=yes}}|year=2008|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-3876-3}}
* {{cite book|title=The quest of the folk : antimodernism and cultural selection in twentieth-century Nova Scotia|last=McKay|first=Ian|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=1994|url={{Google books|pDg7hxoVz30C|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=0-7735-1179-2}}
* {{cite book|last1=Girard|first1=Philip|last2=Phillips|first2=Jim|title=The Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, 1754-2004: From Imperial Bastion to Provincial Oracle|volume=2|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2004|url={{Google books|6LFOPGedtQ8C|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=0-8020-8021-9}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sandberg|first1=Anders|last2=Clancy|first2=Peter|publisher=UBC Press|year=2000|title=Against the Grain: Foresters and Politics in Nova Scotia|url={{Google books|2Vu5SZevt3MC|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=0-7748-0765-2}}
=== Collections of the Nova Scotia Historical Society ===
* [https://archive.org/stream/14a15collectionsof14novauoft#page/131/mode/1up Articles and Index 1878–1910]
* [http://www.blupete.com/Library/History/NSHS.htm Articles 1878–2006]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov01novauoft#page/n5/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1879 Volume 1.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov02nova#page/n3/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1881 Volume 2.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov03nova#page/n3/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1882–83 Volume 3.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsnova00socigoog#page/n4/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1884 Volume 4.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsnova00socigoog#page/n263/mode/1up NS Historical Society 1886–87 Volume 5.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsnova00socigoog#page/n421/mode/1up NS Historical Society 1888 Volume 6.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov07novauoft#page/n5/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1889–91 Volume 7.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov08nova#page/n3/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1892–94 Volume 8.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/cihm_05221#page/n1/mode/2up Louisbourg - An Historical Sketch (1894)]
* [https://archive.org/details/collectionsofnov09novauoft NS Historical Society 1895 Volume 9.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov10nova#page/n3/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1896–98 Volume 10.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsnova01socigoog#page/n6/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1899–1900 Volume 11.]
* NS Historical Society 1905 Volume 12.
* NS Historical Society 1908 Volume 13.
* [https://archive.org/stream/14a15collectionsof14novauoft#page/n5/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1910 Volume 14.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/14a15collectionsof14novauoft#page/144/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1911 Volume 15.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov16novauoft#page/n3/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1912 Volume 16.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov16novauoft#page/i/mode/1up NS Historical Society 1913 Volume 17.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov18novauoft#page/n5/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1914 Volume 18.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov18novauoft#page/224/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1918 Volume 19.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/20a21collectionsof20novauoft#page/n5/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1921 Volume 20.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/20a21collectionsof20novauoft#page/n234/mode/1up NS Historical Society 1927 Volume 27.]
* [https://archive.org/details/cihm_78709 The memorial sundial at Annapolis Royal: paper read before the Nova Scotia Historical Society, at Halifax, NS December the sixth, 1918 (1918)]
==External links==
{{Commons category-inline}}
{{History of Canada navbox}}
{{British overseas territories}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Nova Scotia}}
[[Category:History of Nova Scotia| ]]
[[Category:Conflicts in Nova Scotia]]
[[Category:Military history of Nova Scotia]]' |
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{{for|military history|Military history of Nova Scotia}}
<!-- This short description is INTENTIONALLY "none" - please see WP:SDNONE before you consider changing it! -->
{{Use Canadian English|date=January 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{History of Nova Scotia}}
The '''history of Nova Scotia''' covers a period from thousands of years ago to the present day. Prior to European colonization, the lands encompassing present-day [[Nova Scotia]] (also historically referred to as [[Mi'kma'ki]] and [[Acadia]]) were inhabited by the [[Mi'kmaq people]]. During the first 150 years of [[French colonization of the Americas|European part of Nova Scotia. In 1769, St. John's Island became a separate colony. Nova Scotia included present-day [[New Brunswick]] until that province was established in 1784.{{ref|A|A}}
==Early history==
{{Main|Prehistory of the Canadian Maritimes|Paleo-Indians|Last glacial period}}
The glaciers began their retreat from in the Maritimes approximately 13,500 years ago,<ref name="auto">{{cite journal|last1=Stea|first1=Robert|title=Deglaciation of Nova Scotia: Stratigraphy and chronology of lake sediment cores and buried organic sections|url=https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/gpq/1998-v52-n1-gpq155/004871ar/|journal=Géographie physique et Quaternaire|access-date=30 March 2018|date=1998|volume=52|number=1|pages=3–21 |doi=10.7202/004871ar|s2cid=55320508 |doi-access=free}}</ref> with final deglaciation, isostatic rebound, and sea level fluctuation ending and leaving the New England-Maritimes region virtually ice free 11,000 years ago.<ref name="auto"/><ref name="Paleo America">{{cite journal|last1=Lothrop|first1=Jonathon|title=Early Human Settlement of Northeastern North America|journal=Paleoamerica|doi=10.1080/20555563.2016.1212178|volume=2|issue=3|year=2016|pages=192–251|doi-access=free}}</ref> The earliest evidence of Palaeo-Indian settlement in the region follows rapidly after deglaciation. Evidence of settlement found in the [[Debert Palaeo-Indian Site]] dates to 10,600 before present, though settlement seems likely to have occurred earlier,<ref name="Paleo America"/> following large game animals such as the caribou as they expanded into the land revealed by the retreating glaciers. The record of continuous habitation through the paleo and archaic period over ten thousand years culminated in the development of the culture, traditions, and language now known as the Mi’kmaq.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Mi'kmaw History|url=https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/ns/kejimkujik/decouvrir-discover/heritage-cultur/histor-mikmaq|website=Parks Canada|access-date=30 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331040348/https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/ns/kejimkujik/decouvrir-discover/heritage-cultur/histor-mikmaq|archive-date=2018-03-31|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Mi'kmaq ===
{{Main|Mi'kmaq}}
For several thousand years, the territory of the province has been a part of the territory of the [[Mi'kmaq people|Mi'kmaq]] country of Mi'kma'ki. Mi'kma'ki includes what is now the Maritimes, parts of [[Maine]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] and the [[Gaspé Peninsula]]. The Mi'kmaq lived in an annual cycle of seasonal movement between living in dispersed interior winter camps and larger coastal communities during the summer. The climate was unfavourable for agriculture, and small semi-nomadic bands of a few matrilineality related families subsisted on fishing and hunting.<ref name=brasser>{{cite book |last=Brasser |first=T. J. |year=1978 |chapter=Early Indian-European Contacts |pages=78–88 |title=Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15. Northeast |editor=Trigger, Bruce G. |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press}}</ref>{{rp|78}}
[[File:The Mi'kmaq.png|thumb|left|upright=1.3|Settlement areas of the [[Mi'kmaq]] in [[Miꞌkmaꞌki]], which emcompassed present-day Nova Scotia]]
The Mi'kmaq were governed by the [[Santé Mawiómi]] (Grand Council), led by the Kji-saqmaw (Grand council leader) and composed of the seven Nikanus (District Chiefs), Kji-Keptin (Grand Captain, or war chief) as well a Putús (recorder/secretary).<ref>{{cite web|title=Mikmaw Resource Guide|url=http://www.mikmaweydebert.ca/home/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Pg_94_DOC_MikmawResourceGuide.pdf|website=mikmaweydebert.ca/|publisher=Tripartite Education Working Committee|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref> Mi'kma'ki was divided into seven largely sovereign districts, each governed by a Nikanus and council of Sagamaw (local band chiefs), Elders, and other worthy community leaders. The district council enacting laws, ensured justice, apportioning fishing and hunting grounds, made war and sued for peace. Local bands were led by a Sagamaw and council of Elders and consisted of several extended family units.<ref>{{cite thesis|last1=McMillan|first1=Leslie Jane|title=Mi'kmmey Mawio'mi: Changing Roles of the Mi'kmaq Grand Council From the Early Seventeenth Century to the Present|url=http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp04/mq24981.pdf|website=Library & Archives Canada|publisher=Dalhousie University|access-date=30 March 2018|type=Master's thesis}}</ref>
The Mi'kmaq people inhabited region at the time the first European colonists arrived.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://museum.gov.ns.ca/arch/infos/mikmaq1.htm |title=The Mi'kmaq|publisher=Nova Scotia Museum|access-date=2013-07-12|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121121055304/http://museum.gov.ns.ca/arch/infos/mikmaq1.htm|archive-date=November 21, 2012 }}</ref> Mi'kmaq territory was the first portion of North America that Europeans exploited at length for resource extraction. Early European fishermen salted their catch at sea and sailed directly home with it. But they set up camps ashore as early as 1520 for [[Dried and salted cod|dry-curing cod]]. During the second half of the century, dry curing became the preferred preservation method.<ref name=brasser/>{{rp|79, 80}} The local Mi'kmaq peoples began trading with European fishermen when the fishermen began landing in their territories as early as the 1520s. In about 1521–22, the Portuguese under [[João Álvares Fagundes]] established a fishing colony, believed to be on the island of [[Cape Breton]]. Though its fate is unknown, it is mentioned as late as 1570.<ref>{{cite book|author=Francisco de Souza of Madeira|title=Tratado das ilhas novas e descombrimento dellas e outras couzas, 1570|date=1877|editor=Ernesto do Canto|language=pt}}</ref> By 1578 some 350 European ships were operating around the Saint Lawrence estuary. Most were independent fishermen, but increasing numbers were exploring the [[fur trade]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Costain |first=Thomas B. |title =The White and The Gold |publisher =Doubleday & Company|date =1954 |location =Garden City, New York |page =54 }}</ref>
On June 24, 1610, Grand Chief [[Henri Membertou|Membertou]] converted to [[Catholicism]] and was baptized. A Concordat, or treaty, was signed between the Grand Council and the Pope protecting French settlers and priests and affirmed the right of Mi'kmaq to choose either Catholicism or Mi'kmaq tradition. In signing the Concordat the Catholic church affirmed Mi’kmaq sovereignty as a Catholic nation.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Welcher|first1=J|title=Mi'kmaq Spirituality and the Concordat of 1610|url=http://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/jwelcher/MIK%2010%20Class%20Notes/1_concordat.pdf|publisher=J Welcher|access-date=30 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707120724/http://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/jwelcher/MIK%2010%20Class%20Notes/1_concordat.pdf|archive-date=7 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Mi'kmaw Time Line|url=https://www.cbu.ca/indigenous-affairs/unamaki-college/mikmaq-resource-centre/mikmaq-resource-guide/mikmaw-time-line/|website=Cape Breton University|access-date=30 March 2018|url-status=dead|archive-date=2016-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502111902/https://www.cbu.ca/indigenous-affairs/unamaki-college/mikmaq-resource-centre/mikmaq-resource-guide/mikmaw-time-line/}}</ref>
=== European explorers ===
[[File:JohnCabotPlaqueDingleTowerHalifaxNovaScotia.jpg|thumb|A plaque of [[John Cabot]] departing [[Bristol]], [[England]] for [[Atlantic Canada]] (1497), installed at [[Sir Sandford Fleming Park]], [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]]]]
Venetian Italian explorer Zuan Chabotto (Italian: Giovanni Caboto) known in English as [[John Cabot]], was the first European explorer of the North American continent. His voyage of exploration ushered in an irrevocable transformation of global social and economic interaction. Cabot's voyage received financial backing by Italian banking houses in London and the [[Bardi family]] banking firm of Florence.<ref name="bruscoli">{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2281.2012.00597.x | volume=85 | issue=229 | title=John Cabot and his Italian financiers* | year=2012 | journal=Historical Research | pages=372–393 | last1 = Guidi-Bruscoli | first1 = Francesco}}</ref> With financing secure and patent issued by [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] to Cabot and his three sons, he set sail in 1496. Upon landing on 24 June 1497, Cabot raised the Venetian and Papal banners, claiming the land for the King of England and recognising the religious authority of the Roman Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pinkowish|first1=Mary Desmond|last2=D'Epiro|first2=Peter|title=Sprezzatura: 50 Ways Italian Genius Shaped the World|date=2001|publisher=Anchor Books|url=https://archive.org/details/sprezzatura50way00pete|pages=179–180|isbn=978-0-385-72019-9 }}</ref> After this landing, Cabot spent some weeks "discovering the coast", with most "discovered after turning back."<ref name="john day">{{cite web|url=http://www.bris.ac.uk/Depts/History/Maritime/Sources/1497johnday.htm|title=John Day letter to the Lord Grand Admiral, Winter 1497/8|publisher=University of Bristol{access-date=2022-08-26}}</ref> Cabot's expedition is believed to be the first by Europeans to mainland North America since the Vikings five hundred years before. Historian [[Alwyn Ruddock]] who worked on Cabot and his era for 35 years suggested [[Fr. Giovanni Antonio de Carbonariis]] and the other friars who accompanied Cabot's 1498 expedition had stayed in Newfoundland and founded a mission which would have made it the first Christian settlement on the continent.<ref name="journal">{{cite journal|last=Jones|first=Evan T.|title=Alwyn Ruddock: 'John Cabot and the Discovery of America'*|date=2008|journal=Historical Research|volume=81|issue=212|pages=242–249|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2281.2007.00422.x|doi-access=free}}</ref> Nova Scotia was further explored by the [[Portuguese colonization of the Americas|Portuguese]] explorer [[João Álvares Fagundes]] (1520) as he searched south of his fishing settlements in Newfoundland.<ref>{{cite DCB|title=Fagundes, João Álvares |first=L. A. |last=Vigneras|volume=1|url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/fagundes_joao_alvares_1E.html}}</ref>
== 17th century ==
{{See also|Province of Massachusetts Bay}}
===French colonization and Acadia===
{{Main|Acadia}}
[[File:Port Royal, Nova Scotia - circa 1612 - Project Gutenberg etext 20110.jpg|thumb|Depiction of habitation at [[Port-Royal National Historic Site|Port Royal]] in 1612]]
In 1605, [[France|French]] colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada (and the first north of [[Spanish Florida|Florida]]) at [[Port-Royal (Acadia)|Port Royal]], founding what would become known as [[Acadia]].<ref name="Morton1999">{{cite book|first= Desmond|last= Morton|title= Canada: A Millennium Portrait|url= {{Google books|GOxGQZg0KtoC|plainurl=yes}}|date= November 30, 1999|publisher= Dundurn|isbn= 978-1-4597-1085-6|page= 19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/virtual/acadian/|publisher=Nova Scotia Archives|access-date=2013-07-12|title=An Acadian Parish Remembered|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116002459/http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/virtual/acadian/ |archive-date=2013-01-16 }}</ref> The [[France|French]], led by [[Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts]] established the first capital for the colony [[Acadia]] at Port Royal. [[Acadia]] (French: ''Acadie'') was located in the northeastern region of North America comprising what is now the Canadian [[Maritime Provinces]] of [[New Brunswick]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[Prince Edward Island]], Gaspé, in Quebec, and to the [[Kennebec River]] in southern [[Maine]].
