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'{{Short description|Imperial dynasty in China (221–206 BC)}} {{hatnote group| {{About-distinguish-text|the first imperial Chinese dynasty|the [[Qing dynasty]], the final such dynasty}} }} {{Redirect|Qin Empire||Qin Empire (disambiguation)}} {{pp-pc}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}} {{Use British English|date=August 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = {{big|{{nobold|{{lang|zh-hant|秦}}}}}}<br />[[File:秦-seal.svg|x24px]] | conventional_long_name = Qin | common_name = Qin, Ch'in<ref name=chin>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Qin dynasty|encyclopedia=Britannica|date=3 September 2019 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Qin-dynasty}}</ref> or Kin<ref name=chin/> dynasty | era = [[Imperial era of Chinese history|Imperial]] | status = Empire | status_text = | government_type = [[Absolute monarchy]] | p1 = Zhou dynasty | p2 = Qin (state) | s1 = Eighteen Kingdoms | s2 = Han dynasty | s3 = Nanyue | event_start = {{nowrap|Accession of [[Qin Shi Huang]]}} | year_start = 221 BC | event1 = {{nowrap|Death of Qin Shi Huang}} | date_event1 = 210 BC | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event5 = | date_event5 = | event_end = {{nowrap|Surrender to [[Liu Bang]]}} | year_end = 206 BC | image_coat = Inscription on Imperial Seal of China "受命於天 既壽永昌".svg | symbol_type = [[Heirloom Seal of the Realm]] | other_symbol = | image_flag = | flag_type = | flag_border = no | image_map_caption = | image_map2 = File:QinEmpireWithOrdos.jpg<!--This is the ENGLISH Wikipedia. Do not replace this with a map in Chinese 不要加中文地圖--> | image_map2_caption = Territories of the Qin Empire. | capital = [[Xianyang]] | common_languages = [[Old Chinese]] | religion = | currency = [[Ban Liang]] | leader1 = [[Qin Shi Huang]] | leader2 = [[Qin Er Shi]] | year_leader1 = 221–210 BC | year_leader2 = 210–207 BC | title_leader = [[List of rulers of China#Qin dynasty|Emperor]] | deputy1 = [[Li Si]] | year_deputy1 = 221–208 BC | title_deputy = [[Grand chancellor (China)|Chancellor]] | deputy2 = [[Zhao Gao]] | year_deputy2 = 208–207 BC | stat_year1 = 220 BC | stat_area1 = 2300000 | ref_area1 = <ref name="Taagepera">{{cite journal|last1=Taagepera|first1=Rein|title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D|journal=Social Science History|date=1979|volume=3|issue=3/4|page=121|doi=10.2307/1170959|jstor=1170959}}</ref> | today = [[China]] }} {{Infobox Chinese | pic = Qin (Chinese characters).svg | piccap = "Qin" in [[seal script]] (top) and [[kaishu|regular]] (bottom) Chinese characters | picupright = 0.275 | c = {{linktext|秦}} | w = Chʻin²<ref name=chin /> | p = Qín | bpmf = ㄑㄧㄣˊ | mi = {{IPAc-cmn|q|in|2}} | gr = Chyn | tp = Cín | myr = Chín | showflag = p | wuu = Zin | y = Chèuhn | ci = {{IPAc-yue|c|eon|4}} | j = Ceon4 | poj = Chîn | tl = Tsîn | oc-bs = &ast;{{IPA|[dz]i[n]}} }} {{History of China|BC=1}} The '''Qin dynasty''' ({{IPAc-en|tʃ|ɪ|n}};<ref>{{Cite book|title=Collins English Dictionary|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2018|isbn=978-0-008-28437-4|edition=13th|chapter=Qin}}</ref><ref>{{AHDict|Qin}}</ref> also '''Chin dynasty'''; {{lang-zh|c=秦朝}}) was the first [[Dynasties of China|dynasty]] of [[Imperial China]]. Named for its origin in the [[Qin (state)|state of Qin]], a fief of the confederal [[Zhou dynasty]] which had endured for over five centuries—until 221 BC, when it assumed an imperial prerogative following [[Qin unification of China|its complete conquest of its rival states]], a state of affairs that lasted until its collapse in 206 BC.<ref>"...The collapse of the Western Zhou state in 771 BC and the lack of a true central authority thereafter opened ways to fierce inter-state warfare that continued over the next five hundred years until the Qin unification of China in 221 BC, '''thus giving China her first empire.'''" Early China A Social and Cultural History, Cambridge University Press, 2013, page 6.</ref> It was formally established after the conquests in 221 BC, when [[Qin Shi Huang|Ying Zheng]], who had become king of the Qin state in 246, declared himself to be "Shi Huangdi", the first emperor. Qin was a minor power for the early centuries of its existence. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the reforms of [[Shang Yang]] in the fourth century BC, during the [[Warring States period]]. In the mid and late third century BC, the Qin state carried out a series of swift conquests, destroying the powerless [[Zhou dynasty]] and eventually [[Qin's wars of unification|conquering]] the other six of the [[Seven Warring States]]. Its 15 years was the shortest major dynasty in Chinese history, with only two emperors. Despite its short existence, the legacy of Qin strategies in military and administrative affairs shaped the consummate [[Han dynasty]] that followed, ultimately becoming seen as the originator of an imperial system that lasted from 221 BC—with interruption, evolution, and adaptation—through to the [[Xinhai Revolution]] in 1912.{{efn|Notwithstanding the brief [[Manchu Restoration|restoration]] in 1917.}} The Qin sought to create a state unified by structured centralized political power and a large military supported by a stable economy.<ref name="Tanner">Tanner 2010, pp. 85–89</ref> The central government moved to undercut aristocrats and landowners to gain direct administrative control over the peasantry, who comprised the overwhelming majority of the population and labour force. This allowed ambitious projects involving three hundred thousand peasants and convicts: projects such as connecting walls along the northern border, eventually developing into the [[Great Wall of China]], and a massive new national road system, as well as the city-sized [[Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor]] guarded by the life-sized [[Terracotta Army]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ancient World History-Patterns of Interaction|last1=Beck|first1=R B |last2=Black |first2=L |last3=Krager |first3=L S |display-authors=etal|publisher=Mc Dougal Little|year=2003|isbn=978-0-618-18393-7|location=Evanston, IL|pages=187}}</ref> The Qin introduced a range of