Edit count of the user (user_editcount) | null |
Name of the user account (user_name) | '185.248.106.195' |
Age of the user account (user_age) | 0 |
Groups (including implicit) the user is in (user_groups) | [
0 => '*'
] |
Rights that the user has (user_rights) | [
0 => 'createaccount',
1 => 'read',
2 => 'edit',
3 => 'createtalk',
4 => 'writeapi',
5 => 'viewmyprivateinfo',
6 => 'editmyprivateinfo',
7 => 'editmyoptions',
8 => 'abusefilter-log-detail',
9 => 'urlshortener-create-url',
10 => 'centralauth-merge',
11 => 'abusefilter-view',
12 => 'abusefilter-log',
13 => 'vipsscaler-test'
] |
Whether or not a user is editing through the mobile interface (user_mobile) | false |
Whether the user is editing from mobile app (user_app) | false |
Page ID (page_id) | 2602536 |
Page namespace (page_namespace) | 0 |
Page title without namespace (page_title) | 'Gandhism' |
Full page title (page_prefixedtitle) | 'Gandhism' |
Edit protection level of the page (page_restrictions_edit) | [] |
Last ten users to contribute to the page (page_recent_contributors) | [
0 => 'Citation bot',
1 => '23impartial',
2 => 'GorillaWarfare',
3 => '106.216.160.231',
4 => 'Kku',
5 => 'Bbb23',
6 => 'Katoehueleacaca',
7 => 'Ayubist',
8 => 'Onel5969',
9 => 'Filmssssssssssss'
] |
Page age in seconds (page_age) | 590079635 |
Action (action) | 'edit' |
Edit summary/reason (summary) | 'freghy' |
Time since last page edit in seconds (page_last_edit_age) | 1643585 |
Old content model (old_content_model) | 'wikitext' |
New content model (new_content_model) | 'wikitext' |
Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Body of ideas inspired by Mahatma Gandhi}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
[[Image:Badshah Khan.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] of the [[Khudai Khidmatgars]] and [[Gandhi]] of the [[Indian National Congress]]]]
'''Gandhism''' is a body of ideas that describes the inspiration, vision, and the life work of [[Mohandas K. Gandhi]]. It is particularly associated with his contributions to the idea of [[nonviolent resistance]], sometimes also called [[civil resistance]].
The term "Gandhism" also encompasses what Gandhi's ideas, words, and actions mean to people around the world and how they used them for guidance in building their own future. Gandhism also permeates into the realm of the individual human being, non-political and non-social. A [[:Category:Gandhians|Gandhian]] can mean either an individual who follows, or a specific philosophy which is attributed to, Gandhism.<ref>{{cite book | author = Nicholas F. Gier | title = The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi | publisher = SUNY Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-7914-5949-2 | page = 222 }}</ref>
However, Gandhi did not approve of the term "Gandhism". As he explained:
{{blockquote|There is no such thing as "Gandhism" and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the eternal truths to our daily life and problems...The opinions I have formed and the conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may change them tomorrow. I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and non-violence are as old as the hills.<ref>Gwilym Beckerlegge, World religions reader, 2001</ref>}}
In the absence of a "Gandhism" approved by Gandhi himself, there is a school of thought that one has to derive what Gandhism stands for, from his life and works. One such deduction is a philosophy based on "truth" and "non-violence" in the following sense. First, one should acknowledge and accept the truth that people are different at all levels ("truth"). Second, one should never resort to violence to settle inherent differences between human beings at any level: from between two people to two nations to two races or two religions ("non-violence").
==Antecedents==
Although Gandhi's thought is unique in its own right, it is not without ideological parents. Gandhi has in his own writings specified the inspiration for his saying certain things. It can be said that it is his exposure to the West, during his time in London, that compelled him to look at his position on various religious, social, and political affairs.
Soon after his arrival in London, he came under the influence of [[Henry Stephens Salt]], who was not yet the famous campaigner and social reformer that he would later become. Salt's first work, ''A plea for vegetarianism'' turned Gandhi towards the question of vegetarianism and food habits. It was also around this time that Gandhi joined vegetarian societies in London. Salt eventually became Gandhi's friend too. Talking of the significance of Salt's work, historian Ramachandra Guha said in his work ''Gandhi before India'': "For our visiting Indian, however, the Vegetarian Society was a shelter that saved him. The young Gandhi had little interest in the two great popular passions of late nineteenth-century London, the theatre and sport. Imperial and socialist politics left him cold. However, in the weekly meetings of the vegetarians of London he found a cause, and his first English friends."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gandhi before India|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|publisher=Allen Lane|year=2013|isbn=978-9-351-18322-8}}</ref> Salt's work allowed Gandhi for the first time to take part in collective action. Salt later went on to write a biography of [[Henry David Thoreau]], who had a profound impact on Gandhi. Although Thoreau's 1854 book ''[[Walden]]'' could as well have moved Gandhi, it was his 1849 essay ''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Civil Disobedience]]'' that was of greater importance. Gandhi was already in the midst of a form of civil disobedience in South Africa when he read Thoreau. Not only did he adopt the name for the kind of struggle that he would become a champion of, but also adopted the means of breaking laws in order to call for their reform. In 1907, Thoreau's name first appeared in the journal that Gandhi was then editing, ''[[Indian Opinion]]'', where Gandhi called Thoreau's logic 'incisive' and 'unanswerable'.<ref>Gandhi, MK (26 October 1907). ''Indian Opinion'': 438.</ref>
Gandhi's residence in South Africa itself sought inspiration from another Western literary figure - [[Leo Tolstoy]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gandhi before India|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|publisher=Allen Lane|year=2012}}</ref> Leo Tolstoy's critique of institutional Christianity and faith in the love of the spirit greatly moved him. He would after becoming a popular political activist write the foreword to Tolstoy's essay, ''A letter to a Hindu''. Gandhi exchanged letters with Tolstoy and named his ashram [[Tolstoy Farm]]. In Gandhian thought, Tolstoy's 1894 book ''[[The Kingdom of God Is Within You]]'' sits alongside ''A plea'' and ''Civil Disobedience''.
Tolstoy Farm was Gandhi's experiment of his utopian political economy - later to be called 'Gram Swaraj'. One key source of this concept was [[John Ruskin]]'s 1862 book ''[[Unto This Last]]'' in which Ruskin critiques the 'economic man' (this was written after Ruskin's retreat from Art criticism for which he was well-known). Gandhi tried in all his Ashrams a system of self-sufficiency and decentralised economies. Gandhi was gifted this book by his close associate Henry Polak in South Africa. The philosophy of Ruskin urged Gandhi to translate this work into Gujarati.
In ''Indian Opinion'' there is mention of [[Giuseppe Mazzini]], [[Edward Carpenter]], [[Sir Henry Maine]], and [[Helena Blavatsky]]. Gandhi's first exploration of pluralism can be said to have begun with his association with the Jain guru near home, Raychandbhai Mehta.
==''Satyagraha''==
{{Main|Satyagraha}}
Satyagraha is formed by two Sanskrit words Satya (truth) and Agraha (seek/desire). The term was popularised during the [[Indian Independence Movement]], and is used in many [[Languages of India|Indian languages]] including [[Hindi]].
===Satya===
The pivotal and defining element of Gandhism is [[satya]],{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} a [[Sanskrit]] word for truth.<ref name=aam>[[Arthur Anthony Macdonell|A. A. Macdonell]], Sanskrit English Dictionary, Asian Educational Services, {{ISBN|978-8120617797}}, page 330-331</ref><ref>J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen et al. (2003), Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, Thomson Gale, {{ISBN|0-02-865704-7}}, page 405</ref> It also refers to a virtue in [[Indian religions]], referring to being truthful in one's thought, speech and action. Satya is also called as truth.<ref name=knt>KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816077}}, page 87</ref>
Gandhi said:- "The truth is far more powerful than any weapon of mass destruction."<ref>Nonviolence By Senthil Ram, Ralph Summy, 2007</ref>
==Pacifism and Ahimsa==
{{see also|Brahmacharya|Ahimsa|Henry David Thoreau|Leo Tolstoy}}
The concept of nonviolence (ahimsa) and nonviolent resistance has a long history in Indian religious thought and has had many revivals in Christian, Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim, and Jain contexts. Gandhi explains his philosophy and way of life in his autobiography, ''The Story of My Experiments with Truth''. He was quoted as saying that:
:"What difference does it make to the dead, the orphans, and the homeless, whether the mad destruction is wrought under the name of totalitarianism or the holy name of liberty and democracy?"<ref>page 388, The collected works of Mahatma Gandhi, by Gandhi (Mahatma), India. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Publications Division</ref>
:"It has always been easier to destroy than to create".<ref>Trustworthiness
by Bruce Glassman – Juvenile Nonfiction – 2008</ref>
:"There are many causes that I am prepared to die for but no causes that I am prepared to kill for".<ref>Trustworthiness, by Bruce Glassman – Juvenile Nonfiction – 2008</ref>
In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi issued two public appeals for Indians to enlist in the [[British Indian Army]] to fight in the [[World War I|First World War]]. He asserted that fighting in the war would provide Indians necessary self-defense skills that had been eroded by the deep-seated influence of India's ascetic culture, which he disdained.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi|last=Parel|first=Anthony|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-521-11670-1 |editor=Judith Brown |editor2=Anthony Parel |location=New York|pages=154–170|chapter=Gandhi and the State}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi|last=Hardiman|first=David|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-521-11670-1 |editor=Judith Brown |editor2=Anthony Parel|location=New York|pages=239–254|chapter=Gandhi's Global Legacy}}</ref>
This advocacy of violence led some of his staunchest supporters, including his nephew, Maganlal Gandhi, to question whether Gandhi was forsaking his non-violent ideals.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas|publisher=The Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.|year=1965|volume=14|location=Ahmedabad|pages=504–505}}</ref> In a July 1918 letter replying to his nephew, Gandhi stated that any conception of non-violence that prohibited self-defense was erroneous. To support this argument, Gandhi criticized the ethics of love and absolute ahimsa (non-violence) he observed in the teachings of Swaminarayan and Vallabhacharya. According to Gandhi, this love was mere "sentimentalism", and its concomitant absolute ahimsa "robbed us of our manliness" and "made the people incapable of self-defence". Gandhi wrote that Swaminarayan and Vallabhacharya had not grasped the essence of non-violence. Instead Gandhi argued for a non-violence that would "permit [our offspring] to commit violence, to use their strength to fight", since that capacity for violence could be used for the benefit of society, like in "restraining a drunkard from doing evil" or "killing a dog…infected with rabies".<ref name=":3" />
By 1924, however, Gandhi's criticism of Swaminarayan and his ethical teachings had turned into admiration. While arguing in a Navjivan newspaper editorial that it was a duty to resort to violence for self-defense against Afghani terrorists, Gandhi admitted that he could not personally adopt this approach because he had chosen the path of love even against his enemies. Gandhi explained that, according to the Hindu scriptures, a single such self-controlled person could eradicate violence from the hearts of one's opposition. It was through this power of love that Gandhi asserted, "what was accomplished in Gujarat by one person, Sahajanand [Swaminarayan], could not be accomplished by the power of the State". Moreover, he said that "The Age of Sahajanand has not come to an end. It is only devotion and self-control like his that are wanted". Ultimately, Gandhi said that while he was attempting Swaminarayan's approach himself, he did "not have the strength of heart to act upon" it the way that Swaminarayan had successfully done.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas|publisher=The Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.|year=1965|volume=23|location=Ahmedabad|pages=468–469}}</ref>
Over time, Gandhi's religious thought showed a further influence of Swaminarayan's teachings, as, by 1930, he had included many hymns composed by Swaminarayan poets in his ''Ashram Bhajanavali'', a book of prayers which were used in his twice-daily prayer service.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gandhi's Religious Thought|last=Chatterjee|first=Margaret|publisher=The Macmillan Press, LTD.|year=1983|isbn=978-1-349-05367-4|location=London|pages=156}}</ref> In his writings, he often drew inspiration from the spiritual teachings of Swaminarayan saint-poets [[Nishkulanand Swami]] and [[Muktanand Swami]], the latter being the author of his most frequently used prayer.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/hinduwisdomforal00fran/page/51|title=Hindu Wisdom for All God's Children|last=Clooney|first=Francis X.|publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers|year=2005|isbn=1-59752-068-3|location=Eugene, Oregon|pages=[https://archive.org/details/hinduwisdomforal00fran/page/51 51]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Rule, Protest, Identity: Aspects of Modern South Asia|last1=Robb|first1=Peter|last2=Taylor|first2=David|publisher=Curzon Press|year=1978|isbn=978-0391008663|pages=121}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Mahatma Gandhi at Work: His Own Story Continued|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas|publisher=Routledge|year=2019|editor-last=Andrews|editor-first=C.F.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand/page/8|title=The Gandhi reader : a source book of his life and writings|last=Gandhi|first=Mahatma|publisher=Grove Press|year=1994|isbn=0802131611|editor-last=Homer|editor-first=Jack A.|edition=Rev|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand/page/8 8]|oclc=32833421|orig-year=1956}}</ref> Indian sociologist and Gandhian contemporary, N. A. Thoothi, had argued by 1935 that Mahatma Gandhi was "most influenced in his inner-most being… by the teachings of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya above all". Thoothi concluded that "most of [Gandhi’s] thought, activities, and even methods of most of the institutions which he has been building up and serving, have the flavor of Swaminarayan, more than that of any other sect of Hinduism".<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Vaishnavas of Gujarat: Being a study of methods of investigation of social phenomena|last=Thoothi|first=N.A.|publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co, LTD.|year=1938|location=Calcutta|pages=279}}</ref>
On 6 July 1940, Gandhi published an article in ''[[Harijan]]'' which applied these philosophies to the question of British involvement in the [[World War II|Second World War]]. Homer Jack notes in his reprint of this article, "To Every Briton" (''The Gandhi Reader''<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR14 ''The Gandhi Reader'']</ref>) that, "to Gandhi, all war was wrong, and suddenly it 'came to him like a flash' to appeal to the British to adopt the method of non-violence."<ref>Jack, Homer. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR13 Gandhi Reader]'', p.344</ref> In this article, Gandhi stated,
:I appeal to every Briton, wherever he may be now, to accept the method of non-violence instead of that of war, for the adjustment of relations between nations and other matters [...] I do not want Britain to be defeated, nor do I want her to be victorious in a trial of brute strength [...] I venture to present you with a nobler and braver way worthier of the bravest soldier. I want you to fight Nazism without arms, or, if I am to maintain military terminology, with non-violent arms. I would like you to lay down the arms you have as being useless for saving you or humanity. You will invite Herr Hitler and Signor Mussolini to take what they want of the countries you call your possessions. Let them take possession of your beautiful island, with your many beautiful buildings. You will give all these but neither your souls, nor your minds. If these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes, you will vacate them. If they do not give you free passage out, you will allow yourself, man, woman, and child, to be slaughtered, but you will refuse to owe allegiance to them [...] my non-violence demands universal love, and you are not a small part of it. It is that love which has prompted my appeal to you.<ref>Jack, Homer. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR13 Gandhi Reader]'', pp.345–6</ref>
==Economics==
{{Main|Gandhian economics|Swadeshi}}
Gandhi espoused an economic theory of [[simple living]] and [[self-sufficiency]]/import substitution, rather than generating exports like [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]] did. He envisioned a more agrarian India upon independence that would focus on meeting the material needs of its citizenry prior to generating wealth and industrialising.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mia Mahmudur Rahim|author2=Sanjaya Kuruppu|editor1-last=Ngwu|editor1-first=Franklin|editor2-last=Onyeka|editor2-first=Osuji|editor3-last=Frank|editor3-first=Stephen|title=Corporate Governance in Developing and Emerging Markets|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|url=http://www.tandfebooks.com/isbn/9781315666020|chapter=Corporate Governance in India: The Potential for Ghandism|doi=10.4324/9781315666020|isbn=9781315666020}}</ref>
===Khadi===
{{wikisource|The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/Part_V/The_Birth_of_Khadi|The Birth of Khadi}}
Gandhi also adopted the clothing style of most Indians in the early 20th century. His adoption of [[khadi]], or homespun cloth, was intended to help eradicate the evils of poverty, as well as social and economic discrimination. It was also aimed as a challenge to the contrast that he saw between most Indians, who were poor and traditional, and the richer classes of educated, liberal-minded Indians who had adopted Western mannerisms, clothing and practices.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
The clothing policy was designed as a protest against the economic policies of the colonial government. Ever since the direct establishment of [[The Crown|Crown]] control in 1857, Indians were forced to purchase clothing at artificially inflated prices since the colonial authorities would purchase cotton from Indian mill owners and ship them to Britain, where it was processed into clothing which was shipped back to India. Gandhi targeted foreign-made clothing imports to demonstrate his vision of an independent India which did not rely on foreign influence. He focused on persuading all members of the [[Indian National Congress]] to spend some time each day hand-spinning on their [[Spinning wheel#Charkha|charkhas]] (spinning wheel). In addition to its purpose as an economic campaign, the drive for hand-spinning was an attempt to connect the privileged Indian [[brahmin]]s and lawyers in Congress with the mass of Indian peasantry.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
Many prominent figures of the [[Indian independence movement]], including [[Motilal Nehru]], were persuaded by Gandhi to renounce their Western style-dress in favour of khadi.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
==Fasting==
To Gandhi, [[fasting]] was an important method of exerting mental control over base desires. In his autobiography, Gandhi analyses the need to fast to eradicate his desire for delicious, spicy food. He believed that abstention would diminish his sensual faculties, bringing the body increasingly under the mind's absolute control. Gandhi was opposed to the partaking of meat, alcohol, stimulants, salt and most spices, and also eliminated different types of cooking from the food he ate.
Fasting would also put the body through unusual hardship, which Gandhi believed would cleanse the spirit by stimulating the courage to withstand all impulses and pain. Gandhi undertook a "Fast Unto Death" on three notable occasions:
*when he wanted to stop all revolutionary activities after the [[Chauri Chaura incident]] of 1922;
*when he feared that the 1932 [[Communal Award]] giving separate electorates to [[Dalit (outcaste)|Untouchable]] Hindus would politically divide the [[Hindu]] people;
*and in 1947, when he wanted to stop the bloodshed between Hindus and Muslims in [[Bengal]] and [[Delhi]].
In all three cases, Gandhi was able to abandon his fast before death. There was some controversy over the 1932 fast, which brought him into conflict with the other great leader [[B.R. Ambedkar]]. In the end, Gandhi and Ambedkar both made some concessions to negotiate the [[Poona Pact]], which abandoned the call for separate electorates in turn for voluntary representation and a commitment to abolish untouchability.
Gandhi also used the fasts as a penance, blaming himself for inciting Chauri Chaura and the divisive communal politics of both 1932 and 1947, especially the [[Partition of India]]. Gandhi sought to purify his soul and expiate his sins, in what he saw as his role in allowing terrible tragedies to happen. It took a heavy toll on his physical health and often brought him close to death.
==Religion==
{{Further|Hindu–Muslim unity}}
{{see also|Bhagavad Gita|Dharma|Hinduism|Jainism|Buddhism}}
Gandhi described his religious beliefs as being rooted in Hinduism as well and the Bhagavad Gita:
:"Hinduism as I know it satisfies my soul, fills my whole being. When doubts haunt me, when disappointments stare me in the face, and when I see not one ray of light on the horizon, I turn to the [[Bhagavad Gita]], and find a verse to comfort me; and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming sorrow. My life has been full of tragedies and if they have not left any visible and indelible effect on me, I owe it to the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita".<ref name="ReferenceA">Encyclopaedia of Indian philosophy by Vraj Kumar Pandey – History – 2007</ref>
He professed the philosophy of Hindu Universalism (also see [[Universalism]]), which maintains that all religions contain truth and therefore worthy of toleration and respect. It was articulated by Gandhi:
:"After long study and experience, I have come to the conclusion that all religions are true all religions have some error in them; all religions are almost as dear to me as my own Hinduism, in as much as all human beings should be as dear to one as one's own close relatives. My own veneration for other faiths is the same as that for my own faith; therefore no thought of conversion is possible."<ref>M. K. Gandhi, All Men Are Brothers: Life and Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi as told in his own words, Paris, UNESCO 1958, p 60.</ref>
Gandhi believed that at the core of every religion was truth (satya), non-violence (ahimsa) and the Golden Rule.
Despite his belief in Hinduism, Gandhi was also critical of many of the social practices of Hindus and sought to reform the religion.