By 1621, however, France had ceded territories including Port Royal and Acadia back to the British Crown. In that year King James I (James VI of Scotland) granted [[William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling|Sir William Alexander]] of [[Menstrie]] a charter to create the colony of Nova Scotia (“New Scotland”) which encompassed three Canadian provinces and portions of what is now Maine. The colony, whose capital, Charles Fort, was located near today's town of Annapolis Royal, lasted only until 1623 at which time the attempted settlement was abandoned, leaving the area to the French.<ref>{{cite book|last=Griffiths|first=N.E.S.|author-link=Naomi E. S. Griffiths|title=From Migrant to Acadian: A North American Border People, 1604–1755|url={{Google books|cG4wSmIlziYC|plainurl=yes}}|year=2005|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=978-0-7735-2699-0|pages=33–34}}</ref> Sir William's legacy, however, lives on in the form of the name, flag and arms of the modern Canadian province of Nova Scotia.
There was a slow transition from trading (primarily involving male explorers and traders) to colonization. Ships began to arrive in 1632 that included women and children.<ref name="Griffiths-p54-55">{{cite book|last=Griffiths|first=N.E.S.|author-link=Naomi E. S. Griffiths|title=From Migrant to Acadian: A North American Border People, 1604–1755|url={{Google books|cG4wSmIlziYC|plainurl=yes}}|year=2005|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=978-0-7735-2699-0|pages=54–55}}</ref> The survival of the Acadian settlements was based on successful cooperation with the Indigenous peoples of the region.<ref name=confed>{{cite book|last=Patterson |first=Stephen E.|chapter=1744–1763: Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples|editor1=Phillip Buckner|editor2=John G. Reid|editor-link2=John G. Reid|title=The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History|year=1994|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4875-1676-5|pages=125–155|jstor=10.3138/j.ctt15jjfrm}}</ref><ref name="Griffiths-p54-55"/>{{rp|36}} In 1654 Acadia was first conquered by English forces from Boston, occupying the colony. The [[Treaty of Breda (1667)|Treaty of Breda]], signed 31 July 1667, returned Acadia to France. In 1674, the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] briefly conquered Acadia, renaming the colony [[New Holland (Acadia)|New Holland]].<ref name="champernowne">{{cite book|title=Capt. Francis Champernowne: The Dutch Conquest of Acadie, and Other Historical Papers|date=16 October 2018 |editor-last=Tuttle|editor-first=Charles Wesley|publisher=Creative Media Partners, LLC|isbn=9780343449711|url={{Google books|AJEfzwEACAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> During the last decades of the seventeenth century, [[Acadians]] migrated from the capital, Port Royal, and established what would become the other major Acadian settlements: [[Grand-Pré, Nova Scotia|Grand Pré]], [[Isthmus of Chignecto|Chignecto]], [[Cobequid]] and [[Pisiguit]].
During the Acadian period the British made six attempts to conquer the colony by defeating the capital, ending with the defeat of the French in the [[Siege of Port Royal (1710)]]. Over the following fifty years, the French and their allies made six unsuccessful military attempts to regain the capital.<ref name=dunn>{{cite book|last=Dunn|first=Brenda|title=A History of Port-Royal-Annapolis Royal, 1605–1800|url={{Google books|9c4hPwAACAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|year=2004|publisher=Nimbus|isbn=978-1-55109-740-4}}</ref>
==== Acadian Civil War ====
{{main|Acadian Civil War}}
[[File:Madame La Tour Defending Fort St.Jean.jpg|thumb|left|Depiction of Madame La Tour defending Fort Sainte Marie during the [[Acadian Civil War]] in 1645]]
Acadia was plunged into what some historians have described as a [[civil war]] in Acadia (1640–1645). The war was between Port Royal, where Governor of Acadia [[Charles de Menou d'Aulnay]] de Charnisay was stationed, and present-day [[Saint John, New Brunswick]], where Governor of Acadia [[Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour]] was stationed.<ref>{{cite book|title=Fortune & La Tour: The civil war in Acadia|last=MacDonald|first=M.A.|publisher=Methuen|date=1983}}</ref>
In the war, there were four major battles. la Tour attacked d'Aulnay at Port Royal in 1640.<ref name=dunn/>{{rp|19}} In response to the attack, D'Aulnay sailed out of Port Royal to establish a five-month blockade of La Tour's fort at Saint John, which La Tour eventually defeated (1643). La Tour attacked d'Aulnay again at Port Royal in 1643. d'Aulnay and Port Royal ultimately won the war against La Tour with the 1645 siege of Saint John.<ref name=dunn/>{{rp|20}} After d'Aulnay died (1650), La Tour re-established himself in Acadia.
=== Scottish colony (1629–1632) ===
From 1629–1632, Nova Scotia briefly became a [[Scottish colonization of the Americas|Scottish colony]]. [[William Alexander (the younger)|William Alexander]], the son of the [[William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling|Earl of Stirling]] of [[Menstrie Castle]], [[Scotland]] claimed mainland Nova Scotia and settled at Charlesfort, at what would eventually be renamed [[Port-Royal (Acadia)|Port Royal]] by the French. [[James Stewart, 4th Lord Ochiltree|Lord Ochiltree]] claimed Île Royale (present-day [[Cape Breton Island]]) and settled at [[Baleine, Nova Scotia]]. There were three battles between the Scottish and the French: the Raid on [[Saint John, New Brunswick|St. John]] (1632), the Siege of [[Baleine, Nova Scotia|Baleine]] (1629) as well as Siege of Cap de Sable (present-day [[Port La Tour, Nova Scotia]]) (1630). Nova Scotia was returned to France through a treaty.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Fleeting Empire: Early Stuart Britain and the Merchant Adventures to Canada|last=Nicholls|first=Andrew|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2010}}</ref> The French then established [[Fort Ste. Marie de Grace]] as the capital on the [[LaHave River]] before re-establishing Port Royal.
The French quickly defeated the Scottish at [[Baleine, Nova Scotia|Baleine]] and established settlements on Île Royale at present-day [[Englishtown, Nova Scotia|Englishtown]] (1629) and [[St. Peter's, Nova Scotia|St. Peter's]] (1630). These two settlements remained the only settlements on the island until they were abandoned by [[Nicolas Denys]] in 1659. Île Royale then remained without European occupants for more than fifty years until the communities were re-established when [[Louisbourg]] was established in 1713.
=== English colony (1654–1670) ===
[[File:JohnLeverettInMilitaryUniform.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of [[John Leverett]]. Leverett launched an expedition against Acadia on behalf of England in 1654.]]
In 1654, an expedition was launched against Acadia by [[Robert Sedgwick]] and [[John Leverett]] on behalf of the English. Sedgwick captured the principal Acadian ports of Port Royal and Fort Pentagouet and soon gave up military command of the province to Leverett.<ref name=dunn/>{{rp|23}} During this time he and Sedgwick enforced a virtual trade monopoly on French Acadia for their benefit, leading some in the colony to view Leverett as a predatory opportunist. Leverett funded much of the cost of the occupation himself, and then petitioned the English government for reimbursement. Although they authorized payment, the government made it contingent on the colony performing an audit of Leverett's finances, which never took place. Leverett was consequently still petitioning for compensation after the Restoration (1660).
In 1656, [[Oliver Cromwell]] granted Acadia/Nova Scotia to proprietors Sir [[Thomas Temple]] and [[William Crowne]]. Shortly after, the two bought [[Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour]]’s patent as baronet of Nova Scotia. By this purchase, Crowne and Temple agreed to pay la Tour’s debt of £3,379 to the widow of Maj.-Gen. Edward Gibbons of Boston, and Temple assumed the cost of the English that which had earlier captured the fort on the Saint John River. According to his statement of losses in about 1668, Crowne supplied the money and security for the purchases.<ref>{{cite DCB |title=Crowne, William |last1=In collaboration with |first2=Huia G. |last2=Ryder |volume=1 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/crowne_william_1E.html}}</ref>
The following year Crowne with his son John (but not his wife), Temple and a group of settlers came to Nova Scotia on the ship ''Satisfaction''. Crowne and Temple divided the province between them in February 1658, with Crowne taking the western part, including the fort of Pentagouet (now [[Castine, Maine]]), and building a trading post at "Negu", or "Negu alias Cadascat", on the Penobscot River. The agreement was signed on 15 February 1658, witnessed by John Crowne and Governor [[John Endecott]]. Each party gave a bond of £20,000. On 1 November 1658, Crowne leased his territory to a Captain George Curwin (grandfather of [[George Corwin]], high sheriff during the Salem witch trials) and Ensign [[Joshua Scottow]], then in 1659 he leased it to Temple for a period of four years, at a rate of £110 per annum. Temple did not pay the lease after the first year, but remained in possession of the territory.<ref name="white-449">{{cite journal |title=John Crowne and America |last=White |first=Arthur Franklin |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=447–463 |year=1920 |issn=0030-8129 |journal=PMLA |jstor=457347 |doi=10.2307/457347|s2cid=163990836 }}</ref> During this period, Crowne was living in Boston, Massachusetts, of which he was made a Freeman on 30 May 1660.
Temple had his headquarters at Penobscot (present-day Castine, Maine), keeping garrisons at Port Royal and at Saint John. In 1659, the la Tour fort at the mouth of the Saint John River was abandoned in favour of a new fort at [[Jemseg]], 50 miles (80 km) or so up the river, where Temple established a trading post.<ref>{{cite DCB |title=Temple, Sir Thomas |author=In collaboration with Huia Ryder |volume=1 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/temple_thomas_1E.html}}</ref> The location was advantageous as occupiers were put out of the way of seagoing pirates. Jemseg was also a better place to trade with the descending Maliseet Indians.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www2.gnb.ca/content/dam/gnb/Departments/thc-tpc/pdf/Arch/MIA36english.pdf |title=Wolastoqiyik Ajemseg: The People of the Beautiful River at Jemseg |year=2004 |isbn=1-55396-320-2 |editor-last=Blair |editor-first=Susan |volume=2 |location=New Brunswick |publication-date=2004 |pages=279 |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Congress of Breda.jpg|thumb|Engraving of the peace conference that led to the [[Treaty of Breda (1667)|Treaty of Breda]] in 1667. Acadia was return to the French as a part of the terms of the treaty.]]
With the Restoration in 1660 Crowne returned to England to participate in the coronation of Charles II, and to defend their claim to Nova Scotia. The grant to Crowne and Temple had been made by Cromwell under the Commonwealth; now that Charles had ascended the throne there were a number of other claimants. These included Thomas Elliot (a groom of the bedchamber to Charles II), Sir Lewis Kirke and others (who had taken Acadia in the expedition against Quebec in 1632), and heirs of [[Sir William Alexander]] (the original grantee, from whom Charles de la Tour's father had obtained the grant). In 1661 the French Ambassador claimed the territory for France. On 22 June 1661 he submitted a statement on the manner in which he and Temple became proprietors. While in England, Crowne also pleaded the cause of the colonists before the council and lord chamberlain on 4 December 1661. Temple returned to England in 1662 and was successful in obtaining a new grant as well as a commission as governor. He promised to restore Crowne's territory and make reparations, but did not. Crowne pursued this in the New England courts, but was unsuccessful, the courts eventually deciding they did not have jurisdiction. The colony was eventually restored to France in the 1667 [[Treaty of Breda (1667)|Treaty of Breda]], but the English would not actually give up control until 1670.
== 18th century ==
=== Colonial wars ===
[[File:Acadia 1754.png|thumb|upright=1.3|left|Map of Nova Scotia and the surrounding area in 1754, prior to the outbreak of the [[French and Indian War|Seven Years' War]]]]
There were six colonial wars that took place in Nova Scotia over a seventy-five year period (see the [[French and Indian Wars]] as well as [[Father Rale's War]] and [[Father Le Loutre's War]]). These wars were fought between [[British North America|New England]] and [[New France]] and their respective native allies before the British defeated the French in North America (1763). During these wars, Acadians, Mi'kmaq and Maliseet from the region fought to protect the border of Acadia from New England, which New France defined as the [[Kennebec River]] in southern Maine.<ref>{{cite book|last=Williamson|first=William Durkee|title=The History of the State of Maine: From Its First Discovery, 1602, to the Separation, A. D. 1820, Inclusive|url={{Google books|XEMlAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|volume=II|year=1832|publisher=Glazier, Masters & Company|page=27}}</ref> The wars also involved attempting to prevent the New Englanders from taking the capital of Acadia, Port Royal (See [[Queen Anne's War]]), establishing themselves at [[Canso, Nova Scotia|Canso]] (See [[Father Rale's War]]) and establishing Halifax (See [[Father Le Loutre's War]]).
