Edit count of the user (user_editcount) | null |
Name of the user account (user_name) | '183.88.235.112' |
Age of the user account (user_age) | 0 |
Groups (including implicit) the user is in (user_groups) | [
0 => '*'
] |
Rights that the user has (user_rights) | [
0 => 'createaccount',
1 => 'read',
2 => 'edit',
3 => 'createtalk',
4 => 'writeapi',
5 => 'viewmyprivateinfo',
6 => 'editmyprivateinfo',
7 => 'editmyoptions',
8 => 'abusefilter-log-detail',
9 => 'urlshortener-create-url',
10 => 'centralauth-merge',
11 => 'abusefilter-view',
12 => 'abusefilter-log',
13 => 'vipsscaler-test'
] |
Whether or not a user is editing through the mobile interface (user_mobile) | false |
Whether the user is editing from mobile app (user_app) | false |
Page ID (page_id) | 32491 |
Page namespace (page_namespace) | 0 |
Page title without namespace (page_title) | 'Andreas Vesalius' |
Full page title (page_prefixedtitle) | 'Andreas Vesalius' |
Edit protection level of the page (page_restrictions_edit) | [] |
Last ten users to contribute to the page (page_recent_contributors) | [
0 => 'Citation bot',
1 => 'GreenC bot',
2 => 'Suslindisambiguator',
3 => 'JJMC89 bot III',
4 => 'InternetArchiveBot',
5 => 'Bms20b',
6 => 'Nerd271',
7 => 'HeyElliott',
8 => '2600:1700:EDF0:2F50:C4DF:31FF:FEA8:DB8C',
9 => 'Pechmerle'
] |
Page age in seconds (page_age) | 720974239 |
Action (action) | 'edit' |
Edit summary/reason (summary) | '' |
Time since last page edit in seconds (page_last_edit_age) | 246964 |
Old content model (old_content_model) | 'wikitext' |
New content model (new_content_model) | 'wikitext' |
Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Anatomist, physician and author (1514–1564)}}
{{For|the lunar impact crater|Vesalius (crater)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Andreas Vesalius
| image = Man dressed in Black by Calcar (Hermitage).jpg
| caption = Portrait by [[Jan van Calcar]]
| birth_name = Andries van Wezel
| birth_date = 31 December 1514
| birth_place = [[Brussels]], [[Habsburg Netherlands]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1564|10|15|1514|12|31}}
| death_place = [[Zakynthos]], [[Venetian Ionian Islands]]
| education = [[Old University of Leuven|University of Leuven]] ([[M.D.]], 1537)<br/>[[University of Paris]]
| thesis_title = Paraphrasis in nonum librum Rhazae medici Arabis clarissimi ad regem Almansorem, de affectuum singularum corporis partium curatione
| thesis_url = https://archive.org/details/paraphrasisinno00vesagoog/page/n1/mode/2up
| thesis_year = 1537
| academic_advisors = [[Johann Winter von Andernach]]<ref name="O'Malley">{{Cite book|title=Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514-1564 / [Charles Donald O'Malley].|url=https://wellcomecollection.org/works/ur9qz2wh|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223092027/https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt8779q730/|archive-date=23 February 2022|page=47|oclc=429258|publisher=University of California Press, 1964|access-date=23 February 2022|website=Wellcome Collection|language=en}}</ref><br/>[[Jacques Dubois]]<ref name="O'Malley" /><br/>[[Jean Fernel]]<ref name="O'Malley" />
| notable_students = [[John Caius]]<br>[[Realdo Colombo]]
| known_for = ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' (''On the Fabric of the Human Body'')
| field = [[Anatomy]]
| work_institutions = [[University of Padua]] (1537–1542)
}}
'''Andries van Wezel''' (31 December 1514 – 15 October 1564), [[Latinisation of names|latinised]] as '''Andreas Vesalius''' ({{IPAc-en|v|ɪ|ˈ|s|eɪ|l|i|ə|s}}),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vesalius {{!}} Dictionary.com|url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/vesalius|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223091222/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/vesalius|archive-date=23 February 2022|access-date=23 February 2022|website=www.dictionary.com|language=en}}</ref>{{Efn|It was a common practice among European scholars in his time to latinize their names. His name is also given as Andrea Vesalius, André Vésale, Andrea Vesalio, Andreas Vesal, Andrés Vesalio and Andre Vesale.}} was an [[anatomist]] and [[physician]] who wrote ''[[De humani corporis fabrica|De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem]]'' (''On the fabric of the human body'' ''in seven books''), what is considered to be one of the most influential books on [[human anatomy]] and a major advance over the long-dominant work of [[Galen]]. Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern [[human anatomy]]. He was born in [[Brussels]], which was then part of the [[Habsburg Netherlands]]. He was a professor at the [[University of Padua]] (1537–1542) and later became Imperial physician at the court of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles V]].
== Early life and education ==
Vesalius was born as Andries van Wesel to his father Anders van Wesel and mother Isabel Crabbe on 31 December 1514 in Brussels, which was then part of the [[Habsburg Netherlands]]. His great-grandfather, Jan van Wesel, probably born in [[Wesel]], received a medical degree from the [[University of Pavia]] and taught medicine at the [[Old University of Leuven|University of Leuven]]. His grandfather, Everard van Wesel, was the Royal Physician of [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Maximilian]], whilst his father, Anders van Wesel, served as [[apothecary]] to Maximilian and later [[valet de chambre]] to his successor, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]. Anders encouraged his son to continue in the family tradition and enrolled him in the [[Brethren of the Common Life]] in Brussels to learn Greek and Latin prior to learning medicine, according to standards of the era.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564|last=O'Malley|first=Charles Donald|author-link=Charles Donald O'Malley|publisher=Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964|pages=21–27}}</ref>
In 1528 Vesalius entered the University of Leuven (''Pedagogium Castrense'') taking arts, but when his father was appointed as the Valet de Chambre in 1532 he decided instead to pursue a career in medicine at the [[University of Paris]], where he moved in 1533. There he studied the theories of [[Galen]] under the auspices of [[Johann Winter von Andernach]], [[Jacques Dubois]] (Jacobus Sylvius) and [[Jean Fernel]]. It was during that time that he developed an interest in anatomy and was often found examining excavated bones in the [[charnel house]]s at the [[Cimetière des Innocents|Cemetery of the Innocents]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Gumpert |first=Martin |title=Vesalius |date=1948 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24945814 |journal=Scientific American |volume=178 |issue=5 |pages=24–31 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0548-24 |jstor=24945814 |issn=0036-8733}}</ref> He is said to have constructed his first skeleton by stealing from a [[Gibbeting|gibbet]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=McRae |first=Charles |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/24456/24456-h/24456-h.htm |title=Fathers of biology |publisher=PERCIVAL & CO. |year=1890 |location=London}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Andreas Vesalius and the Challenge to Galen {{!}} St John's College, University of Cambridge |url=https://www.joh.cam.ac.uk/library/andreas-vesalius-and-challenge-galen |access-date=7 January 2023 |website=www.joh.cam.ac.uk}}</ref>
Vesalius was forced to leave Paris in 1536 owing to the opening of hostilities between the Holy Roman Empire and France and returned to the University of Leuven. He completed his studies there and graduated the following year. His [[doctoral thesis]], ''Paraphrasis in nonum librum Rhazae medici Arabis clarissimi ad regem Almansorem, de affectuum singularum corporis partium curatione'', was a commentary on the ninth book of [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|Rhazes]].
== Medical career and accomplishments ==
On the day of his graduation he was immediately offered the chair of surgery and anatomy (''explicator chirurgiae'') at the [[University of Padua]]. He also guest-lectured at the [[University of Bologna]] and the [[University of Pisa]]. Prior to taking up his position in Padua, Vesalius traveled through Italy and assisted the future [[Pope Paul IV]] and [[Ignatius of Loyola]] to heal those afflicted by [[leprosy]]. In Venice he met the illustrator [[Jan van Calcar|Johan van Calcar]], a student of Titian. It was with van Calcar that Vesalius published his first anatomical text, ''Tabulae Anatomicae Sex'', in 1538.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thephysicianspalette.com/2014/12/01/vesalius-at-500/|title=Vesalius at 500|work=The Physician's Palette|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210143700/http://thephysicianspalette.com/2014/12/01/vesalius-at-500/|archive-date=10 December 2014}}</ref> Previously these topics had been taught primarily from reading classical texts, mainly [[Galen]], followed by an animal dissection by a barber–surgeon whose work was directed by the lecturer.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Gumpert |first=Martin |date=1948 |title=Vesalius: Discoverer of the Human Body |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24945814 |journal=Scientific American |volume=178 |issue=5 |pages=24–31 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0548-24 |jstor=24945814 |via=JSTOR}}</ref> No attempt was made to confirm Galen's claims, which were considered unassailable. Vesalius, in contrast, performed dissection as the primary teaching tool, handling the actual work himself and urging students to perform dissection themselves. He considered hands-on direct observation to be the only reliable resource.
Vesalius created detailed illustrations of anatomy for students in the form of six large woodcut posters. When he found that some of them were being widely copied, he published them all in 1538 under the title ''Tabulae anatomicae sex''. He followed this in 1539 with an updated version of Winter's anatomical handbook, ''Institutiones anatomicae.''
In 1539 he also published his ''Venesection Epistle'' on [[bloodletting]]. This was a popular treatment for almost any illness, but there was some debate about where to take the blood from. The classical Greek procedure, advocated by Galen, was to collect blood from a site near the location of the illness. However the Muslim and medieval practice was to draw a smaller amount of blood from a distant location. Vesalius' pamphlet generally supported Galen's view but with qualifications that rejected the infiltration of Galen.
In Bologna, Vesalius discovered that all of Galen's research was restricted to animals, since the tradition of Rome did not allow dissection of the human body.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=27 April 2021 |title=Comparative Anatomy: Andreas Vesalius - Understanding Evolution |url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-history-of-evolutionary-thought/pre-1800/comparative-anatomy-andreas-vesalius/ |access-date=7 January 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref> Galen had dissected [[Barbary macaque]]s instead, which he considered structurally closest to man. Even though Galen was a qualified examiner, his research produced many errors owing to the limited anatomical material available to him.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564|last=O'Malley|first=Charles Donald|publisher=Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964}}</ref> Vesalius contributed to the new Giunta edition of Galen's collected works and began to write his own anatomical text based on his own research. Until Vesalius pointed out Galen's substitution of animal for human anatomy, it had gone unnoticed and had long been the basis of studying human anatomy.<ref name=":4" />
Unlike Galen, Vesalius was able to procure a steady supply of human cadavers for dissection. In 1539, a judge at the Padua criminal court had been interested by Vesalius' work and had agreed to regularly supply him the cadavers of executed criminals.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />
Galen had assumed that arteries carried the purest blood to higher organs such as the brain and lungs from the left ventricle of the heart, while veins carried blood to the lesser organs such as the stomach from the right ventricle. In order for this theory to be correct, some kind of opening was needed to interconnect the ventricles, and Galen claimed to have found them. So paramount was Galen's authority that for 1400 years a succession of anatomists had claimed to find these holes, until Vesalius admitted he could not find them. Nonetheless, he did not venture to dispute Galen on the distribution of blood, being unable to offer any other solution, and so supposed that it diffused through the unbroken partition between the ventricles.<ref name="Corporation1872">{{cite journal|author=Bonnier Corporation|title=Popular Science|journal=The Popular Science Monthly|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_qR8DAAAAMBAJ|date=May 1872|publisher=Bonnier Corporation|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_qR8DAAAAMBAJ/page/n99 95]–100|issn=0161-7370}}</ref>
Other famous examples of Vesalius disproving Galen's assertions were his discoveries that the lower jaw ([[mandible]]) was composed of only one bone, not two (which Galen had assumed based on animal dissection) and that humans lack the [[rete mirabile]], a network of blood vessels at the base of the brain that is found in sheep and other [[ungulates]].
[[File:Skelett im Anatomischen Museum Basel - 4675.jpg|thumb|upright|The skeleton of Jakob Karrer, articulated by Vesalius in 1543]]
In 1543, Vesalius conducted a public dissection of the body of Jakob Karrer von Gebweiler, a notorious felon from the city of [[Basel]], [[Switzerland]]. He assembled and articulated the bones, finally donating the [[skeleton]] to the [[University of Basel]]. This preparation ("The Basel Skeleton") is Vesalius' only well-preserved skeletal preparation, and also the world's oldest surviving anatomical preparation. It is still displayed at the Anatomical Museum of the [[University of Basel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vhsbb.ch/asp/pdf/senuni_07021213_zf_kurz.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=10 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927043755/http://www.vhsbb.ch/asp/pdf/senuni_07021213_zf_kurz.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2007 }}</ref>
In the same year Vesalius took residence in Basel to help [[Johannes Oporinus]] publish the seven-volume ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' (''On the fabric of the human body''), a groundbreaking work of [[human anatomy]] that he dedicated to Charles V. Many believe it was illustrated by [[Titian]]'s pupil [[Jan Van Calcar|Jan Stephen van Calcar]], but evidence is lacking, and it is unlikely that a single artist created all 273 illustrations in a period of time so short. At about the same time he published an abridged edition for students, ''Andrea Vesalii suorum de humani corporis fabrica librorum epitome'', and dedicated it to [[Philip II of Spain]], the son of the Emperor. That work, now collectively referred to as the [[De humani corporis fabrica|Fabrica of Vesalius]], was groundbreaking in the history of medical publishing and is considered to be a major step in the development of scientific medicine. Because of this, it marks the establishment of anatomy as a modern descriptive science.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Harcourt|first=Glenn|date=1 January 1987|title=Andreas Vesalius and the Anatomy of Antique Sculpture|journal=Representations|language=en|volume=17|issue=17|pages=28–61|doi=10.2307/3043792|issn=0734-6018|jstor=3043792|pmid=11618035}}</ref>
Though Vesalius' work was not the first such work based on actual dissection, nor even the first work of this era, the production quality, highly detailed and intricate plates, and the likelihood that the artists who produced it were clearly present in person at the dissections made it an instant classic. Pirated editions were available almost immediately, an event Vesalius acknowledged in a printer's note would happen. Vesalius was 28 years old when the first edition of ''Fabrica'' was published.
== Imperial physician and death ==
[[File:Titian - Portrait of Charles V Seated - WGA22964.jpg|thumb|upright|The Holy Roman Emperor, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], who was an important patron of Vesalius]]
Soon after publication, Vesalius was invited to become imperial physician to the court of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles V]]. He informed the [[Venetian Senate]] that he would leave his post at Padua, which prompted [[Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany|Duke Cosimo I de' Medici]] to invite him to move to the expanding university in Pisa, which he declined. Vesalius took up the offered position in the imperial court, where he had to deal with other physicians who mocked him for being a mere [[barber surgeon]] instead of an academic working on the respected basis of theory.
In the 1540s, shortly after entering in service of the emperor, Vesalius married Anne van Hamme, from Vilvorde, Belgium. They had one daughter, named Anne, who died in 1588.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564|last=O'Malley|first=Charles Donald|publisher=Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964|pages=203, 314}}</ref>
Over the next eleven years Vesalius traveled with the court, treating injuries caused in battle or tournaments, performing postmortems, administering medication, and writing private letters addressing specific medical questions. During these years he also wrote ''the Epistle on the China root'', a short text on the properties of a medical plant whose efficacy he doubted, as well as a defense of his anatomical findings. This elicited a new round of attacks on his work that called for him to be punished by the emperor. In 1551, Charles V commissioned an inquiry in [[Salamanca]] to investigate the religious implications of his methods. Although Vesalius' work was cleared by the board, the attacks continued. Four years later one of his main detractors and one-time professors, Jacobus Sylvius, published an article that claimed that the human body itself had changed since Galen had studied it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Montagu |first=M. F. Ashley |date=1955 |title=Vesalius and the Galenists |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20970 |journal=The Scientific Monthly |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=230–239 |jstor=20970 |issn=0096-3771}}</ref>
In 1555, Vesalius became physician to Philip II,<ref name=":2">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/vesalius_andreas.shtml|title=Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)|publisher=BBC History|accessdate=14 March 2022}}</ref> and in the same year he published a revised edition of ''De humani corporis fabrica''.
In 1564 Vesalius went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, some said, in penance after being accused of dissecting a living body. He sailed with the Venetian fleet under [[:it:Giacomo Malatesta|James Malatesta]] via [[Cyprus]]. When he reached [[Jerusalem]] he received a message from the Venetian senate requesting him again to accept the Paduan professorship, which had become vacant on the death of contemporary [[Gabriele Falloppio|Fallopius]].