:"Thus if I could not accept Christianity either as a perfect, or the greatest religion, neither was I then convinced of Hinduism being such. Hindu defects were pressingly visible to me. If [[untouchability]] could be a part of Hinduism, it could but be a rotten part or an excrescence. I could not understand the raison d'etre of a multitude of sects and castes. What was the meaning of saying that the [[Vedas]] were the inspired Word of God? If they were inspired, why not also the [[Bible]] and the [[Koran]]? As Christian friends were endeavouring to convert me, so were Muslim friends. Abdullah Sheth had kept on inducing me to study Islam, and of course he had always something to say regarding its beauty".<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
He then went on to say:
:"As soon as we lose the moral basis, we cease to be religious. There is no such thing as religion over-riding morality. Man, for instance, cannot be untruthful, cruel or incontinent and claim to have God on his side."<ref>Mahatma Gandhi and comparative religion – Page 54, by K.L. Seshagiri Rao – Biography & Autobiography – 1990</ref>
Gandhi was critical of the hypocrisy in organised religion, rather than the principles on which they were based.
:
Later in his life when he was asked whether he was a Hindu, he replied:
:"Yes I am. I am also a Christian, a Muslim, a [[Buddhist]] and a Jew."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=wIiIWWjWargC&pg=PA5 A Man Called Bapu], Subhadra Sen Gupta, Pratham Books, 2008. P.5</ref>
Gandhi's religious views are reflected in the hymns his group often sang:
* [[Vaishnav jan to]] Call them Vishnava, those who understand the sufferings of others...
* [[Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram]] Call him [[Rama]] or God or Allah...<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Dr Mahesh Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5mlaEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Vaishnav+jan+to+Call+them+Vishnava,+those+who+understand+the+sufferings+of+others...%22&pg=PA7 |title=The Humanistic Philosophy of Gandhi |date=2022-01-22 |publisher=K.K. Publications |page=7 |language=en}}</ref>
==Nehru's India==
{{See also|Sarvodaya}}
Gandhi was assassinated in 1948, but his teachings and philosophy would play a major role in India's economic and social development and foreign relations for decades to come.
''[[Sarvodaya]]'' is a term meaning 'universal uplift' or 'progress of all'. It was coined by Gandhi in 1908 as a title for his translation of [[John Ruskin]]'s ''Unto This Last''. Later, nonviolence leader [[Vinoba Bhave]] used the term to refer to the struggle of post-independence Gandhians to ensure that [[self-determination]] and equality reached the masses and the downtrodden. Sarvodaya workers associated with Vinoba, including [[Jaya Prakash Narayan]] and [[Dada Dharmadhikari]], undertook various projects aimed at encouraging popular self-organisation during the 1950s and 1960s. Many groups descended from these networks continue to function locally in India today.
The [[Prime Minister of India]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], was often considered Gandhi's successor, although he was not religious and often disagreed with Gandhi. He was, however, deeply influenced by Gandhi personally as well as politically, and used his premiership to pursue ideological policies based on Gandhi's principles. In fact, on 15 January 1942, in the AICC session Gandhi openly proclaimed Nehru as his successor.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Rajaji, A life|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|publisher=Penguin India|year=1997}}</ref>
Nehru's foreign policy was staunchly [[Anti-imperialism|anti-colonialism]] and [[Neutral country|neutral]] in the [[Cold War]]. Nehru backed the independence movement in Tanzania and other African nations, as well as the [[Civil rights movement]] in the United States and the [[Internal resistance to apartheid|anti-apartheid struggle]] of [[Nelson Mandela]] and the [[African National Congress]] in South Africa. Nehru refused to align with either the United States or the [[Soviet Union]], and helped found the [[Non-Aligned Movement]].{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
Nehru also pushed through major legislation that granted legal rights and freedoms to Indian women, and outlawed [[untouchability]] and many different kinds of social discrimination, in the face of strong opposition from orthodox Hindus.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
Not all of Nehru's policies were Gandhian. Nehru refused to condemn the [[Soviet Union|USSR]]'s 1956–57 [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|invasion of Hungary]] to put down an anti-communist, popular revolt. Some of his economic policies were criticised for removing the right of property and freedoms from the landowning peasants of [[Gujarat]] for whom Gandhi had fought in the early 1920s. India's economic policies under Nehru were highly different from Gandhi's with Nehru following a socialist model. Nehru also brought Goa and Hyderabad into the Indian union through military invasion.
At this point it is important to note that Gandhi believed in a kind of socialism but one that was very different from Nehru's. In praise of socialism, Gandhi once said, "... socialism is as pure as a crystal. It therefore requires crystal-like means to achieve it."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas|date=13 July 1946|title=The Means|journal=Harijan}}</ref> Moreover, Gandhi was conscious of the fact that Nehru's ideology differed from his but did not object to that as he was aware that this was a well-thought-out standpoint. He called this a difference in emphasis, his being on 'means' while Nehru's being on ends.
Nehru's two biggest failures are thought to be: The [[Partition of India]] which he described and justified as "a necessary evil" and which would lead to the bloody and deadly [[Partition riots]]; and the [[Sino-Indian War]] of 1962, though his wartime policy is said to have been influenced by Gandhian [[pacifism]]. In this instance, it led to the defeat of the [[Indian Army]] against a surprise Chinese invasion. Nehru had neglected the defence budget and disallowed the Army to prepare, which caught the soldiers in India's north eastern frontier off-guard with lack of supplies and reinforcements.
==Freedom==
{{see also|Apartheid|Tiananmen Square protests of 1989|Civil Rights Movement}}
Gandhi's deep commitment and disciplined belief in non-violent civil disobedience as a way to oppose forms of oppression or injustice has inspired many subsequent political figures, including [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] of the United States,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gandhi, Mohandas K. {{!}} The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute |url=https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/gandhi-mohandas-k |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=kinginstitute.stanford.edu |language=en}}</ref> [[Julius Nyerere]] of Tanzania,<ref>Smith, William Edgett (1973). ''Nyerere of Tanzania''. London: Victor Gollanz. p. 59. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/9780575015104|<bdi>9780575015104</bdi>]].</ref> [[Nelson Mandela]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nelson Mandela's Umbilical Bond with Mahatma Gandhi |url=https://diplomatist.com/2020/07/23/nelson-mandelas-umbilical-bond-with-mahatma-gandhi/ |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=Diplomatist |language=en}}</ref> and [[Steve Biko]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Steven Bantu Biko {{!}} AFR 110: Intro to Contemporary Africa |url=https://sites.psu.edu/afr110/2014/10/18/steven-bantu-biko/ |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=sites.psu.edu}}</ref> of South Africa, [[Lech Wałęsa]] of Poland<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mahatma Gandhi guided my conscience during Solidarity movement: Lech Walesa |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/voices/story/19940331-mahatma-gandhi-guided-my-conscience-during-solidarity-movement-lech-walesa-808968-1994-03-30 |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Nanda |first=B. R. |title=Gandhi and Non-violence |date=2004-10-21 |work=In Search of Gandhi |pages=247–253 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195672039.003.0028 |access-date=2024-03-16 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195672039.003.0028|isbn=978-0-19-567203-9 }}</ref> and [[Aung San Suu Kyi]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aung San Suu Kyi: In Gandhi's Footsteps - Articles : On and By Gandhi |url=https://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/gandhi's_footsteps.htm |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=www.mkgandhi.org |language=en}}</ref> of Myanmar.
Gandhi's early life work in South Africa between the years 1910 and 1915, for the improved rights of Indian residents living under the white minority South African government inspired the later work of the [[African National Congress]] (ANC). From the 1950s, the ANC organised non-violent civil disobedience akin to the campaign advanced by the [[Indian National Congress]] under the inspiration of Gandhi between the 1920s and 1940s. ANC activists braved the harsh tactics of the police to protest against the oppressive South African government. Many, especially Mandela, languished for decades in jail, while the world outside was divided in its effort to remove [[apartheid]]. [[Steve Biko]], perhaps the most vocal adherent to non-violent civil resistance, was allegedly murdered in 1977 by agents of the government.
When the first universal, free elections were held in South Africa in 1994, the ANC was elected and Mandela became president. Mandela made a special visit to India and publicly honoured Gandhi as the man who inspired the freedom struggle of black South Africans. Statues of Gandhi have been erected in [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]], [[Pretoria]] and [[Johannesburg]].
[[Martin Luther King Jr.]], a young Christian minister and a leader of the [[civil rights movement]] seeking the emancipation of African Americans from racial segregation in the American South, and also from economic and social injustice and political disenfranchisement, traveled to India in 1962 to meet [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]. The two discussed Gandhi's teachings, and the methodology of organising peaceful resistance. The graphic imagery of black protesters being hounded by police, beaten and brutalised, evoked admiration for King and the protesters across America and the world, and precipitated the [[1964 Civil Rights Act]].
The non-violent [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] movement of [[Lech Wałęsa]] of Poland overthrew a Soviet-backed communist government after two decades of peaceful resistance and strikes in 1989, precipitating the downfall of the Soviet Union.
Myanmar's [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] was put under house arrest, and her [[National League for Democracy]] suppressed in their non-violent quest for democracy and freedom in military-controlled Myanmar. This struggle was inaugurated when the military dismissed the results of the 1991 democratic elections and imposed military rule. She was released in November 2010, when free elections were to be held.
=="Without truth, nothing"==
Mohandas Gandhi's early life was a series of personal struggles to decipher the truth about life's important issues and discover the true way of living. He admitted in his autobiography to hitting his wife when he was young,<ref>Mohatma Gandhi, (1957) An autobiography: The story of my experiments with truth (M. H. Desai Trans.). Beacon Press. pp. 24–25</ref> and indulging in carnal pleasures out of lust, jealousy and possessiveness, not genuine love. He had eaten meat, smoked a cigarette, and almost visited a hustler. It was only after much personal turmoil and repeated failures that Gandhi developed his philosophy.
Gandhi disliked having a cult following, and was averse to being addressed as ''[[Mahatma]]'', claiming that he was not a perfect human being.
In 1942, while he had already condemned [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Benito Mussolini]] and the Japanese militarists, Gandhi took on an offensive in civil resistance, called the [[Quit India Movement]].
==Gandhians==
There have been Muslim Gandhians, such as [[Abdul Ghaffar Khan]], known as the "Frontier Gandhi";<ref>{{Cite web |title=Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan |url=https://kp.gov.pk/page/khan_abdul_ghaffar_khan_1/page_type/person |website=kp.gov.pk}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Nanda |first=B. R. |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/3422 |title=In Search of Gandhi: Essays and Reflections |date=2004-10-21 |publisher= |isbn=978-0-19-908141-7 |pages=107–123 |language=en |chapter=Twelve Abdul Ghaffar Khan: the ‘Frontier Gandhi’}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=6g. Abdul Ghaffar Khan: the Frontier Gandhi |url=https://contensis.uwaterloo.ca/sites/sandboxes/admin/testCopy-1205/lecture-content/module-6/6g.aspx |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=contensis.uwaterloo.ca}}</ref> under the influence of Gandhi, he organised the Pathans of the Northwest Frontier as early as 1919 to support the independence movement.<ref>Ronald M. McCarthy and Gene Sharp, ''Nonviolent action: a research guide'' (1997) p. 317</ref> Christian Gandhians include the Briton [[Horace Alexander]]<ref>Horace Alexander, ''Consider India: An Essay in Values'' (London: Asia, 1961), p. 73</ref> and [[Civil rights movement|civil rights leader]] [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]<ref>Mary Elizabeth King, ''Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr: the power of nonviolent action'' (UNESCO Publishing, 1999), p. 183</ref> Jewish Gandhians include Gandhi's close associate [[Hermann Kallenbach]]. Atheist Gandhians include [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]. Bangladeshi writer, columnist [[Syed Abul Maksud]] is a notable Gandhian in Bangladesh.
==Promotion of Gandhian ideas==
Many committees were formed to promote Gandhian ideas, one such committee was "Committee for the promotion of Gandhiji's teaching and his way of life" in 1957. In its meeting committee recommended to the Ministry of Education to prepare three books incorporating Gandhiji's contribution in important fields one each for primary, secondary and University stage. Ministry of Education was recommended by the committee to celebrate Gandhi week at school level etc. Committee worked hard for collection of work on Mahatma Gandhi and many journals have also been published to promote Gandhian ideas. One of the most well-known is ''Gandhi Marg'',
an English-language journal published since 1957 by the [[Gandhi Peace Foundation]].<ref>[[Ananda M. Pandiri]],
''A Comprehensive, Annotated Bibliography on Mahatma Gandhi:Biographies, Works by Gandhi, and Bibliographical Sources''
Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995
{{ISBN|0313253374}} (p. 349).</ref>
Harold Dwight Lasswell, a political scientist and communications theorist, defined propaganda as the management of eclectic attitudes by manipulation of significant symbols. Based on this definition of Propaganda, Gandhi made use of significant symbols to drive his ideal of an independent Indian nation.<ref>Barlow, David M., and Brett Mills. "Harold D. Lasswell." Reading media theory: thinkers, approaches and contexts. Second Edition ed. Harlow, England: Pearson Longman, 2012. 103. Print.</ref>
His ideas, symbolized in propaganda, stated that India was a nation capable of economic self-sufficiency without the British, a unity transcending religion would make for a stronger nation, and that the most effective method of protest was through passive resistance, including non-violence and the principle of satyagraha. In the "Quit India" speeches, Gandhi says "the proposal for the withdrawal of British power is to enable India to play its due part at the present critical juncture. It is not a happy position for a big country like India to be merely helping with money and material obtained willy-nilly from her while the United Nations are conducting the war. We cannot evoke the true spirit of sacrifice and velour, so long as we are not free." On his ideas towards a unified India he said: "Thousands of Mussalmans have told me, that if Hindu-Muslim question was to be solved satisfactorily, it must be done in my lifetime. I should feel flattered at this; but how can I agree to proposal which does not appeal to my reason? Hindu-Muslim unity is not a new thing. Millions of Hindus and Mussalmans have sought after it. I consciously strove for its achievement from my boyhood. While at school, I made it a point to cultivate the friendship of Muslims and Parsi co-students. I believed even at that tender age that the Hindus in India, if they wished to live in peace and amity with the other communities, should assiduously cultivate the virtue of neighbourliness. It did not matter, I felt, if I made no special effort to cultivate the friendship with Hindus, but I must make friends with at least a few Mussalmans. In India too I continued my efforts and left no stone unturned to achieve that unity. It was my life-long aspiration for it that made me offer my fullest co-operation to the Mussalmans in the Khilafat movement. Muslims throughout the country accepted me as their true friend."<ref>Bandopadhaya, Sailesh Kumar. "The "Quit India" Resolution." My non-violence. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Pub. House, 1960. 183-205. Print.</ref> Gandhi's belief in the effectiveness of passive, non-violent resistance has been quoted as being the "belief that non-violence alone will lead men to do right under all circumstances."
These ideas were symbolized by Gandhi through the use of significant symbols, an important proponent in the acceptance of the ideals he expounded in his speeches and movements. On 3 November 1930, Gandhi gave a speech before the Dandi March which possibly could have been one of Gandhi's last speeches, in which the significant symbol of the march itself demonstrated the exclusively nonviolent struggle to empower a self-sufficient India. Beginning in Ahmedabad and concluding in Dandi, Gujarat, the march saw Gandhi and his supporters directly disobey the [[Rowlatt Act]] which imposed [[History of the British salt tax in India|taxes on salt production]] and enforced the colonial monopoly on the salt market.<ref>Gandhi, M. K., and Mahadev Desai. "On The Eve Of Historic Dandi March." The selected works of Mahatma Gandhi. Ahmedabad, India: Navajivan Publ. House, 1968. 28-30. Print.</ref>
The Khadi movement, which formed part of the larger swadeshi movement, employed the symbol of burning British-made cloth imports in order to manipulate attitudes towards [[boycott]]ing British goods and rejecting [[Western culture]] and urging the return to ancient, precolonial [[Culture of India|Indian culture]]. Gandhi obtained a wheel and engaged his disciples in spinning their own cloth called Khadi; this commitment to hand spinning was an essential element to Gandhi's philosophy and politics.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=2156064 | pmid=18048775 | doi=10.2105/AJPH.2007.120139 | volume=98 | title=Spinning for India's independence | year=2008 | journal=Am J Public Health | pages=39 | last1 = Brown | first1 = TM | last2 = Fee | first2 = E| issue=1 }}</ref>
On 1 December 1948, Gandhi dictated his speech on the eve of the last fast. Using the fast as a form of significant symbolism, he justifies it as "a fast which a votary of non-violence sometimes feels impelled to undertake by way of protest against some wrong done by society, and this he does when as a votary of Ahimsa has no other remedy left. Such an occasion has come my way." This fast was conducted in line with his idea of a nation's communities and religions brought together. Gandhi's fast was only to end when he was satisfied with the reunion of hearts of all the communities brought about without any outside pressure, but from an awakened sense of duty.<ref>"Speech on the Eve of the Last Fast." Famous Speeches by Mahatma Gandhi. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 March 2014. <http://www.mkgandhi.org/speeches/evelast.htm</ref>
==Criticism and controversy==
{{see also|Partition of India|Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi}}
Gandhi's rigid [[ahimsa]] implies [[pacifism]], and is thus a source of criticism from across the political spectrum.
===Concept of partition===
{{Main|Opposition to the partition of India}}
As a rule, Gandhi was [[Opposition to the partition of India|opposed]] to the concept of [[Partition (politics)|partition]] as it contradicted his vision of religious unity.<ref>reprinted in ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].'', Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 106–108.</ref> Of the [[Partition of India|partition of India to create Pakistan]], he wrote in ''[[Harijan]]'' on 6 October 1946:
:[The demand for Pakistan] as put forth by the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]] is un-Islamic and I have not hesitated to call it sinful. Islam stands for unity and the brotherhood of mankind, not for disrupting the oneness of the human family. Therefore, those who want to divide India into possibly warring groups are enemies alike of India and Islam. They may cut me into pieces but they cannot make me subscribe to something which I consider to be wrong [...] we must not cease to aspire, in spite of [the] wild talk, to befriend all Muslims and hold them fast as prisoners of our love.<ref>reprinted in ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].''Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 308–9.</ref>
However, as Homer Jack notes of Gandhi's long correspondence with [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah|Jinnah]] on the topic of Pakistan: "Although Gandhi was personally opposed to the partition of India, he proposed an agreement [...] which provided that the Congress and the Muslim League would cooperate to attain independence under a provisional government, after which the question of partition would be decided by a [[plebiscite]] in the districts having a Muslim majority."<ref>Jack, Homer. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR13 The Gandhi Reader]'', p. 418.</ref>
These dual positions on the topic of the partition of India opened Gandhi up to criticism from both Hindus and Muslims. [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] and his contemporary fellow-travelers condemned Gandhi for undermining Muslim political rights. [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]] and his allies condemned Gandhi, accusing him of politically [[appeasement|appeasing]] Muslims while turning a blind eye to their [[persecution of Hindus|atrocities against Hindus]], and for allowing the creation of Pakistan (despite having publicly declared that "before partitioning India, my body will have to be cut into two pieces"<ref>"The life and death of Mahatma Gandhi", on BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/50664.stm], see section "Independence and partition."</ref>).
His refusal to protest against the [[Capital punishment|execution]] of [[Bhagat Singh]], [[Sukhdev]], [[Udham Singh]] and [[Shivaram Rajguru|Rajguru]] by the colonial government was a source of condemnation and intense anger for many Indians.<ref>[http://www.kamat.com/mmgandhi/onbhagatsingh.htm Mahatma Gandhi on Bhagat Singh].{{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20121209000556/india_resource.tripod.com/gandhi.html |date=9 December 2012 }}.</ref> Economists, such as [[Jagdish Bhagwati]], have [https://web.archive.org/web/20121105204331/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-10-25/india/27797749_1_trade-liberalisation-free-trade-structural-adjustment-loans criticized] Gandhi's ideas of [[swadeshi]].
Of this criticism, Gandhi stated, "There was a time when people listened to me because I showed them how to give fight to the British without arms when they had no arms [...] but today I am told that my non-violence can be of no avail against the [[Religious violence in India|Hindu-Moslem riots]] and, therefore, people should arm themselves for self-defense."<ref>reprinted in ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].'', Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) p. 311.</ref>
==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=40em}}
*[[Ambedkarism]]
*[[Civil resistance]]
*[[Gandhigiri]]
*[[Jackie Robinson]]
*[[Martin Luther King Jr.]]