The seventy-five year period of war ended with the [[Halifax Treaties]] between the British and the Mi'kmaq (1761).
==== Expulsion of the Acadians ====
{{main|Expulsion of the Acadians}}
The Expulsion (1755–1764) occurred during the [[French and Indian War]] (the North American theatre of the [[Seven Years' War]]){{ref|F|F}} and was part of the British military campaign against [[New France]]. The British first deported Acadians to the [[Thirteen Colonies]], and after 1758, transported additional Acadians to Britain and France. In all, of the 14,100 Acadians in the region, approximately 11,500 Acadians were deported.
After Britain won the [[French and Indian War]], between 1759 and 1768, about 8,000 [[New England Planters]] responded to Governor [[Charles Lawrence (British Army officer)|Charles Lawrence]]'s request for settlers from the New England colonies.
===Government changes===
[[File:JonathanBelcherByCopley.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of [[Jonathan Belcher (jurist)|Jonathan Belcher]] in 1757. He served as the first Chief Justice for the [[Nova Scotia Supreme Court]] from 1754 to 1776.]]
The colony's jurisdiction changed during this time. Nova Scotia was granted a supreme court in 1754 with the appointment of [[Jonathan Belcher (jurist)|Jonathan Belcher]] and a [[Legislative Assembly of Nova Scotia|Legislative Assembly]] in 1758. In 1763 [[Cape Breton Island]] became part of Nova Scotia. In 1769, St. John's Island (now [[Prince Edward Island]]) became a separate colony. The county of [[Sunbury County, Nova Scotia|Sunbury]] was created in 1765, and included all of the territory of current-day [[New Brunswick]] and eastern [[Maine]] as far as the Penobscot River. In 1784, the western, mainland portion of the colony was separated and became the province of [[New Brunswick]]. Maine became part of the newly independent American state of [[Massachusetts]], but the international boundary was vague. Cape Breton became a separate colony in 1784; it was returned to Nova Scotia in 1820.
Confronted with a large Yankee element sympathetic to the [[American Revolution]], Nova Scotian politicians in 1774–75 adopted a policy of enlightened moderation and humanism. Governing a marginal colony that received little attention from London, the royal governor, [[Francis Legge]] (1772 to 1776) battled the popularly elected assembly for control of the policies regarding trade, commerce, and taxation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Brebner|first=John|title=The Neutral Yankees of Nova Scotia: A Marginal Colony During the Revolutionary Years|orig-year=1937|publisher=Russell & Russell|year=1970|type=reprint|url={{Google books|ipkqAAAAYAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> [[Desserud]] shows that [[John Day (Nova Scotia legislator)|John Day]], elected to the assembly in 1774, called for [[Montesquieu]]-type fundamental reforms that would balance political power among the three branches of government. Day argued that taxes should be assessed according to actual wealth, and to discourage patronage there should be term limits for all officials. He thought members of the Executive Council should own at least £1000 of property to connect their personal interest in the welfare of the colony as a whole. He wanted the dismissal of judges who misused their offices. These reforms were not as yet enacted, but they suggest that politicians in Nova Scotia were aware of the demands being made by Americans, and hoped their moderate proposals would reduce possible tensions with the British government.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Desserud | first1 = Donald A. | year = 1999 | title = An Outpost's Response: The Language and Politics of Moderation in Eighteenth-century Nova Scotia | journal = American Review of Canadian Studies | volume = 29 | issue = 3| pages = 379–405 | doi=10.1080/02722019909481634}}</ref>
=== Scottish settlers ===
In 1762, the earliest of the ''Fuadaich nan Gàidheal'' ([[Highland Clearances|Scottish Highland Clearances]]) forced many [[Gaels|Gaelic]] families off their ancestral lands. The first ship loaded with [[Hebridean]] colonists arrived on "St. John's Island" (Prince Edward Island) in 1770, with later ships following in 1772 and 1774.<ref name="scots">{{cite web|last=Bumstead |first=J. M. |year=2006 |title=Scots |url=http://multiculturalcanada.ca/Encyclopedia/A-Z/s2/12 |publisher=Multicultural Canada |access-date=2006-08-30 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121226073110/http://www.multiculturalcanada.ca/Encyclopedia/A-Z/s2/12 |archive-date=2012-12-26 }}</ref> In 1773, a ship named ''The [[Hector (ship)|Hector]]'' landed in [[Pictou]], Nova Scotia, with 169 settlers mostly originating from the [[Isle of Skye]].<ref>{{cite web|year=2005|title=Hector Festival|url=http://www.decostecentre.ca/hector_festival.php |publisher=DeCoste Centre |access-date=2006-08-30 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221061823/http://decostecentre.ca/hector_festival.php |archive-date=2009-02-21 }}</ref> In 1784, the last barrier to Scottish settlement—a law restricting land-ownership on Cape Breton Island—was repealed, and soon both PEI and Nova Scotia were predominantly Gaelic-speaking.<ref name="study">{{cite web|last=Kennedy |first=Michael |year=2002 |title=Gaelic Economic-impact Study |url=http://museum.gov.ns.ca/pubs/Gaelic-Report.pdf |publisher=Nova Scotia Museum |access-date=2006-08-30 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060828100950/http://museum.gov.ns.ca/pubs/Gaelic-Report.pdf |archive-date=2006-08-28 }}</ref> It is estimated more than 50,000 Gaelic settlers immigrated to Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island between 1815 and 1870.<ref name="scots" />
[[File:The Hector (replica), Pictou, Nova Scotia.jpg|thumb|left|Replica of the ship ''[[Hector (ship)|Hector]]'' in 2009. The original ship brought 169 settlers from the [[Isle of Skye]] to Nova Scotia in 1773.]]
====Scottish clans====
In the Scottish Highlands, the traditional clan system was ended after the failed Rising of 1745. However, Ommer shows that the Scottish settlers reconstituted clan settlements in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, that persisted into the early 20th century. The clan system was tribal, involving an extended kin group that held land in common. Property was typically owned by the whole kinship group. In Scotland, clansmen rejected feudal claims of landlordship. The pioneers to Cape Breton sought out their own kin and settled alongside them. Farms passed from one branch of a family to another through succeeding generations but continued to be occupied by members of the same clan. Clan members helped each other with communal barn raising and shared labour and tools. In Nova Scotia, the system was maintained through arranged marriages, mutual aid and communal tenure. The system enabled survival and efficiency in a harsh pioneering environment.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ommer | first1 = Rosemary E. | year = 1986 | title = Primitive Accumulation and the Scottish 'Clann' in the Old World and the New | journal = Journal of Historical Geography | volume = 12 | issue = 2| pages = 121–141 | doi=10.1016/s0305-7488(86)80047-0}}</ref>
=== American Revolution ===
{{Main|Nova Scotia in the American Revolution}}
The [[American Revolution]] (1776–1783) had a significant impact on shaping Nova Scotia. Initially there was ambivalence in Nova Scotia, "the 14th American Colony" as some called it, over whether the colony should join the rebelling [[Thirteen Colonies]] in the war against Britain. A small number of Nova Scotians went south to serve with the [[Continental Army]] against the British; after the war, between 1798 and 1812, the [[United States Congress]] granted such supporters land in the [[Refugee Tract]] in [[Ohio]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://wardepartmentpapers.org/searchresults.php?searchClass=fulltextSearch&fulltextQuery=refugee+tract|title=Papers of the War Department|website= wardepartmentpapers.org|access-date=2017-02-20|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181114141655/http://wardepartmentpapers.org/searchresults.php?searchClass=fulltextSearch&fulltextQuery=refugee+tract|archive-date=2018-11-14|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:SackofLunenburgByAJWrightNSARMno1979-147no64.jpg|thumb|Depiction of the [[Raid on Lunenburg, Nova Scotia (1782)|raid on Lunenburg]] in 1782 by American privateers, during the [[American Revolutionary War]]]]
Rebellions flared at the [[Battle of Fort Cumberland]] (November 1776), the [[Siege of Saint John (1777)]], the [[Maugerville, New Brunswick|Maugerville Rebellion]] in 1776 and the [[Miramichi, New Brunswick|Battle at Miramichi]] in 1779. However the Nova Scotia government in Halifax was controlled by an Anglo-European mercantile elite{{Who|date=March 2014}} for whom loyalty was more profitable than rebellion. Facing attacks which forced choices of loyalty, rebellion or neutrality, settlers outside Halifax experienced a religious revival that expressed some of their anxieties.<ref>{{cite journal|last= Cahill|first= Barry|title= The Treason of the Merchants: Dissent and Repression in Halifax in the Era of the American Revolution|journal= Acadiensis |year= 1996|volume=26|number=1|pages=52–70}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Stewart|first1=Gordon T.|last2= Rawlyk |first2= George A.|title=A People Highly Favoured of God: The Nova Scotia Yankees and the American Revolution |year= 1972 |publisher= Archon Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last= Armstrong|first= Maurice|title= Neutrality and Religion in Revolutionary Nova Scotia|journal=The New England Quarterly|volume= 19|number= 1|year= 1946 |pages= 50–62|doi=10.2307/361206 |jstor=36120 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/36120}}</ref> Throughout the war, United States [[privateers]] devastated the maritime economy by raiding many of Nova Scotia's coastal communities. In addition to capturing 225 vessels either leaving or arriving at Nova Scotia ports,<ref>{{cite book|last= Gwyn|first= Julian|title= Frigates and Foremasts|publisher= University of British Columbia|year= 2003 |page= 56}}</ref> American privateers made regular land raids, attacking [[Raid on Lunenburg (1782)|Lunenburg]], [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia|Annapolis Royal]], [[Canso, Nova Scotia|Canso]] and [[Liverpool, Nova Scotia|Liverpool]]. American privateers repeatedly raided [[Canso, Nova Scotia]] in 1775 and 1779, destroying the fisheries, which were worth £50,000 a year to Britain.{{ref|B|B}} These American raids alienated many sympathetic or neutral Nova Scotians into supporting the British. By the end of the war a number of Nova Scotian privateers were outfitted to attack American shipping.<ref>{{cite book|last= Marsters|first= Roger |title= Bold Privateers: Terror, Plunder and Profit on Canada's Atlantic Coast|year=2004|publisher=Formac Publishing Company|pages=87–89}}</ref>
To guard against repeated American privateer attacks, the [[84th Regiment of Foot (Royal Highland Emigrants)]] was garrisoned at forts around [[Atlantic Canada]] to strengthen the small and ill-equipped militia companies of the colony. [[Fort Edward (Nova Scotia)]] in [[Windsor, Nova Scotia]], was the Regiment's headquarters to prevent a possible American land assault on Halifax from the Bay of Fundy. There was an American attack on Nova Scotia by land, the [[Battle of Fort Cumberland]] followed by the [[Siege of Saint John (1777)]]
The British naval squadron based at Halifax was successful in deterring any American invasion and in blocking American support for Nova Scotia rebels; it launched some attacks on New England, such as the [[Battle of Machias (1777)]]. However the Royal Navy was unable to establish [[naval supremacy]]. While many American privateers were captured in battles such as the [[Naval battle off Halifax]], many more continued attacks on shipping and settlements until the final months of the war. The Royal Navy struggled to maintain British supply-lines, defending convoys from American and in 1781 (after the [[Franco-American alliance]] against [[Great Britain]]) from French attacks - such as a fiercely-fought convoy battle, the [[Naval battle off Cape Breton|naval engagement]] with a French fleet at [[Sydney, Nova Scotia]], near Spanish River, Cape Breton.<ref name=akins95>{{cite book|last=Akins|first=Thomas B.|author-link=Thomas Beamish Akins|title=History of Halifax City|url= https://archive.org/details/historyhalifaxc00akingoog|year=1895|publisher=Nova Scotia Historical Society |location= Halifax|page=82}}</ref>
[[File:BriggObserveregagingtheJack29May1782HalifaxPublRDodd1Sept1784BerleyRobisonCollectionUSNavalAcademy.jpg|thumb|HMS ''Observer'' engages an American privateer ship ''Jack'' during a [[Battle off Halifax (1782)|naval battle off Halifax]] in 1782]]
As the [[New England Planters]] (1759 onwards) and [[United Empire Loyalists]] began to arrive in Mi'kmaki (the Maritimes) in greater numbers, economic, environmental and cultural pressures were put on the Mi'kmaq with the erosion of the intent of the treaties. The Mi'kmaq tried to enforce the treaties through threat of force. At the beginning of the [[American Revolution]], many Mi'kmaq and Maliseet tribes were supportive of the Americans against the British. They participated in the [[Maugerville, New Brunswick|Maugerville Rebellion]] and the [[Battle of Fort Cumberland]] in 1776. (Mí'kmaq delegates concluded the first international treaty, the [[Treaty of Watertown]], with the [[United States]] soon after it declared its independence in July 1776. These delegates did not officially represent the Mi'kmaq government, although many individual Mi'kmaq did privately join the Continental Army as a result.) During the [[St. John River expedition]] of June 1777, [[John Allan (colonel)|Col. Allan]]'s untiring effort to gain the friendship and support of the Maliseet and Mi'kmaq for the Revolution was somewhat successful. There was a significant exodus of Maliseet from the [[Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)|St John River]] to join the American forces at [[Machias, Maine]].<ref>{{cite book |title= The history of Acadia : from its first discovery to its surrender to England by the Treaty of Paris|last= Hannay|first= James|url= https://archive.org/details/historyofacadiaf00hannuoft|year= 1879 |publisher= J. & A. McMillan|page=119}}</ref> On Sunday, July 13, 1777, a party of between 400 and 500 men, women, and children, embarked in 128 canoes from the [[Meductic Indian Village / Fort Meductic|Old Fort Meduetic]] (8 miles below Woodstock) for Machias. The party arrived at a very opportune moment for the Americans, and afforded material assistance in the defence of that post during [[Battle of Machias (1777)|the attack]] made by Sir [[George Collier]] from 13 to 15 August. The British did only minimal damage to the place, and the services of the Indians on the occasion earned for them the thanks of the [[Massachusetts Governor's Council|council of Massachusetts]].<ref name=Raymond>{{cite book|title=Colonel Alexander McNutt and the Pre-Loyalist Settlements of Nova Scotia|last= Raymond|first= W.O.|publisher= Royal Society of Canada|year= 2011|url= {{Google books| IBwbxAEACAAJ |plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> In June 1779, Mi’kmaq in the [[Miramichi, New Brunswick|Miramichi]] attacked and plundered some of the British in the area. The following month, British Captain Augustus Harvey, in command of [[HMS Viper (1777)|HMS ''Viper'']], arrived in the area and battled with the Mi’kmaq. One Mi’kmaq was killed and 16 were taken prisoner to Quebec. The prisoners were eventually brought to Halifax, where they were later released upon signing the Oath of Allegiance to the British Crown on 28 July 1779.<ref>{{cite DCB |first=L. F. S. |last=Upton |title=Julien, John |volume=5 |url= http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/julien_john_5E.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|title=Sessional Papers, Volume 5 |publisher= The Canadian Parliament|year= 1779}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title= The Maritime Provinces of British North America and the American Revolution|last= Brenton Kerr|first= Wilfred|date= 1970|publisher= Russell & Russell |isbn=9780846213932|page=96}}</ref>{{ref|C|C}}
=== Migration of Loyalists ===
After the British were defeated in the Thirteen Colonies, some former Nova Scotian territory in Maine entered the control of the newly independent American state of [[Massachusetts]]. British troops from Nova Scotia helped evacuate approximately 30,000 [[United Empire Loyalists]] (American Tories), who settled in Nova Scotia, with land grants by the Crown as some compensation for their losses. Of these, 14,000 went to present-day New Brunswick and in response the mainland portion of the Nova Scotia colony was separated and became the province of [[New Brunswick]] with Sir [[Thomas Carleton]] the first governor on August 16, 1784.<ref>{{cite book|title=This Unfriendly Soil: The Loyalist Experience in Nova Scotia, 1783-1791|last=Mackinnon|first=Neil|year=1986|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|jstor=j.ctt130hhc2 |isbn=9780773507197 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt130hhc2}}</ref> Loyalist settlements also led [[Cape Breton Island]] to become a separate colony in 1784, only to be returned to Nova Scotia in 1820.