reforms such as standardized currency, weights, measures and a uniform system of writing, which aimed to unify the state and promote commerce. Additionally, its military used the most recent weaponry, transportation and tactics, though the government was heavy-handed and bureaucratic. Qin created a system of administering people and land that greatly increased the power of the government to transform environment, and it has been argued that the subsequent impact of this system on East Asia's environments makes the rise of Qin an important event in China's environmental history. When the first emperor died in 210 BC, two of his advisors placed an heir on the throne in an attempt to influence and control the administration of the dynasty. These advisors squabbled among themselves, resulting in both of their deaths and that of the second Qin Emperor. Popular revolt broke out and the weakened empire soon fell to a [[Chu (state)|Chu]] general, [[Xiang Yu]], who was proclaimed Hegemon-King of Western Chu, and [[Emperor Gaozu of Han|Liu Bang]], who founded the [[Han dynasty]]. [[Han dynasty|Han]] [[Confucianism|Confucians]] portrayed the Qin dynasty as a monolithic, [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|legalist]] tyranny, notably citing a purge known as the [[burning of books and burying of scholars]]. But its account first appears in [[Sima Qian]]'s [[Records of the Grand Historian]]. Some modern scholars dispute its veracity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lander |first1=Brian |title=The King's Harvest: A Political Ecology of China from the First Farmers to the First Empire |date=2021 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=9780300255089}}</ref> ==History== {{see also|Qin (state)|Timeline of the Warring States and the Qin dynasty}} ===Origins and early development=== [[File:States of Zhou Dynasty.png|thumb|left|Map showing major states of Eastern Zhou]] According to the [[Records of the Grand Historian]], in the 9th century BC, [[Feizi]], a supposed descendant of the ancient political advisor [[Gao Yao (minister)|Gao Yao]], was granted rule over the settlement of Qin (秦邑) in present-day [[Qingshui County]] of [[Shaanxi]]. During the rule of [[King Xiao of Zhou]], the eighth king of the Zhou dynasty, this area became known as the state of Qin. In 897 BC, under the [[Gonghe Regency]], the area became a dependency allotted for the purpose of raising and breeding horses.<ref name="lewis17">Lewis 2007, p. 17</ref> One of Feizi's descendants, [[Duke Zhuang of Qin|Duke Zhuang]], became favoured by [[King Ping of Zhou]], the 13th king in that line. As a reward, Zhuang's son, Duke Xiang, was sent eastward as the leader of a war expedition, during which he formally established the Qin.<ref name="peopledailyonline">{{cite news|url=http://english.people.com.cn/200602/20/eng20060220_244270.html|title=Chinese surname history: Qin|newspaper=[[People's Daily]]|access-date=28 June 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080510043425/http://english.people.com.cn/200602/20/eng20060220_244270.html|archive-date=10 May 2008}}</ref> The state of Qin first began a military expedition into central China in 672 BC, though it did not engage in any serious incursions due to the threat from neighbouring tribesmen. By the dawn of the fourth century BC, however, the neighbouring tribes had all been either subdued or conquered, and the stage was set for the rise of Qin expansionism.<ref name="lewis1718">Lewis 2007, pp. 17–18</ref> ===Growth of power=== [[File:Streitende-Reiche2.jpg|thumb|left|Map of the Warring States. Qin is shown in pink]] [[File:EN-QIN260BCE.jpg|thumb|left|Map of the Growth of Qin]] Lord [[Shang Yang]], a Qin statesman of the [[Warring States period]], introducing a number of militarily advantageous reforms from 361 BC until his death in 338 BC. Yang also helped construct the Qin capital, commencing in the mid-fourth century BC [[Xianyang]]. The resulting city greatly resembled the capitals of other Warring States.<ref>Lewis 2007, p. 88</ref> Notably, Qin engaged in practical and ruthless warfare. During the [[Spring and Autumn period]],<ref name="Origins of Statecraft in China">Origins of Statecraft in China</ref> the prevalent philosophy had dictated war as a gentleman's activity; military commanders were instructed to respect what they perceived to be Heaven's laws in battle. For example, when [[Duke Xiang of Song|Duke Xiang]] of the rival state of Song was at war with the state of Chu during the Warring States period, he declined an opportunity to attack the enemy force, commanded by Zhu, while they were crossing a river. After allowing them to cross and marshal their forces, he was decisively defeated in the ensuing battle. When his advisors later admonished him for such excessive courtesy to the enemy, he retorted, "The sage does not crush the feeble, nor give the order for attack until the enemy have formed their ranks."<ref name=autogenerated2>Morton 1995, pg. 26,45</ref> The Qin disregarded this military tradition, taking advantage of their enemy's weaknesses. A nobleman in the [[Wei (state)|state of Wei]] accused the Qin state of being "avaricious, perverse, eager for profit, and without sincerity. It knows nothing about etiquette, proper relationships, and virtuous conduct, and if there be an opportunity for material gain, it will disregard its relatives as if they were animals."<ref>Time-Life Books 1993, p. 86</ref> This, combined with a strong leadership from long-lived rulers, openness to employ talented men from other states, and little internal opposition gave the Qin a strong political base.<ref name="kinney10">Kinney and Clark 2005, p. 10</ref> Another advantage of the Qin was that they had a large, efficient army and capable generals. They utilised the [[#Government and military|newest developments in weaponry and transportation]] as well, which many of their enemies lacked. These latter developments allowed greater mobility over several different terrain types which were most common in many regions of China. Thus, in both ideology and practice, the Qin were militarily superior.