*[[Marxism]]
*[[Nelson Mandela]]
*[[Nonviolent resistance]]
*[[Satyagraha]]
*[[Tolstoyan movement]]
*[[Trusteeship (Gandhism)|Trusteeship]]
{{colend}}
==Further reading==
*[[Ram Swarup|Swarup, Ram]] (1955). ''Gandhism and communism: Principles and technique''. New Delhi: J. Prakashan.
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
* ''Gandhi today: a report on Mahatma Gandhi's successors'', by Mark Shepard. Published by Shepard Publications, 1987. {{ISBN|0-938497-04-9}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQyPbvLvK_sC&dq=Chandi+Prasad+Bhatt&pg=PP1 Excerpts]
==References==
{{Refbegin|}}
* Fischer, Louis. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].'' Vintage: New York, 2002. (reprint edition) {{ISBN|1-4000-3050-1|}}
*{{cite book|last=Jack|first=Homer|title=The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings |publisher=Grove Press|year=1956|isbn=0-8021-3161-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand |url-access=registration}}
* Hardiman, David. ''Gandhi in His Time and Ours: The Global Legacy of His Ideas'' (2004) {{ISBN|0-231-13114-3|}}
*
*{{cite book|last=Narayan|first=Shriman|title=Relevance of Gandhian economics|publisher=Navajivan Publishing House|year=1970|id=ASIN B0006CDLA8}}
*{{cite book|last=Pani|first=Narendar|title=Inclusive Economics: Gandhian Method and Contemporary Policy|publisher=Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd.|year=2002|isbn=978-0-7619-9580-7}}
*{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=R.|title=Gandhian economics|publisher=Deep and Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd.|year=1997|isbn=978-81-7100-986-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Weber|first=Thomas|title=Gandhi, Gandhism and the Gandhians|publisher=Roli Books Pvt. Ltd.|year=2006|isbn=81-7436-468-4}}
*{{cite book|last=Mashelkar|first=Ramesh|title=Timeless Inspirator-Reliving Gandhi |publisher=Sakal Papers Ltd.|year=2010|isbn=978-93-8057-148-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/timelessinspirat0000unse |url-access=registration}}
{{Refend}}
==External links==
*[http://www.mkgandhi.org/philosophy/gandhiphil.htm Gandhian Philosophy in Short]
*[http://bahai-library.com/gandhimohan_gandhi_bahais_nonviolence#9 Gandhian ideals]
*[http://www.fredsakademiet.dk/library/kumar/kumar4.htm Relevance of Gandhism in Modern Polity]
*[http://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/trusteeship.htm Gandhian Trusteeship as an "Instrument of Human Dignity"]
*[http://www.peacemagazine.org/archive/v14n2p28.htm Review of "Gandhian economics"]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121014055753/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-10-02/edit-page/27850909_1_gandhiji-economics-formulations Gandhian economics is relevant]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070705164639/http://www.iop.or.jp/0414/kawada.pdf Gandhism and Buddhism PDF]
*[http://www.gandhiheritageportal.org/other-books/studies-in-gandhism Studies in Gandhism]
{{Gandhi}}
{{Social and political philosophy}}
{{Indian Independence Movement}}
[[Category:Gandhism| ]]
[[Category:Anti-imperialism in Asia]]
[[Category:Eponymous political ideologies]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Political positions of Indian politicians]]
[[Category:Simple living]]
[[Category:Nonviolence]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Body of ideas inspired by Mahatma Gandhi}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
[[Image:Badshah Khan.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] of the [[Khudai Khidmatgars]] and [[Gandhi]] of the [[Indian National Congress]]]]jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj
vvv
v
ff
rrr
'''Gandhism''' is a body of ideas that describes the inspiration, vision, and the life work of [[Mohandas K. Gandhi]]. It is particularly associated with his contributions to the idea of [[nonviolent resistance]], sometimes also called [[civil resistance]].
The term "Gandhism" also encompasses what Gandhi's ideas, words, and actions mean to people around the world and how they used them for guidance in building their own future. Gandhism also permeates into the realm of the individual human being, non-political and non-social. A [[:Category:Gandhians|Gandhian]] can mean either an individual who follows, or a specific philosophy which is attributed to, Gandhism.<ref>{{cite book | author = Nicholas F. Gier | title = The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi | publisher = SUNY Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-7914-5949-2 | page = 222 }}</ref>
However, Gandhi did not approve of the term "Gandhism". As he explained:
{{blockquote|There is no such thing as "Gandhism" and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the eternal truths to our daily life and problems...The opinions I have formed and the conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may change them tomorrow. I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and non-violence are as old as the hills.<ref>Gwilym Beckerlegge, World religions reader, 2001</ref>}}
In the absence of a "Gandhism" approved by Gandhi himself, there is a school of thought that one has to derive what Gandhism stands for, from his life and works. One such deduction is a philosophy based on "truth" and "non-violence" in the following sense. First, one should acknowledge and accept the truth that people are different at all levels ("truth"). Second, one should never resort to violence to settle inherent differences between human beings at any level: from between two people to two nations to two races or two religions ("non-violence").
==Antecedents==
Although Gandhi's thought is unique in its own right, it is not without ideological parents. Gandhi has in his own writings specified the inspiration for his saying certain things. It can be said that it is his exposure to the West, during his time in London, that compelled him to look at his position on various religious, social, and political affairs.
Soon after his arrival in London, he came under the influence of [[Henry Stephens Salt]], who was not yet the famous campaigner and social reformer that he would later become. Salt's first work, ''A plea for vegetarianism'' turned Gandhi towards the question of vegetarianism and food habits. It was also around this time that Gandhi joined vegetarian societies in London. Salt eventually became Gandhi's friend too. Talking of the significance of Salt's work, historian Ramachandra Guha said in his work ''Gandhi before India'': "For our visiting Indian, however, the Vegetarian Society was a shelter that saved him. The young Gandhi had little interest in the two great popular passions of late nineteenth-century London, the theatre and sport. Imperial and socialist politics left him cold. However, in the weekly meetings of the vegetarians of London he found a cause, and his first English friends."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gandhi before India|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|publisher=Allen Lane|year=2013|isbn=978-9-351-18322-8}}</ref> Salt's work allowed Gandhi for the first time to take part in collective action. Salt later went on to write a biography of [[Henry David Thoreau]], who had a profound impact on Gandhi. Although Thoreau's 1854 book ''[[Walden]]'' could as well have moved Gandhi, it was his 1849 essay ''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Civil Disobedience]]'' that was of greater importance. Gandhi was already in the midst of a form of civil disobedience in South Africa when he read Thoreau. Not only did he adopt the name for the kind of struggle that he would become a champion of, but also adopted the means of breaking laws in order to call for their reform. In 1907, Thoreau's name first appeared in the journal that Gandhi was then editing, ''[[Indian Opinion]]'', where Gandhi called Thoreau's logic 'incisive' and 'unanswerable'.<ref>Gandhi, MK (26 October 1907). ''Indian Opinion'': 438.</ref>
Gandhi's residence in South Africa itself sought inspiration from another Western literary figure - [[Leo Tolstoy]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gandhi before India|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|publisher=Allen Lane|year=2012}}</ref> Leo Tolstoy's critique of institutional Christianity and faith in the love of the spirit greatly moved him. He would after becoming a popular political activist write the foreword to Tolstoy's essay, ''A letter to a Hindu''. Gandhi exchanged letters with Tolstoy and named his ashram [[Tolstoy Farm]]. In Gandhian thought, Tolstoy's 1894 book ''[[The Kingdom of God Is Within You]]'' sits alongside ''A plea'' and ''Civil Disobedience''.
Tolstoy Farm was Gandhi's experiment of his utopian political economy - later to be called 'Gram Swaraj'. One key source of this concept was [[John Ruskin]]'s 1862 book ''[[Unto This Last]]'' in which Ruskin critiques the 'economic man' (this was written after Ruskin's retreat from Art criticism for which he was well-known). Gandhi tried in all his Ashrams a system of self-sufficiency and decentralised economies. Gandhi was gifted this book by his close associate Henry Polak in South Africa. The philosophy of Ruskin urged Gandhi to translate this work into Gujarati.
In ''Indian Opinion'' there is mention of [[Giuseppe Mazzini]], [[Edward Carpenter]], [[Sir Henry Maine]], and [[Helena Blavatsky]]. Gandhi's first exploration of pluralism can be said to have begun with his association with the Jain guru near home, Raychandbhai Mehta.
==''Satyagraha''==
{{Main|Satyagraha}}
Satyagraha is formed by two Sanskrit words Satya (truth) and Agraha (seek/desire). The term was popularised during the [[Indian Independence Movement]], and is used in many [[Languages of India|Indian languages]] including [[Hindi]].
===Satya===
The pivotal and defining element of Gandhism is [[satya]],{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} a [[Sanskrit]] word for truth.<ref name=aam>[[Arthur Anthony Macdonell|A. A. Macdonell]], Sanskrit English Dictionary, Asian Educational Services, {{ISBN|978-8120617797}}, page 330-331</ref><ref>J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen et al. (2003), Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, Thomson Gale, {{ISBN|0-02-865704-7}}, page 405</ref> It also refers to a virtue in [[Indian religions]], referring to being truthful in one's thought, speech and action. Satya is also called as truth.<ref name=knt>KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816077}}, page 87</ref>
Gandhi said:- "The truth is far more powerful than any weapon of mass destruction."<ref>Nonviolence By Senthil Ram, Ralph Summy, 2007</ref>
==Pacifism and Ahimsa==
{{see also|Brahmacharya|Ahimsa|Henry David Thoreau|Leo Tolstoy}}
The concept of nonviolence (ahimsa) and nonviolent resistance has a long history in Indian religious thought and has had many revivals in Christian, Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim, and Jain contexts. Gandhi explains his philosophy and way of life in his autobiography, ''The Story of My Experiments with Truth''. He was quoted as saying that:
:"What difference does it make to the dead, the orphans, and the homeless, whether the mad destruction is wrought under the name of totalitarianism or the holy name of liberty and democracy?"<ref>page 388, The collected works of Mahatma Gandhi, by Gandhi (Mahatma), India. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Publications Division</ref>
:"It has always been easier to destroy than to create".<ref>Trustworthiness
by Bruce Glassman – Juvenile Nonfiction – 2008</ref>
:"There are many causes that I am prepared to die for but no causes that I am prepared to kill for".<ref>Trustworthiness, by Bruce Glassman – Juvenile Nonfiction – 2008</ref>
In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi issued two public appeals for Indians to enlist in the [[British Indian Army]] to fight in the [[World War I|First World War]]. He asserted that fighting in the war would provide Indians necessary self-defense skills that had been eroded by the deep-seated influence of India's ascetic culture, which he disdained.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi|last=Parel|first=Anthony|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-521-11670-1 |editor=Judith Brown |editor2=Anthony Parel |location=New York|pages=154–170|chapter=Gandhi and the State}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi|last=Hardiman|first=David|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-521-11670-1 |editor=Judith Brown |editor2=Anthony Parel|location=New York|pages=239–254|chapter=Gandhi's Global Legacy}}</ref>
This advocacy of violence led some of his staunchest supporters, including his nephew, Maganlal Gandhi, to question whether Gandhi was forsaking his non-violent ideals.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas|publisher=The Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.|year=1965|volume=14|location=Ahmedabad|pages=504–505}}</ref> In a July 1918 letter replying to his nephew, Gandhi stated that any conception of non-violence that prohibited self-defense was erroneous. To support this argument, Gandhi criticized the ethics of love and absolute ahimsa (non-violence) he observed in the teachings of Swaminarayan and Vallabhacharya. According to Gandhi, this love was mere "sentimentalism", and its concomitant absolute ahimsa "robbed us of our manliness" and "made the people incapable of self-defence". Gandhi wrote that Swaminarayan and Vallabhacharya had not grasped the essence of non-violence. Instead Gandhi argued for a non-violence that would "permit [our offspring] to commit violence, to use their strength to fight", since that capacity for violence could be used for the benefit of society, like in "restraining a drunkard from doing evil" or "killing a dog…infected with rabies".<ref name=":3" />
By 1924, however, Gandhi's criticism of Swaminarayan and his ethical teachings had turned into admiration. While arguing in a Navjivan newspaper editorial that it was a duty to resort to violence for self-defense against Afghani terrorists, Gandhi admitted that he could not personally adopt this approach because he had chosen the path of love even against his enemies. Gandhi explained that, according to the Hindu scriptures, a single such self-controlled person could eradicate violence from the hearts of one's opposition. It was through this power of love that Gandhi asserted, "what was accomplished in Gujarat by one person, Sahajanand [Swaminarayan], could not be accomplished by the power of the State". Moreover, he said that "The Age of Sahajanand has not come to an end. It is only devotion and self-control like his that are wanted". Ultimately, Gandhi said that while he was attempting Swaminarayan's approach himself, he did "not have the strength of heart to act upon" it the way that Swaminarayan had successfully done.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas|publisher=The Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.|year=1965|volume=23|location=Ahmedabad|pages=468–469}}</ref>
Over time, Gandhi's religious thought showed a further influence of Swaminarayan's teachings, as, by 1930, he had included many hymns composed by Swaminarayan poets in his ''Ashram Bhajanavali'', a book of prayers which were used in his twice-daily prayer service.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gandhi's Religious Thought|last=Chatterjee|first=Margaret|publisher=The Macmillan Press, LTD.|year=1983|isbn=978-1-349-05367-4|location=London|pages=156}}</ref> In his writings, he often drew inspiration from the spiritual teachings of Swaminarayan saint-poets [[Nishkulanand Swami]] and [[Muktanand Swami]], the latter being the author of his most frequently used prayer.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/hinduwisdomforal00fran/page/51|title=Hindu Wisdom for All God's Children|last=Clooney|first=Francis X.|publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers|year=2005|isbn=1-59752-068-3|location=Eugene, Oregon|pages=[https://archive.org/details/hinduwisdomforal00fran/page/51 51]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Rule, Protest, Identity: Aspects of Modern South Asia|last1=Robb|first1=Peter|last2=Taylor|first2=David|publisher=Curzon Press|year=1978|isbn=978-0391008663|pages=121}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Mahatma Gandhi at Work: His Own Story Continued|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas|publisher=Routledge|year=2019|editor-last=Andrews|editor-first=C.F.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand/page/8|title=The Gandhi reader : a source book of his life and writings|last=Gandhi|first=Mahatma|publisher=Grove Press|year=1994|isbn=0802131611|editor-last=Homer|editor-first=Jack A.|edition=Rev|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand/page/8 8]|oclc=32833421|orig-year=1956}}</ref> Indian sociologist and Gandhian contemporary, N. A. Thoothi, had argued by 1935 that Mahatma Gandhi was "most influenced in his inner-most being… by the teachings of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya above all". Thoothi concluded that "most of [Gandhi’s] thought, activities, and even methods of most of the institutions which he has been building up and serving, have the flavor of Swaminarayan, more than that of any other sect of Hinduism".<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Vaishnavas of Gujarat: Being a study of methods of investigation of social phenomena|last=Thoothi|first=N.A.|publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co, LTD.|year=1938|location=Calcutta|pages=279}}</ref>
On 6 July 1940, Gandhi published an article in ''[[Harijan]]'' which applied these philosophies to the question of British involvement in the [[World War II|Second World War]]. Homer Jack notes in his reprint of this article, "To Every Briton" (''The Gandhi Reader''<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR14 ''The Gandhi Reader'']</ref>) that, "to Gandhi, all war was wrong, and suddenly it 'came to him like a flash' to appeal to the British to adopt the method of non-violence."<ref>Jack, Homer. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR13 Gandhi Reader]'', p.344</ref> In this article, Gandhi stated,
:I appeal to every Briton, wherever he may be now, to accept the method of non-violence instead of that of war, for the adjustment of relations between nations and other matters [...] I do not want Britain to be defeated, nor do I want her to be victorious in a trial of brute strength [...] I venture to present you with a nobler and braver way worthier of the bravest soldier. I want you to fight Nazism without arms, or, if I am to maintain military terminology, with non-violent arms. I would like you to lay down the arms you have as being useless for saving you or humanity. You will invite Herr Hitler and Signor Mussolini to take what they want of the countries you call your possessions. Let them take possession of your beautiful island, with your many beautiful buildings. You will give all these but neither your souls, nor your minds. If these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes, you will vacate them. If they do not give you free passage out, you will allow yourself, man, woman, and child, to be slaughtered, but you will refuse to owe allegiance to them [...] my non-violence demands universal love, and you are not a small part of it. It is that love which has prompted my appeal to you.<ref>Jack, Homer. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR13 Gandhi Reader]'', pp.345–6</ref>
==Economics==
{{Main|Gandhian economics|Swadeshi}}
Gandhi espoused an economic theory of [[simple living]] and [[self-sufficiency]]/import substitution, rather than generating exports like [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]] did. He envisioned a more agrarian India upon independence that would focus on meeting the material needs of its citizenry prior to generating wealth and industrialising.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mia Mahmudur Rahim|author2=Sanjaya Kuruppu|editor1-last=Ngwu|editor1-first=Franklin|editor2-last=Onyeka|editor2-first=Osuji|editor3-last=Frank|editor3-first=Stephen|title=Corporate Governance in Developing and Emerging Markets|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|url=http://www.tandfebooks.com/isbn/9781315666020|chapter=Corporate Governance in India: The Potential for Ghandism|doi=10.4324/9781315666020|isbn=9781315666020}}</ref>
===Khadi===
{{wikisource|The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/Part_V/The_Birth_of_Khadi|The Birth of Khadi}}
Gandhi also adopted the clothing style of most Indians in the early 20th century. His adoption of [[khadi]], or homespun cloth, was intended to help eradicate the evils of poverty, as well as social and economic discrimination. It was also aimed as a challenge to the contrast that he saw between most Indians, who were poor and traditional, and the richer classes of educated, liberal-minded Indians who had adopted Western mannerisms, clothing and practices.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
The clothing policy was designed as a protest against the economic policies of the colonial government. Ever since the direct establishment of [[The Crown|Crown]] control in 1857, Indians were forced to purchase clothing at artificially inflated prices since the colonial authorities would purchase cotton from Indian mill owners and ship them to Britain, where it was processed into clothing which was shipped back to India. Gandhi targeted foreign-made clothing imports to demonstrate his vision of an independent India which did not rely on foreign influence. He focused on persuading all members of the [[Indian National Congress]] to spend some time each day hand-spinning on their [[Spinning wheel#Charkha|charkhas]] (spinning wheel). In addition to its purpose as an economic campaign, the drive for hand-spinning was an attempt to connect the privileged Indian [[brahmin]]s and lawyers in Congress with the mass of Indian peasantry.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
Many prominent figures of the [[Indian independence movement]], including [[Motilal Nehru]], were persuaded by Gandhi to renounce their Western style-dress in favour of khadi.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
==Fasting==
To Gandhi, [[fasting]] was an important method of exerting mental control over base desires. In his autobiography, Gandhi analyses the need to fast to eradicate his desire for delicious, spicy food. He believed that abstention would diminish his sensual faculties, bringing the body increasingly under the mind's absolute control. Gandhi was opposed to the partaking of meat, alcohol, stimulants, salt and most spices, and also eliminated different types of cooking from the food he ate.
Fasting would also put the body through unusual hardship, which Gandhi believed would cleanse the spirit by stimulating the courage to withstand all impulses and pain. Gandhi undertook a "Fast Unto Death" on three notable occasions:
*when he wanted to stop all revolutionary activities after the [[Chauri Chaura incident]] of 1922;
*when he feared that the 1932 [[Communal Award]] giving separate electorates to [[Dalit (outcaste)|Untouchable]] Hindus would politically divide the [[Hindu]] people;
*and in 1947, when he wanted to stop the bloodshed between Hindus and Muslims in [[Bengal]] and [[Delhi]].
In all three cases, Gandhi was able to abandon his fast before death. There was some controversy over the 1932 fast, which brought him into conflict with the other great leader [[B.R. Ambedkar]]. In the end, Gandhi and Ambedkar both made some concessions to negotiate the [[Poona Pact]], which abandoned the call for separate electorates in turn for voluntary representation and a commitment to abolish untouchability.
Gandhi also used the fasts as a penance, blaming himself for inciting Chauri Chaura and the divisive communal politics of both 1932 and 1947, especially the [[Partition of India]]. Gandhi sought to purify his soul and expiate his sins, in what he saw as his role in allowing terrible tragedies to happen. It took a heavy toll on his physical health and often brought him close to death.