[[File:LoyalistMonumentMiddletonNovaScotia.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Monument to the [[United Empire Loyalists|loyalists]] that settled [[Middleton, Nova Scotia|Middleton]]]]
The Loyalists exodus created new communities across Nova Scotia, including [[Shelburne, Nova Scotia|Shelburne]], which was briefly one of the larger British settlements in North America, and infused the province with additional capital and skills. The Loyalist migration also caused political tensions between Loyalist leaders and the leaders of the existing [[New England Planters]] settlement. Some Loyalist leaders felt that the elected leaders in Nova Scotia represented a Yankee population which had been sympathetic to the American Revolutionary movement, and which disparaged the intensely anti-American, anti-republican attitudes of the Loyalists. "They [the loyalists]," Colonel Thomas Dundas wrote in 1786, "have experienced every possible injury from the old inhabitants of Nova Scotia, who are even more disaffected towards the British Government than any of the new States ever were. This makes me much doubt their remaining long dependent."<ref>{{cite book|title=Movements of Political Protest in Canada, 1640–1840|last=Clark|first=S.D.|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=1959|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt1gxxqnt|pages=50–51|jstor=10.3138/j.ctt1gxxqnt |isbn=9781442639188 }}</ref>
The Loyalist influx also created pressure for settlement land which pushed Nova Scotia's Mi'kmaq People to the margins as Loyalist land grants encroached on ill-defined native lands. Approximately 3,000 members of the Loyalist migration were [[Black Loyalist]]s who founded the largest free Black settlement in North America at [[Birchtown, Nova Scotia|Birchtown]], near Shelburne. However unfair treatment and harsh conditions caused about one-third of the Black Loyalists to combine forces with British abolitionists and the [[Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor]] to resettle in [[Sierra Leone]]. In 1792, Black Loyalists from Nova Scotia founded [[Freetown, Sierra Leone|Freetown]] and became known in Africa as the [[Nova Scotian Settlers (Sierra Leone)|Nova Scotian Settlers]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves and the American Revolution|last=Schama|first=Simon|author-link=Simon Schama|publisher=Viking Canada|year=2006|page=11}}</ref>
Large numbers of [[Canadian Gaelic|Gaelic-speaking]] [[Highland Scots]] immigrated to Cape Breton and the western part of the mainland during the late 18th century and 19th century. In 1812 [[Sir Hector Maclean, 7th Baronet|Sir Hector Maclean]] (the [[Maclean Baronets|7th Baronet of Morvern]] and 23rd Chief of the [[Clan Maclean]]) emigrated to Pictou from [[Glensanda|Glensanda and Kingairloch]] in Scotland bringing along almost the entire population of 500.<ref>{{cite book|title=Beyond the Atlantic Roar: A Study of the Nova Scotia Scots|last1=Campbell|first1=Donald Fraser|last2=Campbell|first2=Douglas F.|last3=MacLean|first3=R.A.|publisher=McGill-Queen University Press|year=1974|url={{Google books|-dOXr1lRCcAC|plainurl=yes}}|page=3}}</ref>
==== Decline of slavery (1787–1812) ====
[[File:AricanNovaScotianByCaptain William Booth1788.png|thumb|A [[Black Loyalist]] wood cutter at [[Shelburne, Nova Scotia|Shelburne]] in 1788]]
While many blacks who arrived in Nova Scotia during the American Revolution were free, others were not.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Slavery in the Maritime Provinces|first=William Renwick|last=Riddell|date=July 1920|journal=The Journal of Negro History|volume=5|issue=3|pages=359–375|jstor=2713627|doi=10.2307/2713627|s2cid=149557314}}</ref> Black slaves also arrived in Nova Scotia as the property of [[White American]] Loyalists. In 1772, prior to the American Revolution, Britain [[Somerset v Stewart|outlawed the slave trade in the British Isles]] followed by the ''[[Joseph Knight (slave)|Knight v. Wedderburn]]'' decision in Scotland in 1778. This decision, in turn, influenced the colony of Nova Scotia. In 1788, abolitionist [[James Drummond MacGregor]] from Pictou published the first anti-slavery literature in Canada and began purchasing slaves' freedom and chastising his colleagues in the Presbyterian church who owned slaves.<ref>{{cite DCB |first=Susan |last=Buggey |title=MacGregor, James Drummond |volume=6 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/macgregor_james_drummond_6E.html}}</ref> In 1790 [[John Burbidge]] freed his slaves. Led by [[Richard John Uniacke]], in 1787, 1789 and again on January 11, 1808, the Nova Scotian legislature refused to legalise slavery.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pachai|first1=Bridglal|last2=Bishop|first2=Henry|title=Historic Black Nova Scotia|url={{Google books|QVepAAAACAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|year=2006|publisher=Nimbus|isbn=978-1-55109-551-6|page=8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The immigration and settlement of the black refugees of the War of 1812 in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick|last=Grant|first=John N.|year=1990|publisher=Genre Books|page=31}}</ref> Two chief justices, [[Thomas Andrew Lumisden Strange]] (1790–1796) and [[Sampson Salter Blowers]] (1797–1832) waged "judicial war" in their efforts to free slaves from their owners in Nova Scotia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Winks|first=Robin W.|title=The Blacks in Canada: A History|url={{Google books|Eeh4L1CulqYC|plainurl=yes}}|year=1997|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=978-0-7735-1632-8|page=102}}</ref><ref>{{cite DCB |first=Donald F. |last=Chard |title=Strange, Sir Thomas Andrew Lumisden |volume=7 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/strange_thomas_andrew_lumisden_7E.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://courts.ns.ca/History_of_Courts/history_noframes/milestones.htm|title=Legal Milestones
|date=2004|publisher=The Courts of Nova Scotia}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Barry |last=Cahill |title=Slavery and the Judges of Loyalist Nova Scotia |journal=UNB Law Journal |volume=43 |date=1994 |pages=73–135 |url=https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/unblj/article/view/29646}}</ref>{{ref|D|D}} They were held in high regard in the colony. By the end of the [[War of 1812]] and the arrival of the Black Refugees, there were few slaves left in Nova Scotia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://novascotia.ca/archives/virtual/africanns/results.asp?Search=&SearchList1=3&Language=English|title=Website Update – Nova Scotia Archives|website=novascotia.ca|date=20 April 2020|url-status=dead|archive-date=2014-12-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214133303/https://novascotia.ca/archives/virtual/africanns/results.asp?Search=&SearchList1=3&Language=English}}</ref> (The [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]] outlawed the slave trade in the British Empire in 1807 and the [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833|Slavery Abolition Act]] of 1833 outlawed slavery altogether.)
== 19th century ==
===Early 19th century===
====Renewed wars with France====
The French Revolutionary and later Napoleonic Wars at first created confusion and hardship as the fishery was disrupted and Nova Scotia's West Indies trade suffered severe French attacks. However, military spending in the strategic colony gradually led to increasing prosperity. Many Nova Scotian merchants outfitted their own privateers to attack French and Spanish shipping in the West Indies. The maturing colony built new roads and lighthouses and in 1801 established a lifesaving station on [[Sable Island]] to deal with the many international shipwrecks on the island.
==== War of 1812 ====
[[File:John Christian Schetky, H.M.S. Shannon Leading Her Prize the American Frigate Chesapeake into Halifax Harbour (c. 1830).jpg|left|thumb|{{HMS|Shannon|1806|6}} leading the captured {{USS|Chesapeake|1799|6}} in [[Halifax Harbour]] during the [[War of 1812]]]]
During the [[War of 1812]] with the United States, Nova Scotia became an even larger military base for the British as the centre for the British Royal Navy's blockade and naval raids on the United States. The colony also contributed to the war effort by purchasing or building various privateer ships to seize 250 American vessels.<ref name=boileau>{{cite book|title=Half-Hearted Enemies: Nova Scotia, New England and the War of 1812|date=2005-05-06|publisher=Formac Publishing|last=Boileau|first=John|url={{Google books|d4qgBAAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}|page=53}}</ref> The colony's privateers were led by the town of [[Liverpool, Nova Scotia]], notably by the schooner [[Liverpool Packet]] which captured over fifty ships in the war – the most of any privateer in Canada.<ref name=boileau/> The [[Sir John Sherbrooke (Halifax)]], jointly owned between Liverpool and Halifax was also very successful during the war, being the largest privateer from British North America. Other communities also joined the privateer campaign, including [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia|Annapolis Royal]], [[Windsor, Nova Scotia|Windsor]], and in [[Lunenburg, Nova Scotia]], three members of the town of purchased a privateer schooner and named it ''Lunenburg'' on August 8, 1814.<ref>{{cite book|last=Snider|first=C.H.J.|title=Under the Red Jack: privateers of the Maritime Provinces of Canada in the War of 1812|year=1928|publisher= Martin Hopkinson & Co. Ltd|pages=225–258|url=http://www.1812privateers.org/Ca/canada.htm#LG|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100816030429/http://www.1812privateers.org/Ca/canada.htm |archive-date=2010-08-16}})</ref> The Nova Scotian privateer vessel captured seven American vessels.
Perhaps the most dramatic moment in the war for Nova Scotia was when {{HMS|Shannon|1806|6}} led the [[Capture of USS Chesapeake|captured American frigate USS ''Chesapeake'']] into [[Halifax Harbour]] (1813). The captain of the ''Shannon'' was injured, and Nova Scotian [[Provo Wallis]] took command of the ship to escort the ''Chesapeake'' to Halifax. Many of the prisoners were kept at [[Deadman's Island, Halifax]].<ref name=boileau/> At the same time, there was {{HMS|Hogue|1811|6}}{{'}}s traumatic capture of the American privateer ''[[Young Teazer]]'' off [[Chester, Nova Scotia]].