After struggling for many days with adverse winds in the [[Ionian Sea]], he was shipwrecked on the island of [[Zakynthos]].<ref name=NPO/> Here he soon died, in such debt that a benefactor kindly paid for his funeral. At the time of his death he was 49 years old. He was buried somewhere on the island of Zakynthos (Zante).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564|last=O'Malley|first=Charles Donald|publisher=Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964|pages=311}}</ref>
For some time, it was assumed that Vesalius's pilgrimage was due to the pressures imposed on him by the [[Inquisition]]. Today, this assumption is generally considered to be without foundation<ref>See C.D. O'Malley ''Andreas Vesalius' Pilgrimage'', Isis 45:2, 1954</ref> and is dismissed by modern biographers. It appears the story was spread by [[Hubert Languet]], a diplomat under Emperor Charles V and then under the [[Prince of Orange]], who claimed in 1565 that Vesalius had performed an autopsy on an aristocrat in Spain while the heart was still beating, leading to the Inquisition's condemning him to death. The story went on to claim that Philip II had the sentence commuted to a pilgrimage. That story re-surfaced several times, until it was more recently revised.
The decision to undertake the pilgrimage was likely just a pretext to leave the Spanish court. Its lifestyle did not please him and he longed to continue his research. Given that he could not get rid of his royal service by resignation, he managed to escape asking for the permission to go to Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Malley |first=C. Donald |title=Andreas Vesalius' Pilgrimage |magazine=Isis |volume=45/2 |date=1 January 1954 |pages=138–144}}</ref>
== Publications ==
=== ''De Humani Corporis Fabrica'' ===
[[File:Vesalius Fabrica portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A portrait of Vesalius from his ''De Humani Corporis Fabrica'' (1543)]]
{{main|De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem}}
In 1543, Vesalius asked [[Johannes Oporinus]] to publish the book ''[[De humani corporis fabrica|De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem]]'' (''On the fabric of the human body'' ''in seven books''), a groundbreaking work of [[human anatomy]] he dedicated to Charles V and which many believe was illustrated by [[Titian]]'s pupil [[Jan Van Calcar|Jan Stephen van Calcar]].
About the same time he published another version of his great work, entitled ''De Humani Corporis Fabrica Librorum Epitome'' (''Abridgement of the On the fabric of the human body'') more commonly known as the ''Epitome'', with a stronger focus on illustrations than on text, so as to help readers, including medical students, to easily understand his findings. The actual text of the ''Epitome'' was an abridged form of his work in the ''Fabrica'', and the organization of the two books was quite varied. He dedicated it to [[Philip II of Spain]], son of the Emperor.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kusukawa|first1=Sachiko|title=De humani corporis fabrica. Epitome|url=http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-CCF-00046-00036|publisher=Cambridge Digital Library|access-date=3 July 2014}}</ref>
The ''Fabrica'' emphasized the priority of dissection and what has come to be called the "[[anatomical]]" view of the body, seeing human internal functioning as a result of an essentially corporeal structure filled with organs arranged in three-dimensional space. His book contains drawings of several organs on two leaves. This allows for the creation of three-dimensional diagrams by cutting out the organs and pasting them on flayed figures.<ref name=":0" /> This was in stark contrast to many of the anatomical models used previously, which had strong Galenic/Aristotelean elements, as well as elements of [[astrology]]. Although modern anatomical texts had been published by [[Mondino de Liuzzi|Mondino]] and [[Jacopo Berengario da Carpi|Berenger]], much of their work was clouded by reverence for Galen and Arabian doctrines.
[[File:Vesalius Fabrica p190.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Vesalius's ''Fabrica'' contained many intricately detailed drawings of human dissections, often in allegorical poses.]]
Besides the first good description of the [[sphenoid bone]], he showed that the [[Human sternum|sternum]] consists of three portions and the [[sacrum]] of five or six, and described accurately the [[vestibule of the ear|vestibule]] in the interior of the [[temporal bone]]. He not only verified [[Charles Estienne|Estienne]]'s observations on the valves of the [[hepatic veins]], but also described the [[vena azygos]], and discovered the canal which passes in the fetus between the umbilical vein and the vena cava, since named the [[ductus venosus]]. He described the [[greater omentum|omentum]] and its connections with the stomach, the [[spleen]] and the [[colon (anatomy)|colon]]; gave the first correct views of the structure of the [[pylorus]]; observed the small size of the caecal appendix in man; gave the first good account of the [[mediastinum]] and [[pleura]] and the fullest description of the anatomy of the brain up to that time. He did not understand the inferior recesses, and his account of the nerves is confused by regarding the optic as the first pair, the third as the fifth, and the fifth as the seventh.
In this work, Vesalius also becomes the first person to describe [[mechanical ventilation]].<ref name="Resuscitation">Vallejo-Manzur F. et al. (2003) "The resuscitation greats. Andreas Vesalius, the concept of an artificial airway." "Resuscitation" 56:3–7</ref> It is largely this achievement that has resulted in Vesalius being incorporated into the [[Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists]] college arms and crest.
==== Excerpts ====
<blockquote>When I undertake the dissection of a human pelvis I pass a stout rope tied like a noose beneath the lower jaw and through the [[Zygomatic arch|zygomas]] up to the top of the head... The lower end of the noose I run through a pulley fixed to a beam in the room so that I may raise or lower the cadaver as it hangs there or turn around in any direction to suit my purpose; ... You must take care not to put the noose around the neck, unless some of the muscles connected to the [[occipital bone]] have already been cut away.<ref>Andreas Vesalius, ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' (1544), Book II, Ch. 24, 268. Trans. William Frank Rich son, ''On the Fabric of the Human Body'' (1999), Book II, 234. As quoted by W. F. Bynum & Roy Porter (2005), ''Oxford Dictionary of Scientific Quotations'': ''Andreas Vesalius'', 595:2, {{ISBN|0-19-858409-1}}.
</ref></blockquote>
<gallery class="center" heights="200px" perrow="5">
File:Vesalius Fabrica p174.jpg
File:Vesalius Fabrica p194.jpg
File:De humani corporis fabrica (27).jpg
File:Vesalius Fabrica p178.jpg
</gallery>
=== Other publications ===
In 1538, Vesalius wrote ''Epistola, docens venam axillarem dextri cubiti in dolore laterali secandam'' (''A letter, teaching that in cases of pain in the side, the axillary vein of the right elbow be cut''), commonly known as the Venesection Letter, which demonstrated a revived [[venesection]], a classical procedure in which blood was drawn near the site of the ailment. He sought to locate the precise site for venesection in [[pleurisy]] within the framework of the classical method. The real significance of the book is his attempt to support his arguments by the location and continuity of the [[venous system]] from his observations rather than appeal to earlier published works. With this novel approach to the problem of venesection, Vesalius posed the then striking hypothesis that anatomical dissection might be used to test speculation.
In 1546, three years after the ''Fabrica'', he wrote his ''Epistola rationem modumque propinandi radicis Chynae decocti'', commonly known as the Epistle on the China Root. Ostensibly an appraisal of a popular but ineffective treatment for gout, syphilis, and [[calculus (medicine)|stones]], this work is especially important as a continued polemic against Galenism and a reply to critics in the camp of his former professor Jacobus Sylvius, now an obsessive detractor.
In February 1561, Vesalius was given a copy of Gabriele Fallopio's ''Observationes anatomicae'', friendly additions and corrections to the Fabrica. Before the end of the year Vesalius composed a cordial reply, ''Anatomicarum Gabrielis Fallopii observationum examen'', generally referred to as the ''Examen''. In this work he recognizes in Fallopio a true equal in the science of dissection he had done so much to create. Vesalius' reply to Fallopio was published in May 1564, a month after Vesalius' death on the Greek island of [[Zante]] (now called [[Zakynthos]]).
== Scientific findings ==
=== Skeletal system ===
[[File:Andreas Vesalius-Pierre Poncet.jpg|thumb|Andreas Vesalius by Pierre Poncet (1574-1640)]]
* Vesalius believed the [[skeletal system]] to be the framework of the human body. It was in this opening chapter or book of [[De humani corporis fabrica|''De fabrica'']] that Vesalius made several of his strongest claims against [[Galen|Galen's]] theories and writings which he had put in his anatomy books. In his extensive study of the skull, Vesalius claimed that the [[Human mandible|mandible]] consisted of one bone, whereas Galen had thought it to be two separate bones. He accurately described the [[Vestibule of the ear|vestibule]] in the interior of the [[temporal bone]] of the skull.
* In [[Galen|Galen's]] observation of the ape, he had discovered that their [[sternum]] consisted of seven parts which he assumed also held true for humans. Vesalius discovered that the [[human sternum]] consisted of only three parts.
* He also disproved the common belief that men had one rib fewer than women and noted that the [[fibula]] and [[tibia]] bones of the leg were indeed larger than the [[humerus]] bone of the arm, unlike [[Galen]]'s original findings.
=== Muscular system ===
* One of Vesalius' contributions to the study of the [[muscular system]] is the illustrations that accompany the text in ''De fabrica'', which would become known as the "muscle men". He describes the source and position of each muscle of the body and provides information on their respective operation.
=== Vascular and circulatory systems ===
* Vesalius' work on the [[vascular]] and [[circulatory system]]s was his greatest contribution to modern medicine. In his dissections of the heart, Vesalius became convinced that Galen's claims of a porous [[interventricular septum]] were false. This fact was previously described by [[Michael Servetus]], a fellow of Vesalius, but never reached the public, for it was written down in the "Manuscript of Paris",<ref>[http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html Michael Servetus Research] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113223851/http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html |date=13 November 2012 }} Website with graphical study on the Manuscript of Paris by Servetus</ref> in 1546, and published later in his ''Christianismi Restitutio'' (1553), a book regarded as heretical by the [[Inquisition]]. Only three copies survived, but these remained hidden for decades, the rest having been burned shortly after publication. In the second edition Vesalius published that the septum was indeed waterproof, discovering (and naming), the [[mitral valve]] to explain the blood flow.
* Vesalius believed that [[systole (medicine)|cardiac systole]] is synchronous with the [[Pulse (anatomy)|arterial pulse]].
* He not only verified [[Charles Estienne|Estienne's]] findings on the valves of the [[hepatic veins]], but also described the [[azygos vein]], and discovered the canal which passes into the fetus between the [[umbilical vein]] and [[vena cava]].
=== Nervous system ===
* Vesalius defined a nerve as the mode of transmitting sensation and motion and thus refuted his contemporaries' claims that [[ligament]]s, [[tendon]]s and [[aponeuroses]] were three types of nerve units.
* He believed that the brain and the nervous system are the center of the mind and emotion in contrast to the common [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] belief that the heart was the center of the body. He correspondingly believed that nerves themselves do not originate from the heart, but from the brain—facts already experimentally proved by [[Herophilus]] and [[Erasistratus]] in the classical era, but suppressed after the adoption of Aristotelianism by the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages.
* Upon studying the [[optic nerve]], Vesalius came to the conclusion that nerves were not hollow.
=== Abdominal organs ===
* In ''De fabrica'', he corrected an earlier claim he made in ''Tabulae'' about the right kidney being set higher than the left. Vesalius claimed that the kidneys were not a filter device for urine to pass through, but rather that the kidneys serve to filter blood as well, and that excretions from the kidneys travelled through the [[ureters]] to the bladder.
* He described the [[Greater omentum|omentum]], and its connections with the stomach, the spleen and the colon gave the first correct views of the structure of the [[pylorus]].
* He also observed the small size of the [[Appendix (human)|caecal appendix]] in man and gave the first good account of the [[mediastinum]] and [[pleura]].
* Vesalius admitted that due to a lack of pregnant cadavers he was unable to come to a significant understanding of the reproductive organs. However, he did find that the uterus had been falsely identified as having two distinct sections.
=== Heart ===
* Through his work with muscles, Vesalius believed that a criterion for muscles was their voluntary motion. On this claim, he deduced that the heart was not a true muscle due to the obvious involuntary nature of its motion.
* He identified two chambers and two atria. The [[right atrium]] was considered a continuation of the [[Inferior vena cava|inferior]] and [[Superior vena cava|superior]] [[venae cavae]], and the [[left atrium]] was considered a continuation of the [[pulmonary vein]].
* He also addressed the controversial issue of the heart being the centre of the soul. He wished to avoid drawing any conclusions due to possible conflict with contemporary religious beliefs.[[File:1543, Andreas Vesalius' Fabrica, Base Of The Brain.jpg|thumb|Base of the [[Human brain|brain]], showing the [[optic chiasm]]a, [[cerebellum]], [[olfactory bulb]]s, etc.]]
* Against Galen's theory and many beliefs he also discovered that there was no hole in the [[septum]] or [[heart]].
=== Other achievements ===
* Vesalius disproved Galen's assertion that men have more teeth than women.<ref name=NPO>{{cite web|title=Vesalius was belangrijker dan Copernicus|url=http://nos.nl/artikel/2011283-vesalius-was-belangrijker-dan-copernicus.html|author=Lambert Teuwissen|publisher=[[Nederlandse Publieke Omroep (organization)|Nederlandse Publieke Omroep]]|language=nl|date=31 December 2014|access-date=5 February 2015}}</ref>
* Vesalius introduced the notion of induction of the extraction of [[empyema]] through surgical means.
* Due to his study of the human skull and the variations in its features he is said to have been responsible for the launch of the study of [[physical anthropology]].
* Vesalius always encouraged his students to check their findings, and even his own findings, so that they could better understand the structure of the human body.
* In addition to his continual efforts to study anatomy he also worked on medicinal remedies and came to such conclusions as treating [[syphilis]] with [[Smilax glabra|chinaroot]].
* Vesalius claimed that medicine had three aspects: drugs, diet, and 'the use of hands'—mainly suggesting surgery and the knowledge of anatomy and physiology gained through dissection.
* Vesalius was a supporter of 'parallel dissections' in which an animal cadaver and a human cadaver are dissected simultaneously in order to demonstrate the anatomical differences and thus correct Galenic errors.
== Scientific and historical impact ==
The influence of Vesalius' plates representing the partial dissections of the human figure posing in a landscape setting is apparent in the anatomical plates prepared by the Baroque painter [[Pietro da Cortona]] (1596–1669), who executed anatomical plates with figures in dramatic poses, most of them with architectural or landscape backdrops.<ref>''The Anatomical Plates of Pietro da Cortona'', Dover, New York, 1986. They were published in the 18th century. Twenty of the drawings for these plates are now in the Hunterian Library, Glasgow.</ref>
In 1844, botanists [[Martin Martens]] and [[Henri Guillaume Galeotti]] published ''[[Vesalea]]'', which is a plant [[genus]] in the honeysuckle family [[Caprifoliaceae]] and it was named in Vesalius's honour.<ref>{{cite book | last=Burkhardt | first=Lotte | title=Eine Enzyklopädie zu eponymischen Pflanzennamen |trans-title=Encyclopedia of eponymic plant names | publisher=Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum, Freie Universität Berlin | year=2022 | isbn=978-3-946292-41-8 | url=https://doi.org/10.3372/epolist2022|format=pdf |language=German |location=Berlin | doi=10.3372/epolist2022 | s2cid=246307410 |access-date=27 January 2022}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{wikiquote|Andreas Vesalius}}
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Androtomy]]
* ''[[Brain Renaissance]]''
* [[InVesalius]]
* [[Medical Renaissance]]
* [[Physician writer#16th century|Physician writer]]
* [[Timeline of medicine and medical technology]]
* [[Vesalius College]]
{{colend}}
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Sources ==
* Dear, Peter. ''Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500–1700''. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2001.
* Debus, Allen, ed. ''Vesalius''. ''Who's Who in the World of Science: From Antiquity to Present''. 1st ed. Hanibal: Western Co., 1968.
* {{Cite book |last=O'Malley |first=Charles Donald |url=https://archive.org/details/andresvesaliusof0000cdom |title=Andreas Vesalius of Brussels 1514-1564 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1964 |isbn=9780520310230 |language=en |url-access=registration}}
* Porter, Roy, ed. ''Vesalius''. ''The Biographical Dictionary of Scientists''. 2nd Ed. New York: Oxford University P, 1994.
* Saunders, JB de CM and O'Malley, Charles D. ''The Illustrations from the Works of Andreas Vesalius of Brussels''. New York: Dover, 1973 [reprint].
* "Vesalius." Encyclopedia Americana. 1992.
* Vesalius, Andreas. ''On the Fabric of the Human Body,'' translated by W. F. Richardson and J. B. Carman. 5 vols. San Francisco and Novato: Norman Publishing, 1998–2009. ''The Fabric of the human Body,'' Translated by Daniel H. Garrison and Malcolm H. Hast. Basel: Karger Publishing, 2013. Garrison, Daniel H. Vesalius: ''The China Root Epistle. A New Translation and Critical Edition.'' New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
* Williams, Trevor, ed. ''Vesalius''. ''A Biographical Dictionary of Scientists''. 3rd Ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1982.