==Religion==
{{Further|Hindu–Muslim unity}}
{{see also|Bhagavad Gita|Dharma|Hinduism|Jainism|Buddhism}}
Gandhi described his religious beliefs as being rooted in Hinduism as well and the Bhagavad Gita:
:"Hinduism as I know it satisfies my soul, fills my whole being. When doubts haunt me, when disappointments stare me in the face, and when I see not one ray of light on the horizon, I turn to the [[Bhagavad Gita]], and find a verse to comfort me; and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming sorrow. My life has been full of tragedies and if they have not left any visible and indelible effect on me, I owe it to the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita".<ref name="ReferenceA">Encyclopaedia of Indian philosophy by Vraj Kumar Pandey – History – 2007</ref>
He professed the philosophy of Hindu Universalism (also see [[Universalism]]), which maintains that all religions contain truth and therefore worthy of toleration and respect. It was articulated by Gandhi:
:"After long study and experience, I have come to the conclusion that all religions are true all religions have some error in them; all religions are almost as dear to me as my own Hinduism, in as much as all human beings should be as dear to one as one's own close relatives. My own veneration for other faiths is the same as that for my own faith; therefore no thought of conversion is possible."<ref>M. K. Gandhi, All Men Are Brothers: Life and Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi as told in his own words, Paris, UNESCO 1958, p 60.</ref>
Gandhi believed that at the core of every religion was truth (satya), non-violence (ahimsa) and the Golden Rule.
Despite his belief in Hinduism, Gandhi was also critical of many of the social practices of Hindus and sought to reform the religion.
:"Thus if I could not accept Christianity either as a perfect, or the greatest religion, neither was I then convinced of Hinduism being such. Hindu defects were pressingly visible to me. If [[untouchability]] could be a part of Hinduism, it could but be a rotten part or an excrescence. I could not understand the raison d'etre of a multitude of sects and castes. What was the meaning of saying that the [[Vedas]] were the inspired Word of God? If they were inspired, why not also the [[Bible]] and the [[Koran]]? As Christian friends were endeavouring to convert me, so were Muslim friends. Abdullah Sheth had kept on inducing me to study Islam, and of course he had always something to say regarding its beauty".<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
He then went on to say:
:"As soon as we lose the moral basis, we cease to be religious. There is no such thing as religion over-riding morality. Man, for instance, cannot be untruthful, cruel or incontinent and claim to have God on his side."<ref>Mahatma Gandhi and comparative religion – Page 54, by K.L. Seshagiri Rao – Biography & Autobiography – 1990</ref>
Gandhi was critical of the hypocrisy in organised religion, rather than the principles on which they were based.
:
Later in his life when he was asked whether he was a Hindu, he replied:
:"Yes I am. I am also a Christian, a Muslim, a [[Buddhist]] and a Jew."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=wIiIWWjWargC&pg=PA5 A Man Called Bapu], Subhadra Sen Gupta, Pratham Books, 2008. P.5</ref>
Gandhi's religious views are reflected in the hymns his group often sang:
* [[Vaishnav jan to]] Call them Vishnava, those who understand the sufferings of others...
* [[Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram]] Call him [[Rama]] or God or Allah...<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Dr Mahesh Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5mlaEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Vaishnav+jan+to+Call+them+Vishnava,+those+who+understand+the+sufferings+of+others...%22&pg=PA7 |title=The Humanistic Philosophy of Gandhi |date=2022-01-22 |publisher=K.K. Publications |page=7 |language=en}}</ref>
==Nehru's India==
{{See also|Sarvodaya}}
Gandhi was assassinated in 1948, but his teachings and philosophy would play a major role in India's economic and social development and foreign relations for decades to come.
''[[Sarvodaya]]'' is a term meaning 'universal uplift' or 'progress of all'. It was coined by Gandhi in 1908 as a title for his translation of [[John Ruskin]]'s ''Unto This Last''. Later, nonviolence leader [[Vinoba Bhave]] used the term to refer to the struggle of post-independence Gandhians to ensure that [[self-determination]] and equality reached the masses and the downtrodden. Sarvodaya workers associated with Vinoba, including [[Jaya Prakash Narayan]] and [[Dada Dharmadhikari]], undertook various projects aimed at encouraging popular self-organisation during the 1950s and 1960s. Many groups descended from these networks continue to function locally in India today.
The [[Prime Minister of India]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], was often considered Gandhi's successor, although he was not religious and often disagreed with Gandhi. He was, however, deeply influenced by Gandhi personally as well as politically, and used his premiership to pursue ideological policies based on Gandhi's principles. In fact, on 15 January 1942, in the AICC session Gandhi openly proclaimed Nehru as his successor.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Rajaji, A life|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|publisher=Penguin India|year=1997}}</ref>
Nehru's foreign policy was staunchly [[Anti-imperialism|anti-colonialism]] and [[Neutral country|neutral]] in the [[Cold War]]. Nehru backed the independence movement in Tanzania and other African nations, as well as the [[Civil rights movement]] in the United States and the [[Internal resistance to apartheid|anti-apartheid struggle]] of [[Nelson Mandela]] and the [[African National Congress]] in South Africa. Nehru refused to align with either the United States or the [[Soviet Union]], and helped found the [[Non-Aligned Movement]].{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
Nehru also pushed through major legislation that granted legal rights and freedoms to Indian women, and outlawed [[untouchability]] and many different kinds of social discrimination, in the face of strong opposition from orthodox Hindus.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
Not all of Nehru's policies were Gandhian. Nehru refused to condemn the [[Soviet Union|USSR]]'s 1956–57 [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|invasion of Hungary]] to put down an anti-communist, popular revolt. Some of his economic policies were criticised for removing the right of property and freedoms from the landowning peasants of [[Gujarat]] for whom Gandhi had fought in the early 1920s. India's economic policies under Nehru were highly different from Gandhi's with Nehru following a socialist model. Nehru also brought Goa and Hyderabad into the Indian union through military invasion.
At this point it is important to note that Gandhi believed in a kind of socialism but one that was very different from Nehru's. In praise of socialism, Gandhi once said, "... socialism is as pure as a crystal. It therefore requires crystal-like means to achieve it."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas|date=13 July 1946|title=The Means|journal=Harijan}}</ref> Moreover, Gandhi was conscious of the fact that Nehru's ideology differed from his but did not object to that as he was aware that this was a well-thought-out standpoint. He called this a difference in emphasis, his being on 'means' while Nehru's being on ends.
Nehru's two biggest failures are thought to be: The [[Partition of India]] which he described and justified as "a necessary evil" and which would lead to the bloody and deadly [[Partition riots]]; and the [[Sino-Indian War]] of 1962, though his wartime policy is said to have been influenced by Gandhian [[pacifism]]. In this instance, it led to the defeat of the [[Indian Army]] against a surprise Chinese invasion. Nehru had neglected the defence budget and disallowed the Army to prepare, which caught the soldiers in India's north eastern frontier off-guard with lack of supplies and reinforcements.
==Freedom==
{{see also|Apartheid|Tiananmen Square protests of 1989|Civil Rights Movement}}
Gandhi's deep commitment and disciplined belief in non-violent civil disobedience as a way to oppose forms of oppression or injustice has inspired many subsequent political figures, including [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] of the United States,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gandhi, Mohandas K. {{!}} The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute |url=https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/gandhi-mohandas-k |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=kinginstitute.stanford.edu |language=en}}</ref> [[Julius Nyerere]] of Tanzania,<ref>Smith, William Edgett (1973). ''Nyerere of Tanzania''. London: Victor Gollanz. p. 59. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/9780575015104|<bdi>9780575015104</bdi>]].</ref> [[Nelson Mandela]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nelson Mandela's Umbilical Bond with Mahatma Gandhi |url=https://diplomatist.com/2020/07/23/nelson-mandelas-umbilical-bond-with-mahatma-gandhi/ |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=Diplomatist |language=en}}</ref> and [[Steve Biko]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Steven Bantu Biko {{!}} AFR 110: Intro to Contemporary Africa |url=https://sites.psu.edu/afr110/2014/10/18/steven-bantu-biko/ |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=sites.psu.edu}}</ref> of South Africa, [[Lech Wałęsa]] of Poland<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mahatma Gandhi guided my conscience during Solidarity movement: Lech Walesa |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/voices/story/19940331-mahatma-gandhi-guided-my-conscience-during-solidarity-movement-lech-walesa-808968-1994-03-30 |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Nanda |first=B. R. |title=Gandhi and Non-violence |date=2004-10-21 |work=In Search of Gandhi |pages=247–253 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195672039.003.0028 |access-date=2024-03-16 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195672039.003.0028|isbn=978-0-19-567203-9 }}</ref> and [[Aung San Suu Kyi]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aung San Suu Kyi: In Gandhi's Footsteps - Articles : On and By Gandhi |url=https://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/gandhi's_footsteps.htm |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=www.mkgandhi.org |language=en}}</ref> of Myanmar.
Gandhi's early life work in South Africa between the years 1910 and 1915, for the improved rights of Indian residents living under the white minority South African government inspired the later work of the [[African National Congress]] (ANC). From the 1950s, the ANC organised non-violent civil disobedience akin to the campaign advanced by the [[Indian National Congress]] under the inspiration of Gandhi between the 1920s and 1940s. ANC activists braved the harsh tactics of the police to protest against the oppressive South African government. Many, especially Mandela, languished for decades in jail, while the world outside was divided in its effort to remove [[apartheid]]. [[Steve Biko]], perhaps the most vocal adherent to non-violent civil resistance, was allegedly murdered in 1977 by agents of the government.
When the first universal, free elections were held in South Africa in 1994, the ANC was elected and Mandela became president. Mandela made a special visit to India and publicly honoured Gandhi as the man who inspired the freedom struggle of black South Africans. Statues of Gandhi have been erected in [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]], [[Pretoria]] and [[Johannesburg]].
[[Martin Luther King Jr.]], a young Christian minister and a leader of the [[civil rights movement]] seeking the emancipation of African Americans from racial segregation in the American South, and also from economic and social injustice and political disenfranchisement, traveled to India in 1962 to meet [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]. The two discussed Gandhi's teachings, and the methodology of organising peaceful resistance. The graphic imagery of black protesters being hounded by police, beaten and brutalised, evoked admiration for King and the protesters across America and the world, and precipitated the [[1964 Civil Rights Act]].
The non-violent [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] movement of [[Lech Wałęsa]] of Poland overthrew a Soviet-backed communist government after two decades of peaceful resistance and strikes in 1989, precipitating the downfall of the Soviet Union.
Myanmar's [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] was put under house arrest, and her [[National League for Democracy]] suppressed in their non-violent quest for democracy and freedom in military-controlled Myanmar. This struggle was inaugurated when the military dismissed the results of the 1991 democratic elections and imposed military rule. She was released in November 2010, when free elections were to be held.
=="Without truth, nothing"==
Mohandas Gandhi's early life was a series of personal struggles to decipher the truth about life's important issues and discover the true way of living. He admitted in his autobiography to hitting his wife when he was young,<ref>Mohatma Gandhi, (1957) An autobiography: The story of my experiments with truth (M. H. Desai Trans.). Beacon Press. pp. 24–25</ref> and indulging in carnal pleasures out of lust, jealousy and possessiveness, not genuine love. He had eaten meat, smoked a cigarette, and almost visited a hustler. It was only after much personal turmoil and repeated failures that Gandhi developed his philosophy.
Gandhi disliked having a cult following, and was averse to being addressed as ''[[Mahatma]]'', claiming that he was not a perfect human being.
In 1942, while he had already condemned [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Benito Mussolini]] and the Japanese militarists, Gandhi took on an offensive in civil resistance, called the [[Quit India Movement]].
==Gandhians==
There have been Muslim Gandhians, such as [[Abdul Ghaffar Khan]], known as the "Frontier Gandhi";<ref>{{Cite web |title=Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan |url=https://kp.gov.pk/page/khan_abdul_ghaffar_khan_1/page_type/person |website=kp.gov.pk}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Nanda |first=B. R. |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/3422 |title=In Search of Gandhi: Essays and Reflections |date=2004-10-21 |publisher= |isbn=978-0-19-908141-7 |pages=107–123 |language=en |chapter=Twelve Abdul Ghaffar Khan: the ‘Frontier Gandhi’}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=6g. Abdul Ghaffar Khan: the Frontier Gandhi |url=https://contensis.uwaterloo.ca/sites/sandboxes/admin/testCopy-1205/lecture-content/module-6/6g.aspx |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=contensis.uwaterloo.ca}}</ref> under the influence of Gandhi, he organised the Pathans of the Northwest Frontier as early as 1919 to support the independence movement.<ref>Ronald M. McCarthy and Gene Sharp, ''Nonviolent action: a research guide'' (1997) p. 317</ref> Christian Gandhians include the Briton [[Horace Alexander]]<ref>Horace Alexander, ''Consider India: An Essay in Values'' (London: Asia, 1961), p. 73</ref> and [[Civil rights movement|civil rights leader]] [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]<ref>Mary Elizabeth King, ''Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr: the power of nonviolent action'' (UNESCO Publishing, 1999), p. 183</ref> Jewish Gandhians include Gandhi's close associate [[Hermann Kallenbach]]. Atheist Gandhians include [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]. Bangladeshi writer, columnist [[Syed Abul Maksud]] is a notable Gandhian in Bangladesh.
==Promotion of Gandhian ideas==
Many committees were formed to promote Gandhian ideas, one such committee was "Committee for the promotion of Gandhiji's teaching and his way of life" in 1957. In its meeting committee recommended to the Ministry of Education to prepare three books incorporating Gandhiji's contribution in important fields one each for primary, secondary and University stage. Ministry of Education was recommended by the committee to celebrate Gandhi week at school level etc. Committee worked hard for collection of work on Mahatma Gandhi and many journals have also been published to promote Gandhian ideas. One of the most well-known is ''Gandhi Marg'',
an English-language journal published since 1957 by the [[Gandhi Peace Foundation]].<ref>[[Ananda M. Pandiri]],
''A Comprehensive, Annotated Bibliography on Mahatma Gandhi:Biographies, Works by Gandhi, and Bibliographical Sources''
Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995
{{ISBN|0313253374}} (p. 349).</ref>
Harold Dwight Lasswell, a political scientist and communications theorist, defined propaganda as the management of eclectic attitudes by manipulation of significant symbols. Based on this definition of Propaganda, Gandhi made use of significant symbols to drive his ideal of an independent Indian nation.<ref>Barlow, David M., and Brett Mills. "Harold D. Lasswell." Reading media theory: thinkers, approaches and contexts. Second Edition ed. Harlow, England: Pearson Longman, 2012. 103. Print.</ref>
His ideas, symbolized in propaganda, stated that India was a nation capable of economic self-sufficiency without the British, a unity transcending religion would make for a stronger nation, and that the most effective method of protest was through passive resistance, including non-violence and the principle of satyagraha. In the "Quit India" speeches, Gandhi says "the proposal for the withdrawal of British power is to enable India to play its due part at the present critical juncture. It is not a happy position for a big country like India to be merely helping with money and material obtained willy-nilly from her while the United Nations are conducting the war. We cannot evoke the true spirit of sacrifice and velour, so long as we are not free." On his ideas towards a unified India he said: "Thousands of Mussalmans have told me, that if Hindu-Muslim question was to be solved satisfactorily, it must be done in my lifetime. I should feel flattered at this; but how can I agree to proposal which does not appeal to my reason? Hindu-Muslim unity is not a new thing. Millions of Hindus and Mussalmans have sought after it. I consciously strove for its achievement from my boyhood. While at school, I made it a point to cultivate the friendship of Muslims and Parsi co-students. I believed even at that tender age that the Hindus in India, if they wished to live in peace and amity with the other communities, should assiduously cultivate the virtue of neighbourliness. It did not matter, I felt, if I made no special effort to cultivate the friendship with Hindus, but I must make friends with at least a few Mussalmans. In India too I continued my efforts and left no stone unturned to achieve that unity. It was my life-long aspiration for it that made me offer my fullest co-operation to the Mussalmans in the Khilafat movement. Muslims throughout the country accepted me as their true friend."<ref>Bandopadhaya, Sailesh Kumar. "The "Quit India" Resolution." My non-violence. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Pub. House, 1960. 183-205. Print.</ref> Gandhi's belief in the effectiveness of passive, non-violent resistance has been quoted as being the "belief that non-violence alone will lead men to do right under all circumstances."
These ideas were symbolized by Gandhi through the use of significant symbols, an important proponent in the acceptance of the ideals he expounded in his speeches and movements. On 3 November 1930, Gandhi gave a speech before the Dandi March which possibly could have been one of Gandhi's last speeches, in which the significant symbol of the march itself demonstrated the exclusively nonviolent struggle to empower a self-sufficient India. Beginning in Ahmedabad and concluding in Dandi, Gujarat, the march saw Gandhi and his supporters directly disobey the [[Rowlatt Act]] which imposed [[History of the British salt tax in India|taxes on salt production]] and enforced the colonial monopoly on the salt market.<ref>Gandhi, M. K., and Mahadev Desai. "On The Eve Of Historic Dandi March." The selected works of Mahatma Gandhi. Ahmedabad, India: Navajivan Publ. House, 1968. 28-30. Print.</ref>
The Khadi movement, which formed part of the larger swadeshi movement, employed the symbol of burning British-made cloth imports in order to manipulate attitudes towards [[boycott]]ing British goods and rejecting [[Western culture]] and urging the return to ancient, precolonial [[Culture of India|Indian culture]]. Gandhi obtained a wheel and engaged his disciples in spinning their own cloth called Khadi; this commitment to hand spinning was an essential element to Gandhi's philosophy and politics.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=2156064 | pmid=18048775 | doi=10.2105/AJPH.2007.120139 | volume=98 | title=Spinning for India's independence | year=2008 | journal=Am J Public Health | pages=39 | last1 = Brown | first1 = TM | last2 = Fee | first2 = E| issue=1 }}</ref>
On 1 December 1948, Gandhi dictated his speech on the eve of the last fast. Using the fast as a form of significant symbolism, he justifies it as "a fast which a votary of non-violence sometimes feels impelled to undertake by way of protest against some wrong done by society, and this he does when as a votary of Ahimsa has no other remedy left. Such an occasion has come my way." This fast was conducted in line with his idea of a nation's communities and religions brought together. Gandhi's fast was only to end when he was satisfied with the reunion of hearts of all the communities brought about without any outside pressure, but from an awakened sense of duty.<ref>"Speech on the Eve of the Last Fast." Famous Speeches by Mahatma Gandhi. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 March 2014. <http://www.mkgandhi.org/speeches/evelast.htm</ref>
==Criticism and controversy==
{{see also|Partition of India|Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi}}
Gandhi's rigid [[ahimsa]] implies [[pacifism]], and is thus a source of criticism from across the political spectrum.
===Concept of partition===
{{Main|Opposition to the partition of India}}
As a rule, Gandhi was [[Opposition to the partition of India|opposed]] to the concept of [[Partition (politics)|partition]] as it contradicted his vision of religious unity.<ref>reprinted in ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].'', Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 106–108.</ref> Of the [[Partition of India|partition of India to create Pakistan]], he wrote in ''[[Harijan]]'' on 6 October 1946:
:[The demand for Pakistan] as put forth by the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]] is un-Islamic and I have not hesitated to call it sinful. Islam stands for unity and the brotherhood of mankind, not for disrupting the oneness of the human family. Therefore, those who want to divide India into possibly warring groups are enemies alike of India and Islam. They may cut me into pieces but they cannot make me subscribe to something which I consider to be wrong [...] we must not cease to aspire, in spite of [the] wild talk, to befriend all Muslims and hold them fast as prisoners of our love.<ref>reprinted in ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].''Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 308–9.</ref>
However, as Homer Jack notes of Gandhi's long correspondence with [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah|Jinnah]] on the topic of Pakistan: "Although Gandhi was personally opposed to the partition of India, he proposed an agreement [...] which provided that the Congress and the Muslim League would cooperate to attain independence under a provisional government, after which the question of partition would be decided by a [[plebiscite]] in the districts having a Muslim majority."<ref>Jack, Homer. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR13 The Gandhi Reader]'', p. 418.</ref>
These dual positions on the topic of the partition of India opened Gandhi up to criticism from both Hindus and Muslims. [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] and his contemporary fellow-travelers condemned Gandhi for undermining Muslim political rights. [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]] and his allies condemned Gandhi, accusing him of politically [[appeasement|appeasing]] Muslims while turning a blind eye to their [[persecution of Hindus|atrocities against Hindus]], and for allowing the creation of Pakistan (despite having publicly declared that "before partitioning India, my body will have to be cut into two pieces"<ref>"The life and death of Mahatma Gandhi", on BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/50664.stm], see section "Independence and partition."</ref>).