<ref name="morton45">Morton 1995, p. 45</ref> Finally, the Qin Empire had a geographical advantage due to its fertility and strategic position, protected by mountains that made the state a natural stronghold. This was the heart of the [[Guanzhong]] region, as opposed to the [[Yangtze River]] drainage basin, known as Guandong. The warlike nature of the Qin in Guanzhong inspired a Han dynasty adage: "Guanzhong produces generals, while Guandong produces ministers."<ref name="lewis17"/> Its expanded agricultural output helped sustain Qin's large army with food and natural resources;<ref name="kinney10"/> the [[Wei River]] canal built in 246 BC was particularly significant in this respect.<ref name="lewis1819">Lewis 2007, pp. 18–19</ref> ===Conquest of the Warring States=== {{Main|Qin's wars of unification}} [[File:Qin Unification.png|thumb|left|Map showing the unification of Qin during 230–221 BC]] During the Warring States period preceding the Qin dynasty, the major states vying for dominance were [[Yan (state)|Yan]], [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]], [[Qi (state)|Qi]], [[Chu (state)|Chu]], [[Han (Warring States)|Han]], [[Wei (state)|Wei]] and Qin. The rulers of these states styled themselves as kings, rather than using the titles of lower nobility they had previously held. However, none elevated himself to believe that he had the "[[Mandate of Heaven]]", as the Zhou kings had claimed, nor that he had the right to offer sacrifices—they left this to the Zhou rulers.<ref name="morton25">Morton 1995, p. 25</ref> Before their conquest in the fourth and third centuries BC, the Qin suffered several setbacks. Shang Yang was executed in 338 BC by [[King Huiwen of Qin|King Huiwen]] due to a personal grudge harboured from his youth. There was also internal strife over the Qin succession in 307 BC, which decentralised Qin authority somewhat. Qin was defeated by an alliance of the other states in 295 BC, and shortly after suffered another defeat by the state of Zhao, because the majority of their army was then defending against the Qi. The aggressive statesman Fan Sui ([[:zh:范雎|范雎]]), however, soon came to power as prime minister even as the problem of the succession was resolved, and he began an expansionist policy that had originated in [[Jin (Chinese state)|Jin]] and Qi, which prompted the Qin to attempt to conquer the other states.<ref name="lewis10">Lewis 2007, pp. 38–39</ref> The Qin were swift in their assault on the other states. They first attacked the Han, directly east, and took their capital city of Xinzheng in 230 BC. They then struck northward; the state of Zhao surrendered in 228 BC, and the northernmost state of Yan followed, falling in 226 BC. Next, Qin armies launched assaults to the east, and later the south as well; they took the Wei city of [[Kaifeng|Daliang]] (now called Kaifeng) in 225 BC and forced the Chu to surrender by 223 BC. Lastly, they deposed the Zhou dynasty's remnants in [[Luoyang]] and conquered the Qi, taking the city of [[Ancient Linzi|Linzi]] in 221 BC.<ref name=autogenerated1>Lewis 2007, p. 10</ref> When the conquests were complete in 221 BC, [[King Zheng]]{{spaced ndash}}who had first assumed the throne of the Qin state at age 9<ref name="bai"/>{{spaced ndash}}became the effective ruler of China.<ref name=":0">{{Cite periodical|url=http://www.historytoday.com/michael-loewe/china%E2%80%99s-first-empire|first= Michael|last=Loewe|author-link=Michael Loewe|title=China's First Empire |magazine= History Today|volume=57|number=9|date= 9 September 2007|access-date=2017-04-17|url-status=live|url-access= subscription| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417235658/http://www.historytoday.com/michael-loewe/china%E2%80%99s-first-empire|archive-date=17 April 2017}}</ref> The subjugation of the six states was done by King Zheng who had used efficient persuasion and exemplary strategy. He solidified his position as sole ruler with the abdication of his prime minister, [[Lü Buwei]]. The states made by the emperor were assigned to officials dedicated to the task rather than place the burden on people from the royal family.<ref name=":0" /> He then combined the titles of the earlier [[Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors]] into his new name: Shi Huangdi ({{linktext|始|皇帝}}) or "First Emperor".<ref name=WIP:ESA36>World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, p. 36</ref> The newly declared emperor ordered all weapons not in the possession of the Qin to be confiscated and melted down. The resulting metal was sufficient to build twelve large ornamental statues at the Qin's newly declared capital, [[Xianyang]].<ref name="Morton47">Morton 1995, p. 47</ref> ===Southward expansion=== {{main|Qin campaign against the Yue tribes}} [[File:Qin Dynasty.png|thumb|Qin dynasty's expansion to the south]] In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang secured his boundaries to the north with a fraction (100,000 men) of his large army, and sent the majority (500,000 men) of his army south to [[Qin's campaign against the southern tribes|conquer the territory of the southern tribes]]. Prior to the events leading to Qin dominance over China, they had gained possession of much of [[Sichuan]] to the southwest. The Qin army was unfamiliar with the jungle terrain, and it was defeated by the southern tribes' [[guerrilla warfare]] tactics with over 100,000 men lost. However, in the defeat Qin was successful in building a canal to the south, which they used heavily for supplying and reinforcing their troops during their second attack to the south. Building on these gains, the Qin armies conquered the coastal lands surrounding [[Guangzhou]], and took the provinces of [[Fuzhou]] and [[Guilin]]. They may have struck as far south as [[Hanoi]]. After these victories in the south, Qin Shi Huang moved over 100,000 prisoners and exiles to colonize the newly conquered area. In terms of extending the boundaries of his empire, the First Emperor was extremely successful in the south.<ref name="Morton47" /> ===Campaigns against the Xiongnu=== {{main|Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu}} However, while the empire at times was extended to the north, the Qin could rarely hold on to the land for long. The tribes of these locations, collectively called the [[Five Barbarians|Hu]] by the Qin, were free from Chinese rule during the majority of the dynasty.