==External links==
{{commons|Andreas Vesalius}}
* [http://www.bvh.univ-tours.fr/Consult/consult.asp?numtable=B372615206%5F47294&numfiche=56&mode=3&ecran=0&offset=155 Andreae Vesalii Bruxellensis, Dе humani corporis fabrica libri septem, Basileae 1543]
* [http://link.library.utoronto.ca/anatomia/ Anatomia 1522–1867: Anatomical Plates from the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library]
* [http://www.andreasvesalius.be Bibliography van Andreas Vesalius]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110606151807/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica/vesale.htm#vonseng Vesalius's « Anatomies » Introduction by Jacqueline Vons]
* [http://himetop.wikidot.com/andreas-vesalius Places and memories related to Andreas Vesalius]
* [https://archive.org/details/GalileoGalileivesaliusAndServetus Play on Vesalius]
* [http://vesalius.northwestern.edu/ Translating Vesalius]
* [http://images.is.ed.ac.uk/luna/servlet/UoEcha~4~4 Ars Anatomica collection at University of Edinburgh image service (includes Vesalius's ''De Humanis Corporis Fabrica'')]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100716134128/http://archive.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/flash/vesalius/vesalius.html ''Turning the Pages'']: a virtual copy of Vesalius's ''De Humanis Corporis Fabrica''. From the [[U.S. National Library of Medicine]].
* [http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-CCF-00046-00036/7 De humani corporis fabrica. Epitome] coloured and complete with manekin at [[Cambridge Digital Library]]
* Texts digitized by the [[Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de santé]]; see its digital library [https://web.archive.org/web/20141007025741/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica.htm Medic@].
* [http://hdl.handle.net/1808/6347 Vesalius four centuries later] by [[John Farquhar Fulton|John F. Fulton]]. Logan Clendening lecture on the history and philosophy of medicine, University of Kansas, 1950. Full-text PDF.
* Andreas Vesalius, [http://www.ospfe.it/per-la-formazione/biblioteca/progetto-vesalio/vesalius-project ''VESALIUS project''] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130218125951/http://www.ospfe.it/per-la-formazione/biblioteca/progetto-vesalio/vesalius-project |date=18 February 2013 }}. Information about the new DVD "De Humani Corporis Fabrica" produced by Health Science Library of the St. Anna Hospital in Ferrara – Italy.
* [http://www.vub.ac.be/VECO/bveco/ Vesalius College in Brussels] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609075919/http://www.vub.ac.be/VECO/bveco/ |date=9 June 2007 }}
* [http://www.brusselnieuws.be/en/video/tvbrussel/500th-birthday-andre-vesale-he-was-revolutionary-his-time-hes-still-very-much TV report on 500th birthday Vesalius by tvbrussel]
* [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/nat_hist/id/33346 ''De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem''] (1543) – full digital facsimile at [[Linda Hall Library]]
* [https://exhibits.lib.missouri.edu/exhibits/show/vesalius500 Vesalius at 500] – digital exhibition from the [[University of Missouri]] Libraries
* {{MathGenealogy|id=119178}}
{{History of biology}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Vesalius, Andreas}}
[[Category:1514 births]]
[[Category:1564 deaths]]
[[Category:Physicians from the Habsburg Netherlands]]
[[Category:16th-century writers in Latin]]
[[Category:History of anatomy]]
[[Category:History of neuroscience]]
[[Category:Old University of Leuven alumni]]
[[Category:University of Paris alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Padua]]
[[Category:Renaissance scientists]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Anatomist, physician and author (1514–1564)}}
{{For|the lunar impact crater|Vesalius (crater)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = ur mom
| image = Man dressed in Black by Calcar (Hermitage).jpg
| caption = Portrait by [[Jan van Calcar]]
| birth_name = Andries van Wezel
| birth_date = 31 December 1514
| birth_place = [[Brussels]], [[Habsburg Netherlands]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1564|10|15|1514|12|31}}
| death_place = [[Zakynthos]], [[Venetian Ionian Islands]]
| education = [[Old University of Leuven|University of Leuven]] ([[M.D.]], 1537)<br/>[[University of Paris]]
| thesis_title = Paraphrasis in nonum librum Rhazae medici Arabis clarissimi ad regem Almansorem, de affectuum singularum corporis partium curatione
| thesis_url = https://archive.org/details/paraphrasisinno00vesagoog/page/n1/mode/2up
| thesis_year = 1537
| academic_advisors = [[Johann Winter von Andernach]]<ref name="O'Malley">{{Cite book|title=Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514-1564 / [Charles Donald O'Malley].|url=https://wellcomecollection.org/works/ur9qz2wh|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223092027/https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt8779q730/|archive-date=23 February 2022|page=47|oclc=429258|publisher=University of California Press, 1964|access-date=23 February 2022|website=Wellcome Collection|language=en}}</ref><br/>[[Jacques Dubois]]<ref name="O'Malley" /><br/>[[Jean Fernel]]<ref name="O'Malley" />
| notable_students = [[John Caius]]<br>[[Realdo Colombo]]
| known_for = ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' (''On the Fabric of the Human Body'')
| field = [[Anatomy]]
| work_institutions = [[University of Padua]] (1537–1542)
}}
'''Andries van Wezel''' (31 December 1514 – 15 October 1564), [[Latinisation of names|latinised]] as '''Andreas Vesalius''' ({{IPAc-en|v|ɪ|ˈ|s|eɪ|l|i|ə|s}}),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vesalius {{!}} Dictionary.com|url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/vesalius|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223091222/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/vesalius|archive-date=23 February 2022|access-date=23 February 2022|website=www.dictionary.com|language=en}}</ref>{{Efn|It was a common practice among European scholars in his time to latinize their names. His name is also given as Andrea Vesalius, André Vésale, Andrea Vesalio, Andreas Vesal, Andrés Vesalio and Andre Vesale.}} was an [[anatomist]] and [[physician]] who wrote ''[[De humani corporis fabrica|De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem]]'' (''On the fabric of the human body'' ''in seven books''), what is considered to be one of the most influential books on [[human anatomy]] and a major advance over the long-dominant work of [[Galen]]. Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern [[human anatomy]]. He was born in [[Brussels]], which was then part of the [[Habsburg Netherlands]]. He was a professor at the [[University of Padua]] (1537–1542) and later became Imperial physician at the court of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles V]].
== Early life and education ==
Vesalius was born as Andries van Wesel to his father Anders van Wesel and mother Isabel Crabbe on 31 December 1514 in Brussels, which was then part of the [[Habsburg Netherlands]]. His great-grandfather, Jan van Wesel, probably born in [[Wesel]], received a medical degree from the [[University of Pavia]] and taught medicine at the [[Old University of Leuven|University of Leuven]]. His grandfather, Everard van Wesel, was the Royal Physician of [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Maximilian]], whilst his father, Anders van Wesel, served as [[apothecary]] to Maximilian and later [[valet de chambre]] to his successor, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]. Anders encouraged his son to continue in the family tradition and enrolled him in the [[Brethren of the Common Life]] in Brussels to learn Greek and Latin prior to learning medicine, according to standards of the era.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564|last=O'Malley|first=Charles Donald|author-link=Charles Donald O'Malley|publisher=Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964|pages=21–27}}</ref>
In 1528 Vesalius entered the University of Leuven (''Pedagogium Castrense'') taking arts, but when his father was appointed as the Valet de Chambre in 1532 he decided instead to pursue a career in medicine at the [[University of Paris]], where he moved in 1533. There he studied the theories of [[Galen]] under the auspices of [[Johann Winter von Andernach]], [[Jacques Dubois]] (Jacobus Sylvius) and [[Jean Fernel]]. It was during that time that he developed an interest in anatomy and was often found examining excavated bones in the [[charnel house]]s at the [[Cimetière des Innocents|Cemetery of the Innocents]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Gumpert |first=Martin |title=Vesalius |date=1948 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24945814 |journal=Scientific American |volume=178 |issue=5 |pages=24–31 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0548-24 |jstor=24945814 |issn=0036-8733}}</ref> He is said to have constructed his first skeleton by stealing from a [[Gibbeting|gibbet]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=McRae |first=Charles |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/24456/24456-h/24456-h.htm |title=Fathers of biology |publisher=PERCIVAL & CO. |year=1890 |location=London}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Andreas Vesalius and the Challenge to Galen {{!}} St John's College, University of Cambridge |url=https://www.joh.cam.ac.uk/library/andreas-vesalius-and-challenge-galen |access-date=7 January 2023 |website=www.joh.cam.ac.uk}}</ref>
Vesalius was forced to leave Paris in 1536 owing to the opening of hostilities between the Holy Roman Empire and France and returned to the University of Leuven. He completed his studies there and graduated the following year. His [[doctoral thesis]], ''Paraphrasis in nonum librum Rhazae medici Arabis clarissimi ad regem Almansorem, de affectuum singularum corporis partium curatione'', was a commentary on the ninth book of [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|Rhazes]].
== Medical career and accomplishments ==
On the day of his graduation he was immediately offered the chair of surgery and anatomy (''explicator chirurgiae'') at the [[University of Padua]]. He also guest-lectured at the [[University of Bologna]] and the [[University of Pisa]]. Prior to taking up his position in Padua, Vesalius traveled through Italy and assisted the future [[Pope Paul IV]] and [[Ignatius of Loyola]] to heal those afflicted by [[leprosy]]. In Venice he met the illustrator [[Jan van Calcar|Johan van Calcar]], a student of Titian. It was with van Calcar that Vesalius published his first anatomical text, ''Tabulae Anatomicae Sex'', in 1538.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thephysicianspalette.com/2014/12/01/vesalius-at-500/|title=Vesalius at 500|work=The Physician's Palette|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210143700/http://thephysicianspalette.com/2014/12/01/vesalius-at-500/|archive-date=10 December 2014}}</ref> Previously these topics had been taught primarily from reading classical texts, mainly [[Galen]], followed by an animal dissection by a barber–surgeon whose work was directed by the lecturer.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Gumpert |first=Martin |date=1948 |title=Vesalius: Discoverer of the Human Body |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24945814 |journal=Scientific American |volume=178 |issue=5 |pages=24–31 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0548-24 |jstor=24945814 |via=JSTOR}}</ref> No attempt was made to confirm Galen's claims, which were considered unassailable. Vesalius, in contrast, performed dissection as the primary teaching tool, handling the actual work himself and urging students to perform dissection themselves. He considered hands-on direct observation to be the only reliable resource.
Vesalius created detailed illustrations of anatomy for students in the form of six large woodcut posters. When he found that some of them were being widely copied, he published them all in 1538 under the title ''Tabulae anatomicae sex''. He followed this in 1539 with an updated version of Winter's anatomical handbook, ''Institutiones anatomicae.''
In 1539 he also published his ''Venesection Epistle'' on [[bloodletting]]. This was a popular treatment for almost any illness, but there was some debate about where to take the blood from. The classical Greek procedure, advocated by Galen, was to collect blood from a site near the location of the illness. However the Muslim and medieval practice was to draw a smaller amount of blood from a distant location. Vesalius' pamphlet generally supported Galen's view but with qualifications that rejected the infiltration of Galen.
In Bologna, Vesalius discovered that all of Galen's research was restricted to animals, since the tradition of Rome did not allow dissection of the human body.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=27 April 2021 |title=Comparative Anatomy: Andreas Vesalius - Understanding Evolution |url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-history-of-evolutionary-thought/pre-1800/comparative-anatomy-andreas-vesalius/ |access-date=7 January 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref> Galen had dissected [[Barbary macaque]]s instead, which he considered structurally closest to man. Even though Galen was a qualified examiner, his research produced many errors owing to the limited anatomical material available to him.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564|last=O'Malley|first=Charles Donald|publisher=Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964}}</ref> Vesalius contributed to the new Giunta edition of Galen's collected works and began to write his own anatomical text based on his own research. Until Vesalius pointed out Galen's substitution of animal for human anatomy, it had gone unnoticed and had long been the basis of studying human anatomy.<ref name=":4" />
Unlike Galen, Vesalius was able to procure a steady supply of human cadavers for dissection. In 1539, a judge at the Padua criminal court had been interested by Vesalius' work and had agreed to regularly supply him the cadavers of executed criminals.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />
Galen had assumed that arteries carried the purest blood to higher organs such as the brain and lungs from the left ventricle of the heart, while veins carried blood to the lesser organs such as the stomach from the right ventricle. In order for this theory to be correct, some kind of opening was needed to interconnect the ventricles, and Galen claimed to have found them. So paramount was Galen's authority that for 1400 years a succession of anatomists had claimed to find these holes, until Vesalius admitted he could not find them. Nonetheless, he did not venture to dispute Galen on the distribution of blood, being unable to offer any other solution, and so supposed that it diffused through the unbroken partition between the ventricles.<ref name="Corporation1872">{{cite journal|author=Bonnier Corporation|title=Popular Science|journal=The Popular Science Monthly|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_qR8DAAAAMBAJ|date=May 1872|publisher=Bonnier Corporation|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_qR8DAAAAMBAJ/page/n99 95]–100|issn=0161-7370}}</ref>
Other famous examples of Vesalius disproving Galen's assertions were his discoveries that the lower jaw ([[mandible]]) was composed of only one bone, not two (which Galen had assumed based on animal dissection) and that humans lack the [[rete mirabile]], a network of blood vessels at the base of the brain that is found in sheep and other [[ungulates]].
[[File:Skelett im Anatomischen Museum Basel - 4675.jpg|thumb|upright|The skeleton of Jakob Karrer, articulated by Vesalius in 1543]]
In 1543, Vesalius conducted a public dissection of the body of Jakob Karrer von Gebweiler, a notorious felon from the city of [[Basel]], [[Switzerland]]. He assembled and articulated the bones, finally donating the [[skeleton]] to the [[University of Basel]]. This preparation ("The Basel Skeleton") is Vesalius' only well-preserved skeletal preparation, and also the world's oldest surviving anatomical preparation. It is still displayed at the Anatomical Museum of the [[University of Basel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vhsbb.ch/asp/pdf/senuni_07021213_zf_kurz.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=10 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927043755/http://www.vhsbb.ch/asp/pdf/senuni_07021213_zf_kurz.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2007 }}</ref>
In the same year Vesalius took residence in Basel to help [[Johannes Oporinus]] publish the seven-volume ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' (''On the fabric of the human body''), a groundbreaking work of [[human anatomy]] that he dedicated to Charles V. Many believe it was illustrated by [[Titian]]'s pupil [[Jan Van Calcar|Jan Stephen van Calcar]], but evidence is lacking, and it is unlikely that a single artist created all 273 illustrations in a period of time so short. At about the same time he published an abridged edition for students, ''Andrea Vesalii suorum de humani corporis fabrica librorum epitome'', and dedicated it to [[Philip II of Spain]], the son of the Emperor. That work, now collectively referred to as the [[De humani corporis fabrica|Fabrica of Vesalius]], was groundbreaking in the history of medical publishing and is considered to be a major step in the development of scientific medicine. Because of this, it marks the establishment of anatomy as a modern descriptive science.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Harcourt|first=Glenn|date=1 January 1987|title=Andreas Vesalius and the Anatomy of Antique Sculpture|journal=Representations|language=en|volume=17|issue=17|pages=28–61|doi=10.2307/3043792|issn=0734-6018|jstor=3043792|pmid=11618035}}</ref>
Though Vesalius' work was not the first such work based on actual dissection, nor even the first work of this era, the production quality, highly detailed and intricate plates, and the likelihood that the artists who produced it were clearly present in person at the dissections made it an instant classic. Pirated editions were available almost immediately, an event Vesalius acknowledged in a printer's note would happen. Vesalius was 28 years old when the first edition of ''Fabrica'' was published.
== Imperial physician and death ==
[[File:Titian - Portrait of Charles V Seated - WGA22964.jpg|thumb|upright|The Holy Roman Emperor, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], who was an important patron of Vesalius]]
Soon after publication, Vesalius was invited to become imperial physician to the court of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles V]]. He informed the [[Venetian Senate]] that he would leave his post at Padua, which prompted [[Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany|Duke Cosimo I de' Medici]] to invite him to move to the expanding university in Pisa, which he declined. Vesalius took up the offered position in the imperial court, where he had to deal with other physicians who mocked him for being a mere [[barber surgeon]] instead of an academic working on the respected basis of theory.
In the 1540s, shortly after entering in service of the emperor, Vesalius married Anne van Hamme, from Vilvorde, Belgium. They had one daughter, named Anne, who died in 1588.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564|last=O'Malley|first=Charles Donald|publisher=Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964|pages=203, 314}}</ref>
Over the next eleven years Vesalius traveled with the court, treating injuries caused in battle or tournaments, performing postmortems, administering medication, and writing private letters addressing specific medical questions. During these years he also wrote ''the Epistle on the China root'', a short text on the properties of a medical plant whose efficacy he doubted, as well as a defense of his anatomical findings. This elicited a new round of attacks on his work that called for him to be punished by the emperor. In 1551, Charles V commissioned an inquiry in [[Salamanca]] to investigate the religious implications of his methods. Although Vesalius' work was cleared by the board, the attacks continued. Four years later one of his main detractors and one-time professors, Jacobus Sylvius, published an article that claimed that the human body itself had changed since Galen had studied it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Montagu |first=M. F. Ashley |date=1955 |title=Vesalius and the Galenists |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20970 |journal=The Scientific Monthly |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=230–239 |jstor=20970 |issn=0096-3771}}</ref>
In 1555, Vesalius became physician to Philip II,<ref name=":2">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/vesalius_andreas.shtml|title=Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)|publisher=BBC History|accessdate=14 March 2022}}</ref> and in the same year he published a revised edition of ''De humani corporis fabrica''.