On September 3, 1814, a British fleet from [[City of Halifax|Halifax, Nova Scotia]], began to [[Battle of Hampden|lay siege to Maine]] to re-establish British title to Maine east of the [[Penobscot River]], an area the British had renamed "New Ireland". Carving off "New Ireland" from New England had been a goal of the British government and settlers of Nova Scotia ("New Scotland") since the American Revolution.<ref name=seymour/>{{rp|10}} The British expedition involved eight war-ships and ten transports (carrying 3,500 British regulars) that were under the overall command of Sir [[John Coape Sherbrooke]], then Lt. Gov. of [[Nova Scotia]].<ref name=seymour>{{cite book|title=Tom Seymour's Maine: A Maine Anthology|last=Seymour|first=Tom|date=2003}}</ref>{{rp|10–17}} On July 3, 1814, the expedition captured the coastal town of [[Castine, Maine]] and then went on to raid [[Belfast, Maine|Belfast]], [[Machias, Maine|Machias]], [[Eastport, Maine|Eastport]], [[Hampden, Maine|Hampden]] and [[Bangor, Maine|Bangor]](See [[Battle of Hampden]]). After the war, Maine was returned to America through the [[Treaty of Ghent]]. The British returned to Halifax and, with the spoils of war they had taken from Maine, they built [[Dalhousie University]] (established 1818).<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Halifax-Castine Expedition|journal=Dalhousie Review|url=http://hdl.handle.net/10222/57480|volume=18|number=2|year=1938|last=Harvey|first=D.C.|author-link=Daniel Cobb Harvey|pages=207–213|hdl=10222/57480 }}</ref>
[[File:Gabriel Hall, Nova Scotia.png|thumb|upright|Photo of Gabriel Hall, a [[Black Refugee (War of 1812)|black refugee from the War of 1812]]]]
The [[Black Refugee (War of 1812)|Black Refugees]] from the [[War of 1812]] were [[African American]] slaves who fought for the [[United Kingdom|British]] and were relocated to Nova Scotia. The Black Refugees were the second group of [[African Americans]], after the [[Black Loyalists]], to defect to the British side and be relocated to Nova Scotia. However, there was also migration out of the colony because of the hardships immigrants faced. Reverend [[Norman McLeod (minister)|Norman McLeod]] led a large group of approximately 800 Scottish residents from the [[St. Anns, Nova Scotia]], to [[Waipu, New Zealand]], during the 1850s.
====Labour conditions====
The Halifax Naval Yard during the 1775–1820 era had officials who took bribes from workers and practiced widespread nepotism. The laborers endured poor working conditions and limited personal freedoms. However, the laborers were willing to remain there for many years because wages were high and more steady than any alternative. Unlike almost any other jobs the yards paid disability benefits for men injured at work and gave retirement pensions to those who spent their career in the yards.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gwyn | first1 = Julian | year = 1999 | title = the Culture of Work in the Halifax Naval Yard Before 1820 | journal = Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society | volume = 2 | pages = 118–144 }}</ref>
Nova Scotia had one of the first labour organizations in what became Canada. By 1799 workers set up a Carpenters' Society at Halifax, and soon there were attempts at organization by other craftsmen and tradesmen. Businessmen complained, and in 1816 Nova Scotia passed an act against trade unions, the preamble of which declared that great numbers of master tradesmen, journeymen, and workmen in the town of Halifax and other parts of the province had, by unlawful meetings and combinations, endeavored to regulate the rate of wages and effectuate other illegal aims. Unions remained illegal until 1851.<ref name=confed/>{{rp|338}}
====Responsible government====
Nova Scotia was the first colony in [[British North America]] and in the [[British Empire]] to achieve [[responsible government]] in January–February 1848 and become [[self-governing colony|self-governing]] through the efforts of [[Joseph Howe]].<ref name=beck>{{cite book|last=Beck|first=J. Murray|year=1983|title=Joseph Howe: The Briton Becomes Canadian 1848–1873|volume=2|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=0-7735-0388-9}}</ref> (In 1758, Nova Scotia also became the first British colony to establish [[representative government]], commemorated in 1908 by erecting the [[Sir Sandford Fleming Park|Dingle Tower]].)
===Latter 19th century===
The first school for the [[deaf]] in [[Atlantic Canada]], the [[Halifax School for the Deaf]], was established on Göttingen St., Halifax (1856). The [[Halifax School for the Blind]] was opened on Morris Street in 1871. It was the first residential school for the blind in Canada.
[[File:Welsford-Parker Monument at the entrance to the Old Burying Ground in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Sebastopol Monument]] in 2007. It was unveiled in Halifax in 1860 to commemorate the British victory at the [[Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)|siege of Sevastopol]] and the [[Crimean War]].]]
Nova Scotians fought in the [[Crimean War]]. The [[Welsford-Parker Monument]] in Halifax is the oldest war monument in Canada (1860) and the only Crimean War monument in North America. It commemorates the [[Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)]]. Nova Scotians also participated in the [[Indian Mutiny]]. Two of the most famous were [[William Hall (VC)]] and Sir [[John Eardley Inglis]], both of whom participated in the [[Siege of Lucknow]]. The [[78th (Highlanders) Regiment of Foot]] were famous for their involvement with the siege and were later posted to [[Citadel Hill (Fort George)]].
==== American Civil War ====
{{See also|Canada and the American Civil War}}
Over 200 Nova Scotians have been identified as fighting in the [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865). Most joined Maine or Massachusetts infantry regiments, but one in ten served the Confederacy (South). The total likely reached two thousand as many young men had migrated to the U.S. before 1860. Pacifism, neutrality, anti-Americanism, and anti-"Yankee" sentiments all operated to keep the numbers down, but on the other hand, there were strong cash incentives to join the well-paid Northern army and the long tradition of emigrating out of Nova Scotia, combined with a zest for adventure, attracted many young men.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marquis|first=Greg|title=Mercenaries or Killer Angels? Nova Scotians in the American Civil War|journal=Collections of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society|year=1995|volume=44|pages=83–84}}</ref>
The British Empire (including Nova Scotia) declared neutrality, and Nova Scotia prospered greatly from trade with the Union. Nova Scotia was the site of two minor international incidents during the war: the [[Chesapeake Affair]] and the escape from [[Halifax Harbour]] of the [[CSS Tallahassee|CSS ''Tallahassee'']], aided by Confederate sympathizers.<ref name=shadow>{{cite book|last=Marquis|first=Greg|title=In Armageddon's Shadow: The Civil War and Canada's Maritime Provinces|publisher=McGill-Queen’s University Press|year=1998}}</ref> Nova Scotia was a center for [[Confederate Secret Service]] agents and Confederate sympathizers and had a role in engaging in [[blockade runners of the American Civil War|blockade running with arms largely from Britain]]. [[Blockade runner]]s stopped in Halifax to rest and refuel where they were to pass through the [[Union blockade]] to deliver supplies to the [[Confederate States Army|Confederate Army]]. Nova Scotia's role in [[arms trafficking]] to the South was so noticeable that the ''[[Acadian Recorder]]'' in 1864 described Halifax's effort as a "[[mercenary]] aid to a fratricidal war, which, without outside intervention, would have long ago ended."<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.cnrs-scrn.org/northern_mariner/vol08/nm_8_1_1-19.pdf#page=4|title=The Ports of Halifax and Saint John and the American Civil War|author=Greg Marquis|page=4|volume=8|issue=1|date=January 1998|publisher=[[The Northern Mariner]]}}</ref> [[United States Secretary of State|U.S. Secretary of State]] [[William H. Seward]] complained on March 14, 1865:
<blockquote>
Halifax has been for more than one year, and yet is, a naval station for vessels which, running the blockade, furnish supplies and munitions of war to our enemy, and it has been made a rendezvous for those piratical cruisers which come out from [[Liverpool]] and [[Glasgow]], to destroy our commerce on the high seas, and even to carry war into the ports of the United States. Halifax is a postal and despatch station in the correspondence between the rebels at Richmond and their emissaries in Europe. Halifax merchants are known to have surreptitiously imported provisions, arms, and ammunition from our seaports, and then transshipped them to the rebels. The governor of Nova Scotia has been neutral, just, and friendly; so were the judges of the province who presided on the trial of the Chesapeake. But then it is understood that, on the other hand, merchant shippers of Halifax, and many of the people of Halifax, are willing agents and abettors of the enemies of the United States, and their hostility has proved not merely offensive but deeply injurious.<ref>{{cite thesis|url=https://prism.ucalgary.ca/server/enwiki/api/core/bitstreams/fce3cc3a-b506-4cf1-a42b-4f939db75ac5/content#page=14|title=Between King Cotton and Queen Victoria: Confederate Informal Diplomacy and Privatized Violence in British America During the American Civil War|author=Beau Cleland|page=2|publisher=[[University of Calgary]]}}</ref>
</blockquote>
The war left many fearful that the North might attempt to annex [[British North America]], particularly after the [[Fenian raids]] began (many Americans considered the Fenian raids as retribution against British-Canadian tolerance of and even aid to the Confederate activities in Canada against the Union during the Civil War (such as the ''Chesapeake'' Affair and the [[St. Albans Raid]]).<ref>{{cite news|title=Historicist: Confederates and Conspirators|url=https://www.the-american-interest.com/2011/09/01/as-others-saw-us/|author=Kevin Plummer|date=May 21, 2011|publisher=Torontoist}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=10 ways Canada fought the American Civil War|url=https://macleans.ca/society/10-ways-canada-fought-the-american-civil-war/|date=August 4, 2014|publisher=[[Maclean's]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-confederate-spy-ring-spreading-terror-to-the-union/|title=The Confederate Spy Ring: Spreading Terror to the Union|author=Peter Kross|date=Fall 2015|publisher=Warfare History network}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.barakabooks.com/catalogue/montreal-city-of-secrets-civil-war/|title=Montreal, City of Secrets: Confederate Operations in Montreal During the American Civil War|publisher=Baraka Books}}</ref> In response, volunteer regiments were raised across Nova Scotia. British commander and Lt Governor of Nova Scotia [[Charles Hastings Doyle]] (after whom [[Port Hastings, Nova Scotia|Port Hastings]] is named) led 700 troops out of Halifax to crush a Fenian attack on the New Brunswick border with Maine. This rather baseless scare was one of the main reasons why Britain sanctioned the creation of Canada (1867); to avoid another possible conflict with America and to leave the defence of Nova Scotia to a Canadian Government.<ref>Marquis, ''In Armageddon’s Shadow''</ref>
==== Canadian Confederation ====
[[File:Cross Roads.jpg|thumb|Political cartoon from 1868 where Nova Scotia, represented by the girl ''Acadia'', is choosing between [[Charles Tupper]] and [[Canadian Confederation]], or [[Joseph Howe]] and union with the US. Although Howe was only anti-Confederation, some had perceived he preferred joining the US.]]
The [[British North America Act, 1867|British North America Act]], by which Nova Scotia became part of the Dominion of Canada, went into effect on July 1, 1867. Premier [[Charles Tupper]] had worked energetically to bring about the union. But it was controversial because localism, Protestant fears of Catholics and distrust of Canadians generally, and worries about losing free trade with America, were all intensified by the refusal of Tupper to consult Nova Scotia's voters on the subject. A movement for withdrawal from Canada developed, led by [[Joseph Howe]]. Howe's [[Anti-Confederation Party]] swept the next election, on September 18, 1867, winning 18 out of 19 federal seats, and 36 out of 38 seats in the provincial legislature. A motion passed by the Nova Scotia House of Assembly in 1868 refusing to recognise the legitimacy of Confederation has never been rescinded. With the great [[Hants County, Nova Scotia|Hants County]] by-election of 1869, Howe was successful in turning the province away from appealing confederation to simply seeking "better terms" within it.<ref name=beck/> Despite its temporary popularity, Howe's movement failed in its goal to withdraw from Canada because London was determined the union go forward. Howe did succeed in getting better financial terms for the province, and gained a national office for himself.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-09 |title=Joseph Howe {{!}} Nova Scotian, journalist, politician {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Howe |access-date=2024-01-08 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
Long-term adverse factors came into play. In 1865 came the end of the American Civil War and all the extra business it had generated. In 1866 came the end of [[Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty]], which led to higher and damaging American tariffs on goods imported from Nova Scotia. In the long run the transition at sea from wood-wind-water sailing to steel steamships undercut the advantages Nova Scotia had enjoyed before 1867. Many residents for decades grumbled that Confederation had slowed the economic progress of the province and it lagged other parts of Canada. Repeal, as anti-confederation became known, would rear its head again in the 1880s, and transform into the [[Maritime Rights Movement]] in the 1920s. Some [[Flag of Nova Scotia|Nova Scotia flags]] flew at half mast on [[Dominion Day]] as late as that time.
==== Golden Age of Sail ====
[[File:WilliamDLawrenceMaitlandNovaScotia.jpg|thumb|Photo of ''[[William D. Lawrence (ship)|William D. Lawrence]]'' being built at [[Maitland, Nova Scotia|Maitland]] in 1873. The ship was the [[List of longest wooden ships|longest wooden ship]] built in Canada.]]
Nova Scotia became a world leader in both building and owning wooden sailing ships in the second half of the century. Nova Scotia produced internationally recognized ship builders [[Donald McKay]], [[John M. Blaikie]] and [[William Dawson Lawrence]] and ship designers such as [[Ebenezer Moseley]] as well the propeller inventor [[John Patch]]. Notable ships included the [[barque]] [[Stag (barque)|''Stag'']], a clipper renowned for speed and the [[full-rigged ship|ship]] [[William D. Lawrence (ship)|''William D. Lawrence'']], the largest wooden [[full-rigged ship|ship]] ever built in Canada. Mariners such a [[Research (1861 ship)|Capt. George "Rudder" Churchill]] of [[Yarmouth, Nova Scotia|Yarmouth]] became famous for their voyages. The province also produced a notable 19th-century female mariner, [[Bessie Hall]] from [[Annapolis Royal]]. The most famous of the sailors from Nova Scotia was [[Joshua Slocum]] who became the first man to sail single-handedly around the world (1895). Competition from steamships in the late 19th century ended the Golden Age of Sail, although the legacy continued to inspire mariners and the public into the following century with the many racing victories of the [[Bluenose]] schooner.