<ref name="lewis129">Lewis 2007, p. 129</ref> Prohibited from trading with Qin dynasty peasants, the [[Xiongnu]] tribe living in the [[Ordos Desert|Ordos]] region in northwest China often raided them instead, prompting the Qin to retaliate. After a [[Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu|military campaign led by General Meng Tian]], the region was conquered in 215 BC and agriculture was established; the peasants, however, were discontented and later revolted. The succeeding Han dynasty also expanded into the Ordos due to overpopulation, but depleted their resources in the process. Indeed, this was true of the dynasty's borders in multiple directions; modern [[Xinjiang]], Tibet, [[Manchuria]], Inner Mongolia, and regions to the southeast were foreign to the Qin, and even areas over which they had military control were culturally distinct.<ref>Lewis 2007, p. 5</ref> ===Fall from power=== [[File:Assassination attempt on Qin Shi Huang.jpg|thumb|300px|Stone rubbing of a Han dynasty carved relief depicting [[Jing Ke]]'s assassination attempt on Qin Shi Huang (right) holding an imperial jade disc. Jing Ke (left) is held by a court physician (background). The dagger is stuck in the pillar. A soldier (far right) rushes to save his emperor.]]{{main|Chu–Han Contention}} Three assassination attempts were made on Qin Shi Huang,<ref>Borthwick, p. 10</ref> leading him to become paranoid and obsessed with immortality. He died in 210 BC, while on a trip to the far eastern reaches of his empire in an attempt to procure an [[elixir]] of immortality from [[Taoism|Taoist]] magicians, who claimed the elixir was stuck on an island guarded by a sea monster. The chief [[eunuch]], [[Zhao Gao]], and the prime minister, [[Li Si]], hid the news of his death upon their return until they were able to alter his will to place on the throne the dead emperor's most pliable son, Huhai, who took the name of [[Qin Er Shi]].<ref name="bai">{{cite book|author=Bai Yang|trans-title=Records of the Genealogy of Chinese Emperors, Empresses, and Their Descendants |script-title=zh:中国帝王皇后亲王公主世系录 |publisher=Friendship Publishing Corporation of China (中国友谊出版公司)|volume=1|pages=134–135| language = zh-hans}}</ref> They believed that they would be able to manipulate him to their own ends, and thus effectively control the empire. Qin Er Shi was, indeed, inept and pliable. He executed many ministers and imperial princes, continued massive building projects (one of his most extravagant projects was lacquering the city walls), enlarged the army, increased taxes, and arrested messengers who brought him bad news. As a result, men from all over China revolted, attacking officials, raising armies, and declaring themselves kings of seized territories.<ref name="kinney13">Kinney and Hardy 2005, pp. 13–15</ref> During this time, Li Si and Zhao Gao fell out, and Li Si was executed. Zhao Gao decided to force Qin Er Shi to commit suicide due to Qin Er Shi's incompetence. Upon this, [[Ziying of Qin|Ziying]], a nephew of Qin Er Shi, ascended the throne, and immediately executed Zhao Gao.<ref name="kinney13"/> Ziying, seeing that increasing unrest was growing among the people<ref group="note">This was largely caused by regional differences which survived despite the Qin's attempt to impose uniformity.</ref> and that many local officials had declared themselves kings, attempted to cling to his throne by declaring himself one king among all the others.<ref name="lewis1819"/> He was undermined by his ineptitude, however, and popular revolt broke out in 209 BC. When Chu rebels under the lieutenant [[Liu Bang]] attacked, a state in such turmoil could not hold for long. Ziying was defeated near the [[Wei River]] in 207 BC and surrendered shortly after; he was executed by the Chu leader [[Xiang Yu]]. The Qin capital was destroyed the next year, and this is considered by historians to be the end of the Qin Empire.<ref>Bodde 1986, p. 84</ref><ref group="note" name="boast">The first emperor of the Qin had boasted that the dynasty would last 10,000 generations; it lasted only about 15 years. (Morton 1995, p. 49)</ref> Liu Bang then betrayed and defeated Xiang Yu, declaring himself Emperor Gaozu<ref group="note">Meaning "High Progenitor".</ref> of the new [[Han dynasty]] on 28 February 202 BC.<ref name="morton49and50">Morton 1995, pp. 49–50</ref> Despite the short duration of the Qin dynasty, it was very influential on the structure of future dynasties. ==Culture and society== ===Domestic life=== {{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center | align = right | direction =horizontal | header= | image1 = History_of_Xi'an.jpg | caption1 = Location of the Palace, west of [[Xi'an]] | image2 = 阿房宫前殿遗址夯土台西侧 2023-10-01 10.jpg | caption2 = Excavation of the western platform | image3=阿房宫前殿遗址夯土台西侧 2023-10-01 11.jpg |caption3= A gate of the Palace | image4=阿房宫遗址公园展牌 2023-10-01 10.jpg |caption4=Objects found at the site | footer= Remains of the Imperial Palace ("[[Epang Palace]]", 阿房宫) of Qin Shihuang, destroyed in 206 BCE }} The aristocracy of the Qin were largely similar in their culture and daily life. Regional variations in culture were considered a symbol of the lower classes. This stemmed from the Zhou and was seized upon by the Qin, as such variations were seen as contrary to the unification that the government strove to achieve.<ref name="lewis11">Lewis 2007, p. 11</ref> <!-- write more about daily life of aristocracy here! notes to self: aristocracy was non-hereditary, government discouraged merchant wealth, "landlord" class abolished --> Commoners and rural villagers, who made up over 90% of the population,<ref name="lewis102">Lewis 2007, p. 102</ref> very rarely left the villages or farmsteads where they were born. Forms of employment differed by region, though farming was almost universally common. Professions were hereditary; a father's employment was passed to his eldest son after he died.<ref name="lewis15">Lewis 2007, p. 15</ref> The ''[[Lüshi Chunqiu]]''<ref group="note">A text named for its sponsor [[Lü Buwei]]; the prime minister of the Qin directly preceding the conquest of the other states.