In 1564 Vesalius went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, some said, in penance after being accused of dissecting a living body. He sailed with the Venetian fleet under [[:it:Giacomo Malatesta|James Malatesta]] via [[Cyprus]]. When he reached [[Jerusalem]] he received a message from the Venetian senate requesting him again to accept the Paduan professorship, which had become vacant on the death of contemporary [[Gabriele Falloppio|Fallopius]].
After struggling for many days with adverse winds in the [[Ionian Sea]], he was shipwrecked on the island of [[Zakynthos]].<ref name=NPO/> Here he soon died, in such debt that a benefactor kindly paid for his funeral. At the time of his death he was 49 years old. He was buried somewhere on the island of Zakynthos (Zante).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564|last=O'Malley|first=Charles Donald|publisher=Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964|pages=311}}</ref>
For some time, it was assumed that Vesalius's pilgrimage was due to the pressures imposed on him by the [[Inquisition]]. Today, this assumption is generally considered to be without foundation<ref>See C.D. O'Malley ''Andreas Vesalius' Pilgrimage'', Isis 45:2, 1954</ref> and is dismissed by modern biographers. It appears the story was spread by [[Hubert Languet]], a diplomat under Emperor Charles V and then under the [[Prince of Orange]], who claimed in 1565 that Vesalius had performed an autopsy on an aristocrat in Spain while the heart was still beating, leading to the Inquisition's condemning him to death. The story went on to claim that Philip II had the sentence commuted to a pilgrimage. That story re-surfaced several times, until it was more recently revised.
The decision to undertake the pilgrimage was likely just a pretext to leave the Spanish court. Its lifestyle did not please him and he longed to continue his research. Given that he could not get rid of his royal service by resignation, he managed to escape asking for the permission to go to Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Malley |first=C. Donald |title=Andreas Vesalius' Pilgrimage |magazine=Isis |volume=45/2 |date=1 January 1954 |pages=138–144}}</ref>
== Publications ==
=== ''De Humani Corporis Fabrica'' ===
[[File:Vesalius Fabrica portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A portrait of Vesalius from his ''De Humani Corporis Fabrica'' (1543)]]
{{main|De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem}}
In 1543, Vesalius asked [[Johannes Oporinus]] to publish the book ''[[De humani corporis fabrica|De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem]]'' (''On the fabric of the human body'' ''in seven books''), a groundbreaking work of [[human anatomy]] he dedicated to Charles V and which many believe was illustrated by [[Titian]]'s pupil [[Jan Van Calcar|Jan Stephen van Calcar]].
About the same time he published another version of his great work, entitled ''De Humani Corporis Fabrica Librorum Epitome'' (''Abridgement of the On the fabric of the human body'') more commonly known as the ''Epitome'', with a stronger focus on illustrations than on text, so as to help readers, including medical students, to easily understand his findings. The actual text of the ''Epitome'' was an abridged form of his work in the ''Fabrica'', and the organization of the two books was quite varied. He dedicated it to [[Philip II of Spain]], son of the Emperor.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kusukawa|first1=Sachiko|title=De humani corporis fabrica. Epitome|url=http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-CCF-00046-00036|publisher=Cambridge Digital Library|access-date=3 July 2014}}</ref>
The ''Fabrica'' emphasized the priority of dissection and what has come to be called the "[[anatomical]]" view of the body, seeing human internal functioning as a result of an essentially corporeal structure filled with organs arranged in three-dimensional space. His book contains drawings of several organs on two leaves. This allows for the creation of three-dimensional diagrams by cutting out the organs and pasting them on flayed figures.<ref name=":0" /> This was in stark contrast to many of the anatomical models used previously, which had strong Galenic/Aristotelean elements, as well as elements of [[astrology]]. Although modern anatomical texts had been published by [[Mondino de Liuzzi|Mondino]] and [[Jacopo Berengario da Carpi|Berenger]], much of their work was clouded by reverence for Galen and Arabian doctrines.
[[File:Vesalius Fabrica p190.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Vesalius's ''Fabrica'' contained many intricately detailed drawings of human dissections, often in allegorical poses.]]
Besides the first good description of the [[sphenoid bone]], he showed that the [[Human sternum|sternum]] consists of three portions and the [[sacrum]] of five or six, and described accurately the [[vestibule of the ear|vestibule]] in the interior of the [[temporal bone]]. He not only verified [[Charles Estienne|Estienne]]'s observations on the valves of the [[hepatic veins]], but also described the [[vena azygos]], and discovered the canal which passes in the fetus between the umbilical vein and the vena cava, since named the [[ductus venosus]]. He described the [[greater omentum|omentum]] and its connections with the stomach, the [[spleen]] and the [[colon (anatomy)|colon]]; gave the first correct views of the structure of the [[pylorus]]; observed the small size of the caecal appendix in man; gave the first good account of the [[mediastinum]] and [[pleura]] and the fullest description of the anatomy of the brain up to that time. He did not understand the inferior recesses, and his account of the nerves is confused by regarding the optic as the first pair, the third as the fifth, and the fifth as the seventh.
In this work, Vesalius also becomes the first person to describe [[mechanical ventilation]].<ref name="Resuscitation">Vallejo-Manzur F. et al. (2003) "The resuscitation greats. Andreas Vesalius, the concept of an artificial airway." "Resuscitation" 56:3–7</ref> It is largely this achievement that has resulted in Vesalius being incorporated into the [[Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists]] college arms and crest.
==== Excerpts ====
<blockquote>When I undertake the dissection of a human pelvis I pass a stout rope tied like a noose beneath the lower jaw and through the [[Zygomatic arch|zygomas]] up to the top of the head... The lower end of the noose I run through a pulley fixed to a beam in the room so that I may raise or lower the cadaver as it hangs there or turn around in any direction to suit my purpose; ... You must take care not to put the noose around the neck, unless some of the muscles connected to the [[occipital bone]] have already been cut away.<ref>Andreas Vesalius, ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' (1544), Book II, Ch. 24, 268. Trans. William Frank Rich son, ''On the Fabric of the Human Body'' (1999), Book II, 234. As quoted by W. F. Bynum & Roy Porter (2005), ''Oxford Dictionary of Scientific Quotations'': ''Andreas Vesalius'', 595:2, {{ISBN|0-19-858409-1}}.
</ref></blockquote>
<gallery class="center" heights="200px" perrow="5">
File:Vesalius Fabrica p174.jpg
File:Vesalius Fabrica p194.jpg
File:De humani corporis fabrica (27).jpg
File:Vesalius Fabrica p178.jpg
</gallery>
=== Other publications ===
In 1538, Vesalius wrote ''Epistola, docens venam axillarem dextri cubiti in dolore laterali secandam'' (''A letter, teaching that in cases of pain in the side, the axillary vein of the right elbow be cut''), commonly known as the Venesection Letter, which demonstrated a revived [[venesection]], a classical procedure in which blood was drawn near the site of the ailment. He sought to locate the precise site for venesection in [[pleurisy]] within the framework of the classical method. The real significance of the book is his attempt to support his arguments by the location and continuity of the [[venous system]] from his observations rather than appeal to earlier published works. With this novel approach to the problem of venesection, Vesalius posed the then striking hypothesis that anatomical dissection might be used to test speculation.
In 1546, three years after the ''Fabrica'', he wrote his ''Epistola rationem modumque propinandi radicis Chynae decocti'', commonly known as the Epistle on the China Root. Ostensibly an appraisal of a popular but ineffective treatment for gout, syphilis, and [[calculus (medicine)|stones]], this work is especially important as a continued polemic against Galenism and a reply to critics in the camp of his former professor Jacobus Sylvius, now an obsessive detractor.
In February 1561, Vesalius was given a copy of Gabriele Fallopio's ''Observationes anatomicae'', friendly additions and corrections to the Fabrica. Before the end of the year Vesalius composed a cordial reply, ''Anatomicarum Gabrielis Fallopii observationum examen'', generally referred to as the ''Examen''. In this work he recognizes in Fallopio a true equal in the science of dissection he had done so much to create. Vesalius' reply to Fallopio was published in May 1564, a month after Vesalius' death on the Greek island of [[Zante]] (now called [[Zakynthos]]).
== Scientific findings ==
=== Skeletal system ===
[[File:Andreas Vesalius-Pierre Poncet.jpg|thumb|Andreas Vesalius by Pierre Poncet (1574-1640)]]
* Vesalius believed the [[skeletal system]] to be the framework of the human body. It was in this opening chapter or book of [[De humani corporis fabrica|''De fabrica'']] that Vesalius made several of his strongest claims against [[Galen|Galen's]] theories and writings which he had put in his anatomy books. In his extensive study of the skull, Vesalius claimed that the [[Human mandible|mandible]] consisted of one bone, whereas Galen had thought it to be two separate bones. He accurately described the [[Vestibule of the ear|vestibule]] in the interior of the [[temporal bone]] of the skull.
* In [[Galen|Galen's]] observation of the ape, he had discovered that their [[sternum]] consisted of seven parts which he assumed also held true for humans. Vesalius discovered that the [[human sternum]] consisted of only three parts.
* He also disproved the common belief that men had one rib fewer than women and noted that the [[fibula]] and [[tibia]] bones of the leg were indeed larger than the [[humerus]] bone of the arm, unlike [[Galen]]'s original findings.
=== Muscular system ===
* One of Vesalius' contributions to the study of the [[muscular system]] is the illustrations that accompany the text in ''De fabrica'', which would become known as the "muscle men". He describes the source and position of each muscle of the body and provides information on their respective operation.
=== Vascular and circulatory systems ===
* Vesalius' work on the [[vascular]] and [[circulatory system]]s was his greatest contribution to modern medicine. In his dissections of the heart, Vesalius became convinced that Galen's claims of a porous [[interventricular septum]] were false. This fact was previously described by [[Michael Servetus]], a fellow of Vesalius, but never reached the public, for it was written down in the "Manuscript of Paris",<ref>[http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html Michael Servetus Research] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113223851/http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html |date=13 November 2012 }} Website with graphical study on the Manuscript of Paris by Servetus</ref> in 1546, and published later in his ''Christianismi Restitutio'' (1553), a book regarded as heretical by the [[Inquisition]]. Only three copies survived, but these remained hidden for decades, the rest having been burned shortly after publication. In the second edition Vesalius published that the septum was indeed waterproof, discovering (and naming), the [[mitral valve]] to explain the blood flow.
* Vesalius believed that [[systole (medicine)|cardiac systole]] is synchronous with the [[Pulse (anatomy)|arterial pulse]].
* He not only verified [[Charles Estienne|Estienne's]] findings on the valves of the [[hepatic veins]], but also described the [[azygos vein]], and discovered the canal which passes into the fetus between the [[umbilical vein]] and [[vena cava]].
=== Nervous system ===
* Vesalius defined a nerve as the mode of transmitting sensation and motion and thus refuted his contemporaries' claims that [[ligament]]s, [[tendon]]s and [[aponeuroses]] were three types of nerve units.
* He believed that the brain and the nervous system are the center of the mind and emotion in contrast to the common [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] belief that the heart was the center of the body. He correspondingly believed that nerves themselves do not originate from the heart, but from the brain—facts already experimentally proved by [[Herophilus]] and [[Erasistratus]] in the classical era, but suppressed after the adoption of Aristotelianism by the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages.
* Upon studying the [[optic nerve]], Vesalius came to the conclusion that nerves were not hollow.
=== Abdominal organs ===
* In ''De fabrica'', he corrected an earlier claim he made in ''Tabulae'' about the right kidney being set higher than the left. Vesalius claimed that the kidneys were not a filter device for urine to pass through, but rather that the kidneys serve to filter blood as well, and that excretions from the kidneys travelled through the [[ureters]] to the bladder.
* He described the [[Greater omentum|omentum]], and its connections with the stomach, the spleen and the colon gave the first correct views of the structure of the [[pylorus]].
* He also observed the small size of the [[Appendix (human)|caecal appendix]] in man and gave the first good account of the [[mediastinum]] and [[pleura]].
* Vesalius admitted that due to a lack of pregnant cadavers he was unable to come to a significant understanding of the reproductive organs. However, he did find that the uterus had been falsely identified as having two distinct sections.
=== Heart ===
* Through his work with muscles, Vesalius believed that a criterion for muscles was their voluntary motion. On this claim, he deduced that the heart was not a true muscle due to the obvious involuntary nature of its motion.
* He identified two chambers and two atria. The [[right atrium]] was considered a continuation of the [[Inferior vena cava|inferior]] and [[Superior vena cava|superior]] [[venae cavae]], and the [[left atrium]] was considered a continuation of the [[pulmonary vein]].
* He also addressed the controversial issue of the heart being the centre of the soul. He wished to avoid drawing any conclusions due to possible conflict with contemporary religious beliefs.[[File:1543, Andreas Vesalius' Fabrica, Base Of The Brain.jpg|thumb|Base of the [[Human brain|brain]], showing the [[optic chiasm]]a, [[cerebellum]], [[olfactory bulb]]s, etc.]]
* Against Galen's theory and many beliefs he also discovered that there was no hole in the [[septum]] or [[heart]].
=== Other achievements ===
* Vesalius disproved Galen's assertion that men have more teeth than women.<ref name=NPO>{{cite web|title=Vesalius was belangrijker dan Copernicus|url=http://nos.nl/artikel/2011283-vesalius-was-belangrijker-dan-copernicus.html|author=Lambert Teuwissen|publisher=[[Nederlandse Publieke Omroep (organization)|Nederlandse Publieke Omroep]]|language=nl|date=31 December 2014|access-date=5 February 2015}}</ref>
* Vesalius introduced the notion of induction of the extraction of [[empyema]] through surgical means.
* Due to his study of the human skull and the variations in its features he is said to have been responsible for the launch of the study of [[physical anthropology]].
* Vesalius always encouraged his students to check their findings, and even his own findings, so that they could better understand the structure of the human body.
* In addition to his continual efforts to study anatomy he also worked on medicinal remedies and came to such conclusions as treating [[syphilis]] with [[Smilax glabra|chinaroot]].
* Vesalius claimed that medicine had three aspects: drugs, diet, and 'the use of hands'—mainly suggesting surgery and the knowledge of anatomy and physiology gained through dissection.
* Vesalius was a supporter of 'parallel dissections' in which an animal cadaver and a human cadaver are dissected simultaneously in order to demonstrate the anatomical differences and thus correct Galenic errors.
== Scientific and historical impact ==
The influence of Vesalius' plates representing the partial dissections of the human figure posing in a landscape setting is apparent in the anatomical plates prepared by the Baroque painter [[Pietro da Cortona]] (1596–1669), who executed anatomical plates with figures in dramatic poses, most of them with architectural or landscape backdrops.<ref>''The Anatomical Plates of Pietro da Cortona'', Dover, New York, 1986. They were published in the 18th century. Twenty of the drawings for these plates are now in the Hunterian Library, Glasgow.</ref>
In 1844, botanists [[Martin Martens]] and [[Henri Guillaume Galeotti]] published ''[[Vesalea]]'', which is a plant [[genus]] in the honeysuckle family [[Caprifoliaceae]] and it was named in Vesalius's honour.<ref>{{cite book | last=Burkhardt | first=Lotte | title=Eine Enzyklopädie zu eponymischen Pflanzennamen |trans-title=Encyclopedia of eponymic plant names | publisher=Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum, Freie Universität Berlin | year=2022 | isbn=978-3-946292-41-8 | url=https://doi.org/10.3372/epolist2022|format=pdf |language=German |location=Berlin | doi=10.3372/epolist2022 | s2cid=246307410 |access-date=27 January 2022}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{wikiquote|Andreas Vesalius}}
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Androtomy]]
* ''[[Brain Renaissance]]''
* [[InVesalius]]
* [[Medical Renaissance]]
* [[Physician writer#16th century|Physician writer]]
* [[Timeline of medicine and medical technology]]
* [[Vesalius College]]
{{colend}}
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Sources ==
* Dear, Peter. ''Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500–1700''. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2001.
* Debus, Allen, ed. ''Vesalius''. ''Who's Who in the World of Science: From Antiquity to Present''. 1st ed. Hanibal: Western Co., 1968.
* {{Cite book |last=O'Malley |first=Charles Donald |url=https://archive.org/details/andresvesaliusof0000cdom |title=Andreas Vesalius of Brussels 1514-1564 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1964 |isbn=9780520310230 |language=en |url-access=registration}}
* Porter, Roy, ed. ''Vesalius''. ''The Biographical Dictionary of Scientists''. 2nd Ed. New York: Oxford University P, 1994.
* Saunders, JB de CM and O'Malley, Charles D. ''The Illustrations from the Works of Andreas Vesalius of Brussels''. New York: Dover, 1973 [reprint].
* "Vesalius." Encyclopedia Americana. 1992.