His refusal to protest against the [[Capital punishment|execution]] of [[Bhagat Singh]], [[Sukhdev]], [[Udham Singh]] and [[Shivaram Rajguru|Rajguru]] by the colonial government was a source of condemnation and intense anger for many Indians.<ref>[http://www.kamat.com/mmgandhi/onbhagatsingh.htm Mahatma Gandhi on Bhagat Singh].{{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20121209000556/india_resource.tripod.com/gandhi.html |date=9 December 2012 }}.</ref> Economists, such as [[Jagdish Bhagwati]], have [https://web.archive.org/web/20121105204331/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-10-25/india/27797749_1_trade-liberalisation-free-trade-structural-adjustment-loans criticized] Gandhi's ideas of [[swadeshi]].
Of this criticism, Gandhi stated, "There was a time when people listened to me because I showed them how to give fight to the British without arms when they had no arms [...] but today I am told that my non-violence can be of no avail against the [[Religious violence in India|Hindu-Moslem riots]] and, therefore, people should arm themselves for self-defense."<ref>reprinted in ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].'', Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) p. 311.</ref>
==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=40em}}
*[[Ambedkarism]]
*[[Civil resistance]]
*[[Gandhigiri]]
*[[Jackie Robinson]]
*[[Martin Luther King Jr.]]
*[[Marxism]]
*[[Nelson Mandela]]
*[[Nonviolent resistance]]
*[[Satyagraha]]
*[[Tolstoyan movement]]
*[[Trusteeship (Gandhism)|Trusteeship]]
{{colend}}
==Further reading==
*[[Ram Swarup|Swarup, Ram]] (1955). ''Gandhism and communism: Principles and technique''. New Delhi: J. Prakashan.
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
* ''Gandhi today: a report on Mahatma Gandhi's successors'', by Mark Shepard. Published by Shepard Publications, 1987. {{ISBN|0-938497-04-9}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQyPbvLvK_sC&dq=Chandi+Prasad+Bhatt&pg=PP1 Excerpts]
==References==
{{Refbegin|}}
* Fischer, Louis. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/ The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas].'' Vintage: New York, 2002. (reprint edition) {{ISBN|1-4000-3050-1|}}
*{{cite book|last=Jack|first=Homer|title=The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings |publisher=Grove Press|year=1956|isbn=0-8021-3161-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand |url-access=registration}}
* Hardiman, David. ''Gandhi in His Time and Ours: The Global Legacy of His Ideas'' (2004) {{ISBN|0-231-13114-3|}}
*
*{{cite book|last=Narayan|first=Shriman|title=Relevance of Gandhian economics|publisher=Navajivan Publishing House|year=1970|id=ASIN B0006CDLA8}}
*{{cite book|last=Pani|first=Narendar|title=Inclusive Economics: Gandhian Method and Contemporary Policy|publisher=Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd.|year=2002|isbn=978-0-7619-9580-7}}
*{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=R.|title=Gandhian economics|publisher=Deep and Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd.|year=1997|isbn=978-81-7100-986-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Weber|first=Thomas|title=Gandhi, Gandhism and the Gandhians|publisher=Roli Books Pvt. Ltd.|year=2006|isbn=81-7436-468-4}}
*{{cite book|last=Mashelkar|first=Ramesh|title=Timeless Inspirator-Reliving Gandhi |publisher=Sakal Papers Ltd.|year=2010|isbn=978-93-8057-148-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/timelessinspirat0000unse |url-access=registration}}
{{Refend}}
==External links==
*[http://www.mkgandhi.org/philosophy/gandhiphil.htm Gandhian Philosophy in Short]
*[http://bahai-library.com/gandhimohan_gandhi_bahais_nonviolence#9 Gandhian ideals]
*[http://www.fredsakademiet.dk/library/kumar/kumar4.htm Relevance of Gandhism in Modern Polity]
*[http://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/trusteeship.htm Gandhian Trusteeship as an "Instrument of Human Dignity"]
*[http://www.peacemagazine.org/archive/v14n2p28.htm Review of "Gandhian economics"]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121014055753/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-10-02/edit-page/27850909_1_gandhiji-economics-formulations Gandhian economics is relevant]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070705164639/http://www.iop.or.jp/0414/kawada.pdf Gandhism and Buddhism PDF]
*[http://www.gandhiheritageportal.org/other-books/studies-in-gandhism Studies in Gandhism]
{{Gandhi}}
{{Social and political philosophy}}
{{Indian Independence Movement}}
[[Category:Gandhism| ]]
[[Category:Anti-imperialism in Asia]]
[[Category:Eponymous political ideologies]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Political positions of Indian politicians]]
[[Category:Simple living]]
[[Category:Nonviolence]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -2,5 +2,475 @@
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
-[[Image:Badshah Khan.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] of the [[Khudai Khidmatgars]] and [[Gandhi]] of the [[Indian National Congress]]]]
+[[Image:Badshah Khan.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] of the [[Khudai Khidmatgars]] and [[Gandhi]] of the [[Indian National Congress]]]]jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+vvv
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+v
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ff
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+rrr
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
'''Gandhism''' is a body of ideas that describes the inspiration, vision, and the life work of [[Mohandas K. Gandhi]]. It is particularly associated with his contributions to the idea of [[nonviolent resistance]], sometimes also called [[civil resistance]].
' |
New page size (new_size) | 50968 |
Old page size (old_size) | 50006 |
Size change in edit (edit_delta) | 962 |
Lines added in edit (added_lines) | [
0 => '[[Image:Badshah Khan.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] of the [[Khudai Khidmatgars]] and [[Gandhi]] of the [[Indian National Congress]]]]jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj ',
1 => '',
2 => '',
3 => '',
4 => '',
5 => '',
6 => '',
7 => '',
8 => '',
9 => '',
10 => '',
11 => '',
12 => '',
13 => '',
14 => '',
15 => '',
16 => '',
17 => '',
18 => '',
19 => '',
20 => '',
21 => '',
22 => '',
23 => '',
24 => '',
25 => '',
26 => '',
27 => '',
28 => '',
29 => '',
30 => '',
31 => '',
32 => '',
33 => '',
34 => '',
35 => '',
36 => '',
37 => '',
38 => '',
39 => '',
40 => '',
41 => '',
42 => '',
43 => '',
44 => '',
45 => '',
46 => '',
47 => '',
48 => '',
49 => '',
50 => '',
51 => '',
52 => '',
53 => '',
54 => '',
55 => '',
56 => '',
57 => '',
58 => '',
59 => '',
60 => '',
61 => '',
62 => '',
63 => '',
64 => '',
65 => '',
66 => '',
67 => '',
68 => '',
69 => '',
70 => '',
71 => '',
72 => '',
73 => '',
74 => '',
75 => '',
76 => '',
77 => '',
78 => '',
79 => '',
80 => '',
81 => '',
82 => '',
83 => '',
84 => '',
85 => '',
86 => '',
87 => '',
88 => '',
89 => '',
90 => '',
91 => '',
92 => '',
93 => '',
94 => '',
95 => '',
96 => '',
97 => '',
98 => '',
99 => '',
100 => '',
101 => '',
102 => '',
103 => '',
104 => '',
105 => '',
106 => '',
107 => '',
108 => '',
109 => '',
110 => '',
111 => '',
112 => '',
113 => '',
114 => '',
115 => '',
116 => '',
117 => '',
118 => '',
119 => '',
120 => '',
121 => '',
122 => '',
123 => '',
124 => 'vvv',
125 => '',
126 => '',
127 => '',
128 => '',
129 => '',
130 => '',
131 => '',
132 => '',
133 => '',
134 => '',
135 => '',
136 => '',
137 => '',
138 => '',
139 => '',
140 => '',
141 => '',
142 => '',
143 => '',
144 => '',
145 => '',
146 => '',
147 => '',
148 => '',
149 => '',
150 => '',
151 => '',
152 => '',
153 => '',
154 => '',
155 => '',
156 => '',
157 => '',
158 => 'v',
159 => '',
160 => '',
161 => '',
162 => '',
163 => '',
164 => '',
165 => '',
166 => '',
167 => '',
168 => '',
169 => '',
170 => '',
171 => '',
172 => '',
173 => '',
174 => '',
175 => '',
176 => '',
177 => '',
178 => '',
179 => '',
180 => '',
181 => '',
182 => '',
183 => '',
184 => '',
185 => '',
186 => '',
187 => '',
188 => '',
189 => '',
190 => '',
191 => '',
192 => '',
193 => '',
194 => '',
195 => '',
196 => '',
197 => '',
198 => '',
199 => '',
200 => '',
201 => '',
202 => '',
203 => '',
204 => '',
205 => '',
206 => '',
207 => '',
208 => '',
209 => '',
210 => '',
211 => '',
212 => '',
213 => '',
214 => '',
215 => '',
216 => '',
217 => '',
218 => '',
219 => '',
220 => '',
221 => '',
222 => '',
223 => '',
224 => '',
225 => '',
226 => '',
227 => '',
228 => '',
229 => '',
230 => '',
231 => '',
232 => '',
233 => '',
234 => '',
235 => '',
236 => '',
237 => '',
238 => '',
239 => '',
240 => '',
241 => '',
242 => '',
243 => '',
244 => '',
245 => '',
246 => '',
247 => '',
248 => '',
249 => '',
250 => '',
251 => '',
252 => '',
253 => '',
254 => '',
255 => '',
256 => '',
257 => '',
258 => '',
259 => '',
260 => '',
261 => '',
262 => 'ff',
263 => '',
264 => '',
265 => '',
266 => '',
267 => '',
268 => '',
269 => '',
270 => '',
271 => '',
272 => '',
273 => '',
274 => '',
275 => '',
276 => '',
277 => '',
278 => '',
279 => '',
280 => '',
281 => '',
282 => '',
283 => '',
284 => '',
285 => '',
286 => '',
287 => '',
288 => 'rrr',
289 => '',
290 => '',
291 => '',
292 => '',
293 => '',
294 => '',
295 => '',
296 => '',
297 => '',
298 => '',
299 => '',
300 => '',
301 => '',
302 => '',
303 => '',
304 => '',
305 => '',
306 => '',
307 => '',
308 => '',
309 => '',
310 => '',
311 => '',
312 => '',
313 => '',
314 => '',
315 => '',
316 => '',
317 => '',
318 => '',
319 => '',
320 => '',
321 => '',
322 => '',
323 => '',
324 => '',
325 => '',
326 => '',
327 => '',
328 => '',
329 => '',
330 => '',
331 => '',
332 => '',
333 => '',
334 => '',
335 => '',
336 => '',
337 => '',
338 => '',
339 => '',
340 => '',
341 => '',
342 => '',
343 => '',
344 => '',
345 => '',
346 => '',
347 => '',
348 => '',
349 => '',
350 => '',
351 => '',
352 => '',
353 => '',
354 => '',
355 => '',
356 => '',
357 => '',
358 => '',
359 => '',
360 => '',
361 => '',
362 => '',
363 => '',
364 => '',
365 => '',
366 => '',
367 => '',
368 => '',
369 => '',
370 => '',
371 => '',
372 => '',
373 => '',
374 => '',
375 => '',
376 => '',
377 => '',
378 => '',
379 => '',
380 => '',
381 => '',
382 => '',
383 => '',
384 => '',
385 => '',
386 => '',
387 => '',
388 => '',
389 => '',
390 => '',
391 => '',
392 => '',
393 => '',
394 => '',
395 => '',
396 => '',
397 => '',
398 => '',
399 => '',
400 => '',
401 => '',
402 => '',
403 => '',
404 => '',
405 => '',
406 => '',
407 => '',
408 => '',
409 => '',
410 => '',
411 => '',
412 => '',
413 => '',
414 => '',
415 => '',
416 => '',
417 => '',
418 => '',
419 => '',
420 => '',
421 => '',
422 => '',
423 => '',
424 => '',
425 => '',
426 => '',
427 => '',
428 => '',
429 => '',
430 => '',
431 => '',
432 => '',
433 => '',
434 => '',
435 => '',
436 => '',
437 => '',
438 => '',
439 => '',
440 => '',
441 => '',
442 => '',
443 => '',
444 => '',
445 => '',
446 => '',
447 => '',
448 => '',
449 => '',
450 => '',
451 => '',
452 => '',
453 => '',
454 => '',
455 => '',
456 => '',
457 => '',
458 => '',
459 => '',
460 => '',
461 => '',
462 => '',
463 => '',
464 => '',
465 => '',
466 => '',
467 => '',
468 => '',
469 => '',
470 => ''
] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => '[[Image:Badshah Khan.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] of the [[Khudai Khidmatgars]] and [[Gandhi]] of the [[Indian National Congress]]]]'
] |
All external links added in the edit (added_links) | [] |
All external links removed in the edit (removed_links) | [] |
All external links in the new text (all_links) | [
0 => 'https://archive.org/details/hinduwisdomforal00fran/page/51',
1 => 'https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand/page/8',
2 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32833421',
3 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR14',
4 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR13',
5 => 'http://www.tandfebooks.com/isbn/9781315666020',
6 => 'https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315666020',
7 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=wIiIWWjWargC&pg=PA5',
8 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=5mlaEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Vaishnav+jan+to+Call+them+Vishnava,+those+who+understand+the+sufferings+of+others...%22&pg=PA7',
9 => 'https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/gandhi-mohandas-k',
10 => 'https://diplomatist.com/2020/07/23/nelson-mandelas-umbilical-bond-with-mahatma-gandhi/',
11 => 'https://sites.psu.edu/afr110/2014/10/18/steven-bantu-biko/',
12 => 'https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/voices/story/19940331-mahatma-gandhi-guided-my-conscience-during-solidarity-movement-lech-walesa-808968-1994-03-30',
13 => 'https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195672039.003.0028',
14 => 'https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof:oso%2F9780195672039.003.0028',
15 => 'https://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/gandhi's_footsteps.htm',
16 => 'https://kp.gov.pk/page/khan_abdul_ghaffar_khan_1/page_type/person',
17 => 'https://academic.oup.com/book/3422',
18 => 'https://contensis.uwaterloo.ca/sites/sandboxes/admin/testCopy-1205/lecture-content/module-6/6g.aspx',
19 => 'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2156064',
20 => 'https://doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.2007.120139',
21 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18048775',
22 => 'https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/',
23 => 'http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/50664.stm',
24 => 'http://www.kamat.com/mmgandhi/onbhagatsingh.htm',
25 => 'https://archive.today/20121209000556/india_resource.tripod.com/gandhi.html',
26 => 'http://www.mkgandhi.org/speeches/evelast.htm',
27 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20121105204331/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-10-25/india/27797749_1_trade-liberalisation-free-trade-structural-adjustment-loans',
28 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=DQyPbvLvK_sC&dq=Chandi+Prasad+Bhatt&pg=PP1',
29 => 'https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand',
30 => 'https://archive.org/details/timelessinspirat0000unse',
31 => 'http://www.mkgandhi.org/philosophy/gandhiphil.htm',
32 => 'http://bahai-library.com/gandhimohan_gandhi_bahais_nonviolence#9',
33 => 'http://www.fredsakademiet.dk/library/kumar/kumar4.htm',
34 => 'http://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/trusteeship.htm',
35 => 'http://www.peacemagazine.org/archive/v14n2p28.htm',
36 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20121014055753/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-10-02/edit-page/27850909_1_gandhiji-economics-formulations',
37 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20070705164639/http://www.iop.or.jp/0414/kawada.pdf',
38 => 'http://www.gandhiheritageportal.org/other-books/studies-in-gandhism'
] |
Links in the page, before the edit (old_links) | [
0 => 'http://www.mkgandhi.org/speeches/evelast.htm',
1 => 'http://www.mkgandhi.org/philosophy/gandhiphil.htm',
2 => 'http://bahai-library.com/gandhimohan_gandhi_bahais_nonviolence#9',
3 => 'http://www.fredsakademiet.dk/library/kumar/kumar4.htm',
4 => 'http://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/trusteeship.htm',
5 => 'http://www.peacemagazine.org/archive/v14n2p28.htm',
6 => 'http://www.gandhiheritageportal.org/other-books/studies-in-gandhism',
7 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=wIiIWWjWargC&pg=PA5',
8 => 'http://www.tandfebooks.com/isbn/9781315666020',
9 => 'https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/',
10 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20070705164639/http://www.iop.or.jp/0414/kawada.pdf',
11 => 'http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/50664.stm',
12 => 'http://www.kamat.com/mmgandhi/onbhagatsingh.htm',
13 => 'https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand',
14 => 'https://archive.org/details/timelessinspirat0000unse',
15 => 'https://archive.org/details/hinduwisdomforal00fran/page/51',
16 => 'https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand/page/8',
17 => 'https://archive.today/20121209000556/india_resource.tripod.com/gandhi.html',
18 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20121105204331/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-10-25/india/27797749_1_trade-liberalisation-free-trade-structural-adjustment-loans',
19 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20121014055753/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-10-02/edit-page/27850909_1_gandhiji-economics-formulations',
20 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32833421',
21 => 'https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315666020',
22 => 'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2156064',
23 => 'https://doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.2007.120139',
24 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18048775',
25 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR14',
26 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR13',
27 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=DQyPbvLvK_sC&dq=Chandi+Prasad+Bhatt&pg=PP1',
28 => 'https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/gandhi-mohandas-k',
29 => 'https://kp.gov.pk/page/khan_abdul_ghaffar_khan_1/page_type/person',
30 => 'https://academic.oup.com/book/3422',
31 => 'https://contensis.uwaterloo.ca/sites/sandboxes/admin/testCopy-1205/lecture-content/module-6/6g.aspx',
32 => 'https://diplomatist.com/2020/07/23/nelson-mandelas-umbilical-bond-with-mahatma-gandhi/',
33 => 'https://sites.psu.edu/afr110/2014/10/18/steven-bantu-biko/',
34 => 'https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195672039.003.0028',
35 => 'https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof:oso%2F9780195672039.003.0028',
36 => 'https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/voices/story/19940331-mahatma-gandhi-guided-my-conscience-during-solidarity-movement-lech-walesa-808968-1994-03-30',
37 => 'https://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/gandhi's_footsteps.htm',
38 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=5mlaEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Vaishnav+jan+to+Call+them+Vishnava,+those+who+understand+the+sufferings+of+others...%22&pg=PA7'
] |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Body of ideas inspired by Mahatma Gandhi</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Badshah_Khan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Badshah_Khan.jpg/300px-Badshah_Khan.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Badshah_Khan.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khan_Abdul_Ghaffar_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan">Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khudai_Khidmatgars" class="mw-redirect" title="Khudai Khidmatgars">Khudai Khidmatgars</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhi">Gandhi</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a></figcaption></figure><p>jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p>vvv
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p>v
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p>ff
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p>rrr
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
</p><p><br />
<b>Gandhism</b> is a body of ideas that describes the inspiration, vision, and the life work of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohandas_K._Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohandas K. Gandhi">Mohandas K. Gandhi</a>. It is particularly associated with his contributions to the idea of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">nonviolent resistance</a>, sometimes also called <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">civil resistance</a>.
</p><p>The term "Gandhism" also encompasses what Gandhi's ideas, words, and actions mean to people around the world and how they used them for guidance in building their own future. Gandhism also permeates into the realm of the individual human being, non-political and non-social. A <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Gandhians" title="Category:Gandhians">Gandhian</a> can mean either an individual who follows, or a specific philosophy which is attributed to, Gandhism.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>However, Gandhi did not approve of the term "Gandhism". As he explained:
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1211633275">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There is no such thing as "Gandhism" and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the eternal truths to our daily life and problems...The opinions I have formed and the conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may change them tomorrow. I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and non-violence are as old as the hills.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>In the absence of a "Gandhism" approved by Gandhi himself, there is a school of thought that one has to derive what Gandhism stands for, from his life and works. One such deduction is a philosophy based on "truth" and "non-violence" in the following sense. First, one should acknowledge and accept the truth that people are different at all levels ("truth"). Second, one should never resort to violence to settle inherent differences between human beings at any level: from between two people to two nations to two races or two religions ("non-violence").