</ref> gave examples of how, when commoners are obsessed with material wealth, instead of the idealism of a man who "makes things serve him", they were "reduced to the service of things".<ref name="lewis16">Lewis 2007, p. 16</ref> Peasants were rarely figured in literature during the Qin dynasty and afterwards; scholars and others of more elite status preferred the excitement of cities and the lure of politics. One notable exception to this was [[Shen Nong]], the so-called "Divine Father", who taught that households should grow their own food. "If in one's prime he does not plow, someone in the world will grow hungry. If in one's prime she does not weave, someone in the world will be cold." The Qin encouraged this; a ritual was performed once every few years that consisted of important government officials taking turns with the plow on a special field, to create a simulation of government interest and activity within agriculture.<ref name="lewis15" /> ===Architecture=== [[File:南桥 02.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Dujiangyan]], an irrigation project completed in 256 BC during the Warring States period of China by the State of Qin. It is located on the [[Min River (Sichuan)|Min River]] in [[Sichuan]], near the provincial capital of [[Chengdu]]. Although a reinforced [[concrete]] [[weir]] has replaced Li Bing's original weighted bamboo baskets, the layout of the infrastructure remains the same and is still in use today to irrigate over 5,300 square kilometers of land in the region.]] [[File:Qin State Warring States Pottery Roof Tile End (40501817013).jpg|thumb|Qin dynasty roof tile end.]] Warring States-era architecture had several definitive aspects. City walls, used for defense, were made longer, and indeed several secondary walls were also sometimes built to separate the different districts. Versatility in federal structures was emphasized, to create a sense of authority and absolute power. Architectural elements such as high towers, pillar gates, terraces, and high buildings amply conveyed this.<ref>Lewis 2007, p. 75–78</ref> [[File:CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - stone slab with twelve small seal characters.jpg|thumb|left|Stone slab with twelve small seal characters. Qin Dynasty (221 – 207 BC). The 12 characters on this slab of floor brick affirm that it is an auspicious moment for the First Emperor to ascend the throne, as the country is united and no men will be dying along the road. Small seal scripts were standardized by the First Emperor of China after he gained control of the country, and evolved from the larger seal scripts of previous dynasties. The text on it is "{{lang|zh|海内皆臣，歲登成熟，道毋飢人}}".]] ===Philosophy and literature=== The written language of the Qin was [[Logogram|logographic]], as that of the Zhou had been.<ref>World and its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, p. 34</ref> As one of his most influential achievements in life, prime minister [[Li Si]] standardized the writing system to be of uniform size and shape across the whole country. This would have a unifying effect on the Chinese culture for thousands of years. He is also credited with creating the "[[small seal script]]" ({{zh|c=小篆, |p=xiǎozhuàn}}) style of calligraphy, which serves as a basis for modern Chinese and is still used in cards, posters, and advertising.<ref>Bedini 1994, p. 83</ref> During the Warring States period, the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] comprised many different philosophies proposed by Chinese scholars. Contemporary institutions descended in part from the [[Fa (philosophy)|methods]] of the [[Mohists]] and [[school of names]].<ref>{{ cite journal | first= Kidder | last= Smith | title=Sima Tan and the Invention of Daoism, 'Legalism,' et cetera | journal= Journal of Asian Studies | volume= 62 | issue= 1 | date=2003 | pages= 129–156 | jstor = 3096138 | publisher= Duke University Press | doi= 10.2307/3096138 }}</ref>{{rp|141–144}} [[Confucius]]'s school of thought, called [[Confucianism]], was also influential beginning in the Warring States period, and throughout the imperial periods.<ref group="note">The term "Confucian" is rather ill-defined in this context—many self-dubbed Confucians in fact rejected tenets of what was known as "the Way of Confucius", and were disorganized, unlike the later Confucians of the [[Song dynasty|Song]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] dynasties.</ref> Beginning in the subsequent Han dynasty, this school of thought had a so-called Confucian canon of literature, known as the "six classics": the Odes, Documents, Ritual, Music, [[Spring and Autumn Annals]], and Changes, which embodied Chinese literature at the time.<ref name="lewis206">Lewis 2007, p. 206</ref> <!-- more on literature/philosophy in a similar vein to the previous paragraph needs to go here! --> ===Penal policy=== The Qin empire's laws were primarily administrative. Only including penal law alongside [[Li (Confucianism)|li ritual]], comparative model manuals in the Qin empire guided penal legal procedure and application based on real-life situations, with publicly named wrongs linked to punishments. While some Qin penal laws deal with infanticide or other unsanctioned harm of children, it primarily concerned theft; it does not much deal with murder. By contrast, detailed rules and "endless paperwork" tightly regulate grain, weights, measures, and official documents.<ref> * Michael Loewe 1978/1986 539-540. The Cambridge History of China Volume I: Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. -- A.D. 220. https://books.google.com/books?id=A2HKxK5N2sAC&pg=PA539 * Bo Mou 2009. p208. Routledge History of Chinese Philosophy</ref> While it does not cover all manner of crimes, it did include such concepts as intent, judicial procedure, defendant rights, retrial requests and distinctions between different kinds of law ([[common law]] and [[statutory law]]).<ref>Goldin 2005. p5-6 After Confucius</ref> The [[Book of Lord Shang]] prophecies a future sage of "benevolence and righteous",<ref>Pines 2017. p84. Abridged Book of Lord Shang.