* Vesalius, Andreas. ''On the Fabric of the Human Body,'' translated by W. F. Richardson and J. B. Carman. 5 vols. San Francisco and Novato: Norman Publishing, 1998–2009. ''The Fabric of the human Body,'' Translated by Daniel H. Garrison and Malcolm H. Hast. Basel: Karger Publishing, 2013. Garrison, Daniel H. Vesalius: ''The China Root Epistle. A New Translation and Critical Edition.'' New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
* Williams, Trevor, ed. ''Vesalius''. ''A Biographical Dictionary of Scientists''. 3rd Ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1982.
==External links==
{{commons|Andreas Vesalius}}
* [http://www.bvh.univ-tours.fr/Consult/consult.asp?numtable=B372615206%5F47294&numfiche=56&mode=3&ecran=0&offset=155 Andreae Vesalii Bruxellensis, Dе humani corporis fabrica libri septem, Basileae 1543]
* [http://link.library.utoronto.ca/anatomia/ Anatomia 1522–1867: Anatomical Plates from the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library]
* [http://www.andreasvesalius.be Bibliography van Andreas Vesalius]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110606151807/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica/vesale.htm#vonseng Vesalius's « Anatomies » Introduction by Jacqueline Vons]
* [http://himetop.wikidot.com/andreas-vesalius Places and memories related to Andreas Vesalius]
* [https://archive.org/details/GalileoGalileivesaliusAndServetus Play on Vesalius]
* [http://vesalius.northwestern.edu/ Translating Vesalius]
* [http://images.is.ed.ac.uk/luna/servlet/UoEcha~4~4 Ars Anatomica collection at University of Edinburgh image service (includes Vesalius's ''De Humanis Corporis Fabrica'')]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100716134128/http://archive.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/flash/vesalius/vesalius.html ''Turning the Pages'']: a virtual copy of Vesalius's ''De Humanis Corporis Fabrica''. From the [[U.S. National Library of Medicine]].
* [http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-CCF-00046-00036/7 De humani corporis fabrica. Epitome] coloured and complete with manekin at [[Cambridge Digital Library]]
* Texts digitized by the [[Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de santé]]; see its digital library [https://web.archive.org/web/20141007025741/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica.htm Medic@].
* [http://hdl.handle.net/1808/6347 Vesalius four centuries later] by [[John Farquhar Fulton|John F. Fulton]]. Logan Clendening lecture on the history and philosophy of medicine, University of Kansas, 1950. Full-text PDF.
* Andreas Vesalius, [http://www.ospfe.it/per-la-formazione/biblioteca/progetto-vesalio/vesalius-project ''VESALIUS project''] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130218125951/http://www.ospfe.it/per-la-formazione/biblioteca/progetto-vesalio/vesalius-project |date=18 February 2013 }}. Information about the new DVD "De Humani Corporis Fabrica" produced by Health Science Library of the St. Anna Hospital in Ferrara – Italy.
* [http://www.vub.ac.be/VECO/bveco/ Vesalius College in Brussels] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609075919/http://www.vub.ac.be/VECO/bveco/ |date=9 June 2007 }}
* [http://www.brusselnieuws.be/en/video/tvbrussel/500th-birthday-andre-vesale-he-was-revolutionary-his-time-hes-still-very-much TV report on 500th birthday Vesalius by tvbrussel]
* [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/nat_hist/id/33346 ''De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem''] (1543) – full digital facsimile at [[Linda Hall Library]]
* [https://exhibits.lib.missouri.edu/exhibits/show/vesalius500 Vesalius at 500] – digital exhibition from the [[University of Missouri]] Libraries
* {{MathGenealogy|id=119178}}
{{History of biology}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Vesalius, Andreas}}
[[Category:1514 births]]
[[Category:1564 deaths]]
[[Category:Physicians from the Habsburg Netherlands]]
[[Category:16th-century writers in Latin]]
[[Category:History of anatomy]]
[[Category:History of neuroscience]]
[[Category:Old University of Leuven alumni]]
[[Category:University of Paris alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Padua]]
[[Category:Renaissance scientists]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -3,5 +3,5 @@
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox scientist
-| name = Andreas Vesalius
+| name = ur mom
| image = Man dressed in Black by Calcar (Hermitage).jpg
| caption = Portrait by [[Jan van Calcar]]
' |
New page size (new_size) | 40096 |
Old page size (old_size) | 40106 |
Size change in edit (edit_delta) | -10 |
Lines added in edit (added_lines) | [
0 => '| name = ur mom'
] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => '| name = Andreas Vesalius'
] |
All external links added in the edit (added_links) | [] |
All external links removed in the edit (removed_links) | [] |
All external links in the new text (all_links) | [
0 => 'https://wellcomecollection.org/works/ur9qz2wh',
1 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/429258',
2 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20220223092027/https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt8779q730/',
3 => 'https://www.dictionary.com/browse/vesalius',
4 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20220223091222/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/vesalius',
5 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/24945814',
6 => 'https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0548-24',
7 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8733',
8 => 'https://www.gutenberg.org/files/24456/24456-h/24456-h.htm',
9 => 'https://www.joh.cam.ac.uk/library/andreas-vesalius-and-challenge-galen',
10 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20141210143700/http://thephysicianspalette.com/2014/12/01/vesalius-at-500/',
11 => 'http://thephysicianspalette.com/2014/12/01/vesalius-at-500/',
12 => 'http://www.jstor.org/stable/24945814',
13 => 'https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-history-of-evolutionary-thought/pre-1800/comparative-anatomy-andreas-vesalius/',
14 => 'https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/vesalius_andreas.shtml',
15 => 'https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_qR8DAAAAMBAJ',
16 => 'https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_qR8DAAAAMBAJ/page/n99',
17 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0161-7370',
18 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20070927043755/http://www.vhsbb.ch/asp/pdf/senuni_07021213_zf_kurz.pdf',
19 => 'http://www.vhsbb.ch/asp/pdf/senuni_07021213_zf_kurz.pdf',
20 => 'https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3043792',
21 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0734-6018',
22 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/3043792',
23 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11618035',
24 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/20970',
25 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3771',
26 => 'http://nos.nl/artikel/2011283-vesalius-was-belangrijker-dan-copernicus.html',
27 => 'http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-CCF-00046-00036',
28 => 'http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html',
29 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20121113223851/http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html',
30 => 'https://doi.org/10.3372/epolist2022',
31 => 'https://doi.org/10.3372%2Fepolist2022',
32 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246307410',
33 => 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170267#identifiers',
34 => 'https://archive.org/details/paraphrasisinno00vesagoog/page/n1/mode/2up',
35 => 'https://archive.org/details/andresvesaliusof0000cdom',
36 => 'http://www.bvh.univ-tours.fr/Consult/consult.asp?numtable=B372615206_47294&numfiche=56&mode=3&ecran=0&offset=155',
37 => 'http://link.library.utoronto.ca/anatomia/',
38 => 'http://www.andreasvesalius.be/',
39 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20110606151807/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica/vesale.htm#vonseng',
40 => 'http://himetop.wikidot.com/andreas-vesalius',
41 => 'https://archive.org/details/GalileoGalileivesaliusAndServetus',
42 => 'http://vesalius.northwestern.edu/',
43 => 'http://images.is.ed.ac.uk/luna/servlet/UoEcha~4~4',
44 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20100716134128/http://archive.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/flash/vesalius/vesalius.html',
45 => 'http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-CCF-00046-00036/7',
46 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20141007025741/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica.htm',
47 => 'http://hdl.handle.net/1808/6347',
48 => 'http://www.ospfe.it/per-la-formazione/biblioteca/progetto-vesalio/vesalius-project',
49 => 'https://archive.today/20130218125951/http://www.ospfe.it/per-la-formazione/biblioteca/progetto-vesalio/vesalius-project',
50 => 'http://www.vub.ac.be/VECO/bveco/',
51 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20070609075919/http://www.vub.ac.be/VECO/bveco/',
52 => 'http://www.brusselnieuws.be/en/video/tvbrussel/500th-birthday-andre-vesale-he-was-revolutionary-his-time-hes-still-very-much',
53 => 'http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/nat_hist/id/33346',
54 => 'https://exhibits.lib.missouri.edu/exhibits/show/vesalius500',
55 => 'https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=119178',
56 => 'http://id.worldcat.org/fast/70269/',
57 => 'https://isni.org/isni/0000000121326681',
58 => 'https://viaf.org/viaf/51696979',
59 => 'https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90210192',
60 => 'http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000587112',
61 => 'http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX924825',
62 => 'https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119280900',
63 => 'https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119280900',
64 => 'https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058521768106706',
65 => 'https://d-nb.info/gnd/118768204',
66 => 'https://opac.sbn.it/nome/BVEV026780',
67 => 'http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007269684105171',
68 => 'https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14154618',
69 => 'https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n81035178',
70 => 'https://libris.kb.se/b8nqmjjv4d5ksv0',
71 => 'https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00476588',
72 => 'https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn19990008772&CON_LNG=ENG',
73 => 'https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35580728',
74 => 'https://data.nlg.gr/resource/authority/record114750',
75 => 'http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000614720&local_base=nsk10',
76 => 'http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068354002',
77 => 'https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810573087805606',
78 => 'http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/1384337',
79 => 'https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/32702',
80 => 'https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA03852346?l=en',
81 => 'https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=119178',
82 => 'https://www.aucklandartgallery.com/explore-art-and-ideas/artist/1864/',
83 => 'https://musicbrainz.org/artist/4d999ab7-9129-4d96-9fca-1811a77a96a0',
84 => 'https://rkd.nl/en/explore/artists/420317',
85 => 'https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500327607',
86 => 'http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/70505433',
87 => 'http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/33045609',
88 => 'https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118768204.html?language=en',
89 => 'https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1002826',
90 => 'https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/014681',
91 => 'https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w62c0b5m',
92 => 'https://www.idref.fr/027182630'
] |
Links in the page, before the edit (old_links) | [
0 => 'http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-CCF-00046-00036',
1 => 'http://nos.nl/artikel/2011283-vesalius-was-belangrijker-dan-copernicus.html',
2 => 'http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html',
3 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20070927043755/http://www.vhsbb.ch/asp/pdf/senuni_07021213_zf_kurz.pdf',
4 => 'http://www.vhsbb.ch/asp/pdf/senuni_07021213_zf_kurz.pdf',
5 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20141210143700/http://thephysicianspalette.com/2014/12/01/vesalius-at-500/',
6 => 'https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_qR8DAAAAMBAJ',
7 => 'https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_qR8DAAAAMBAJ/page/n99',
8 => 'http://thephysicianspalette.com/2014/12/01/vesalius-at-500/',
9 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20121113223851/http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html',
10 => 'https://wellcomecollection.org/works/ur9qz2wh',
11 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20220223092027/https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt8779q730/',
12 => 'https://archive.org/details/paraphrasisinno00vesagoog/page/n1/mode/2up',
13 => 'https://doi.org/10.3372/epolist2022',
14 => 'https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-history-of-evolutionary-thought/pre-1800/comparative-anatomy-andreas-vesalius/',
15 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246307410',
16 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/24945814',
17 => 'https://www.gutenberg.org/files/24456/24456-h/24456-h.htm',
18 => 'https://www.joh.cam.ac.uk/library/andreas-vesalius-and-challenge-galen',
19 => 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170267#identifiers',
20 => 'http://www.bvh.univ-tours.fr/Consult/consult.asp?numtable=B372615206_47294&numfiche=56&mode=3&ecran=0&offset=155',
21 => 'http://link.library.utoronto.ca/anatomia/',
22 => 'http://www.andreasvesalius.be/',
23 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20110606151807/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica/vesale.htm#vonseng',
24 => 'http://himetop.wikidot.com/andreas-vesalius',
25 => 'https://archive.org/details/GalileoGalileivesaliusAndServetus',
26 => 'http://vesalius.northwestern.edu/',
27 => 'http://images.is.ed.ac.uk/luna/servlet/UoEcha~4~4',
28 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20100716134128/http://archive.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/flash/vesalius/vesalius.html',
29 => 'http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-CCF-00046-00036/7',
30 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20141007025741/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica.htm',
31 => 'http://hdl.handle.net/1808/6347',
32 => 'http://www.ospfe.it/per-la-formazione/biblioteca/progetto-vesalio/vesalius-project',
33 => 'http://www.vub.ac.be/VECO/bveco/',
34 => 'http://www.brusselnieuws.be/en/video/tvbrussel/500th-birthday-andre-vesale-he-was-revolutionary-his-time-hes-still-very-much',
35 => 'http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/nat_hist/id/33346',
36 => 'https://exhibits.lib.missouri.edu/exhibits/show/vesalius500',
37 => 'https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=119178',
38 => 'https://isni.org/isni/0000000121326681',
39 => 'https://viaf.org/viaf/51696979',
40 => 'https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90210192',
41 => 'http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000587112',
42 => 'http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX924825',
43 => 'https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119280900',
44 => 'https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119280900',
45 => 'https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058521768106706',
46 => 'https://d-nb.info/gnd/118768204',
47 => 'https://opac.sbn.it/nome/BVEV026780',
48 => 'https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00476588',
49 => 'https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn19990008772&CON_LNG=ENG',
50 => 'https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35580728',
51 => 'https://data.nlg.gr/resource/authority/record114750',
52 => 'http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000614720&local_base=nsk10',
53 => 'http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068354002',
54 => 'https://www.aucklandartgallery.com/explore-art-and-ideas/artist/1864/',
55 => 'https://rkd.nl/en/explore/artists/420317',
56 => 'https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500327607',
57 => 'http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/70505433',
58 => 'http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/33045609',
59 => 'https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118768204.html?language=en',
60 => 'https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA03852346?l=en',
61 => 'https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=119178',
62 => 'http://id.worldcat.org/fast/70269/',
63 => 'https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/014681',
64 => 'https://musicbrainz.org/artist/4d999ab7-9129-4d96-9fca-1811a77a96a0',
65 => 'https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w62c0b5m',
66 => 'https://www.idref.fr/027182630',
67 => 'https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1002826',
68 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/429258',
69 => 'https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0548-24',
70 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8733',
71 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0161-7370',
72 => 'https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3043792',
73 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0734-6018',
74 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/3043792',
75 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11618035',
76 => 'https://doi.org/10.3372%2Fepolist2022',
77 => 'https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/32702',
78 => 'https://www.dictionary.com/browse/vesalius',
79 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20220223091222/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/vesalius',
80 => 'https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14154618',
81 => 'https://libris.kb.se/b8nqmjjv4d5ksv0',
82 => 'http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/1384337',
83 => 'https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/vesalius_andreas.shtml',
84 => 'https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n81035178',
85 => 'https://archive.org/details/andresvesaliusof0000cdom',
86 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20070609075919/http://www.vub.ac.be/VECO/bveco/',
87 => 'http://www.jstor.org/stable/24945814',
88 => 'https://www.jstor.org/stable/20970',
89 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3771',
90 => 'https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810573087805606',
91 => 'http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007269684105171',
92 => 'https://archive.today/20130218125951/http://www.ospfe.it/per-la-formazione/biblioteca/progetto-vesalio/vesalius-project'
] |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Anatomist, physician and author (1514–1564)</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the lunar impact crater, see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vesalius_(crater)" title="Vesalius (crater)">Vesalius (crater)</a>.</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1218072481">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data div{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data div{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above"><div class="fn">ur mom</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Man_dressed_in_Black_by_Calcar_(Hermitage).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Man_dressed_in_Black_by_Calcar_%28Hermitage%29.jpg/220px-Man_dressed_in_Black_by_Calcar_%28Hermitage%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Man_dressed_in_Black_by_Calcar_%28Hermitage%29.jpg/330px-Man_dressed_in_Black_by_Calcar_%28Hermitage%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Man_dressed_in_Black_by_Calcar_%28Hermitage%29.jpg/440px-Man_dressed_in_Black_by_Calcar_%28Hermitage%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="873" data-file-height="1080" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Portrait by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jan_van_Calcar" title="Jan van Calcar">Jan van Calcar</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Andries van Wezel</div><br />31 December 1514<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">15 October 1564<span style="display:none">(1564-10-15)</span> (aged 49)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zakynthos" title="Zakynthos">Zakynthos</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Venetian_Ionian_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Venetian Ionian Islands">Venetian Ionian Islands</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_University_of_Leuven" title="Old University of Leuven">University of Leuven</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/M.D." class="mw-redirect" title="M.D.">M.D.</a>, 1537)<br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De humani corporis fabrica</a></i> (<i>On the Fabric of the Human Body</i>)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1218072481"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Padua" title="University of Padua">University of Padua</a> (1537–1542)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/paraphrasisinno00vesagoog/page/n1/mode/2up">Paraphrasis in nonum librum Rhazae medici Arabis clarissimi ad regem Almansorem, de affectuum singularum corporis partium curatione</a></i> <span style="font-size:97%;">(1537)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Johann_Winter_von_Andernach" title="Johann Winter von Andernach">Johann Winter von Andernach</a><sup id="cite_ref-O'Malley_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Malley-1">[1]</a></sup><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jacques_Dubois" title="Jacques Dubois">Jacques Dubois</a><sup id="cite_ref-O'Malley_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Malley-1">[1]</a></sup><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jean_Fernel" title="Jean Fernel">Jean Fernel</a><sup id="cite_ref-O'Malley_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Malley-1">[1]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Caius" title="John Caius">John Caius</a><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Realdo_Colombo" title="Realdo Colombo">Realdo Colombo</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Andries van Wezel</b> (31 December 1514 – 15 October 1564), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latinisation_of_names" title="Latinisation of names">latinised</a> as <b>Andreas Vesalius</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'v' in 'vie'">v</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span>),<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[a]</a></sup> was an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anatomist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomist">anatomist</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physician</a> who wrote <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem</a></i> (<i>On the fabric of the human body</i> <i>in seven books</i>), what is considered to be one of the most influential books on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Human anatomy">human anatomy</a> and a major advance over the long-dominant work of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>. Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Human anatomy">human anatomy</a>. He was born in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, which was then part of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a>. He was a professor at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Padua" title="University of Padua">University of Padua</a> (1537–1542) and later became Imperial physician at the court of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Charles V</a>.