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Antecedents"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Antecedents</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Satyagraha"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext"><i>Satyagraha</i></span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Satya"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Satya</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Pacifism_and_Ahimsa"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Pacifism and Ahimsa</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Economics"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Economics</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Khadi"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Khadi</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Fasting"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Fasting</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Religion"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Religion</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Nehru's_India"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Nehru's India</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Freedom"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Freedom</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#"Without_truth,_nothing""><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">"Without truth, nothing"</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Gandhians"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Gandhians</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Promotion_of_Gandhian_ideas"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Promotion of Gandhian ideas</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Criticism_and_controversy"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Criticism and controversy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Concept_of_partition"><span class="tocnumber">12.1</span> <span class="toctext">Concept of partition</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">16</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">17</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Antecedents">Antecedents</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Antecedents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Although Gandhi's thought is unique in its own right, it is not without ideological parents. Gandhi has in his own writings specified the inspiration for his saying certain things. It can be said that it is his exposure to the West, during his time in London, that compelled him to look at his position on various religious, social, and political affairs.
</p><p>Soon after his arrival in London, he came under the influence of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_Stephens_Salt" title="Henry Stephens Salt">Henry Stephens Salt</a>, who was not yet the famous campaigner and social reformer that he would later become. Salt's first work, <i>A plea for vegetarianism</i> turned Gandhi towards the question of vegetarianism and food habits. It was also around this time that Gandhi joined vegetarian societies in London. Salt eventually became Gandhi's friend too. Talking of the significance of Salt's work, historian Ramachandra Guha said in his work <i>Gandhi before India</i>: "For our visiting Indian, however, the Vegetarian Society was a shelter that saved him. The young Gandhi had little interest in the two great popular passions of late nineteenth-century London, the theatre and sport. Imperial and socialist politics left him cold. However, in the weekly meetings of the vegetarians of London he found a cause, and his first English friends."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> Salt's work allowed Gandhi for the first time to take part in collective action. Salt later went on to write a biography of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a>, who had a profound impact on Gandhi. Although Thoreau's 1854 book <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Walden" title="Walden">Walden</a></i> could as well have moved Gandhi, it was his 1849 essay <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_Disobedience_(Thoreau)" title="Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)">Civil Disobedience</a></i> that was of greater importance. Gandhi was already in the midst of a form of civil disobedience in South Africa when he read Thoreau. Not only did he adopt the name for the kind of struggle that he would become a champion of, but also adopted the means of breaking laws in order to call for their reform. In 1907, Thoreau's name first appeared in the journal that Gandhi was then editing, <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Opinion" title="Indian Opinion">Indian Opinion</a></i>, where Gandhi called Thoreau's logic 'incisive' and 'unanswerable'.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>Gandhi's residence in South Africa itself sought inspiration from another Western literary figure - <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> Leo Tolstoy's critique of institutional Christianity and faith in the love of the spirit greatly moved him. He would after becoming a popular political activist write the foreword to Tolstoy's essay, <i>A letter to a Hindu</i>. Gandhi exchanged letters with Tolstoy and named his ashram <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tolstoy_Farm" title="Tolstoy Farm">Tolstoy Farm</a>. In Gandhian thought, Tolstoy's 1894 book <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></i> sits alongside <i>A plea</i> and <i>Civil Disobedience</i>.
</p><p>Tolstoy Farm was Gandhi's experiment of his utopian political economy - later to be called 'Gram Swaraj'. One key source of this concept was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">John Ruskin</a>'s 1862 book <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unto_This_Last" title="Unto This Last">Unto This Last</a></i> in which Ruskin critiques the 'economic man' (this was written after Ruskin's retreat from Art criticism for which he was well-known). Gandhi tried in all his Ashrams a system of self-sufficiency and decentralised economies. Gandhi was gifted this book by his close associate Henry Polak in South Africa. The philosophy of Ruskin urged Gandhi to translate this work into Gujarati.
</p><p>In <i>Indian Opinion</i> there is mention of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edward_Carpenter" title="Edward Carpenter">Edward Carpenter</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sir_Henry_Maine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Henry Maine">Sir Henry Maine</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Helena_Blavatsky" title="Helena Blavatsky">Helena Blavatsky</a>. Gandhi's first exploration of pluralism can be said to have begun with his association with the Jain guru near home, Raychandbhai Mehta.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Satyagraha"><i>Satyagraha</i></span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Satyagraha"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></div>
<p>Satyagraha is formed by two Sanskrit words Satya (truth) and Agraha (seek/desire). The term was popularised during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Independence_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Independence Movement">Indian Independence Movement</a>, and is used in many <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">Indian languages</a> including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Satya">Satya</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Satya"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The pivotal and defining element of Gandhism is <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">satya</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> word for truth.<sup id="cite_ref-aam_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aam-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> It also refers to a virtue in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religions</a>, referring to being truthful in one's thought, speech and action. Satya is also called as truth.<sup id="cite_ref-knt_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knt-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>Gandhi said:- "The truth is far more powerful than any weapon of mass destruction."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Pacifism_and_Ahimsa">Pacifism and Ahimsa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pacifism and Ahimsa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a></div>
<p>The concept of nonviolence (ahimsa) and nonviolent resistance has a long history in Indian religious thought and has had many revivals in Christian, Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim, and Jain contexts. Gandhi explains his philosophy and way of life in his autobiography, <i>The Story of My Experiments with Truth</i>. He was quoted as saying that:
</p>
<dl><dd>"What difference does it make to the dead, the orphans, and the homeless, whether the mad destruction is wrought under the name of totalitarianism or the holy name of liberty and democracy?"<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<dl><dd>"It has always been easier to destroy than to create".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<dl><dd>"There are many causes that I am prepared to die for but no causes that I am prepared to kill for".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi issued two public appeals for Indians to enlist in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">British Indian Army</a> to fight in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>. He asserted that fighting in the war would provide Indians necessary self-defense skills that had been eroded by the deep-seated influence of India's ascetic culture, which he disdained.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-13">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p><p>This advocacy of violence led some of his staunchest supporters, including his nephew, Maganlal Gandhi, to question whether Gandhi was forsaking his non-violent ideals.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-13">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15">[15]</a></sup> In a July 1918 letter replying to his nephew, Gandhi stated that any conception of non-violence that prohibited self-defense was erroneous. To support this argument, Gandhi criticized the ethics of love and absolute ahimsa (non-violence) he observed in the teachings of Swaminarayan and Vallabhacharya. According to Gandhi, this love was mere "sentimentalism", and its concomitant absolute ahimsa "robbed us of our manliness" and "made the people incapable of self-defence". Gandhi wrote that Swaminarayan and Vallabhacharya had not grasped the essence of non-violence. Instead Gandhi argued for a non-violence that would "permit [our offspring] to commit violence, to use their strength to fight", since that capacity for violence could be used for the benefit of society, like in "restraining a drunkard from doing evil" or "killing a dog…infected with rabies".<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>By 1924, however, Gandhi's criticism of Swaminarayan and his ethical teachings had turned into admiration. While arguing in a Navjivan newspaper editorial that it was a duty to resort to violence for self-defense against Afghani terrorists, Gandhi admitted that he could not personally adopt this approach because he had chosen the path of love even against his enemies. Gandhi explained that, according to the Hindu scriptures, a single such self-controlled person could eradicate violence from the hearts of one's opposition. It was through this power of love that Gandhi asserted, "what was accomplished in Gujarat by one person, Sahajanand [Swaminarayan], could not be accomplished by the power of the State". Moreover, he said that "The Age of Sahajanand has not come to an end. It is only devotion and self-control like his that are wanted". Ultimately, Gandhi said that while he was attempting Swaminarayan's approach himself, he did "not have the strength of heart to act upon" it the way that Swaminarayan had successfully done.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>Over time, Gandhi's religious thought showed a further influence of Swaminarayan's teachings, as, by 1930, he had included many hymns composed by Swaminarayan poets in his <i>Ashram Bhajanavali</i>, a book of prayers which were used in his twice-daily prayer service.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> In his writings, he often drew inspiration from the spiritual teachings of Swaminarayan saint-poets <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nishkulanand_Swami" title="Nishkulanand Swami">Nishkulanand Swami</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muktanand_Swami" title="Muktanand Swami">Muktanand Swami</a>, the latter being the author of his most frequently used prayer.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> Indian sociologist and Gandhian contemporary, N. A. Thoothi, had argued by 1935 that Mahatma Gandhi was "most influenced in his inner-most being… by the teachings of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya above all". Thoothi concluded that "most of [Gandhi’s] thought, activities, and even methods of most of the institutions which he has been building up and serving, have the flavor of Swaminarayan, more than that of any other sect of Hinduism".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 6 July 1940, Gandhi published an article in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Harijan">Harijan</a></i> which applied these philosophies to the question of British involvement in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>. Homer Jack notes in his reprint of this article, "To Every Briton" (<i>The Gandhi Reader</i><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup>) that, "to Gandhi, all war was wrong, and suddenly it 'came to him like a flash' to appeal to the British to adopt the method of non-violence."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> In this article, Gandhi stated,
</p>
<dl><dd>I appeal to every Briton, wherever he may be now, to accept the method of non-violence instead of that of war, for the adjustment of relations between nations and other matters [...] I do not want Britain to be defeated, nor do I want her to be victorious in a trial of brute strength [...] I venture to present you with a nobler and braver way worthier of the bravest soldier. I want you to fight Nazism without arms, or, if I am to maintain military terminology, with non-violent arms. I would like you to lay down the arms you have as being useless for saving you or humanity. You will invite Herr Hitler and Signor Mussolini to take what they want of the countries you call your possessions. Let them take possession of your beautiful island, with your many beautiful buildings. You will give all these but neither your souls, nor your minds. If these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes, you will vacate them. If they do not give you free passage out, you will allow yourself, man, woman, and child, to be slaughtered, but you will refuse to owe allegiance to them [...] my non-violence demands universal love, and you are not a small part of it. It is that love which has prompted my appeal to you.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Economics">Economics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhian_economics" title="Gandhian economics">Gandhian economics</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swadeshi" class="mw-redirect" title="Swadeshi">Swadeshi</a></div>
<p>Gandhi espoused an economic theory of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">simple living</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Self-sufficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-sufficiency">self-sufficiency</a>/import substitution, rather than generating exports like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> did. He envisioned a more agrarian India upon independence that would focus on meeting the material needs of its citizenry prior to generating wealth and industrialising.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Khadi">Khadi</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Khadi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217611005">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:#f9f9f9;display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style>
<div class="side-box-flex">
<div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div>
<div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article:
<div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/Part_V/The_Birth_of_Khadi" class="extiw" title="wikisource:The Story of My Experiments with Truth/Part V/The Birth of Khadi">The Birth of Khadi</a></b></div></div></div>
</div>
<p>Gandhi also adopted the clothing style of most Indians in the early 20th century. His adoption of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khadi" title="Khadi">khadi</a>, or homespun cloth, was intended to help eradicate the evils of poverty, as well as social and economic discrimination. It was also aimed as a challenge to the contrast that he saw between most Indians, who were poor and traditional, and the richer classes of educated, liberal-minded Indians who had adopted Western mannerisms, clothing and practices.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>The clothing policy was designed as a protest against the economic policies of the colonial government. Ever since the direct establishment of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">Crown</a> control in 1857, Indians were forced to purchase clothing at artificially inflated prices since the colonial authorities would purchase cotton from Indian mill owners and ship them to Britain, where it was processed into clothing which was shipped back to India. Gandhi targeted foreign-made clothing imports to demonstrate his vision of an independent India which did not rely on foreign influence. He focused on persuading all members of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a> to spend some time each day hand-spinning on their <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spinning_wheel#Charkha" title="Spinning wheel">charkhas</a> (spinning wheel). In addition to its purpose as an economic campaign, the drive for hand-spinning was an attempt to connect the privileged Indian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">brahmins</a> and lawyers in Congress with the mass of Indian peasantry.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Many prominent figures of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a>, including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Motilal_Nehru" title="Motilal Nehru">Motilal Nehru</a>, were persuaded by Gandhi to renounce their Western style-dress in favour of khadi.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Fasting">Fasting</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Fasting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>To Gandhi, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">fasting</a> was an important method of exerting mental control over base desires. In his autobiography, Gandhi analyses the need to fast to eradicate his desire for delicious, spicy food. He believed that abstention would diminish his sensual faculties, bringing the body increasingly under the mind's absolute control. Gandhi was opposed to the partaking of meat, alcohol, stimulants, salt and most spices, and also eliminated different types of cooking from the food he ate.
</p><p>Fasting would also put the body through unusual hardship, which Gandhi believed would cleanse the spirit by stimulating the courage to withstand all impulses and pain. Gandhi undertook a "Fast Unto Death" on three notable occasions:
</p>
<ul><li>when he wanted to stop all revolutionary activities after the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chauri_Chaura_incident" title="Chauri Chaura incident">Chauri Chaura incident</a> of 1922;</li>
<li>when he feared that the 1932 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communal_Award" title="Communal Award">Communal Award</a> giving separate electorates to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dalit_(outcaste)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalit (outcaste)">Untouchable</a> Hindus would politically divide the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> people;</li>
<li>and in 1947, when he wanted to stop the bloodshed between Hindus and Muslims in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>.</li></ul>
<p>In all three cases, Gandhi was able to abandon his fast before death. There was some controversy over the 1932 fast, which brought him into conflict with the other great leader <a href="/enwiki/wiki/B.R._Ambedkar" class="mw-redirect" title="B.R. Ambedkar">B.R. Ambedkar</a>. In the end, Gandhi and Ambedkar both made some concessions to negotiate the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poona_Pact" title="Poona Pact">Poona Pact</a>, which abandoned the call for separate electorates in turn for voluntary representation and a commitment to abolish untouchability.
</p><p>Gandhi also used the fasts as a penance, blaming himself for inciting Chauri Chaura and the divisive communal politics of both 1932 and 1947, especially the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a>. Gandhi sought to purify his soul and expiate his sins, in what he saw as his role in allowing terrible tragedies to happen. It took a heavy toll on his physical health and often brought him close to death.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Religion">Religion</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Muslim_unity" title="Hindu–Muslim unity">Hindu–Muslim unity</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></div>
<p>Gandhi described his religious beliefs as being rooted in Hinduism as well and the Bhagavad Gita:
</p>
<dl><dd>"Hinduism as I know it satisfies my soul, fills my whole being. When doubts haunt me, when disappointments stare me in the face, and when I see not one ray of light on the horizon, I turn to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a>, and find a verse to comfort me; and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming sorrow. My life has been full of tragedies and if they have not left any visible and indelible effect on me, I owe it to the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita".<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-27">[27]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>He professed the philosophy of Hindu Universalism (also see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">Universalism</a>), which maintains that all religions contain truth and therefore worthy of toleration and respect. It was articulated by Gandhi:
</p>
<dl><dd>"After long study and experience, I have come to the conclusion that all religions are true all religions have some error in them; all religions are almost as dear to me as my own Hinduism, in as much as all human beings should be as dear to one as one's own close relatives. My own veneration for other faiths is the same as that for my own faith; therefore no thought of conversion is possible."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>Gandhi believed that at the core of every religion was truth (satya), non-violence (ahimsa) and the Golden Rule.
</p><p>Despite his belief in Hinduism, Gandhi was also critical of many of the social practices of Hindus and sought to reform the religion.
</p>
<dl><dd>"Thus if I could not accept Christianity either as a perfect, or the greatest religion, neither was I then convinced of Hinduism being such. Hindu defects were pressingly visible to me. If <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">untouchability</a> could be a part of Hinduism, it could but be a rotten part or an excrescence. I could not understand the raison d'etre of a multitude of sects and castes. What was the meaning of saying that the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> were the inspired Word of God? If they were inspired, why not also the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Koran" class="mw-redirect" title="Koran">Koran</a>? As Christian friends were endeavouring to convert me, so were Muslim friends. Abdullah Sheth had kept on inducing me to study Islam, and of course he had always something to say regarding its beauty".<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-27">[27]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>He then went on to say:
</p>
<dl><dd>"As soon as we lose the moral basis, we cease to be religious. There is no such thing as religion over-riding morality. Man, for instance, cannot be untruthful, cruel or incontinent and claim to have God on his side."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>Gandhi was critical of the hypocrisy in organised religion, rather than the principles on which they were based.
</p>
<dl><dd></dd></dl>
<p>Later in his life when he was asked whether he was a Hindu, he replied:
</p>
<dl><dd>"Yes I am. I am also a Christian, a Muslim, a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> and a Jew."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>Gandhi's religious views are reflected in the hymns his group often sang:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vaishnav_jan_to" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaishnav jan to">Vaishnav jan to</a> Call them Vishnava, those who understand the sufferings of others...</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Raghupati_Raghava_Raja_Ram" title="Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram">Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram</a> Call him <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rama" title="Rama">Rama</a> or God or Allah...<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2><span id="Nehru.27s_India"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Nehru's_India">Nehru's India</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nehru's India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarvodaya" title="Sarvodaya">Sarvodaya</a></div>
<p>Gandhi was assassinated in 1948, but his teachings and philosophy would play a major role in India's economic and social development and foreign relations for decades to come.
</p><p><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarvodaya" title="Sarvodaya">Sarvodaya</a></i> is a term meaning 'universal uplift' or 'progress of all'. It was coined by Gandhi in 1908 as a title for his translation of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">John Ruskin</a>'s <i>Unto This Last</i>. Later, nonviolence leader <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vinoba_Bhave" title="Vinoba Bhave">Vinoba Bhave</a> used the term to refer to the struggle of post-independence Gandhians to ensure that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> and equality reached the masses and the downtrodden. Sarvodaya workers associated with Vinoba, including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jaya_Prakash_Narayan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaya Prakash Narayan">Jaya Prakash Narayan</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dada_Dharmadhikari" title="Dada Dharmadhikari">Dada Dharmadhikari</a>, undertook various projects aimed at encouraging popular self-organisation during the 1950s and 1960s. Many groups descended from these networks continue to function locally in India today.
</p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India" title="Prime Minister of India">Prime Minister of India</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a>, was often considered Gandhi's successor, although he was not religious and often disagreed with Gandhi. He was, however, deeply influenced by Gandhi personally as well as politically, and used his premiership to pursue ideological policies based on Gandhi's principles. In fact, on 15 January 1942, in the AICC session Gandhi openly proclaimed Nehru as his successor.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>Nehru's foreign policy was staunchly <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">anti-colonialism</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutral_country" title="Neutral country">neutral</a> in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. Nehru backed the independence movement in Tanzania and other African nations, as well as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> in the United States and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internal_resistance_to_apartheid" title="Internal resistance to apartheid">anti-apartheid struggle</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> in South Africa. Nehru refused to align with either the United States or the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, and helped found the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Nehru also pushed through major legislation that granted legal rights and freedoms to Indian women, and outlawed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">untouchability</a> and many different kinds of social discrimination, in the face of strong opposition from orthodox Hindus.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Not all of Nehru's policies were Gandhian. Nehru refused to condemn the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a>'s 1956–57 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">invasion of Hungary</a> to put down an anti-communist, popular revolt. Some of his economic policies were criticised for removing the right of property and freedoms from the landowning peasants of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> for whom Gandhi had fought in the early 1920s. India's economic policies under Nehru were highly different from Gandhi's with Nehru following a socialist model. Nehru also brought Goa and Hyderabad into the Indian union through military invasion.
</p><p>At this point it is important to note that Gandhi believed in a kind of socialism but one that was very different from Nehru's. In praise of socialism, Gandhi once said, "... socialism is as pure as a crystal. It therefore requires crystal-like means to achieve it."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> Moreover, Gandhi was conscious of the fact that Nehru's ideology differed from his but did not object to that as he was aware that this was a well-thought-out standpoint. He called this a difference in emphasis, his being on 'means' while Nehru's being on ends.
</p><p>Nehru's two biggest failures are thought to be: The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a> which he described and justified as "a necessary evil" and which would lead to the bloody and deadly <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Partition riots">Partition riots</a>; and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a> of 1962, though his wartime policy is said to have been influenced by Gandhian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifism</a>. In this instance, it led to the defeat of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Army" title="Indian Army">Indian Army</a> against a surprise Chinese invasion. Nehru had neglected the defence budget and disallowed the Army to prepare, which caught the soldiers in India's north eastern frontier off-guard with lack of supplies and reinforcements.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Freedom">Freedom</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Freedom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiananmen Square protests of 1989">Tiananmen Square protests of 1989</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></div>
<p>Gandhi's deep commitment and disciplined belief in non-violent civil disobedience as a way to oppose forms of oppression or injustice has inspired many subsequent political figures, including <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> of the United States,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Julius Nyerere</a> of Tanzania,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup> of South Africa, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a> of Poland<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> of Myanmar.