The population grew steadily from 277,000 in 1851 to 388,000 in 1871, mostly from natural increase since immigration was slight. The era is often called the province's golden age due to the economic growth, growth of towns and villages, maturing of business and institutions and the success of industries like shipbuilding. The idea of a past golden age came to prominence in the early 20th century by economic reformers in the [[Maritime Rights Movement]] and was exploited by the tourism industry in the 1930s to lure tourists to a romantic era of tall ships and antiques.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McKay|first=Ian|title=History and the Tourist Gaze: The Politics of Commemoration in Nova Scotia, 1935–1964|journal=Acadiensis|date=1993|volume=22|issue=2|pages=102–138}}</ref> Recent historians using census data have challenged the idea of Nova Scotia's golden age. In 1851–1871 there was an overall increase in per capita wealth holding. However, typical of [[Gilded Age|19th century capitalism]], most of the gains went to the urban elites, especially businessmen and financiers living in Halifax. The wealth held by the top 10 percent rose considerably over the two decades, but there was little improvement in the wealth levels in rural areas, which comprised the great majority of the population.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gwyn|first1=Julian|last2=Siddiq|first2=Fazley|title=Wealth distribution in Nova Scotia during the Confederation era, 1851 and 1871|journal=Canadian Historical Review|year=1992|volume=73|issue=4|pages=435–452|doi=10.3138/CHR-073-04-01 |s2cid=161430261 }}</ref> Likewise Gwyn reports that gentlemen, merchants, bankers, colliery owners, shipowners, shipbuilders, and master mariners flourished. However the great majority of families were headed by farmers, fishermen, craftsmen and laborers. Many of them—and many widows—lived in poverty. Outmigration increased as the 19th century wore on.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gwyn|first=Julian|title=Golden Age or Bronze Moment? Wealth and Poverty in Nova Scotia: The 1850s and 1860s|journal=Canadian Papers in Rural History|year=1992|volume=8|pages=195–230}}</ref>{{ref|E|E}} Thus the era was indeed a golden age but mainly for a small and powerful elite.
==== North-West Rebellion ====
[[File:SwiftCurrent.jpg|thumb|Members of the [[Halifax Provisional Battalion]] fording a stream near [[Swift Current, Saskatchewan]] during the [[North-West Rebellion]]]]
The [[Halifax Provisional Battalion]] was a military unit from [[Nova Scotia]], Canada, which was sent to fight in the [[North-West Rebellion]] in 1885. The battalion was under command of Lieut.-Colonel James J. Bremner and consisted of 168 non-commissioned officers and men of [[The Princess Louise Fusiliers]], 100 of the [[The Halifax Rifles (RCAC)|63rd Battalion Rifles]], and 84 of the [[1st (Halifax-Dartmouth) Field Artillery Regiment, RCA|Halifax Garrison Artillery]], with 32 officers. The battalion left Halifax under orders for the North-West on Saturday, April 11, 1885, and they stayed for almost three months.<ref>{{cite book|title=The History of the North-west Rebellion of 1885: Comprising a Full and Impartial Account of the Origin and Progress of the War, Scenes in the Field, the Camp, and the Cabin; Including a History of the Indian Tribes of North-western Canada|last=Pelham Mulvany|first=Charles|publisher=A.H. Hovey & Company|year=1886|page=410}}</ref>
Prior to Nova Scotia's involvement, the province remained hostile to Canada in the aftermath of [[Anti-Confederation Party|how the colony was forced into Canada]]. The celebration that followed the Halifax Provisional Battalion's return by train across the county ignited a national patriotism in Nova Scotia. Prime Minister Robert Borden, stated that "up to this time Nova Scotia hardly regarded itself as included in the Canadian Confederation... The rebellion evoked a new spirit... The Riel Rebellion did more to unite Nova Scotia with the rest of Canada than any event that had occurred since Confederation." Similarly, in 1907 Governor General Earl Grey declared, "This Battalion... went out Nova Scotians, they returned Canadians." The wrought iron gates at the [[Halifax Public Gardens]] were made in the Battalion's honour.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sutherland|first=David A.|title=Halifax Encounter with the North-West Uprising of 1885|journal=Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society|volume=13|year=2010|page=73}}</ref>
===19th century economic growth===
[[File:Alexander Keith Brewery, Halifax, Nova Scotia.jpg|thumb|Depiction of [[Alexander Keith's Brewery]], {{circa|1865–70}}. The brewery was established in Nova Scotia in 1820.]]
Throughout the nineteenth century, there were numerous businesses that were developed in Nova Scotia that became of national and international importance: The [[Starr Manufacturing Company]], [[Moosehead Brewery|Susannah Oland and Sons Co.]], the [[Bank of Nova Scotia]], [[Cunard Line]], [[Alexander Keith's Brewery]], [[Morse's Tea Company]], among others.
Most people were farmers and agriculture dominated the economy, despite all the attention given to ships. The rural situation peaked in 1891 in terms of total rural population, farmland, grain production, cattle production, and number of farms, then fell steadily into the 21st century. Apples and dairy products resisted the downward trend in the 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Inwood | first1 = Kris | last2 = Wagg | first2 = Phyllis | year = 1994 | title = Wealth and Prosperity in Nova Scotia Agriculture, 1851–71 | url = https://muse.jhu.edu/article/574588/summary | journal = Canadian Historical Review | volume = 75 | issue = 2| pages = 239–264 }}</ref>
The pattern of Nova Scotia's trade and tariffs between 1830 and 1866 suggests that the colony was already moving toward free trade before the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 with the U.S. took effect. The treaty produced modest additional direct gains. The Reciprocity Treaty complemented the earlier movement toward free trade and stimulated the export of commodities sold primarily to the United States, especially coal.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gerriets | first1 = Marilyn | last2 = Gwyn | first2 = Julian | year = 1996 | title = Tariffs, Trade and Reciprocity: Nova Scotia, 1830–1866 | journal = Acadiensis | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 62–81 }}</ref>
Halifax was the home of [[Samuel Cunard]]. With his father, Abraham, a master ship's carpenter, he founded the A. Cunard & Co. cargo shipping company and later the [[Cunard Line]], a pride of the British Empire. Samuel parlayed his father's modest waterfront properties into a succession of businesses that revolutionized transatlantic shipping and passenger travel with the introduction of steam and steel. Cunard was a booster who was active in philanthropy and helped found the Chamber of Commerce, where he found business partners for his ventures in banking, mining, and other businesses. In the process he became one of the largest landholders in the Maritime Provinces.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Langley | first1 = John G. | year = 2005 | title = Samuel Cunard 1787–1865: 'As Fine a Specimen of a Self-made Man as this Western Continent Can Boast Of.' | journal = Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society | volume = 8 | pages = 92–115 }}</ref>
[[File:Statue of Samuel Cunard in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Statue of [[Samuel Cunard]] in 2006. Cunard started his steamship business in Nova Scotia.]]
[[John Fitzwilliam Stairs]] (1848–1904), scion of the powerful Stairs family, enlarged the family's multiple businesses by merging the cordage firms and sugar refineries and then creating the steel industry in the province. In order to develop new regional sources of capital, Stairs became an innovator in building legal and regulatory frameworks for these new forms of financial structure. Frost contrasts Stairs's success in promoting regional development with the obstacles that he had encountered in promoting regional interests, particularly at the federal level. The family finally sold its businesses in 1971, after 160 years.<ref>{{cite DCB |first=J. B. |last=Cahill |title=Stairs, John Fitzwilliam |volume=13 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/stairs_william_james_13E.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Merchant Princes: Halifax's First Family of Finance, Ships and Steel|last=Frost|first=James D.|publisher=James Lorimer Limited|date=2003-09-22|isbn=9781550288032|url={{Google books|wJlpAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref>
After Confederation, boosters of Halifax expected federal help to make the city's natural harbor Canada's official winter port and a gateway for trade with Europe. Halifax's advantages included its location just off the Great Circle route made it the closest to Europe of any mainland North American port. But the new [[Intercolonial Railway]] (ICR) took an indirect, southerly route for military and political reasons, and the national government made little effort to promote Halifax as Canada's winter port. Ignoring appeals to nationalism and the ICR's own attempts to promote traffic to Halifax, most Canadian exporters sent their wares by train though Boston or Portland. No one was interested in financing the large-scale port facilities Halifax lacked. It took the First World War to at last boost Halifax's harbor into prominence on the North Atlantic.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Frost | first1 = James D. | year = 2005 | title = Halifax: the Wharf of the Dominion, 1867–1914 | journal = Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society | volume = 8 | pages = 35–48 }}</ref>
Unionization, legal after 1851, was based on skilled crafts except in the coal mines and steel plants, where unskilled men could also join. There has been an increase in [[industrial unionism]] with the expansion of industry. International unionism with a strong American influence became important, as international unions began in 1869, when a local of the International Typographical Union was chartered in Halifax. In 1870 the woodworking trades started their union. Different unions banded together to support strike action, as seen in the organization of the Amalgamated Trade Unions of Halifax in 1889, which was succeeded by the Halifax District Trades and Labour Council in 1898. By the end of the 19th century there were more than 70 local unions in the province.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McKay|first=Ian|url=https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/llt/1986-v18-llt_18/llt18art01.pdf|title="By Wisdom, Wile or War" The Provincial Workmen's Association and the Struggle for Working-Class Independence in Nova Scotia, 1879-97|journal=Labour/Le Travail|year=1986|volume=18|publisher=Canadian Committee on Labour History|pages=13–62}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=MacEwan|first=Paul|title=Miners and Steelworkers: Labour in Cape Breton|year=1976|publisher=S. Stevens|isbn=9780888665331|url={{Google books|dhkEAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref>
== 20th century ==
Established in 1894, the [[Local Council of Women of Halifax]] (LCWH) became a prominent suffragette group in the province during the early 20th century, having been devoted to improving the lives of women and children. One of the most significant achievements of the LCWH was its 24-year struggle for women's right to vote in 1918.
===Early 20th century economy===
[[File:ReserveColliery DominioncoalCompanyCa1900.jpg|thumb|A [[Dominion Steel and Coal Corporation]] colliery in [[Reserve Mines]], Nova Scotia, {{circa|1900}}]]
In the early 20th century Leah Tibert Steel and Coal Company (known as Scotia) became a vertically integrated industrial giant. It grew rapidly and made handsome profits from exports of coal, pig iron and steel products to Canadian and international markets. At first its convenient tidewater location and control over all steps of production boosted growth, as it grew through mergers and acquisitions. However the long term negative factors included fragmentation, limited Maritime region markets, rising costs, low quality raw materials, and the lack of external economies.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = McCann | first1 = L. D. | year = 1994 | title = Fragmented Integration: the Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company and the Anatomy of an Urban-industrial Landscape, c. 1912 | journal = Urban History Review | volume = 22 | issue = 2| pages = 139–158 | doi=10.7202/1016714ar| doi-access = free }}</ref> When Scotia (now called DOSCO--[[Dominion Steel and Coal Corporation]]) finally closed in the 1960s it was a blow to numerous towns that had counted on its well paid jobs and the political activism of its workers, such as [[Florence, Nova Scotia|Florence]], [[Reserve Mines, Nova Scotia|Reserve Mines]], Sydney Mines, Trenton, and [[New Glasgow, Nova Scotia|New Glasgow]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Company Store: J. B. McLachlan and the Cape Breton Coal Miners 1900-1925|last=Mellor|first=John|year=1983|publisher=Formac Publishing|url={{Google books|4nIgAQAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=9780887801266}}</ref>
However, rural areas steadily lost population, especially the eastern counties. Liberal premiers [[George Henry Murray]] (1896–1923) and [[Ernest H. Armstrong]] (1923–25) implemented programs to improve rural life and modernize agricultural industry. They secured federal assistance through loans and grants for agriculture, roads, and immigration. Murray was criticized for being too cautious in his reforms, while Armstrong, even with a Liberal federal government behind him, was unable to keep the assistance flowing. The situation only worsened with the post-war downturn which brought the United Farmers Party to power in 1920 in the hardest hit areas of eastern Nova Scotia. The Liberals' failure to stem the decline of the area brought their defeat in 1925 by "rejuvenated" Conservatives who capitalized on Armstrong's weakness.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brown | first1 = Paul | year = 1998 | title = 'Come East, Young Man!' the Politics of Rural Depopulation in Nova Scotia, 1900–1925 | journal = Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society | volume = 1 | pages = 47–78 }}</ref>
====Labour unions====
The Provincial Workmen's Association began in 1879 as a miners' union; in 1898, faced by a challenge from the [[Knights of Labor]], it sought to embrace unions in all the industries of the province. The first local union of the [[United Mine Workers]] was established in 1908. After a struggle for control of the labour movement among the miners, the Provincial Workmen's Association was dissolved in 1917, and by 1919 the [[United Mine Workers]] took control of the coal miners. Success was due to the aggressive leadership of J. B. McLachlan (1869–1937), who left the coal mines of Scotland for Canada in 1902, became a Communist (1922 to 1936) and promoted a strong union and a tradition of independent labour politics. McLachlan's battles with the American UMWA leadership, particularly the dictatorial [[John L. Lewis]], demonstrated his commitment to democratic unionism for the miners and a fighting union, but Lewis won and ousted McLachlan from power.<ref>{{cite book|last=Frank|first=David|title=J. B. McLachlan: A Biography: The Story of a Legendary Labour Leader and the Cape Breton Coal Miners|publisher=James Lorimer & Company|url={{Google books|2kRuaPmhPs4C|plainurl=yes}}|year=1999|isbn=9781550286762|page=97}}</ref>
Women played an important, though quiet, role in support of the union movement in coal towns during the troubled 1920s and 1930s. They never worked for the mines but provided psychological support especially during strikes when the pay packets did not arrive. They were the family financiers and encouraged other wives who otherwise might have coaxed their menfolk to accept company terms. Women's labor leagues organized a variety of social, educational, and fund-raising functions. Women also violently confronted "[[Scab labour|scabs]]", policemen, and soldiers. They had to stretch the food dollar and show inventiveness in clothing their families.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Steven | first1 = Penfold | year = 1994 | title = 'Have You No Manhood in You?' Gender and Class in the Cape Breton Coal Towns, 1920–1926 | journal = Acadiensis | volume = 23 | issue = 2| pages = 21–44 }}</ref>
===Second Boer War===
[[File:Boer War Monument, Province House, Halifax (3609960252).jpg|thumb|upright|left|Boer War memorial outside [[Province House (Nova Scotia)|Province House]]]]
During the [[Second Boer War]] (1899–1902), the First Contingent was composed of seven Companies from across Canada. The Nova Scotia Company (H) consisted of 125 men. (The total First Contingent was a total force of 1,019. Eventually over 8600 Canadians served.) The mobilization of the Contingent took place at Quebec. On October 30, 1899, the ship Sardinian sailed the troops for four weeks to Cape Town.