</ref> which the First Emperor declares himself to be.<ref>Pines 2014 Birth of an Empire. p267 https://books.google.com/books?id=_aowDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA267 * Pines 2013. p267. The Messianic Emperor</ref> Regardless, in the Qin and early Han, criminals may be given amnesties, and then only punished if they did it again.<ref>Pines 2014 Birth of an Empire. p213 https://books.google.com/books?id=_aowDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA213</ref> At the very least given Qin expansionism, penal law actually develops more in the Han dynasty. The Qin often expelled criminals to the new colonies, or pardoned them in exchange for fines, labor, or one to several aristocratic ranks, even up to the death penalty. While the penal laws would still be considered harsh compared to the modern day, they were not very harsh for their time, and often not actually enacted.<ref> * Michael Loewe 1978/1986 74,526,534-535. The Cambridge History of China Volume I: Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. -- A.D. 220. https://books.google.com/books?id=A2HKxK5N2sAC&pg=PA534 * Goldin 2005. p5 After Confucius</ref> Villainizing the first Emperor while adopting Qin administration,<ref> * Mark Edward Lewis 2007. p42,72. The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han https://books.google.com/books?id=JyEsEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 * Pines 2009. p110. Envisioning Eternal Empire https://books.google.com/books?id=zhpLJgHZMTQC&pg=PA110</ref> a confused revulsion against the Qin occurs in the Han dynasty, centering on [[Chinese Legalism|Shang Yang and Han Fei]] as espousing rigorous law and punishment. The Qin dynasty would be classically taken as having practiced these.<ref>Michael Loewe 1999 p1008, The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&pg=PA1008 * Creel 1970 p92. What is Taoism? https://books.google.com/books?id=5p6EBnx4_W0C&pg=PA92 https://archive.org/details/whatistaoismothe0000cree/page/92/mode/2up</ref> But while Shang Yang and Han Fei may have been influential in Qin administration, Qin archaeology finds the Qin to have abandoned the harsh penal policy of Shang Yang before its founding.<ref>Pines, Yuri, "Legalism in Chinese Philosophy", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/chinese-legalism/</ref> ===Government and military=== [[File:2015-09-22-091227 - Museum der Grabanlage des Qin Shi Huangdi.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Terracotta Army]], museum of the grave of Qin Shi Huang.]] [[File:01 terracottawarriorsgroup.jpg|thumb|300px|Qin warriors of the [[Terracotta Army]].]] The Qin government was highly [[Bureaucracy|bureaucratic]], and was administered by a hierarchy of officials, all serving the First Emperor. The Qin put into practice the teachings of [[Han Feizi]], allowing the First Emperor to control all of his territories, including those recently conquered. All aspects of life were standardized, from measurements and language to more practical details, such as the length of chariot axles.<ref name="WIP:ESA36"/> The states made by the emperor were assigned to officials dedicated to the task rather than placing the burden on people from the royal family. Zheng and his advisors also introduced new laws and practices that ended feudalism in China, replacing it with a centralized, bureaucratic government. A supervisory system, the [[Censorate]] was introduced to monitor and check the powers of administrators and officials at each level of government.<ref>{{cite journal | first=Deshu|last=Xue|first2=Xiuqian|last2=Qi|title=Research on Supervision System in Ancient China and Its Contemporary Reference|journal=Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research|volume=319|page=415}}</ref> The form of government created by the first emperor and his advisors was used by later dynasties to structure their own government.<ref name=":0" /> Under this system, both the military and government thrived, as talented individuals could be more easily identified in the transformed society. Later Chinese dynasties emulated the Qin government for its efficiency, despite its being condemned by [[Confucian]] philosophy.<ref name="WIP:ESA36"/><ref>Borthwick 2006, pp. 9–10</ref> There were instances of abuse, however, with one example having been recorded in the "Records of Officialdom". A commander named Hu ordered his men to attack peasants in an attempt to increase the number of "bandits" he had killed; his superiors, likely eager to inflate their records as well, allowed this.<ref>Chen, pp. 180–81</ref> Qin Shi Huang also improved the strong military, despite the fact that it had already undergone extensive reforms.<ref name="Borthwick10">Borthwick 2006, p. 10</ref> The military used the most advanced weaponry of the time. It was first used mostly in bronze form, but by the third century BC, kingdoms such as [[Chu (state)|Chu]] and [[Qin (state)|Qin]] were using iron and/or steel swords. The demand for this metal resulted in improved [[metal bellows|bellows]]. The [[crossbow]] had been introduced in the fifth century BC and was more powerful and accurate than the [[composite bow]]s used earlier. It could also be rendered ineffective by removing two pins, which prevented enemies from capturing a working crossbow.<ref name="morton26">Morton 1995, p. 26</ref> The Qin also used improved methods of transportation and tactics. The state of Zhao had first replaced [[chariot]]s with [[cavalry]] in 307 BC, but the change was swiftly adopted by the other states because cavalry had greater mobility over the terrain of China.<ref name="morton27">Morton 1995, p. 27</ref> The First Emperor developed plans to fortify his northern border, to protect against nomadic invasions. The result was the initial construction of what later became the [[Great Wall of China]], which was built by joining and strengthening the walls made by the feudal lords, which would be expanded and rebuilt multiple times by later dynasties, also in response to threats from the north. Another project built during Qin Shi Huang's rule was the [[Terracotta army]], intended to protect the emperor after his death.