</p><p>Gandhi's early life work in South Africa between the years 1910 and 1915, for the improved rights of Indian residents living under the white minority South African government inspired the later work of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> (ANC). From the 1950s, the ANC organised non-violent civil disobedience akin to the campaign advanced by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a> under the inspiration of Gandhi between the 1920s and 1940s. ANC activists braved the harsh tactics of the police to protest against the oppressive South African government. Many, especially Mandela, languished for decades in jail, while the world outside was divided in its effort to remove <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a>, perhaps the most vocal adherent to non-violent civil resistance, was allegedly murdered in 1977 by agents of the government.
When the first universal, free elections were held in South Africa in 1994, the ANC was elected and Mandela became president. Mandela made a special visit to India and publicly honoured Gandhi as the man who inspired the freedom struggle of black South Africans. Statues of Gandhi have been erected in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/KwaZulu-Natal_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="KwaZulu-Natal Province">Natal</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pretoria" title="Pretoria">Pretoria</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Johannesburg" title="Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a>.
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, a young Christian minister and a leader of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> seeking the emancipation of African Americans from racial segregation in the American South, and also from economic and social injustice and political disenfranchisement, traveled to India in 1962 to meet <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a>. The two discussed Gandhi's teachings, and the methodology of organising peaceful resistance. The graphic imagery of black protesters being hounded by police, beaten and brutalised, evoked admiration for King and the protesters across America and the world, and precipitated the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/1964_Civil_Rights_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="1964 Civil Rights Act">1964 Civil Rights Act</a>.
</p><p>The non-violent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a> movement of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a> of Poland overthrew a Soviet-backed communist government after two decades of peaceful resistance and strikes in 1989, precipitating the downfall of the Soviet Union.
</p><p>Myanmar's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a> was put under house arrest, and her <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_League_for_Democracy" title="National League for Democracy">National League for Democracy</a> suppressed in their non-violent quest for democracy and freedom in military-controlled Myanmar. This struggle was inaugurated when the military dismissed the results of the 1991 democratic elections and imposed military rule. She was released in November 2010, when free elections were to be held.
</p>
<h2><span id=".22Without_truth.2C_nothing.22"></span><span class="mw-headline" id=""Without_truth,_nothing"">"Without truth, nothing"</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: "Without truth, nothing""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Mohandas Gandhi's early life was a series of personal struggles to decipher the truth about life's important issues and discover the true way of living. He admitted in his autobiography to hitting his wife when he was young,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> and indulging in carnal pleasures out of lust, jealousy and possessiveness, not genuine love. He had eaten meat, smoked a cigarette, and almost visited a hustler. It was only after much personal turmoil and repeated failures that Gandhi developed his philosophy.
</p><p>Gandhi disliked having a cult following, and was averse to being addressed as <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma" title="Mahatma">Mahatma</a></i>, claiming that he was not a perfect human being.
</p><p>In 1942, while he had already condemned <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> and the Japanese militarists, Gandhi took on an offensive in civil resistance, called the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quit_India_Movement" title="Quit India Movement">Quit India Movement</a>.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Gandhians">Gandhians</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Gandhians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>There have been Muslim Gandhians, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdul_Ghaffar_Khan" title="Abdul Ghaffar Khan">Abdul Ghaffar Khan</a>, known as the "Frontier Gandhi";<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-43">[43]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> under the influence of Gandhi, he organised the Pathans of the Northwest Frontier as early as 1919 to support the independence movement.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> Christian Gandhians include the Briton <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horace_Alexander" title="Horace Alexander">Horace Alexander</a><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights leader</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> Jewish Gandhians include Gandhi's close associate <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hermann_Kallenbach" title="Hermann Kallenbach">Hermann Kallenbach</a>. Atheist Gandhians include <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a>. Bangladeshi writer, columnist <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syed_Abul_Maksud" title="Syed Abul Maksud">Syed Abul Maksud</a> is a notable Gandhian in Bangladesh.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Promotion_of_Gandhian_ideas">Promotion of Gandhian ideas</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Promotion of Gandhian ideas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Many committees were formed to promote Gandhian ideas, one such committee was "Committee for the promotion of Gandhiji's teaching and his way of life" in 1957. In its meeting committee recommended to the Ministry of Education to prepare three books incorporating Gandhiji's contribution in important fields one each for primary, secondary and University stage. Ministry of Education was recommended by the committee to celebrate Gandhi week at school level etc. Committee worked hard for collection of work on Mahatma Gandhi and many journals have also been published to promote Gandhian ideas. One of the most well-known is <i>Gandhi Marg</i>,
an English-language journal published since 1957 by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Peace_Foundation" title="Gandhi Peace Foundation">Gandhi Peace Foundation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup>
</p><p>Harold Dwight Lasswell, a political scientist and communications theorist, defined propaganda as the management of eclectic attitudes by manipulation of significant symbols. Based on this definition of Propaganda, Gandhi made use of significant symbols to drive his ideal of an independent Indian nation.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup>
</p><p>His ideas, symbolized in propaganda, stated that India was a nation capable of economic self-sufficiency without the British, a unity transcending religion would make for a stronger nation, and that the most effective method of protest was through passive resistance, including non-violence and the principle of satyagraha. In the "Quit India" speeches, Gandhi says "the proposal for the withdrawal of British power is to enable India to play its due part at the present critical juncture. It is not a happy position for a big country like India to be merely helping with money and material obtained willy-nilly from her while the United Nations are conducting the war. We cannot evoke the true spirit of sacrifice and velour, so long as we are not free." On his ideas towards a unified India he said: "Thousands of Mussalmans have told me, that if Hindu-Muslim question was to be solved satisfactorily, it must be done in my lifetime. I should feel flattered at this; but how can I agree to proposal which does not appeal to my reason? Hindu-Muslim unity is not a new thing. Millions of Hindus and Mussalmans have sought after it. I consciously strove for its achievement from my boyhood. While at school, I made it a point to cultivate the friendship of Muslims and Parsi co-students. I believed even at that tender age that the Hindus in India, if they wished to live in peace and amity with the other communities, should assiduously cultivate the virtue of neighbourliness. It did not matter, I felt, if I made no special effort to cultivate the friendship with Hindus, but I must make friends with at least a few Mussalmans. In India too I continued my efforts and left no stone unturned to achieve that unity. It was my life-long aspiration for it that made me offer my fullest co-operation to the Mussalmans in the Khilafat movement. Muslims throughout the country accepted me as their true friend."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> Gandhi's belief in the effectiveness of passive, non-violent resistance has been quoted as being the "belief that non-violence alone will lead men to do right under all circumstances."
</p><p>These ideas were symbolized by Gandhi through the use of significant symbols, an important proponent in the acceptance of the ideals he expounded in his speeches and movements. On 3 November 1930, Gandhi gave a speech before the Dandi March which possibly could have been one of Gandhi's last speeches, in which the significant symbol of the march itself demonstrated the exclusively nonviolent struggle to empower a self-sufficient India. Beginning in Ahmedabad and concluding in Dandi, Gujarat, the march saw Gandhi and his supporters directly disobey the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rowlatt_Act" title="Rowlatt Act">Rowlatt Act</a> which imposed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_British_salt_tax_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the British salt tax in India">taxes on salt production</a> and enforced the colonial monopoly on the salt market.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Khadi movement, which formed part of the larger swadeshi movement, employed the symbol of burning British-made cloth imports in order to manipulate attitudes towards <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">boycotting</a> British goods and rejecting <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a> and urging the return to ancient, precolonial <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">Indian culture</a>. Gandhi obtained a wheel and engaged his disciples in spinning their own cloth called Khadi; this commitment to hand spinning was an essential element to Gandhi's philosophy and politics.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 1 December 1948, Gandhi dictated his speech on the eve of the last fast. Using the fast as a form of significant symbolism, he justifies it as "a fast which a votary of non-violence sometimes feels impelled to undertake by way of protest against some wrong done by society, and this he does when as a votary of Ahimsa has no other remedy left. Such an occasion has come my way." This fast was conducted in line with his idea of a nation's communities and religions brought together. Gandhi's fast was only to end when he was satisfied with the reunion of hearts of all the communities brought about without any outside pressure, but from an awakened sense of duty.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Criticism_and_controversy">Criticism and controversy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Criticism and controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assassination_of_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi">Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi</a></div>
<p>Gandhi's rigid <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">ahimsa</a> implies <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifism</a>, and is thus a source of criticism from across the political spectrum.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Concept_of_partition">Concept of partition</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Concept of partition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Opposition_to_the_partition_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to the partition of India">Opposition to the partition of India</a></div>
<p>As a rule, Gandhi was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Opposition_to_the_partition_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to the partition of India">opposed</a> to the concept of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_(politics)" title="Partition (politics)">partition</a> as it contradicted his vision of religious unity.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> Of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">partition of India to create Pakistan</a>, he wrote in <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Harijan">Harijan</a></i> on 6 October 1946:
</p>
<dl><dd>[The demand for Pakistan] as put forth by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/All-India_Muslim_League" title="All-India Muslim League">Muslim League</a> is un-Islamic and I have not hesitated to call it sinful. Islam stands for unity and the brotherhood of mankind, not for disrupting the oneness of the human family. Therefore, those who want to divide India into possibly warring groups are enemies alike of India and Islam. They may cut me into pieces but they cannot make me subscribe to something which I consider to be wrong [...] we must not cease to aspire, in spite of [the] wild talk, to befriend all Muslims and hold them fast as prisoners of our love.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<p>However, as Homer Jack notes of Gandhi's long correspondence with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah" title="Muhammad Ali Jinnah">Jinnah</a> on the topic of Pakistan: "Although Gandhi was personally opposed to the partition of India, he proposed an agreement [...] which provided that the Congress and the Muslim League would cooperate to attain independence under a provisional government, after which the question of partition would be decided by a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plebiscite" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebiscite">plebiscite</a> in the districts having a Muslim majority."<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup>
</p><p>These dual positions on the topic of the partition of India opened Gandhi up to criticism from both Hindus and Muslims. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah" title="Muhammad Ali Jinnah">Muhammad Ali Jinnah</a> and his contemporary fellow-travelers condemned Gandhi for undermining Muslim political rights. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vinayak_Damodar_Savarkar" title="Vinayak Damodar Savarkar">Vinayak Damodar Savarkar</a> and his allies condemned Gandhi, accusing him of politically <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">appeasing</a> Muslims while turning a blind eye to their <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">atrocities against Hindus</a>, and for allowing the creation of Pakistan (despite having publicly declared that "before partitioning India, my body will have to be cut into two pieces"<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup>).
</p><p>His refusal to protest against the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">execution</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bhagat_Singh" title="Bhagat Singh">Bhagat Singh</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sukhdev" class="mw-redirect" title="Sukhdev">Sukhdev</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Udham_Singh" title="Udham Singh">Udham Singh</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shivaram_Rajguru" title="Shivaram Rajguru">Rajguru</a> by the colonial government was a source of condemnation and intense anger for many Indians.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> Economists, such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jagdish_Bhagwati" title="Jagdish Bhagwati">Jagdish Bhagwati</a>, have <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121105204331/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-10-25/india/27797749_1_trade-liberalisation-free-trade-structural-adjustment-loans">criticized</a> Gandhi's ideas of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swadeshi" class="mw-redirect" title="Swadeshi">swadeshi</a>.
</p><p>Of this criticism, Gandhi stated, "There was a time when people listened to me because I showed them how to give fight to the British without arms when they had no arms [...] but today I am told that my non-violence can be of no avail against the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religious_violence_in_India" title="Religious violence in India">Hindu-Moslem riots</a> and, therefore, people should arm themselves for self-defense."<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 40em;">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ambedkarism" title="Ambedkarism">Ambedkarism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">Civil resistance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhigiri" title="Gandhigiri">Gandhigiri</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">Nonviolent resistance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trusteeship_(Gandhism)" title="Trusteeship (Gandhism)">Trusteeship</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ram_Swarup" title="Ram Swarup">Swarup, Ram</a> (1955). <i>Gandhism and communism: Principles and technique</i>. New Delhi: J. Prakashan.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217336898">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNicholas_F._Gier2004" class="citation book cs1">Nicholas F. Gier (2004). <i>The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi</i>. SUNY Press. p. 222. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5949-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5949-2"><bdi>978-0-7914-5949-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Virtue+of+Nonviolence%3A+From+Gautama+to+Gandhi&rft.pages=222&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-5949-2&rft.au=Nicholas+F.+Gier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gwilym Beckerlegge, World religions reader, 2001</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGuha2013" class="citation book cs1">Guha, Ramachandra (2013). <i>Gandhi before India</i>. Allen Lane. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-351-18322-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-351-18322-8"><bdi>978-9-351-18322-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gandhi+before+India&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-9-351-18322-8&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Ramachandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gandhi, MK (26 October 1907). <i>Indian Opinion</i>: 438.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGuha2012" class="citation book cs1">Guha, Ramachandra (2012). <i>Gandhi before India</i>. Allen Lane.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gandhi+before+India&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Ramachandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-aam-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aam_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arthur_Anthony_Macdonell" title="Arthur Anthony Macdonell">A. A. Macdonell</a>, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Asian Educational Services, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120617797" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120617797">978-8120617797</a>, page 330-331</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Wentzel Vrede van Huyssteen et al. (2003), Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, Thomson Gale, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-865704-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-865704-7">0-02-865704-7</a>, page 405</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-knt-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-knt_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120816077" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120816077">978-8120816077</a>, page 87</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nonviolence By Senthil Ram, Ralph Summy, 2007</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">page 388, The collected works of Mahatma Gandhi, by Gandhi (Mahatma), India. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Publications Division</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trustworthiness
by Bruce Glassman – Juvenile Nonfiction – 2008</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trustworthiness, by Bruce Glassman – Juvenile Nonfiction – 2008</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:2-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFParel2011" class="citation book cs1">Parel, Anthony (2011). "Gandhi and the State". In Judith Brown; Anthony Parel (eds.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 154–170. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11670-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11670-1"><bdi>978-0-521-11670-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gandhi+and+the+State&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Gandhi&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=154-170&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-11670-1&rft.aulast=Parel&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHardiman2011" class="citation book cs1">Hardiman, David (2011). "Gandhi's Global Legacy". In Judith Brown; Anthony Parel (eds.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 239–254. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11670-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11670-1"><bdi>978-0-521-11670-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gandhi%27s+Global+Legacy&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Gandhi&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=239-254&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-11670-1&rft.aulast=Hardiman&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:3-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGandhi1965" class="citation book cs1">Gandhi, Mohandas (1965). <i>The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi</i>. Vol. 14. Ahmedabad: The Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. pp. 504–505.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collected+Works+of+Mahatma+Gandhi&rft.place=Ahmedabad&rft.pages=504-505&rft.pub=The+Publications+Division%2C+Ministry+of+Information+and+Broadcasting%2C+Government+of+India.&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Gandhi&rft.aufirst=Mohandas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGandhi1965" class="citation book cs1">Gandhi, Mohandas (1965). <i>The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi</i>. Vol. 23. Ahmedabad: The Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. pp. 468–469.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collected+Works+of+Mahatma+Gandhi&rft.place=Ahmedabad&rft.pages=468-469&rft.pub=The+Publications+Division%2C+Ministry+of+Information+and+Broadcasting%2C+Government+of+India.&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Gandhi&rft.aufirst=Mohandas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFChatterjee1983" class="citation book cs1">Chatterjee, Margaret (1983). <i>Gandhi's Religious Thought</i>. London: The Macmillan Press, LTD. p. 156. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-05367-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-05367-4"><bdi>978-1-349-05367-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gandhi%27s+Religious+Thought&rft.place=London&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=The+Macmillan+Press%2C+LTD.&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-1-349-05367-4&rft.aulast=Chatterjee&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFClooney2005" class="citation book cs1">Clooney, Francis X. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hinduwisdomforal00fran/page/51"><i>Hindu Wisdom for All God's Children</i></a>. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hinduwisdomforal00fran/page/51">51</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59752-068-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-59752-068-3"><bdi>1-59752-068-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hindu+Wisdom+for+All+God%27s+Children&rft.place=Eugene%2C+Oregon&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-59752-068-3&rft.aulast=Clooney&rft.aufirst=Francis+X.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhinduwisdomforal00fran%2Fpage%2F51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRobbTaylor1978" class="citation book cs1">Robb, Peter; Taylor, David (1978). <i>Rule, Protest, Identity: Aspects of Modern South Asia</i>. Curzon Press. p. 121. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0391008663" title="Special:BookSources/978-0391008663"><bdi>978-0391008663</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rule%2C+Protest%2C+Identity%3A+Aspects+of+Modern+South+Asia&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Curzon+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0391008663&rft.aulast=Robb&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Taylor%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGandhi2019" class="citation book cs1">Gandhi, Mohandas (2019). Andrews, C.F. (ed.). <i>Mahatma Gandhi at Work: His Own Story Continued</i>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mahatma+Gandhi+at+Work%3A+His+Own+Story+Continued&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Gandhi&rft.aufirst=Mohandas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGandhi1994" class="citation book cs1">Gandhi, Mahatma (1994) [1956]. Homer, Jack A. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand/page/8"><i>The Gandhi reader : a source book of his life and writings</i></a> (Rev ed.). New York: Grove Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand/page/8">8</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0802131611" title="Special:BookSources/0802131611"><bdi>0802131611</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32833421">32833421</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gandhi+reader+%3A+a+source+book+of+his+life+and+writings&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=8&rft.edition=Rev&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F32833421&rft.isbn=0802131611&rft.aulast=Gandhi&rft.aufirst=Mahatma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgandhireadersou00gand%2Fpage%2F8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFThoothi1938" class="citation book cs1">Thoothi, N.A. (1938). <i>The Vaishnavas of Gujarat: Being a study of methods of investigation of social phenomena</i>. Calcutta: Longmans, Green, and Co, LTD. p. 279.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vaishnavas+of+Gujarat%3A+Being+a+study+of+methods+of+investigation+of+social+phenomena&rft.place=Calcutta&rft.pages=279&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green%2C+and+Co%2C+LTD.&rft.date=1938&rft.aulast=Thoothi&rft.aufirst=N.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR14"><i>The Gandhi Reader</i></a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jack, Homer. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR13">Gandhi Reader</a></i>, p.344</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jack, Homer. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR13">Gandhi Reader</a></i>, pp.345–6</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMia_Mahmudur_RahimSanjaya_Kuruppu2016" class="citation book cs1">Mia Mahmudur Rahim; Sanjaya Kuruppu (2016). "Corporate Governance in India: The Potential for Ghandism". In Ngwu, Franklin; Onyeka, Osuji; Frank, Stephen (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfebooks.com/isbn/9781315666020"><i>Corporate Governance in Developing and Emerging Markets</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315666020">10.4324/9781315666020</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315666020" title="Special:BookSources/9781315666020"><bdi>9781315666020</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Corporate+Governance+in+India%3A+The+Potential+for+Ghandism&rft.btitle=Corporate+Governance+in+Developing+and+Emerging+Markets&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315666020&rft.isbn=9781315666020&rft.au=Mia+Mahmudur+Rahim&rft.au=Sanjaya+Kuruppu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfebooks.com%2Fisbn%2F9781315666020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Encyclopaedia of Indian philosophy by Vraj Kumar Pandey – History – 2007</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. K. Gandhi, All Men Are Brothers: Life and Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi as told in his own words, Paris, UNESCO 1958, p 60.