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Early_life_and_education"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Early life and education</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Medical_career_and_accomplishments"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Medical career and accomplishments</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Imperial_physician_and_death"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Imperial physician and death</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Publications"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Publications</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#De_Humani_Corporis_Fabrica"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext"><i>De Humani Corporis Fabrica</i></span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Excerpts"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Excerpts</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Other_publications"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Other publications</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Scientific_findings"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Scientific findings</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Skeletal_system"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Skeletal system</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Muscular_system"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Muscular system</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Vascular_and_circulatory_systems"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Vascular and circulatory systems</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Nervous_system"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Nervous system</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Abdominal_organs"><span class="tocnumber">5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Abdominal organs</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Heart"><span class="tocnumber">5.6</span> <span class="toctext">Heart</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Other_achievements"><span class="tocnumber">5.7</span> <span class="toctext">Other achievements</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Scientific_and_historical_impact"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Scientific and historical impact</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Vesalius was born as Andries van Wesel to his father Anders van Wesel and mother Isabel Crabbe on 31 December 1514 in Brussels, which was then part of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a>. His great-grandfather, Jan van Wesel, probably born in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wesel" title="Wesel">Wesel</a>, received a medical degree from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Pavia" title="University of Pavia">University of Pavia</a> and taught medicine at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_University_of_Leuven" title="Old University of Leuven">University of Leuven</a>. His grandfather, Everard van Wesel, was the Royal Physician of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Maximilian</a>, whilst his father, Anders van Wesel, served as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apothecary" title="Apothecary">apothecary</a> to Maximilian and later <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Valet_de_chambre" title="Valet de chambre">valet de chambre</a> to his successor, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a>. Anders encouraged his son to continue in the family tradition and enrolled him in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brethren_of_the_Common_Life" title="Brethren of the Common Life">Brethren of the Common Life</a> in Brussels to learn Greek and Latin prior to learning medicine, according to standards of the era.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1528 Vesalius entered the University of Leuven (<i>Pedagogium Castrense</i>) taking arts, but when his father was appointed as the Valet de Chambre in 1532 he decided instead to pursue a career in medicine at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a>, where he moved in 1533. There he studied the theories of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> under the auspices of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Johann_Winter_von_Andernach" title="Johann Winter von Andernach">Johann Winter von Andernach</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jacques_Dubois" title="Jacques Dubois">Jacques Dubois</a> (Jacobus Sylvius) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jean_Fernel" title="Jean Fernel">Jean Fernel</a>. It was during that time that he developed an interest in anatomy and was often found examining excavated bones in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charnel_house" title="Charnel house">charnel houses</a> at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cimeti%C3%A8re_des_Innocents" class="mw-redirect" title="Cimetière des Innocents">Cemetery of the Innocents</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[4]</a></sup> He is said to have constructed his first skeleton by stealing from a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gibbeting" title="Gibbeting">gibbet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>Vesalius was forced to leave Paris in 1536 owing to the opening of hostilities between the Holy Roman Empire and France and returned to the University of Leuven. He completed his studies there and graduated the following year. His <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doctoral_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctoral thesis">doctoral thesis</a>, <i>Paraphrasis in nonum librum Rhazae medici Arabis clarissimi ad regem Almansorem, de affectuum singularum corporis partium curatione</i>, was a commentary on the ninth book of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi">Rhazes</a>.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Medical_career_and_accomplishments">Medical career and accomplishments</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Medical career and accomplishments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>On the day of his graduation he was immediately offered the chair of surgery and anatomy (<i>explicator chirurgiae</i>) at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Padua" title="University of Padua">University of Padua</a>. He also guest-lectured at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Pisa" title="University of Pisa">University of Pisa</a>. Prior to taking up his position in Padua, Vesalius traveled through Italy and assisted the future <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV" title="Pope Paul IV">Pope Paul IV</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ignatius_of_Loyola" title="Ignatius of Loyola">Ignatius of Loyola</a> to heal those afflicted by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a>. In Venice he met the illustrator <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jan_van_Calcar" title="Jan van Calcar">Johan van Calcar</a>, a student of Titian. It was with van Calcar that Vesalius published his first anatomical text, <i>Tabulae Anatomicae Sex</i>, in 1538.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a></sup> Previously these topics had been taught primarily from reading classical texts, mainly <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, followed by an animal dissection by a barber–surgeon whose work was directed by the lecturer.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-9">[8]</a></sup> No attempt was made to confirm Galen's claims, which were considered unassailable. Vesalius, in contrast, performed dissection as the primary teaching tool, handling the actual work himself and urging students to perform dissection themselves. He considered hands-on direct observation to be the only reliable resource.
</p><p>Vesalius created detailed illustrations of anatomy for students in the form of six large woodcut posters. When he found that some of them were being widely copied, he published them all in 1538 under the title <i>Tabulae anatomicae sex</i>. He followed this in 1539 with an updated version of Winter's anatomical handbook, <i>Institutiones anatomicae.</i>
</p><p>In 1539 he also published his <i>Venesection Epistle</i> on <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">bloodletting</a>. This was a popular treatment for almost any illness, but there was some debate about where to take the blood from. The classical Greek procedure, advocated by Galen, was to collect blood from a site near the location of the illness. However the Muslim and medieval practice was to draw a smaller amount of blood from a distant location. Vesalius' pamphlet generally supported Galen's view but with qualifications that rejected the infiltration of Galen.
</p><p>In Bologna, Vesalius discovered that all of Galen's research was restricted to animals, since the tradition of Rome did not allow dissection of the human body.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10">[9]</a></sup> Galen had dissected <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbary_macaque" title="Barbary macaque">Barbary macaques</a> instead, which he considered structurally closest to man. Even though Galen was a qualified examiner, his research produced many errors owing to the limited anatomical material available to him.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a></sup> Vesalius contributed to the new Giunta edition of Galen's collected works and began to write his own anatomical text based on his own research. Until Vesalius pointed out Galen's substitution of animal for human anatomy, it had gone unnoticed and had long been the basis of studying human anatomy.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-9">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>Unlike Galen, Vesalius was able to procure a steady supply of human cadavers for dissection. In 1539, a judge at the Padua criminal court had been interested by Vesalius' work and had agreed to regularly supply him the cadavers of executed criminals.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>Galen had assumed that arteries carried the purest blood to higher organs such as the brain and lungs from the left ventricle of the heart, while veins carried blood to the lesser organs such as the stomach from the right ventricle. In order for this theory to be correct, some kind of opening was needed to interconnect the ventricles, and Galen claimed to have found them. So paramount was Galen's authority that for 1400 years a succession of anatomists had claimed to find these holes, until Vesalius admitted he could not find them. Nonetheless, he did not venture to dispute Galen on the distribution of blood, being unable to offer any other solution, and so supposed that it diffused through the unbroken partition between the ventricles.<sup id="cite_ref-Corporation1872_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corporation1872-13">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p>Other famous examples of Vesalius disproving Galen's assertions were his discoveries that the lower jaw (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mandible" title="Mandible">mandible</a>) was composed of only one bone, not two (which Galen had assumed based on animal dissection) and that humans lack the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rete_mirabile" title="Rete mirabile">rete mirabile</a>, a network of blood vessels at the base of the brain that is found in sheep and other <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ungulates" class="mw-redirect" title="Ungulates">ungulates</a>.
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Skelett_im_Anatomischen_Museum_Basel_-_4675.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Skelett_im_Anatomischen_Museum_Basel_-_4675.jpg/170px-Skelett_im_Anatomischen_Museum_Basel_-_4675.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="479" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Skelett_im_Anatomischen_Museum_Basel_-_4675.jpg/255px-Skelett_im_Anatomischen_Museum_Basel_-_4675.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Skelett_im_Anatomischen_Museum_Basel_-_4675.jpg/340px-Skelett_im_Anatomischen_Museum_Basel_-_4675.jpg 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="1798" /></a><figcaption>The skeleton of Jakob Karrer, articulated by Vesalius in 1543</figcaption></figure>
<p>In 1543, Vesalius conducted a public dissection of the body of Jakob Karrer von Gebweiler, a notorious felon from the city of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>. He assembled and articulated the bones, finally donating the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">skeleton</a> to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Basel" title="University of Basel">University of Basel</a>. This preparation ("The Basel Skeleton") is Vesalius' only well-preserved skeletal preparation, and also the world's oldest surviving anatomical preparation. It is still displayed at the Anatomical Museum of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Basel" title="University of Basel">University of Basel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the same year Vesalius took residence in Basel to help <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Johannes_Oporinus" title="Johannes Oporinus">Johannes Oporinus</a> publish the seven-volume <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De humani corporis fabrica</a></i> (<i>On the fabric of the human body</i>), a groundbreaking work of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Human anatomy">human anatomy</a> that he dedicated to Charles V. Many believe it was illustrated by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Titian" title="Titian">Titian</a>'s pupil <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jan_Van_Calcar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Van Calcar">Jan Stephen van Calcar</a>, but evidence is lacking, and it is unlikely that a single artist created all 273 illustrations in a period of time so short. At about the same time he published an abridged edition for students, <i>Andrea Vesalii suorum de humani corporis fabrica librorum epitome</i>, and dedicated it to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a>, the son of the Emperor. That work, now collectively referred to as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">Fabrica of Vesalius</a>, was groundbreaking in the history of medical publishing and is considered to be a major step in the development of scientific medicine. Because of this, it marks the establishment of anatomy as a modern descriptive science.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15">[14]</a></sup>
</p><p>Though Vesalius' work was not the first such work based on actual dissection, nor even the first work of this era, the production quality, highly detailed and intricate plates, and the likelihood that the artists who produced it were clearly present in person at the dissections made it an instant classic. Pirated editions were available almost immediately, an event Vesalius acknowledged in a printer's note would happen. Vesalius was 28 years old when the first edition of <i>Fabrica</i> was published.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Imperial_physician_and_death">Imperial physician and death</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Imperial physician and death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Titian_-_Portrait_of_Charles_V_Seated_-_WGA22964.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Titian_-_Portrait_of_Charles_V_Seated_-_WGA22964.jpg/170px-Titian_-_Portrait_of_Charles_V_Seated_-_WGA22964.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Titian_-_Portrait_of_Charles_V_Seated_-_WGA22964.jpg/255px-Titian_-_Portrait_of_Charles_V_Seated_-_WGA22964.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Titian_-_Portrait_of_Charles_V_Seated_-_WGA22964.jpg/340px-Titian_-_Portrait_of_Charles_V_Seated_-_WGA22964.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1771" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>The Holy Roman Emperor, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a>, who was an important patron of Vesalius</figcaption></figure>
<p>Soon after publication, Vesalius was invited to become imperial physician to the court of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Charles V</a>. He informed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Venetian_Senate" title="Venetian Senate">Venetian Senate</a> that he would leave his post at Padua, which prompted <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cosimo_I_de%27_Medici,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany">Duke Cosimo I de' Medici</a> to invite him to move to the expanding university in Pisa, which he declined. Vesalius took up the offered position in the imperial court, where he had to deal with other physicians who mocked him for being a mere <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barber_surgeon" title="Barber surgeon">barber surgeon</a> instead of an academic working on the respected basis of theory.
</p><p>In the 1540s, shortly after entering in service of the emperor, Vesalius married Anne van Hamme, from Vilvorde, Belgium. They had one daughter, named Anne, who died in 1588.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>Over the next eleven years Vesalius traveled with the court, treating injuries caused in battle or tournaments, performing postmortems, administering medication, and writing private letters addressing specific medical questions. During these years he also wrote <i>the Epistle on the China root</i>, a short text on the properties of a medical plant whose efficacy he doubted, as well as a defense of his anatomical findings. This elicited a new round of attacks on his work that called for him to be punished by the emperor. In 1551, Charles V commissioned an inquiry in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salamanca" title="Salamanca">Salamanca</a> to investigate the religious implications of his methods. Although Vesalius' work was cleared by the board, the attacks continued. Four years later one of his main detractors and one-time professors, Jacobus Sylvius, published an article that claimed that the human body itself had changed since Galen had studied it.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1555, Vesalius became physician to Philip II,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12">[11]</a></sup> and in the same year he published a revised edition of <i>De humani corporis fabrica</i>.
</p><p>In 1564 Vesalius went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, some said, in penance after being accused of dissecting a living body. He sailed with the Venetian fleet under <a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Malatesta" class="extiw" title="it:Giacomo Malatesta">James Malatesta</a> via <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>. When he reached <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> he received a message from the Venetian senate requesting him again to accept the Paduan professorship, which had become vacant on the death of contemporary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gabriele_Falloppio" title="Gabriele Falloppio">Fallopius</a>.
</p><p>After struggling for many days with adverse winds in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ionian_Sea" title="Ionian Sea">Ionian Sea</a>, he was shipwrecked on the island of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zakynthos" title="Zakynthos">Zakynthos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NPO_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NPO-18">[17]</a></sup> Here he soon died, in such debt that a benefactor kindly paid for his funeral. At the time of his death he was 49 years old. He was buried somewhere on the island of Zakynthos (Zante).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>For some time, it was assumed that Vesalius's pilgrimage was due to the pressures imposed on him by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a>. Today, this assumption is generally considered to be without foundation<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a></sup> and is dismissed by modern biographers. It appears the story was spread by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hubert_Languet" title="Hubert Languet">Hubert Languet</a>, a diplomat under Emperor Charles V and then under the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prince_of_Orange" title="Prince of Orange">Prince of Orange</a>, who claimed in 1565 that Vesalius had performed an autopsy on an aristocrat in Spain while the heart was still beating, leading to the Inquisition's condemning him to death. The story went on to claim that Philip II had the sentence commuted to a pilgrimage. That story re-surfaced several times, until it was more recently revised.
</p><p>The decision to undertake the pilgrimage was likely just a pretext to leave the Spanish court. Its lifestyle did not please him and he longed to continue his research. Given that he could not get rid of his royal service by resignation, he managed to escape asking for the permission to go to Jerusalem.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Publications">Publications</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Publications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="De_Humani_Corporis_Fabrica"><i>De Humani Corporis Fabrica</i></span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: De Humani Corporis Fabrica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg/170px-Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg/255px-Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg/340px-Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="736" data-file-height="1022" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of Vesalius from his <i>De Humani Corporis Fabrica</i> (1543)</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/De_Humani_Corporis_Fabrica_Libri_Septem" title="De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem">De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem</a></div>
<p>In 1543, Vesalius asked <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Johannes_Oporinus" title="Johannes Oporinus">Johannes Oporinus</a> to publish the book <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem</a></i> (<i>On the fabric of the human body</i> <i>in seven books</i>), a groundbreaking work of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Human anatomy">human anatomy</a> he dedicated to Charles V and which many believe was illustrated by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Titian" title="Titian">Titian</a>'s pupil <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jan_Van_Calcar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Van Calcar">Jan Stephen van Calcar</a>.
</p><p>About the same time he published another version of his great work, entitled <i>De Humani Corporis Fabrica Librorum Epitome</i> (<i>Abridgement of the On the fabric of the human body</i>) more commonly known as the <i>Epitome</i>, with a stronger focus on illustrations than on text, so as to help readers, including medical students, to easily understand his findings. The actual text of the <i>Epitome</i> was an abridged form of his work in the <i>Fabrica</i>, and the organization of the two books was quite varied. He dedicated it to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a>, son of the Emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <i>Fabrica</i> emphasized the priority of dissection and what has come to be called the "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anatomical" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomical">anatomical</a>" view of the body, seeing human internal functioning as a result of an essentially corporeal structure filled with organs arranged in three-dimensional space. His book contains drawings of several organs on two leaves. This allows for the creation of three-dimensional diagrams by cutting out the organs and pasting them on flayed figures.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15">[14]</a></sup> This was in stark contrast to many of the anatomical models used previously, which had strong Galenic/Aristotelean elements, as well as elements of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>. Although modern anatomical texts had been published by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mondino_de_Liuzzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mondino de Liuzzi">Mondino</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jacopo_Berengario_da_Carpi" title="Jacopo Berengario da Carpi">Berenger</a>, much of their work was clouded by reverence for Galen and Arabian doctrines.