<ref name="Borthwick10"/> The Terracotta Army was inconspicuous due to its underground location, and was not discovered until 1974.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=441|title=Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=3 July 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080807052557/https://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=441|archive-date=7 August 2008}}</ref> ===Religion=== {{quote box|align=right|quote=Floating on high in every direction,<br />Music fills the hall and court.<br />The incense sticks are a forest of feathers,<br />The cloudy scene an obscure darkness.<br />Metal stalks with elegant blossoms,<br />A host of flags and kingfisher banners.<br />The music of the "Seven Origins" and "Blossoming Origins"<br />Are intoned as harmonious sounds.<br />Thus one can almost hear<br />The spirits coming to feast and frolic.<br />The spirits are seen off to the ''zhu zhu'' of the musics,<br />Which purifies and refines human feelings.<br />Suddenly the spirits ride off on the darkness,<br />And the brilliant event finishes.<br />Purified thoughts grow hidden and still,<br />And the warp and weft of the world fall dark.|source=''Han shu'', p. 1046}} The dominant religious belief in China during the reign of the Qin, and, in fact, during much of early imperial China, was focused on the ''[[Shen (Chinese religion)|shen]]'' (roughly translating to "spirits" or "gods"), ''yin'' ("shadows"), and the realm they were said to live in. The Chinese offered animal sacrifices in an attempt to contact this other world, which they believed to be parallel to the earthly one. The dead were said to have simply moved from one world to the other. The rituals mentioned, as well as others, served two purposes: to ensure that the dead journeyed and stayed in the other realm, and to receive blessings from the spirit realm.<ref group="note">Mystics from the state of Qi, however, saw sacrifices differently—as a way to become immortal.</ref><ref name="lewis178">Lewis 2007, p. 178</ref><ref name="lewis186">Lewis 2007, p. 186</ref> Religious practices were usually held in local shrines and sacred areas, which contained sacrificial altars. During a sacrifice or other ritual, the senses of all participants and witnesses would be dulled and blurred with smoke, incense, and music. The lead sacrificer would [[fasting|fast]] and [[meditation|meditate]] before a sacrifice to further blur his senses and increase the likelihood of perceiving otherworldly phenomena. Other participants were similarly prepared, though not as rigorously. Such blurring of the senses was also a factor in the practice of spirit intermediaries, or [[mediumship]]. Practitioners of the art would fall into trances or dance to perform supernatural tasks. These people would often rise to power as a result of their art—[[Luan Da]], a Han dynasty medium, was granted rule over 2,000 households. Noted Han historian [[Sima Qian]] was scornful of such practices, dismissing them as foolish trickery.<ref name="lewis180">Lewis 2007, p. 180</ref> [[Divination]]—to predict and/or influence the future—was yet another form of religious practice. An ancient practice that was common during the Qin dynasty was cracking bones or turtle shells to gain knowledge of the future. The forms of divination which sprang up during early imperial China were diverse, though observing natural phenomena was a common method. [[Comet]]s, [[eclipse]]s, and droughts were considered omens of things to come.<ref name="lewis181">Lewis 2007, p. 181</ref> ===Etymology of China=== {{Asia in 210 BCE|right|The Qin state and main polities in 221 BCE, with the capital [[Xianyang]] ([[File:Basic red dot.png|5px]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Coatsworth |first1=John |last2=Cole |first2=Juan |last3=Hanagan |first3=Michael P. |last4=Perdue |first4=Peter C. |last5=Tilly |first5=Charles |last6=Tilly |first6=Louise |title=Global Connections: Volume 1, To 1500: Politics, Exchange, and Social Life in World History |date=16 March 2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-29777-3 |page=138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w5vlBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA138}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Atlas of World History |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-521921-0 |page=51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA51}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1=Jeroen Van Den Bosch|editor2= Adrien Fauve|editor3=B. J. De Cordier|title=The European Handbook of Central Asian Studies |date=2021 |isbn=978-3-8382-1518-1 |page=403 |publisher=Ibidem Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KPBIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA406}}</ref>|{{Annotation|0|0|[[File:Continental Asia date mask.png|300px]]}}{{location map~ |Continental Asia |lat=34.3299|N |long=108.7088|E |label=<!-- [[Xi'an]]-->|position=bottom|label_size=50|mark=Basic red dot.png|marksize=4}}|Map of the Qin Empire in 221 BCE.png}} The name 'Qin' is believed to be the etymological ancestor of the modern-day European name of the country, China. The word probably made its way into the [[Indo-Aryan languages]] first as 'Cina' or 'Sina' and then into [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] as 'Sinai' or 'Thinai'. It was then transliterated into English and French as 'China' and 'Chine'. This etymology is dismissed by some scholars, who suggest that 'Sina' in [[Sanskrit]] evolved much earlier before the Qin dynasty. '[[Jin (Chinese state)|Jin]]', a state during the [[Zhou dynasty]] until the fourth century BC, is another possible origin.<ref name="Keay98">Keay 2009, p.&nbsp;98.</ref> Others argued for the state of [[Chu (state)|Jing]] ({{zhi|荆}}, another name for [[Chu (state)|Chu]]), as well as other polities in the early period as the source of the name.