The Boer War marked the first occasion in which large contingents of Nova Scotian troops served abroad (individual Nova Scotians had served in the Crimean War).
The [[Battle of Paardeberg]] in February 1900 represented the second time Canadian soldiers saw battle abroad (the first being the Canadian involvement in the [[Nile Expedition]]).<ref>{{cite web|author=Canadian War Museum |year=2008 |title=Battle of Paardeberg|url=http://www.civilisations.ca/cwm/boer/battlepaardeberg_e.html |publisher=[[Canadian War Museum]] |access-date=2008-05-10 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070718053710/http://www.civilisations.ca/cwm/boer/battlepaardeberg_e.html |archive-date=2007-07-18 }}</ref> Canadians also saw action at the Battle of Faber's Put on May 30, 1900.<ref>{{cite web|author=Canadian War Museum |year=2008|title=Battle of Faber's Put|url=http://www.civilisations.ca/cwm/boer/battlefabersput_e.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070718053710/http://www.civilisations.ca/cwm/boer/battlefabersput_e.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2007-07-18|publisher=[[Canadian War Museum]]|access-date=2008-05-10}}</ref> On November 7, 1900, the [[Royal Canadian Dragoons]] engaged the Boers in the [[Battle of Leliefontein]], where they saved British guns from capture during a retreat from the banks of the [[Komati River]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Canadian War Museum |year=2008|title=Battle of Leliefontein|url=http://www.civilisations.ca/cwm/boer/battleleliefontein_e.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120324145751/http://www.civilisations.ca/cwm/boer/battleleliefontein_e.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-03-24|publisher=[[Canadian War Museum]]|access-date=2008-05-10}}</ref>
Approximately 267 Canadians died in the War. 89 men were killed in action, 135 died of disease, and the remainder died of accident or injury. 252 were wounded.
Of all the Canadians who died during the war, the most famous was the young Lt. [[Harold Lothrop Borden]] of [[Canning, Nova Scotia]]. Harold Borden's father was Sir [[Frederick W. Borden]], Canada's Minister of Militia who was a strong proponent of Canadian participation in the war.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://angloboerwarmuseum.com/Boer70g_hero7_borden1.html|title=Capt. Harold Borden, Canning Nova Scotia|website=angloboerwarmuseum.com|url-status=usurped|archive-date=2008-11-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120183130/http://angloboerwarmuseum.com/Boer70g_hero7_borden1.html}}</ref> Another famous Nova Scotian casualty of the war was [[Charles Carroll Wood]], son of the renowned Confederate naval captain [[John Taylor Wood]] and the first Canadian to die in the war.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bell|first=John|title=Confederate Seadog: John Taylor Wood in War and Exile|url={{Google books|S--g6L74BoMC|plainurl=yes}}|year=2002|publisher=McFarland|isbn=9780786413522|page=59}}</ref>
===First World War===
During [[World War I]], Halifax became a major international [[port]] and [[Navy|naval]] facility. The harbour became a major shipment point for war supplies, [[troop ship]]s to Europe from Canada and the [[United States]] and [[hospital ship]]s returning the wounded. These factors drove a major military, industrial and residential expansion of the city.<ref>{{cite book|last=Armstrong|first=John|title=The Halifax Explosion and the Royal Canadian Navy|publisher=University of British Columbia Press|year=2002|pages=10–11}}</ref>
[[File:Halifax Explosion - harbour view - restored.jpg|thumb|View of the devastated neighbourhood of Richmond in Halifax after the [[Halifax Explosion]]]]
On Thursday, December 6, 1917, the city of Halifax was devastated by [[Halifax Explosion|the huge detonation]] of a French cargo ship, loaded with wartime explosives. It had accidentally collided with a Norwegian ship in "The Narrows" section of the [[Halifax Harbour]]. Approximately 2,000 people were killed by debris, fires, or collapsed buildings, and over 9,000 people were injured.<ref name=cbc>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/halifaxexplosion/he2_ruins/he2_ruins_explosion.html|title=The Explosion|website=cbc.ca|url-status=dead|archive-date=2003-10-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031005034715/http://www.cbc.ca/halifaxexplosion/he2_ruins/he2_ruins_explosion.html}}</ref> This is still the [[List of the largest artificial non-nuclear explosions|world's largest man-made accidental explosion]].<ref name="Jay White 1994 p. 266">{{cite book|chapter=Exploding Myths: The Halifax Explosion in Historical Context|last=White|first=Jay|title=Ground Zero: A Reassessment of the 1917 explosion in Halifax|publisher=Nimbus Publishing|editor-last1=Ruffman|editor-first1=Alan|editor-last2=Howell|editor-first2=Colin D.|year=1994|page=266}}</ref>
===Interwar Period and the Second World War===
[[File:Gabriel Sylliboy, Mi'kmaq Chief.jpg|thumb|Photo of [[Gabriel Sylliboy]] in 1930. Sylliboy helped fight for recognition of a [[Treaty of 1752|treaty signed between the Mi'kmaq and Nova Scotia]] in 1752.]]
[[Gabriel Sylliboy]] was the first Mi'kmaq elected as Grand Chief (1919) and the first to fight for treaty recognition – specifically, the [[Treaty of 1752]] – in the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia (1929).
Nova Scotia was hard hit by the worldwide [[Great Depression]] that began in 1929 as demand plunged for coal and steel, as did the prices for fish and lumber. Prosperity returned in World War II, especially as Halifax again became a major staging point for convoys to Britain. Liberal premier [[Angus L. Macdonald]] dominated the political scene as premier (1933–1940 and 1945–1954). Macdonald dealt with the mass unemployment of the 1930s by putting the jobless to work on highway projects. He felt direct government relief payments would weaken moral character, undermine self-respect and discourage personal initiative.<ref>{{cite book|title=Angus L. Macdonald: A Provincial Liberal|last=Henderson|first=Terence Stephen|year=2007|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=9780802092311|url={{Google books|VNd5AAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|pages=3–9}}</ref> However, he also faced the reality that his financially strapped government could not afford to participate fully in federal relief programs that required matching contributions from the provinces.<ref>{{cite book|title=Challenging the Regional Stereotype: Essays on the 20th Century Maritimes|last=Forbes|first=Ernest R.|year=1989|publisher=Acadiensis Press|isbn=9780919107229|page=148}}</ref>
The [[Antigonish Movement]] emerged offering a "middle way" to helping people distressed hit by the depression through cooperative ventures under popular control. It was a Catholic operation started by Reverend Moses Coady of St Francis Xavier University in 1928. He sought a Church-approved alternative to socialism or capitalism. The cooperatives were organized at the grass roots and brought together fishermen, farmers, miners and factory workers, especially in the eastern districts. They set up local fish processing plants, credit unions, housing co-ops, and co-operative stores. Ownership and control was in the hands of the people directly involved It declined after 1950.<ref>{{cite book|title=Big Picture: The Antigonish Movement of Eastern Nova Scotia|last1=Dodaro|first1=Santo|last2=Pluta|first2=Leonard|series=McGill-Queen's Studies in the History of Religion|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2012|jstor=j.ctt1283xq |isbn=9780773540149 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1283xq}}</ref>
During [[World War II]], thousands of Nova Scotians went overseas. Halifax became a key staging point for the Atlantic convoys, and the Navy base at [[CFB Halifax]] became the HQs of Rear Admiral [[Leonard W. Murray]] during the [[Battle of the Atlantic]]. One Nova Scotian, [[Mona Louise Parsons]], joined the [[Dutch resistance]] and was eventually captured and imprisoned by the [[Nazis]] for almost four years.
=== Latter 20th century (1945–2000) ===
[[File:WilliamPearlyOliver, 1934.png|thumb|left|upright|[[William Pearly Oliver]] in 1934. Oliver led the [[Nova Scotia Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] when it was first formed in 1945.]]Led by minister [[William Pearly Oliver]], the [[Nova Scotia Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] was formed in 1945 out of the [[Cornwallis Street Baptist Church]]. The organization was intent of improving the standard of living for [[Black Nova Scotians]]. The organization also attempted to improve black-white relations in co-operation with private and governmental agencies. The organization was joined by 500 Black Nova Scotians.<ref name=thomson>{{cite book|title=Born with a Call: A Biography of Dr. William Pearly Oliver, C.M.|last=Thomson|first=Colin A.|publisher=Black Cultural Centre for Nova Scotia|year=1986|url={{Google books|9jF6AAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=9780921201014}}</ref>{{rp|79}} By 1956, the NSAACP had branches in Halifax, Cobequid Road, Digby, Wegymouth Falls, Beechville, Inglewooe, Hammonds Plains and Yarmouth. Preston and Africville branches were added in 1962, the same year New Road, Cherrybrook, and Preston East requested branches.<ref name=thomson/>{{rp|81}} In 1947, the Association successfully took the case of [[Viola Desmond]] to the Supreme Court of Canada<ref name=thomson/>{{rp|93}} It also pressured the Children's Hospital in Halifax to allow for black women to become nurses; it advocated for inclusion and challenged racist curriculum in the Department of Education. The Association also developed an Adult Education program with the government department.
After the war Angus L. Macdonald initiated large-scale spending programs for such services as health, education, labor union protection measures, and pensions.
Conservative [[Robert L. Stanfield]] served as premier during 1956–1967. The pragmatic Stanfield, though in favor of some government intervention in economic affairs, was cautious about social policy and was unwilling to promote the welfare state. Nevertheless, new hospitals were built, funded by a sales tax. After 1960 there was increased emphasis on provincial assistance for local municipalities in health and education, with finances for university expansion. Generally, Stanfield, though a conservative, took a positive view of the state's role in helping citizens overcome poverty, ill-health, and discrimination and accepted the need to raise taxes to pay for such services.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = Jennifer | year = 2003 | title = The Stanfield Government and Social Policy in Nova Scotia: 1956–1967 | journal = Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society | volume = 6 | pages = 1–16 }}</ref>
On September 2, 1998, [[Swissair Flight 111]] crashed into the Atlantic Ocean in [[St. Margarets Bay, Nova Scotia|St. Margaret's Bay]]. All 229 people on board the [[McDonnell Douglas MD-11]] were killed. There are two memorials dedicated to the victims. One memorial is located at The Whalesback just northwest of [[Peggy's Cove, Nova Scotia|Peggy's Cove]], and the other is located at [[Bayswater, Nova Scotia|Bayswater]], the recovery site of the aircraft's wreckage.
====Provincial relations with Acadians and Mi'kmaqs in the late 20th century====
[[File:EcoleRoseDesVents GreenwoodNS.jpg|thumb|[[École Rose-des-Vents (Nova Scotia)|École Rose-des-Vents]] in 2009. The school is operated by [[Conseil scolaire acadien provincial]], a French-language school board established in 1996.]]
The [[Acadian Federation of Nova Scotia]] ({{Lang|fr|Fédération acadienne de la Nouvelle-Écosse|italic=no}}) was created in 1968 with a mission to "promote the growth and global development of the Acadian and Francophone community of Nova Scotia."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acadiene.ca/federation-acadienne/who-are-we|title=Who are we?|publisher=Fédération acadienne de la Nouvelle-Écosse}}</ref> The Fédération acadienne is the official voice of the Acadian and Francophone population of Nova Scotia. The Fédération acadienne presently has 29 regional, provincial and institutional members. In 1996, the Federation was instrumental in establishing the Acadian School Board ([[Conseil scolaire acadien provincial]]) in the province.
In 1997, the [[Mi'kmaq-Nova Scotia-Canada Tripartite Forum]] was established. The Nova Scotia government and the Mi’kmaq community have made the [[Miꞌkmaw Kinaꞌmatnewey]], which is a very successful First Nation Education Program in Canada.<ref name=benjamin>{{cite book|title=Indian School Road: Legacies of the Shubenacadie Residential School|last=Benjamin|first=Chris|publisher=Nimbus Press|year=2014}}</ref>{{rp|226}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mi'kmaw Kina'matnewey |url=https://innovation.gg.ca/winner/mikmaw-kinamatnewey/ |access-date=2024-01-08 |website=Governor General’s Innovation Awards |language=en-US}}</ref> In 1982, the first Mi’kmaq operated school opened in Nova Scotia.<ref name=benjamin/>{{rp|208}} By 1997, all education for Mi’kmaq on reserves were given the responsibility for their own education.<ref name=benjamin/>{{rp|210}} There are now 11 band run schools in Nova Scotia.<ref name=benjamin/>{{rp|211}} Now Nova Scotia has the highest rate of retention of aboriginal students in schools in the country.<ref name=benjamin/>{{rp|211}} More than half the teachers are Mi’kmaq.<ref name=benjamin/>{{rp|211}} From 2011 to 2012 there was a 25 percent increase of Mi’kmaq students going to university. Atlantic Canada has the highest rate of aboriginal students attending university in the country.<ref name=benjamin/>{{rp|214}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thechronicleherald.ca/novascotia/1244586-number-of-mi-kmaq-graduates-continues-to-rise|title=Number of Mi'kmaq graduates continues to rise|last=Pottie|first=Erin|date=17 October 2014|website=thechronicleherald.ca|url-status=dead|archive-date=2014-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020000213/http://thechronicleherald.ca/novascotia/1244586-number-of-mi-kmaq-graduates-continues-to-rise}}</ref>
==21st century==
[[File:Viola Desmond Grave Site - Halifax, Nova Scotia (44403974182).jpg|thumb|Headstone and signage marking [[Viola Desmond]]'s grave in 2018. In 2010 she was [[wikt:Special:Search/posthumous|posthumously]] pardoned by the [[Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia|provincial lieutenant governor]].]]