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg/170px-Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg/255px-Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg/340px-Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1022" data-file-height="1792" /></a><figcaption>Vesalius's <i>Fabrica</i> contained many intricately detailed drawings of human dissections, often in allegorical poses.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Besides the first good description of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sphenoid_bone" title="Sphenoid bone">sphenoid bone</a>, he showed that the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_sternum" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sternum">sternum</a> consists of three portions and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sacrum" title="Sacrum">sacrum</a> of five or six, and described accurately the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vestibule_of_the_ear" title="Vestibule of the ear">vestibule</a> in the interior of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Temporal_bone" title="Temporal bone">temporal bone</a>. He not only verified <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Estienne" title="Charles Estienne">Estienne</a>'s observations on the valves of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hepatic_veins" title="Hepatic veins">hepatic veins</a>, but also described the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vena_azygos" class="mw-redirect" title="Vena azygos">vena azygos</a>, and discovered the canal which passes in the fetus between the umbilical vein and the vena cava, since named the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ductus_venosus" title="Ductus venosus">ductus venosus</a>. He described the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greater_omentum" title="Greater omentum">omentum</a> and its connections with the stomach, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">spleen</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colon_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Colon (anatomy)">colon</a>; gave the first correct views of the structure of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pylorus" title="Pylorus">pylorus</a>; observed the small size of the caecal appendix in man; gave the first good account of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mediastinum" title="Mediastinum">mediastinum</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pleura" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleura">pleura</a> and the fullest description of the anatomy of the brain up to that time. He did not understand the inferior recesses, and his account of the nerves is confused by regarding the optic as the first pair, the third as the fifth, and the fifth as the seventh.
</p><p>In this work, Vesalius also becomes the first person to describe <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mechanical_ventilation" title="Mechanical ventilation">mechanical ventilation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Resuscitation_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Resuscitation-23">[22]</a></sup> It is largely this achievement that has resulted in Vesalius being incorporated into the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Australian_and_New_Zealand_College_of_Anaesthetists" title="Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists">Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists</a> college arms and crest.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Excerpts">Excerpts</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Excerpts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<blockquote><p>When I undertake the dissection of a human pelvis I pass a stout rope tied like a noose beneath the lower jaw and through the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zygomatic_arch" title="Zygomatic arch">zygomas</a> up to the top of the head... The lower end of the noose I run through a pulley fixed to a beam in the room so that I may raise or lower the cadaver as it hangs there or turn around in any direction to suit my purpose; ... You must take care not to put the noose around the neck, unless some of the muscles connected to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Occipital_bone" title="Occipital bone">occipital bone</a> have already been cut away.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center" style="max-width: 815px;">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Vesalius_Fabrica_p174.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Vesalius_Fabrica_p174.jpg/113px-Vesalius_Fabrica_p174.jpg" decoding="async" width="113" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Vesalius_Fabrica_p174.jpg/170px-Vesalius_Fabrica_p174.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Vesalius_Fabrica_p174.jpg/227px-Vesalius_Fabrica_p174.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1060" data-file-height="1868" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Vesalius_Fabrica_p194.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Vesalius_Fabrica_p194.jpg/112px-Vesalius_Fabrica_p194.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Vesalius_Fabrica_p194.jpg/168px-Vesalius_Fabrica_p194.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Vesalius_Fabrica_p194.jpg/224px-Vesalius_Fabrica_p194.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1029" data-file-height="1835" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:De_humani_corporis_fabrica_(27).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/De_humani_corporis_fabrica_%2827%29.jpg/116px-De_humani_corporis_fabrica_%2827%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/De_humani_corporis_fabrica_%2827%29.jpg/174px-De_humani_corporis_fabrica_%2827%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/De_humani_corporis_fabrica_%2827%29.jpg/232px-De_humani_corporis_fabrica_%2827%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="595" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Vesalius_Fabrica_p178.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Vesalius_Fabrica_p178.jpg/113px-Vesalius_Fabrica_p178.jpg" decoding="async" width="113" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Vesalius_Fabrica_p178.jpg/169px-Vesalius_Fabrica_p178.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Vesalius_Fabrica_p178.jpg/226px-Vesalius_Fabrica_p178.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1029" data-file-height="1823" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"></div>
</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_publications">Other publications</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other publications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In 1538, Vesalius wrote <i>Epistola, docens venam axillarem dextri cubiti in dolore laterali secandam</i> (<i>A letter, teaching that in cases of pain in the side, the axillary vein of the right elbow be cut</i>), commonly known as the Venesection Letter, which demonstrated a revived <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Venesection" class="mw-redirect" title="Venesection">venesection</a>, a classical procedure in which blood was drawn near the site of the ailment. He sought to locate the precise site for venesection in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pleurisy" title="Pleurisy">pleurisy</a> within the framework of the classical method. The real significance of the book is his attempt to support his arguments by the location and continuity of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Venous_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Venous system">venous system</a> from his observations rather than appeal to earlier published works. With this novel approach to the problem of venesection, Vesalius posed the then striking hypothesis that anatomical dissection might be used to test speculation.
</p><p>In 1546, three years after the <i>Fabrica</i>, he wrote his <i>Epistola rationem modumque propinandi radicis Chynae decocti</i>, commonly known as the Epistle on the China Root. Ostensibly an appraisal of a popular but ineffective treatment for gout, syphilis, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Calculus_(medicine)" title="Calculus (medicine)">stones</a>, this work is especially important as a continued polemic against Galenism and a reply to critics in the camp of his former professor Jacobus Sylvius, now an obsessive detractor.
</p><p>In February 1561, Vesalius was given a copy of Gabriele Fallopio's <i>Observationes anatomicae</i>, friendly additions and corrections to the Fabrica. Before the end of the year Vesalius composed a cordial reply, <i>Anatomicarum Gabrielis Fallopii observationum examen</i>, generally referred to as the <i>Examen</i>. In this work he recognizes in Fallopio a true equal in the science of dissection he had done so much to create. Vesalius' reply to Fallopio was published in May 1564, a month after Vesalius' death on the Greek island of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zante" class="mw-redirect" title="Zante">Zante</a> (now called <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zakynthos" title="Zakynthos">Zakynthos</a>).
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Scientific_findings">Scientific findings</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Scientific findings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Skeletal_system">Skeletal system</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Skeletal system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Andreas_Vesalius-Pierre_Poncet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Andreas_Vesalius-Pierre_Poncet.jpg/220px-Andreas_Vesalius-Pierre_Poncet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Andreas_Vesalius-Pierre_Poncet.jpg/330px-Andreas_Vesalius-Pierre_Poncet.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Andreas_Vesalius-Pierre_Poncet.jpg/440px-Andreas_Vesalius-Pierre_Poncet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="711" /></a><figcaption>Andreas Vesalius by Pierre Poncet (1574-1640)</figcaption></figure>
<ul><li>Vesalius believed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Skeletal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeletal system">skeletal system</a> to be the framework of the human body. It was in this opening chapter or book of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica"><i>De fabrica</i></a> that Vesalius made several of his strongest claims against <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen's</a> theories and writings which he had put in his anatomy books. In his extensive study of the skull, Vesalius claimed that the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_mandible" class="mw-redirect" title="Human mandible">mandible</a> consisted of one bone, whereas Galen had thought it to be two separate bones. He accurately described the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vestibule_of_the_ear" title="Vestibule of the ear">vestibule</a> in the interior of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Temporal_bone" title="Temporal bone">temporal bone</a> of the skull.</li>
<li>In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen's</a> observation of the ape, he had discovered that their <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sternum" title="Sternum">sternum</a> consisted of seven parts which he assumed also held true for humans. Vesalius discovered that the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_sternum" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sternum">human sternum</a> consisted of only three parts.</li>
<li>He also disproved the common belief that men had one rib fewer than women and noted that the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">fibula</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">tibia</a> bones of the leg were indeed larger than the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Humerus" title="Humerus">humerus</a> bone of the arm, unlike <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>'s original findings.</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Muscular_system">Muscular system</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Muscular system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>One of Vesalius' contributions to the study of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">muscular system</a> is the illustrations that accompany the text in <i>De fabrica</i>, which would become known as the "muscle men". He describes the source and position of each muscle of the body and provides information on their respective operation.</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Vascular_and_circulatory_systems">Vascular and circulatory systems</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Vascular and circulatory systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>Vesalius' work on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vascular" class="mw-redirect" title="Vascular">vascular</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory systems</a> was his greatest contribution to modern medicine. In his dissections of the heart, Vesalius became convinced that Galen's claims of a porous <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Interventricular_septum" title="Interventricular septum">interventricular septum</a> were false. This fact was previously described by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michael_Servetus" title="Michael Servetus">Michael Servetus</a>, a fellow of Vesalius, but never reached the public, for it was written down in the "Manuscript of Paris",<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a></sup> in 1546, and published later in his <i>Christianismi Restitutio</i> (1553), a book regarded as heretical by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a>. Only three copies survived, but these remained hidden for decades, the rest having been burned shortly after publication. In the second edition Vesalius published that the septum was indeed waterproof, discovering (and naming), the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mitral_valve" title="Mitral valve">mitral valve</a> to explain the blood flow.</li>
<li>Vesalius believed that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Systole_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Systole (medicine)">cardiac systole</a> is synchronous with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pulse_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulse (anatomy)">arterial pulse</a>.</li>
<li>He not only verified <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Estienne" title="Charles Estienne">Estienne's</a> findings on the valves of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hepatic_veins" title="Hepatic veins">hepatic veins</a>, but also described the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Azygos_vein" title="Azygos vein">azygos vein</a>, and discovered the canal which passes into the fetus between the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Umbilical_vein" title="Umbilical vein">umbilical vein</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vena_cava" class="mw-redirect" title="Vena cava">vena cava</a>.</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Nervous_system">Nervous system</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Nervous system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>Vesalius defined a nerve as the mode of transmitting sensation and motion and thus refuted his contemporaries' claims that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ligament" title="Ligament">ligaments</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tendon" title="Tendon">tendons</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aponeuroses" class="mw-redirect" title="Aponeuroses">aponeuroses</a> were three types of nerve units.</li>
<li>He believed that the brain and the nervous system are the center of the mind and emotion in contrast to the common <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> belief that the heart was the center of the body. He correspondingly believed that nerves themselves do not originate from the heart, but from the brain—facts already experimentally proved by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herophilus" class="mw-redirect" title="Herophilus">Herophilus</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erasistratus" title="Erasistratus">Erasistratus</a> in the classical era, but suppressed after the adoption of Aristotelianism by the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages.</li>
<li>Upon studying the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerve</a>, Vesalius came to the conclusion that nerves were not hollow.</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Abdominal_organs">Abdominal organs</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Abdominal organs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>In <i>De fabrica</i>, he corrected an earlier claim he made in <i>Tabulae</i> about the right kidney being set higher than the left. Vesalius claimed that the kidneys were not a filter device for urine to pass through, but rather that the kidneys serve to filter blood as well, and that excretions from the kidneys travelled through the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ureters" class="mw-redirect" title="Ureters">ureters</a> to the bladder.</li>
<li>He described the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greater_omentum" title="Greater omentum">omentum</a>, and its connections with the stomach, the spleen and the colon gave the first correct views of the structure of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pylorus" title="Pylorus">pylorus</a>.</li>
<li>He also observed the small size of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Appendix_(human)" class="mw-redirect" title="Appendix (human)">caecal appendix</a> in man and gave the first good account of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mediastinum" title="Mediastinum">mediastinum</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pleura" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleura">pleura</a>.</li>
<li>Vesalius admitted that due to a lack of pregnant cadavers he was unable to come to a significant understanding of the reproductive organs. However, he did find that the uterus had been falsely identified as having two distinct sections.</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Heart">Heart</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Heart"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>Through his work with muscles, Vesalius believed that a criterion for muscles was their voluntary motion. On this claim, he deduced that the heart was not a true muscle due to the obvious involuntary nature of its motion.</li>
<li>He identified two chambers and two atria. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Right_atrium" class="mw-redirect" title="Right atrium">right atrium</a> was considered a continuation of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inferior_vena_cava" title="Inferior vena cava">inferior</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Superior_vena_cava" title="Superior vena cava">superior</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Venae_cavae" title="Venae cavae">venae cavae</a>, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Left_atrium" class="mw-redirect" title="Left atrium">left atrium</a> was considered a continuation of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pulmonary_vein" title="Pulmonary vein">pulmonary vein</a>.</li>
<li>He also addressed the controversial issue of the heart being the centre of the soul. He wished to avoid drawing any conclusions due to possible conflict with contemporary religious beliefs.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:1543,_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica,_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg/220px-1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg/330px-1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg/440px-1543%2C_Andreas_Vesalius%27_Fabrica%2C_Base_Of_The_Brain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="1346" /></a><figcaption>Base of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">brain</a>, showing the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Optic_chiasm" title="Optic chiasm">optic chiasma</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Olfactory_bulb" title="Olfactory bulb">olfactory bulbs</a>, etc.</figcaption></figure></li>
<li>Against Galen's theory and many beliefs he also discovered that there was no hole in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Septum" title="Septum">septum</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a>.</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_achievements">Other achievements</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Other achievements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>Vesalius disproved Galen's assertion that men have more teeth than women.<sup id="cite_ref-NPO_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NPO-18">[17]</a></sup></li>
<li>Vesalius introduced the notion of induction of the extraction of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empyema" title="Empyema">empyema</a> through surgical means.</li>
<li>Due to his study of the human skull and the variations in its features he is said to have been responsible for the launch of the study of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical anthropology</a>.</li>
<li>Vesalius always encouraged his students to check their findings, and even his own findings, so that they could better understand the structure of the human body.</li>
<li>In addition to his continual efforts to study anatomy he also worked on medicinal remedies and came to such conclusions as treating <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a> with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Smilax_glabra" title="Smilax glabra">chinaroot</a>.</li>
<li>Vesalius claimed that medicine had three aspects: drugs, diet, and 'the use of hands'—mainly suggesting surgery and the knowledge of anatomy and physiology gained through dissection.</li>
<li>Vesalius was a supporter of 'parallel dissections' in which an animal cadaver and a human cadaver are dissected simultaneously in order to demonstrate the anatomical differences and thus correct Galenic errors.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Scientific_and_historical_impact">Scientific and historical impact</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Scientific and historical impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The influence of Vesalius' plates representing the partial dissections of the human figure posing in a landscape setting is apparent in the anatomical plates prepared by the Baroque painter <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pietro_da_Cortona" title="Pietro da Cortona">Pietro da Cortona</a> (1596–1669), who executed anatomical plates with figures in dramatic poses, most of them with architectural or landscape backdrops.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1844, botanists <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_Martens" title="Martin Martens">Martin Martens</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henri_Guillaume_Galeotti" title="Henri Guillaume Galeotti">Henri Guillaume Galeotti</a> published <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vesalea" title="Vesalea">Vesalea</a></i>, which is a plant <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> in the honeysuckle family <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caprifoliaceae" title="Caprifoliaceae">Caprifoliaceae</a> and it was named in Vesalius's honour.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217611005">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:#f9f9f9;display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style>
<div class="side-box-flex">
<div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div>
<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" class="extiw" title="q:Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a></b></i>.</div></div>
</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Androtomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Androtomy">Androtomy</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brain_Renaissance" title="Brain Renaissance">Brain Renaissance</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/InVesalius" title="InVesalius">InVesalius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medical_Renaissance" title="Medical Renaissance">Medical Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Physician_writer#16th_century" title="Physician writer">Physician writer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_medicine_and_medical_technology" title="Timeline of medicine and medical technology">Timeline of medicine and medical technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vesalius_College" title="Vesalius College">Vesalius College</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217336898">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha">