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wade, Geoff |url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp188_yelang_china.pdf |title=The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name 'China' |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |volume=188 |date=May 2009 |access-date=4 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930070227/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp188_yelang_china.pdf |archive-date=30 September 2011 }} "This thesis also helps explain the existence of Cīna in the Indic ''Laws of Manu'' and the ''Mahabharata'', likely dating well before Qin Shihuangdi."</ref> ==Sovereigns== {{see also|Qin (state)#Rulers}} Qin Shi Huang was the first Chinese sovereign to proclaim himself "Emperor", after unifying China in 221 BC. That year is therefore generally taken by historians to be the start of the "Qin dynasty" which lasted for fifteen years until 207 when it was cut short by civil wars.<ref>Bodde 1986, p. 20</ref> {| class="wikitable" |----- ! [[Posthumous name]] / title ! Personal name ! Period of Reigns |- |[[Qin Shi Huang|Shi Huangdi]]|| Zheng (政) | 221 – 210 BC |- | [[Qin Er Shi|Er Shi Huangdi]] | Huhai (胡亥) || 210 – 207 BC |- | ''None'' || [[Ziying of Qin|Ziying]] (子嬰) | 207 BC |} ==Imperial family tree== [[Image:BronzePlaque-EdictOfSecondEmperor-Qin-ROM-May8-08.png|thumb|right|An edict in bronze from the reign of the second Qin Emperor, [[Qin Er Shi]]]] {{Qin dynasty family tree}}' == Notes == {{NoteFoot}} {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} == References == === Citations === {{Reflist}} === Sources === {{sfn whitelist|CITEREFBodde1986}} {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |title = World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia |publisher = [[Marshall Cavendish]] |year = 2007 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=cKh2KL5LqEsC |isbn = 978-0-7614-7631-3 }} * {{cite book |title=Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy |editor1=Philip J. Ivanhoe |editor2=Bryan W. Van Norden |publisher=[[Hackett Publishing]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-87220-780-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PL9hSUiVEoC }} * {{cite book |title=Beyond Pain: The Role of Pleasure and Culture in the Making of Foreign Affairs |last=Breslin |first=Thomas A. |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-275-97430-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AD5Lx-kJsMEC }} * {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xdVkzs6iI1YC |title = The Trail of Time: Shih-chien Ti Tsu-chi : Time Measurement with Incense in East Asia |last = Bedini |first = Silvio |publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn = 978-0-521-37482-8 |year = 1994 }} * {{The Cambridge History of China | volume=1 |first=Derk |last=Bodde |chapter=The State and Empire of Ch'in }} * {{cite book |title=Pacific Century: The Emergence of Modern Pacific Asia |last=Borthwick |first=Mark |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8133-4355-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wbd-Eonn70cC }}{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite book |last1=Kinney |first1=Anne Behnke |first2=Grant |last2=Hardy |title=The Establishment of the Han Empire and Imperial China |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |location=[[Westport, Connecticut]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-313-32588-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/establishmentofh00gran }} * {{cite book |last=Keay |first=John |author-link=John Keay |title = China A History |publisher = Harper Press |year = 2009 |isbn = 9780007221783 }} * {{cite book |last=Lander |first=Brian|title = The King's Harvest: A Political Ecology of China from the First Farmers to the First Empire |publisher = Yale University Press |year = 2021 |isbn = 9780300255089 }} * {{cite book |title = The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han |first = Mark Edward |last = Lewis |publisher = Belknap Press |location = London |year = 2007 |isbn = 978-0-674-02477-9 |url = https://archive.org/details/historyofimperia00broo }} * {{cite book |title = Will the Boat Sink the Water?: The Life of China's Peasants |author1 = Chen Guidi |author2 = Wu Chuntao |translator = Zhu Hong |publisher = [[PublicAffairs]] |year = 2007 |isbn = 978-1-58648-441-5 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gFEK1pLNqqMC }} * {{cite book |title = China: Its History and Culture |first = W. Scott |last = Morton |edition = 3rd |publisher = [[McGraw-Hill]] |isbn = 978-0-07-043424-0 |year = 1995 |url = https://archive.org/details/chinaitshistory000mort }} * {{cite book |title = China: A History |first = Harold |last = Tanner |publisher=[[Hackett Publishing Company|Hackett]] |isbn = 978-1-60384-203-7 |year = 2010 }} {{refend}} ==Further reading== * {{The Cambridge History of China | volume=1 |first=Derk |last=Bodde |chapter=The State and Empire of Ch'in }} * {{cite book |last=Lander |first=Brian|title = The King's Harvest: A Political Ecology of China from the First Farmers to the First Empire |publisher = Yale University Press |year = 2021 |isbn = 9780300255089 }} * {{cite book |title = The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han |first = Mark Edward |last = Lewis |publisher = Belknap Press |location = London |year = 2007 |isbn = 978-0-674-02477-9 |url = https://archive.org/details/historyofimperia00broo }} * {{cite book |last=Korolkov |first=Maxim|title = The Imperial Network in Ancient China: The Foundation of Sinitic Empire in Southern East Asia|publisher = Routledge |year = 2022 |isbn = 9780367654283 }} == External links == * {{Commons category-inline}} {{Clear}} {{S-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Zhou dynasty]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Dynasties in Chinese history]]|years=221–207 BC}} {{s-aft|after=[[Han dynasty]]}} {{s-end}} {{Qin dynasty topics}} {{Empires}} {{Portal bar|China|History}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Qin dynasty| ]] [[Category:Dynasties of China]] [[Category:Iron Age Asia]] [[Category:Former countries in East Asia]] [[Category:States and territories established in the 3rd century BC]] [[Category:221 BC]] [[Category:220s BC establishments]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 3rd century BC]] [[Category:1st-millennium BC disestablishments in China]] [[Category:Qin Shi Huang]] [[Category:Former monarchies of East Asia]] [[Category:Former empires]]'