On April 14, 2010, the [[Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia]], [[Mayann Francis]], on the advice of [[Premier of Nova Scotia|her premier]], invoked the [[Royal Prerogative]] and granted [[Viola Desmond]] a [[Posthumous recognition|posthumous]] free [[pardon]], the first such to be granted in Canada.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nationalpost.com/news/story.html?id=2907492|last=Carlson|first=Kathryn Blaze|date=2010-04-14|title='Canada's Rosa Parks,' Viola Desmond, posthumously pardoned|publisher=National Post|access-date=2022-08-27|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-04-18|archive-url=https://archive.today/20100418043517/http://www.nationalpost.com/news/story.html?id=2907492}}</ref>
The free pardon, an extraordinary remedy granted under the [[Royal Prerogative of Mercy]] only in the rarest of circumstances and the first one granted posthumously, differs from a simple pardon in that it is based on innocence and recognizes that a conviction was in error. The government of Nova Scotia also apologised. This initiative happened by Desmond's younger sister Wanda Robson, and a professor of Cape Breton University, Graham Reynolds, working with the Government of Nova Scotia to ensure that Desmond's name was cleared and the government admitted its error. In honour of Desmond, the provincial government has named the first [[Family Day (Canada)#Nova Scotia Heritage Day|Nova Scotia Heritage Day]] after her.
In the same year, on August 31, the governments of Canada and Nova Scotia signed a historic agreement with the Mi'kmaq Nation, establishing a process whereby the federal government must consult with the Mi'kmaq Grand Council before engaging in any activities or projects that affect the Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia. This covers most, if not all, actions these governments might take within that jurisdiction. This is the first such collaborative agreement in Canadian history including all the First Nations within an entire province.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marketwire.com/press-release/Mikmaq-of-Nova-Scotia-Province-of-Nova-Scotia-and-Canada-Sign-Landmark-Agreement-1311913.htm|title=Mi'kmaq of Nova Scotia, Province of Nova Scotia and Canada Sign Landmark Agreement|publisher=Market Wire|date=2010-08-31|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-10-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022171539/http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/Mikmaq-of-Nova-Scotia-Province-of-Nova-Scotia-and-Canada-Sign-Landmark-Agreement-1311913.htm}}</ref>
===2020 killing spree===
{{main|2020 Nova Scotia attacks}}
In the hours between April 18 and 19, 2020, a [[spree killing]] consisting of [[shooting]]s and [[arson]]s took place across several communities in Nova Scotia. 22 people were killed, including a [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP) officer, before another officer killed the perpetrator, 51-year-old Gabriel Wortman, following a car chase.<ref name="CBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/rcmp-weapon-lockdown-portapique-1.5537598|title=RCMP officer among the dead after Nova Scotia gunman's rampage|access-date=April 19, 2020|date=April 19, 2020|publisher=CBC}}</ref><ref name=nyt-nova-scotia-shooting-gabriel-wortman>{{Cite news|title=Nova Scotia Shooting Kills at Least 16, Police Say|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/19/world/canada/nova-scotia-shooting-gabriel-wortman.html|last1=Diaz|first1=Johnny|date=April 19, 2020|access-date=April 19, 2020|last2=Bilefsky|first2=Dan|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> It was the deadliest rampage in Canadian history.<ref name="AP">{{cite news|url=https://apnews.com/7c9a33ae52420e0ddbfb5275898a7e79|title=Gunman kills 16 in rampage, deadliest in Canadian history|last=Gillies|first=Rob|publisher=Associated Press|access-date=April 19, 2020|date=April 19, 2020}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Canada}}
* [[Acadiensis]], scholarly history journal covering Atlantic Canada
*[[Nova Scotia Federation of Labour]]
*[[List of National Historic Sites of Canada in Nova Scotia|List of National Historic Sites in Nova Scotia]]
*[[History of Acadia]]
*[[Black Nova Scotians]]
*[[Military history of Nova Scotia]]
*[[Military history of the Mi’kmaq People]]
*[[Military history of the Maliseet people]]
*[[Military history of the Acadians]]
*[[History of the Acadians]]
*[[History of the Halifax Regional Municipality]]
* [[Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society]]
==Notes==
:A.{{ref|A|A}} In 1765, the county of [[Sunbury County, Nova Scotia|Sunbury]] was created, and included the territory of present-day [[New Brunswick]] and eastern [[Maine]] as far as the Penobscot River.
:B.{{ref|B|B}} Lieutenant Governor Sir Richard Hughes stated in a dispatch to Lord Germaine that "rebel cruisers" made the attack.
:C.{{ref|C|C}} Among the annual festivals of the old times, now lost sight of, was the celebration of St. Aspinquid's Day, known as the Indian Saint. St. Aspinquid appeared in the Nova Scotia almanacks from 1774 to 1786. The festival was celebrated on or immediately after the last quarter of the moon in the month of May. The tide being low at that time, many of the principal inhabitants of the town, on these occasions, assembled on the shore of the North West Arm and partook of a dish of clam soup, the clams being collected on the spot at low water. There is a tradition that during the American troubles when agents of the revolted colonies were active to gain over the good people of Halifax, in the year 1786, were celebrating St. Aspinquid, the wine having been circulated freely, the Union Jack was suddenly hauled down and replaced by the Stars and Stripes. This was soon reversed, but all those persons who held public offices immediately left the grounds, and St. Aspinquid was never after celebrated at Halifax.<ref name=akins95/>{{rp|218 note 94}}
:D.{{ref|D|D}} According to Thomas Akins, a portrait of Thomas Andrew Lumisden Strange by Benjamin West hung in the legislature of [[Province House (Nova Scotia)]] in 1847 that now hangs in the National Gallery of Scotland<ref name=akins95/>{{rp|189}}
:E.{{ref|E|E}} Rural poverty is the theme of Rusty Bittermann, Robert A. Mackinnon, and Graeme Wynn's ''Of inequality and interdependence in the Nova Scotian countryside, 1850–70.''<ref>{{cite journal|title=Of inequality and interdependence in the Nova Scotian countryside, 1850–70|last1=Bittermann|first1=Rusty|last2=Mackinnon|first2=Robert A.|last3=Wynn|first3=Graeme|journal=Canadian Historical Review|year=1993|volume=74|issue=1|pages=1–43|doi=10.3138/CHR-074-01-01 |s2cid=161486086 }}</ref>
:F.{{ref|F|F}} This conflict is also referred to as "Anglo French Rivalry of 1749–63" and War of British Conquest.
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
{{main|Bibliography of Nova Scotia}}
=== 18th–19th century publications ===
* Statutes at large:
** [https://archive.org/stream/cihm_29056#page/n5/mode/2up 1758 to 1804]
** [https://archive.org/stream/cihm_47464#page/n5/mode/2up 1805 to 1816]
** [https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/010475980?type%5B%5D=all&lookfor%5B%5D=statutes%20at%20large&ft= 1817 to 1826]
** [https://archive.org/stream/statutesatlarge00graygoog#page/n7/mode/2up 1827 to 1835]
** [http://eco.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.64651/20?r=0&s=1 Statutes to 1826 (?)]
* by [[Thomas Beamish Akins]]:
** [https://archive.org/details/selectionsfrompu00nova Acadian French. Selections from the public documents of the province of Nova Scotia (1869)]
** [https://archive.org/stream/selectionsfrompu00nova#page/n198/mode/1up Papers related to the French encroachment on Nova Scotia (1749–1754), and the War in North America (1754–1761), Vol. 3]
** [https://archive.org/stream/selectionsfrompu00nova#page/n386/mode/1up Papers related to the first establishment of a Representative Assembly in Nova Scotia (1755–1761), Vol. 5]
* by [[Beamish Murdoch]]:
** {{cite book |title=A History of Nova-Scotia, Or Acadie |volume=I |date=1865 |publisher=J. Barnes |location=Halifax |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorynovasco00murdgoog}}
** {{cite book |title=A History of Nova-Scotia, Or Acadie |volume=II |date=1866 |publisher=J. Barnes |location=Halifax |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorynovasco01murdgoog}}
** {{cite book |title=A History of Nova-Scotia, Or Acadie |volume=III |date=1867 |publisher=J. Barnes |location=Halifax |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorynovasco02murdgoog}}
* by [[John George Bourinot (younger)]]:
** [https://archive.org/details/buildersofnovasc00bour/page/n40 Builders of Nova Scotia : a historical review, with an appendix containing copies of rare documents relating to the early days of the province]
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20160812014129/http://www.ourroots.ca/e/toc.aspx?id=725 Historical and Descriptive Account of Cape Breton, and of its memorials of the French regime]
*[http://eco.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.8_04743 Nova Scotia Illustrated 1895]
=== 20th–21st century publications ===
* Ian McKay and Robin Bates. ''In the Province of History: The Making of the Public Past in Twentieth-Century Nova Scotia'' (2010)
* Dr. Ed Whitcomb. ''A Short History of Nova Scotia''. Ottawa. From Sea To Sea Enterprises, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-9694667-9-6}}. 72 pp.
* Duncan Campbell, ''History of Nova Scotia, for Schools'' BiblioLife, 2009 {{ISBN|1-115-65980-4}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=UmGa73sExSIC excerpt]
* {{cite book|last=Grenier|first=John|title=The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760|url={{Google books|jVG5h6G5fWMC|plainurl=yes}}|year=2008|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-3876-3}}
* {{cite book|title=The quest of the folk : antimodernism and cultural selection in twentieth-century Nova Scotia|last=McKay|first=Ian|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=1994|url={{Google books|pDg7hxoVz30C|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=0-7735-1179-2}}
* {{cite book|last1=Girard|first1=Philip|last2=Phillips|first2=Jim|title=The Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, 1754-2004: From Imperial Bastion to Provincial Oracle|volume=2|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2004|url={{Google books|6LFOPGedtQ8C|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=0-8020-8021-9}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sandberg|first1=Anders|last2=Clancy|first2=Peter|publisher=UBC Press|year=2000|title=Against the Grain: Foresters and Politics in Nova Scotia|url={{Google books|2Vu5SZevt3MC|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=0-7748-0765-2}}
=== Collections of the Nova Scotia Historical Society ===
* [https://archive.org/stream/14a15collectionsof14novauoft#page/131/mode/1up Articles and Index 1878–1910]
* [http://www.blupete.com/Library/History/NSHS.htm Articles 1878–2006]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov01novauoft#page/n5/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1879 Volume 1.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov02nova#page/n3/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1881 Volume 2.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov03nova#page/n3/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1882–83 Volume 3.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsnova00socigoog#page/n4/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1884 Volume 4.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsnova00socigoog#page/n263/mode/1up NS Historical Society 1886–87 Volume 5.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsnova00socigoog#page/n421/mode/1up NS Historical Society 1888 Volume 6.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov07novauoft#page/n5/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1889–91 Volume 7.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov08nova#page/n3/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1892–94 Volume 8.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/cihm_05221#page/n1/mode/2up Louisbourg - An Historical Sketch (1894)]
* [https://archive.org/details/collectionsofnov09novauoft NS Historical Society 1895 Volume 9.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov10nova#page/n3/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1896–98 Volume 10.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsnova01socigoog#page/n6/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1899–1900 Volume 11.]
* NS Historical Society 1905 Volume 12.
* NS Historical Society 1908 Volume 13.
* [https://archive.org/stream/14a15collectionsof14novauoft#page/n5/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1910 Volume 14.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/14a15collectionsof14novauoft#page/144/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1911 Volume 15.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov16novauoft#page/n3/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1912 Volume 16.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov16novauoft#page/i/mode/1up NS Historical Society 1913 Volume 17.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov18novauoft#page/n5/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1914 Volume 18.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov18novauoft#page/224/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1918 Volume 19.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/20a21collectionsof20novauoft#page/n5/mode/2up NS Historical Society 1921 Volume 20.]
* [https://archive.org/stream/20a21collectionsof20novauoft#page/n234/mode/1up NS Historical Society 1927 Volume 27.]
* [https://archive.org/details/cihm_78709 The memorial sundial at Annapolis Royal: paper read before the Nova Scotia Historical Society, at Halifax, NS December the sixth, 1918 (1918)]
==External links==
{{Commons category-inline}}
{{History of Canada navbox}}
{{British overseas territories}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Nova Scotia}}
[[Category:History of Nova Scotia| ]]
[[Category:Conflicts in Nova Scotia]]
[[Category:Military history of Nova Scotia]]' |
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153 => 'https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Howe',
154 => 'https://innovation.gg.ca/winner/mikmaw-kinamatnewey/'
] |