<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It was a common practice among European scholars in his time to latinize their names. His name is also given as Andrea Vesalius, André Vésale, Andrea Vesalio, Andreas Vesal, Andrés Vesalio and Andre Vesale.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1217336898"><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-O'Malley-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Malley_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Malley_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Malley_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/ur9qz2wh"><i>Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514-1564 / [Charles Donald O'Malley]</i></a>. University of California Press, 1964. p. 47. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/429258">429258</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220223092027/https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt8779q730/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andreas+Vesalius+of+Brussels%2C+1514-1564+%2F+%5BCharles+Donald+O%27Malley%5D.&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press%2C+1964&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F429258&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwellcomecollection.org%2Fworks%2Fur9qz2wh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> ignored (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/vesalius">"Vesalius | Dictionary.com"</a>. <i>www.dictionary.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220223091222/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/vesalius">Archived</a> from the original on 23 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dictionary.com&rft.atitle=Vesalius+%7C+Dictionary.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2Fvesalius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFO'Malley" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Donald_O%27Malley" title="Charles Donald O'Malley">O'Malley, Charles Donald</a>. <i>Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564</i>. Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964. pp. 21–27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andreas+Vesalius+of+Brussels%2C+1514%E2%80%931564&rft.pages=21-27&rft.pub=Berkeley+%3A+University+of+California+Press%2C+1964&rft.aulast=O%27Malley&rft.aufirst=Charles+Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:3-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGumpert1948" class="citation journal cs1">Gumpert, Martin (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24945814">"Vesalius"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>178</b> (5): 24–31. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0548-24">10.1038/scientificamerican0548-24</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8733">0036-8733</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24945814">24945814</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Vesalius&rft.volume=178&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=24-31&rft.date=1948&rft.issn=0036-8733&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24945814%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0548-24&rft.aulast=Gumpert&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24945814&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMcRae1890" class="citation book cs1">McRae, Charles (1890). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/24456/24456-h/24456-h.htm"><i>Fathers of biology</i></a>. London: PERCIVAL & CO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fathers+of+biology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=PERCIVAL+%26+CO.&rft.date=1890&rft.aulast=McRae&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F24456%2F24456-h%2F24456-h.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.joh.cam.ac.uk/library/andreas-vesalius-and-challenge-galen">"Andreas Vesalius and the Challenge to Galen | St John's College, University of Cambridge"</a>. <i>www.joh.cam.ac.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.joh.cam.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Andreas+Vesalius+and+the+Challenge+to+Galen+%7C+St+John%27s+College%2C+University+of+Cambridge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.joh.cam.ac.uk%2Flibrary%2Fandreas-vesalius-and-challenge-galen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141210143700/http://thephysicianspalette.com/2014/12/01/vesalius-at-500/">"Vesalius at 500"</a>. <i>The Physician's Palette</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thephysicianspalette.com/2014/12/01/vesalius-at-500/">the original</a> on 10 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Physician%27s+Palette&rft.atitle=Vesalius+at+500&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthephysicianspalette.com%2F2014%2F12%2F01%2Fvesalius-at-500%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:4-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGumpert1948" class="citation journal cs1">Gumpert, Martin (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/24945814">"Vesalius: Discoverer of the Human Body"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>178</b> (5): 24–31. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0548-24">10.1038/scientificamerican0548-24</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24945814">24945814</a> – via JSTOR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Vesalius%3A+Discoverer+of+the+Human+Body&rft.volume=178&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=24-31&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0548-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24945814%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gumpert&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24945814&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:1-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-history-of-evolutionary-thought/pre-1800/comparative-anatomy-andreas-vesalius/">"Comparative Anatomy: Andreas Vesalius - Understanding Evolution"</a>. 27 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Comparative+Anatomy%3A+Andreas+Vesalius+-+Understanding+Evolution&rft.date=2021-04-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fevolution.berkeley.edu%2Fthe-history-of-evolutionary-thought%2Fpre-1800%2Fcomparative-anatomy-andreas-vesalius%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFO'Malley" class="citation book cs1">O'Malley, Charles Donald. <i>Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564</i>. Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andreas+Vesalius+of+Brussels%2C+1514%E2%80%931564&rft.pub=Berkeley+%3A+University+of+California+Press%2C+1964&rft.aulast=O%27Malley&rft.aufirst=Charles+Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:2-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/vesalius_andreas.shtml">"Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)"</a>. BBC History<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Andreas+Vesalius+%281514-1564%29&rft.pub=BBC+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fhistoric_figures%2Fvesalius_andreas.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Corporation1872-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Corporation1872_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBonnier_Corporation1872" class="citation journal cs1">Bonnier Corporation (May 1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_qR8DAAAAMBAJ">"Popular Science"</a>. <i>The Popular Science Monthly</i>. Bonnier Corporation: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_qR8DAAAAMBAJ/page/n99">95</a>–100. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0161-7370">0161-7370</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Popular+Science+Monthly&rft.atitle=Popular+Science&rft.pages=95-100&rft.date=1872-05&rft.issn=0161-7370&rft.au=Bonnier+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_qR8DAAAAMBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927043755/http://www.vhsbb.ch/asp/pdf/senuni_07021213_zf_kurz.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vhsbb.ch/asp/pdf/senuni_07021213_zf_kurz.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 September 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vhsbb.ch%2Fasp%2Fpdf%2Fsenuni_07021213_zf_kurz.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHarcourt1987" class="citation journal cs1">Harcourt, Glenn (1 January 1987). "Andreas Vesalius and the Anatomy of Antique Sculpture". <i>Representations</i>. <b>17</b> (17): 28–61. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3043792">10.2307/3043792</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0734-6018">0734-6018</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3043792">3043792</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11618035">11618035</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Representations&rft.atitle=Andreas+Vesalius+and+the+Anatomy+of+Antique+Sculpture&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=28-61&rft.date=1987-01-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11618035&rft.issn=0734-6018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3043792%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3043792&rft.aulast=Harcourt&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFO'Malley" class="citation book cs1">O'Malley, Charles Donald. <i>Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564</i>. Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964. pp. 203, 314.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andreas+Vesalius+of+Brussels%2C+1514%E2%80%931564&rft.pages=203%2C+314&rft.pub=Berkeley+%3A+University+of+California+Press%2C+1964&rft.aulast=O%27Malley&rft.aufirst=Charles+Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMontagu1955" class="citation journal cs1">Montagu, M. F. Ashley (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20970">"Vesalius and the Galenists"</a>. <i>The Scientific Monthly</i>. <b>80</b> (4): 230–239. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3771">0096-3771</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20970">20970</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Scientific+Monthly&rft.atitle=Vesalius+and+the+Galenists&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=230-239&rft.date=1955&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20970%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0096-3771&rft.aulast=Montagu&rft.aufirst=M.+F.+Ashley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20970&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-NPO-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NPO_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NPO_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLambert_Teuwissen2014" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lambert Teuwissen (31 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nos.nl/artikel/2011283-vesalius-was-belangrijker-dan-copernicus.html">"Vesalius was belangrijker dan Copernicus"</a> (in Dutch). <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nederlandse_Publieke_Omroep_(organization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nederlandse Publieke Omroep (organization)">Nederlandse Publieke Omroep</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vesalius+was+belangrijker+dan+Copernicus&rft.pub=Nederlandse+Publieke+Omroep&rft.date=2014-12-31&rft.au=Lambert+Teuwissen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnos.nl%2Fartikel%2F2011283-vesalius-was-belangrijker-dan-copernicus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFO'Malley" class="citation book cs1">O'Malley, Charles Donald. <i>Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514–1564</i>. Berkeley : University of California Press, 1964. p. 311.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andreas+Vesalius+of+Brussels%2C+1514%E2%80%931564&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Berkeley+%3A+University+of+California+Press%2C+1964&rft.aulast=O%27Malley&rft.aufirst=Charles+Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See C.D. O'Malley <i>Andreas Vesalius' Pilgrimage</i>, Isis 45:2, 1954</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFO'Malley1954" class="citation book cs1">O'Malley, C. Donald (1 January 1954). <i>Andreas Vesalius' Pilgrimage</i>. Vol. 45/2. pp. 138–144.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andreas+Vesalius%27+Pilgrimage&rft.pages=138-144&rft.date=1954-01-01&rft.aulast=O%27Malley&rft.aufirst=C.+Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|magazine=</code> ignored (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKusukawa" class="citation web cs1">Kusukawa, Sachiko. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-CCF-00046-00036">"De humani corporis fabrica. Epitome"</a>. Cambridge Digital Library<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=De+humani+corporis+fabrica.+Epitome&rft.pub=Cambridge+Digital+Library&rft.aulast=Kusukawa&rft.aufirst=Sachiko&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcudl.lib.cam.ac.uk%2Fview%2FPR-CCF-00046-00036&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Resuscitation-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Resuscitation_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vallejo-Manzur F. et al. (2003) "The resuscitation greats. Andreas Vesalius, the concept of an artificial airway." "Resuscitation" 56:3–7</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andreas Vesalius, <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De humani corporis fabrica</a></i> (1544), Book II, Ch. 24, 268. Trans. William Frank Rich son, <i>On the Fabric of the Human Body</i> (1999), Book II, 234. As quoted by W. F. Bynum & Roy Porter (2005), <i>Oxford Dictionary of Scientific Quotations</i>: <i>Andreas Vesalius</i>, 595:2, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-858409-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-858409-1">0-19-858409-1</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html">Michael Servetus Research</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121113223851/http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html">Archived</a> 13 November 2012 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Website with graphical study on the Manuscript of Paris by Servetus</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Anatomical Plates of Pietro da Cortona</i>, Dover, New York, 1986. They were published in the 18th century. Twenty of the drawings for these plates are now in the Hunterian Library, Glasgow.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBurkhardt2022" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Burkhardt, Lotte (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3372/epolist2022"><i>Eine Enzyklopädie zu eponymischen Pflanzennamen</i></a> [<i>Encyclopedia of eponymic plant names</i>] <span class="cs1-format">(pdf)</span> (in German). Berlin: Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum, Freie Universität Berlin. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3372%2Fepolist2022">10.3372/epolist2022</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-946292-41-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-946292-41-8"><bdi>978-3-946292-41-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246307410">246307410</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eine+Enzyklop%C3%A4die+zu+eponymischen+Pflanzennamen&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Botanic+Garden+and+Botanical+Museum%2C+Freie+Universit%C3%A4t+Berlin&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246307410%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3372%2Fepolist2022&rft.isbn=978-3-946292-41-8&rft.aulast=Burkhardt&rft.aufirst=Lotte&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3372%2Fepolist2022&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li>Dear, Peter. <i>Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500–1700</i>. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2001.</li>
<li>Debus, Allen, ed. <i>Vesalius</i>. <i>Who's Who in the World of Science: From Antiquity to Present</i>. 1st ed. Hanibal: Western Co., 1968.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFO'Malley1964" class="citation book cs1">O'Malley, Charles Donald (1964). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/andresvesaliusof0000cdom"><i>Andreas Vesalius of Brussels 1514-1564</i></a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520310230" title="Special:BookSources/9780520310230"><bdi>9780520310230</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andreas+Vesalius+of+Brussels+1514-1564&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=9780520310230&rft.aulast=O%27Malley&rft.aufirst=Charles+Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fandresvesaliusof0000cdom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAndreas+Vesalius" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Porter, Roy, ed. <i>Vesalius</i>. <i>The Biographical Dictionary of Scientists</i>. 2nd Ed. New York: Oxford University P, 1994.</li>
<li>Saunders, JB de CM and O'Malley, Charles D. <i>The Illustrations from the Works of Andreas Vesalius of Brussels</i>. New York: Dover, 1973 [reprint].</li>
<li>"Vesalius." Encyclopedia Americana. 1992.</li>
<li>Vesalius, Andreas. <i>On the Fabric of the Human Body,</i> translated by W. F. Richardson and J. B. Carman. 5 vols. San Francisco and Novato: Norman Publishing, 1998–2009. <i>The Fabric of the human Body,</i> Translated by Daniel H. Garrison and Malcolm H. Hast. Basel: Karger Publishing, 2013. Garrison, Daniel H. Vesalius: <i>The China Root Epistle. A New Translation and Critical Edition.</i> New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.</li>
<li>Williams, Trevor, ed. <i>Vesalius</i>. <i>A Biographical Dictionary of Scientists</i>. 3rd Ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1982.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Vesalius&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1217611005"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409">
<div class="side-box-flex">
<div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div>
<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" class="extiw" title="commons:Andreas Vesalius"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Andreas Vesalius</span></a>.</div></div>
</div>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bvh.univ-tours.fr/Consult/consult.asp?numtable=B372615206%5F47294&numfiche=56&mode=3&ecran=0&offset=155">Andreae Vesalii Bruxellensis, Dе humani corporis fabrica libri septem, Basileae 1543</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.library.utoronto.ca/anatomia/">Anatomia 1522–1867: Anatomical Plates from the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.andreasvesalius.be">Bibliography van Andreas Vesalius</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110606151807/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica/vesale.htm#vonseng">Vesalius's « Anatomies » Introduction by Jacqueline Vons</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://himetop.wikidot.com/andreas-vesalius">Places and memories related to Andreas Vesalius</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/GalileoGalileivesaliusAndServetus">Play on Vesalius</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vesalius.northwestern.edu/">Translating Vesalius</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://images.is.ed.ac.uk/luna/servlet/UoEcha~4~4">Ars Anatomica collection at University of Edinburgh image service (includes Vesalius's <i>De Humanis Corporis Fabrica</i>)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100716134128/http://archive.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/flash/vesalius/vesalius.html"><i>Turning the Pages</i></a>: a virtual copy of Vesalius's <i>De Humanis Corporis Fabrica</i>. From the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/U.S._National_Library_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. National Library of Medicine">U.S. National Library of Medicine</a>.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/PR-CCF-00046-00036/7">De humani corporis fabrica. Epitome</a> coloured and complete with manekin at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambridge_Digital_Library" title="Cambridge Digital Library">Cambridge Digital Library</a></li>
<li>Texts digitized by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_interuniversitaire_de_sant%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de santé">Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de santé</a>; see its digital library <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141007025741/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica.htm">Medic@</a>.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/1808/6347">Vesalius four centuries later</a> by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Farquhar_Fulton" title="John Farquhar Fulton">John F. Fulton</a>. Logan Clendening lecture on the history and philosophy of medicine, University of Kansas, 1950. Full-text PDF.</li>
<li>Andreas Vesalius, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ospfe.it/per-la-formazione/biblioteca/progetto-vesalio/vesalius-project"><i>VESALIUS project</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130218125951/http://www.ospfe.it/per-la-formazione/biblioteca/progetto-vesalio/vesalius-project">Archived</a> 18 February 2013 at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a>. Information about the new DVD "De Humani Corporis Fabrica" produced by Health Science Library of the St. Anna Hospital in Ferrara – Italy.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vub.ac.be/VECO/bveco/">Vesalius College in Brussels</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070609075919/http://www.vub.ac.be/VECO/bveco/">Archived</a> 9 June 2007 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brusselnieuws.be/en/video/tvbrussel/500th-birthday-andre-vesale-he-was-revolutionary-his-time-hes-still-very-much">TV report on 500th birthday Vesalius by tvbrussel</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/nat_hist/id/33346"><i>De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem</i></a> (1543) – full digital facsimile at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Linda_Hall_Library" title="Linda Hall Library">Linda Hall Library</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://exhibits.lib.missouri.edu/exhibits/show/vesalius500">Vesalius at 500</a> – digital exhibition from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_Missouri" title="University of Missouri">University of Missouri</a> Libraries</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=119178">Andreas Vesalius</a> at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mathematics_Genealogy_Project" title="Mathematics Genealogy Project">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1061467846">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_biology_(timeline)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:History_of_biology" title="Template:History of biology"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_biology" title="Template talk:History of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_biology_(timeline)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields,<br />disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">Anatomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_biochemistry" title="History of biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">Botany</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_ecology" title="History of ecology">Ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">Genetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">Geology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timeline_of_immunology" title="Timeline of immunology">Immunology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_model_organisms" title="History of model organisms">Model organisms</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology" title="History of molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">Paleontology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_phycology" title="History of phycology">Phycology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">Plant systematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_RNA_biology" title="History of RNA biology">RNA biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_zoology_through_1859" title="History of zoology through 1859">Zoology (through 1859)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_zoology_since_1859" class="mw-redirect" title="History of zoology since 1859">Zoology (since 1859)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories,<br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">Central dogma of molecular biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">Great chain of being</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/One_gene%E2%80%93one_enzyme_hypothesis" title="One gene–one enzyme hypothesis">One gene–one enzyme hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sequence_hypothesis" title="Sequence hypothesis">Sequence hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">Spontaneous generation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Philosophy of biology</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversy" title="History of the creation–evolution controversy">History of the creation-evolution controversy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Humboldtian_science" title="Humboldtian science">Humboldtian science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">Natural theology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:History_of_biology" title="Category:History of biology">Category</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170267#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170267#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170267#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/70269/">FAST</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121326681">ISNI</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/51696979">VIAF</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90210192">Norway</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000587112">Chile</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX924825">Spain</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119280900">France</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119280900">BnF data</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058521768106706">Catalonia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118768204">Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Vesalius, Andreas"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/BVEV026780">Italy</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007269684105171">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14154618">Belgium</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Vesalius, Andreas, 1514-1564"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n81035178">United States</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/b8nqmjjv4d5ksv0">Sweden</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Vesalius, Andreas, 1514-1564"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00476588">Japan</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn19990008772&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35580728">Australia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.nlg.gr/resource/authority/record114750">Greece</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000614720&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068354002">Netherlands</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810573087805606">Poland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/1384337">Portugal</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/32702">Vatican</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA03852346?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=119178">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aucklandartgallery.com/explore-art-and-ideas/artist/1864/">Auckland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/4d999ab7-9129-4d96-9fca-1811a77a96a0">MusicBrainz</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rkd.nl/en/explore/artists/420317">RKD Artists</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500327607">ULAN</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/70505433">Netherlands</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/33045609">2</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118768204.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1002826">Trove</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/014681">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w62c0b5m">SNAC</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027182630">IdRef</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1714712789' |