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mahatma Gandhi and comparative religion – Page 54, by K.L. Seshagiri Rao – Biography & Autobiography – 1990</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wIiIWWjWargC&pg=PA5">A Man Called Bapu</a>, Subhadra Sen Gupta, Pratham Books, 2008. P.5</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2022" class="citation book cs1">Singh, Dr Mahesh Kumar (22 January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5mlaEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Vaishnav+jan+to+Call+them+Vishnava,+those+who+understand+the+sufferings+of+others...%22&pg=PA7"><i>The Humanistic Philosophy of Gandhi</i></a>. K.K. Publications. p. 7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Humanistic+Philosophy+of+Gandhi&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=K.K.+Publications&rft.date=2022-01-22&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Dr+Mahesh+Kumar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5mlaEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522Vaishnav%2Bjan%2Bto%2BCall%2Bthem%2BVishnava%2C%2Bthose%2Bwho%2Bunderstand%2Bthe%2Bsufferings%2Bof%2Bothers...%2522%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGandhi1997" class="citation book cs1">Gandhi, Rajmohan (1997). <i>Rajaji, A life</i>. Penguin India.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rajaji%2C+A+life&rft.pub=Penguin+India&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Gandhi&rft.aufirst=Rajmohan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGandhi1946" class="citation journal cs1">Gandhi, Mohandas (13 July 1946). "The Means". <i>Harijan</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harijan&rft.atitle=The+Means&rft.date=1946-07-13&rft.aulast=Gandhi&rft.aufirst=Mohandas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/gandhi-mohandas-k">"Gandhi, Mohandas K. | The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute"</a>. <i>kinginstitute.stanford.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=kinginstitute.stanford.edu&rft.atitle=Gandhi%2C+Mohandas+K.+%7C+The+Martin+Luther+King%2C+Jr.+Research+and+Education+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkinginstitute.stanford.edu%2Fgandhi-mohandas-k&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, William Edgett (1973). <i>Nyerere of Tanzania</i>. London: Victor Gollanz. p. 59. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780575015104" title="Special:BookSources/9780575015104"><bdi>9780575015104</bdi></a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://diplomatist.com/2020/07/23/nelson-mandelas-umbilical-bond-with-mahatma-gandhi/">"Nelson Mandela's Umbilical Bond with Mahatma Gandhi"</a>. <i>Diplomatist</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Diplomatist&rft.atitle=Nelson+Mandela%27s+Umbilical+Bond+with+Mahatma+Gandhi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdiplomatist.com%2F2020%2F07%2F23%2Fnelson-mandelas-umbilical-bond-with-mahatma-gandhi%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.psu.edu/afr110/2014/10/18/steven-bantu-biko/">"Steven Bantu Biko | AFR 110: Intro to Contemporary Africa"</a>. <i>sites.psu.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sites.psu.edu&rft.atitle=Steven+Bantu+Biko+%7C+AFR+110%3A+Intro+to+Contemporary+Africa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.psu.edu%2Fafr110%2F2014%2F10%2F18%2Fsteven-bantu-biko%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/voices/story/19940331-mahatma-gandhi-guided-my-conscience-during-solidarity-movement-lech-walesa-808968-1994-03-30">"Mahatma Gandhi guided my conscience during Solidarity movement: Lech Walesa"</a>. <i>India Today</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=India+Today&rft.atitle=Mahatma+Gandhi+guided+my+conscience+during+Solidarity+movement%3A+Lech+Walesa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiatoday.in%2Fmagazine%2Findiascope%2Fvoices%2Fstory%2F19940331-mahatma-gandhi-guided-my-conscience-during-solidarity-movement-lech-walesa-808968-1994-03-30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFNanda2004" class="citation cs2">Nanda, B. R. (21 October 2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195672039.003.0028">"Gandhi and Non-violence"</a>, <i>In Search of Gandhi</i>, Oxford University Press, pp. 247–253, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780195672039.003.0028">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195672039.003.0028</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-567203-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-567203-9"><bdi>978-0-19-567203-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=In+Search+of+Gandhi&rft.atitle=Gandhi+and+Non-violence&rft.pages=247-253&rft.date=2004-10-21&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780195672039.003.0028&rft.isbn=978-0-19-567203-9&rft.aulast=Nanda&rft.aufirst=B.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780195672039.003.0028&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/gandhi's_footsteps.htm">"Aung San Suu Kyi: In Gandhi's Footsteps - Articles : On and By Gandhi"</a>. <i>www.mkgandhi.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mkgandhi.org&rft.atitle=Aung+San+Suu+Kyi%3A+In+Gandhi%27s+Footsteps+-+Articles+%3A+On+and+By+Gandhi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mkgandhi.org%2Farticles%2Fgandhi%27s_footsteps.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mohatma Gandhi, (1957) An autobiography: The story of my experiments with truth (M. H. Desai Trans.). Beacon Press. pp. 24–25</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kp.gov.pk/page/khan_abdul_ghaffar_khan_1/page_type/person">"Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan"</a>. <i>kp.gov.pk</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=kp.gov.pk&rft.atitle=Khan+Abdul+Ghaffar+Khan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkp.gov.pk%2Fpage%2Fkhan_abdul_ghaffar_khan_1%2Fpage_type%2Fperson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFNanda2004" class="citation book cs1">Nanda, B. R. (21 October 2004). "Twelve Abdul Ghaffar Khan: the 'Frontier Gandhi'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/3422"><i>In Search of Gandhi: Essays and Reflections</i></a>. pp. 107–123. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-908141-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-908141-7"><bdi>978-0-19-908141-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Twelve+Abdul+Ghaffar+Khan%3A+the+%E2%80%98Frontier+Gandhi%E2%80%99&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+Gandhi%3A+Essays+and+Reflections&rft.pages=107-123&rft.date=2004-10-21&rft.isbn=978-0-19-908141-7&rft.aulast=Nanda&rft.aufirst=B.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbook%2F3422&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://contensis.uwaterloo.ca/sites/sandboxes/admin/testCopy-1205/lecture-content/module-6/6g.aspx">"6g. Abdul Ghaffar Khan: the Frontier Gandhi"</a>. <i>contensis.uwaterloo.ca</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=contensis.uwaterloo.ca&rft.atitle=6g.+Abdul+Ghaffar+Khan%3A+the+Frontier+Gandhi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcontensis.uwaterloo.ca%2Fsites%2Fsandboxes%2Fadmin%2FtestCopy-1205%2Flecture-content%2Fmodule-6%2F6g.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald M. McCarthy and Gene Sharp, <i>Nonviolent action: a research guide</i> (1997) p. 317</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horace Alexander, <i>Consider India: An Essay in Values</i> (London: Asia, 1961), p. 73</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary Elizabeth King, <i>Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr: the power of nonviolent action</i> (UNESCO Publishing, 1999), p. 183</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Ananda_M._Pandiri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ananda M. Pandiri (page does not exist)">Ananda M. Pandiri</a>,
<i>A Comprehensive, Annotated Bibliography on Mahatma Gandhi:Biographies, Works by Gandhi, and Bibliographical Sources</i>
Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0313253374" title="Special:BookSources/0313253374">0313253374</a> (p. 349).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barlow, David M., and Brett Mills. "Harold D. Lasswell." Reading media theory: thinkers, approaches and contexts. Second Edition ed. Harlow, England: Pearson Longman, 2012. 103. Print.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bandopadhaya, Sailesh Kumar. "The "Quit India" Resolution." My non-violence. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Pub. House, 1960. 183-205. Print.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gandhi, M. K., and Mahadev Desai. "On The Eve Of Historic Dandi March." The selected works of Mahatma Gandhi. Ahmedabad, India: Navajivan Publ. House, 1968. 28-30. Print.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBrownFee2008" class="citation journal cs1">Brown, TM; Fee, E (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2156064">"Spinning for India's independence"</a>. <i>Am J Public Health</i>. <b>98</b> (1): 39. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.2007.120139">10.2105/AJPH.2007.120139</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2156064">2156064</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18048775">18048775</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Am+J+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Spinning+for+India%27s+independence&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2156064%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18048775&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2105%2FAJPH.2007.120139&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=TM&rft.au=Fee%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2156064&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Speech on the Eve of the Last Fast." Famous Speeches by Mahatma Gandhi. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 March 2014. <<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.mkgandhi.org/speeches/evelast.htm">http://www.mkgandhi.org/speeches/evelast.htm</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">reprinted in <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/">The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas</a>.</i>, Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 106–108.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">reprinted in <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/">The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas</a>.</i>Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 308–9.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jack, Homer. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XpWO-GoOhVEC&dq=The+Gandhi+Reader:+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&pg=PR13">The Gandhi Reader</a></i>, p. 418.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The life and death of Mahatma Gandhi", on BBC News <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/50664.stm">[1]</a>, see section "Independence and partition."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kamat.com/mmgandhi/onbhagatsingh.htm">Mahatma Gandhi on Bhagat Singh</a>.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121209000556/india_resource.tripod.com/gandhi.html">Archived</a> 9 December 2012 at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">reprinted in <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/">The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas</a>.</i>, Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) p. 311.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<ul><li><i>Gandhi today: a report on Mahatma Gandhi's successors</i>, by Mark Shepard. Published by Shepard Publications, 1987. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-938497-04-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-938497-04-9">0-938497-04-9</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DQyPbvLvK_sC&dq=Chandi+Prasad+Bhatt&pg=PP1">Excerpts</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin" style="">
<ul><li>Fischer, Louis. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0394714660/">The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas</a>.</i> Vintage: New York, 2002. (reprint edition) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4000-3050-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-4000-3050-1">1-4000-3050-1</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJack1956" class="citation book cs1">Jack, Homer (1956). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand"><i>The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings</i></a></span>. Grove Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8021-3161-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8021-3161-1"><bdi>0-8021-3161-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gandhi+Reader%3A+A+Sourcebook+of+His+Life+and+Writings&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=1956&rft.isbn=0-8021-3161-1&rft.aulast=Jack&rft.aufirst=Homer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgandhireadersou00gand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Hardiman, David. <i>Gandhi in His Time and Ours: The Global Legacy of His Ideas</i> (2004) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-13114-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-13114-3">0-231-13114-3</a></li>
<li class="mw-empty-elt"></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFNarayan1970" class="citation book cs1">Narayan, Shriman (1970). <i>Relevance of Gandhian economics</i>. Navajivan Publishing House. ASIN B0006CDLA8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Relevance+of+Gandhian+economics&rft.pub=Navajivan+Publishing+House&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Narayan&rft.aufirst=Shriman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPani2002" class="citation book cs1">Pani, Narendar (2002). <i>Inclusive Economics: Gandhian Method and Contemporary Policy</i>. Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-9580-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-9580-7"><bdi>978-0-7619-9580-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inclusive+Economics%3A+Gandhian+Method+and+Contemporary+Policy&rft.pub=Sage+Publications+Pvt.+Ltd.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-9580-7&rft.aulast=Pani&rft.aufirst=Narendar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSharma1997" class="citation book cs1">Sharma, R. (1997). <i>Gandhian economics</i>. Deep and Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7100-986-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7100-986-2"><bdi>978-81-7100-986-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gandhian+economics&rft.pub=Deep+and+Deep+Publications+Pvt.+Ltd.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-81-7100-986-2&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWeber2006" class="citation book cs1">Weber, Thomas (2006). <i>Gandhi, Gandhism and the Gandhians</i>. Roli Books Pvt. Ltd. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7436-468-4" title="Special:BookSources/81-7436-468-4"><bdi>81-7436-468-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gandhi%2C+Gandhism+and+the+Gandhians&rft.pub=Roli+Books+Pvt.+Ltd.&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=81-7436-468-4&rft.aulast=Weber&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMashelkar2010" class="citation book cs1">Mashelkar, Ramesh (2010). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timelessinspirat0000unse"><i>Timeless Inspirator-Reliving Gandhi</i></a></span>. Sakal Papers Ltd. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-8057-148-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-8057-148-5"><bdi>978-93-8057-148-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Timeless+Inspirator-Reliving+Gandhi&rft.pub=Sakal+Papers+Ltd.&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-93-8057-148-5&rft.aulast=Mashelkar&rft.aufirst=Ramesh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftimelessinspirat0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGandhism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Gandhism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mkgandhi.org/philosophy/gandhiphil.htm">Gandhian Philosophy in Short</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bahai-library.com/gandhimohan_gandhi_bahais_nonviolence#9">Gandhian ideals</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fredsakademiet.dk/library/kumar/kumar4.htm">Relevance of Gandhism in Modern Polity</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/trusteeship.htm">Gandhian Trusteeship as an "Instrument of Human Dignity"</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peacemagazine.org/archive/v14n2p28.htm">Review of "Gandhian economics"</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121014055753/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-10-02/edit-page/27850909_1_gandhiji-economics-formulations">Gandhian economics is relevant</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070705164639/http://www.iop.or.jp/0414/kawada.pdf">Gandhism and Buddhism PDF</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gandhiheritageportal.org/other-books/studies-in-gandhism">Studies in Gandhism</a></li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1061467846">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mahatma_Gandhi" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Template:Mahatma Gandhi"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Template talk:Mahatma Gandhi"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mahatma Gandhi"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mahatma_Gandhi" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life events<br />and movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Ambulance_Corps" title="Indian Ambulance Corps">Indian Ambulance Corps</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tolstoy_Farm" title="Tolstoy Farm">Tolstoy Farm</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bardoli_Satyagraha" title="Bardoli Satyagraha">Bardoli Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Champaran_Satyagraha" title="Champaran Satyagraha">Champaran Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kheda_Satyagraha_of_1918" title="Kheda Satyagraha of 1918">Kheda Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_independence_movement#Gandhi_arrives_in_India" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Non-cooperation_movement_(1919%E2%80%931922)" title="Non-cooperation movement (1919–1922)">Non-cooperation movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chauri_Chaura_incident" title="Chauri Chaura incident">Chauri Chaura incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Purna_Swaraj" title="Purna Swaraj">Purna Swaraj</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flag_of_India" title="Flag of India">flag</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salt_March" title="Salt March">Salt March</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dharasana_Satyagraha" title="Dharasana Satyagraha">Dharasana Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vaikom_Satyagraha" title="Vaikom Satyagraha">Vaikom Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aundh_Experiment" title="Aundh Experiment">Aundh Experiment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi%E2%80%93Irwin_Pact" title="Gandhi–Irwin Pact">Gandhi–Irwin Pact</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Round_Table_Conferences_(India)#Second_Round_Table_Conference_(September_–_December_1931)" title="Round Table Conferences (India)">Second Round Table Conference</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poona_Pact" title="Poona Pact">Poona Pact</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natal_Indian_Congress" title="Natal Indian Congress">Natal Indian Congress</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quit_India_Movement" title="Quit India Movement">Quit India</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quit_India_speech" title="Quit India speech">speech</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gujarat_Vidyapith" title="Gujarat Vidyapith">Gujarat Vidyapith University</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harijan_Sevak_Sangh" title="Harijan Sevak Sangh">Harijan Sevak Sangh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kochrab_Ashram" title="Kochrab Ashram">India ashrams (Kochrab</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sabarmati_Ashram" title="Sabarmati Ashram">Sabarmati</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Memorial_Asram" title="Gandhi Memorial Asram">Sodepur Khadi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sevagram" title="Sevagram">Sevagram)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_fasts_undertaken_by_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="List of fasts undertaken by Mahatma Gandhi">List of fasts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assassination_of_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi">Assassination</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Practices_and_beliefs_of_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Practices and beliefs of Mahatma Gandhi">Practices and beliefs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Composite_nationalism" title="Composite nationalism">Composite nationalism</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gandhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhian_economics" title="Gandhian economics">Economics</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trusteeship_(Gandhism)" title="Trusteeship (Gandhism)">trusteeship</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nai_Talim" title="Nai Talim">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarvodaya" title="Sarvodaya">Sarvodaya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swadeshi_movement" title="Swadeshi movement">Swadeshi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swaraj" title="Swaraj">Swaraj</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eleven_vows" title="Eleven vows">Eleven vows</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_cap" title="Gandhi cap">Gandhi cap</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Heritage_Portal" title="Gandhi Heritage Portal">Publications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harijan_(magazine)" title="Harijan (magazine)"><i>Harijan</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hind_Swaraj_or_Indian_Home_Rule" title="Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule"><i>Hind Swaraj (Indian Home Rule)</i></a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Opinion" title="Indian Opinion">Indian Opinion</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth" title="The Story of My Experiments with Truth">The Story of My Experiments with Truth</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mangal_Prabhat" title="Mangal Prabhat">Mangal Prabhat</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Young_India" title="Young India"><i>Young India</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seven_Social_Sins" title="Seven Social Sins">Seven Social Sins</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Navajivan_Trust" title="Navajivan Trust">Navajivan Trust</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Heritage_Portal" title="Gandhi Heritage Portal">Gandhi Heritage Portal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/A_Letter_to_a_Hindu" title="A Letter to a Hindu">A Letter to a Hindu</a>"</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">nonviolence</a>)</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_Disobedience_(Thoreau)" title="Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)"><i>Civil Disobedience</i> (essay)</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">Fasting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khadi" title="Khadi">Khadi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">John Ruskin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parsee_Rustomjee" title="Parsee Rustomjee">Parsee Rustomjee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a> (<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></i>) (<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Masque_of_Anarchy" title="The Masque of Anarchy">The Masque of Anarchy</a></i>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Narmad" title="Narmad">Narmad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shravana_Kumara" title="Shravana Kumara">Shravan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shrimad_Rajchandra" title="Shrimad Rajchandra">Shrimad Rajchandra</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_Stephens_Salt" title="Henry Stephens Salt">Henry Stephens Salt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Ba%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkuṛaḷ">Tirukkuṛaḷ</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unto_This_Last" title="Unto This Last">Unto This Last</a></i>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarvodaya" title="Sarvodaya">Gandhi's translation</a></li></ul></li>
<li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Raghupati_Raghava_Raja_Ram" title="Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram">Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram</a>"</li>
<li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ekla_Chalo_Re" title="Ekla Chalo Re">Ekla Chalo Re</a>"</li>
<li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hari_Tuma_Haro" title="Hari Tuma Haro">Hari Tuma Haro</a>"</li>
<li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vaishnava_Jana_To" title="Vaishnava Jana To">Vaishnava Jana To</a>"</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swami_Anand" title="Swami Anand">Swami Anand</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Freer_Andrews" title="Charles Freer Andrews">C. F. Andrews</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jamnalal_Bajaj" title="Jamnalal Bajaj">Jamnalal Bajaj</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shankarlal_Banker" title="Shankarlal Banker">Shankarlal Banker</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarla_Behn" title="Sarla Behn">Sarla Behn</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vinoba_Bhave" title="Vinoba Bhave">Vinoba Bhave</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brij_Krishna_Chandiwala" title="Brij Krishna Chandiwala">Brij Krishna Chandiwala</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sudhakar_Chaturvedi" title="Sudhakar Chaturvedi">Sudhakar Chaturvedi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jugatram_Dave" title="Jugatram Dave">Jugatram Dave</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahadev_Desai" title="Mahadev Desai">Mahadev Desai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dada_Dharmadhikari" title="Dada Dharmadhikari">Dada Dharmadhikari</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kanu_Gandhi" title="Kanu Gandhi">Kanu Gandhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shiv_Prasad_Gupta" title="Shiv Prasad Gupta">Shiv Prasad Gupta</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Umar_Hajee_Ahmed_Jhaveri" title="Umar Hajee Ahmed Jhaveri">Umar Hajee Ahmed Jhaveri</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/J._C._Kumarappa" title="J. C. Kumarappa">J. C. Kumarappa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hermann_Kallenbach" title="Hermann Kallenbach">Hermann Kallenbach</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdul_Ghaffar_Khan" title="Abdul Ghaffar Khan">Abdul Ghaffar Khan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/J._B._Kripalani" title="J. B. Kripalani">Acharya Kripalani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mirabehn" title="Mirabehn">Mirabehn</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohanlal_Pandya" title="Mohanlal Pandya">Mohanlal Pandya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vallabhbhai_Patel" title="Vallabhbhai Patel">Vallabhbhai Patel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Narhari_Parikh" title="Narhari Parikh">Narhari Parikh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mithuben_Petit" title="Mithuben Petit">Mithuben Petit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/C._Rajagopalachari" title="C. Rajagopalachari">Chakravarti Rajagopalachari</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibi_Amtus_Salam" title="Bibi Amtus Salam">Bibi Amtus Salam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sonja_Schlesin" title="Sonja Schlesin">Sonja Schlesin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anugrah_Narayan_Sinha" title="Anugrah Narayan Sinha">Anugrah Narayan Sinha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sri_Krishna_Sinha" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Krishna Sinha">Sri Krishna Sinha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rettamalai_Srinivasan" title="Rettamalai Srinivasan">Rettamalai Srinivasan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/V._A._Sundaram" title="V. A. Sundaram">V. A. Sundaram</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abbas_Tyabji" title="Abbas Tyabji">Abbas Tyabji</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ravishankar_Vyas" title="Ravishankar Vyas">Ravishankar Vyas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kishorlal_Mashruwala" title="Kishorlal Mashruwala">Kishorlal Mashruwala</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_artistic_depictions_of_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="List of artistic depictions of Mahatma Gandhi">Artistic depictions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhigiri" title="Gandhigiri">Gandhigiri</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Peace_Award" title="Gandhi Peace Award">Gandhi Peace Award</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Peace_Foundation" title="Gandhi Peace Foundation">Gandhi Peace Foundation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Peace_Prize" title="Gandhi Peace Prize">Gandhi Peace Prize</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Kashi_Vidyapith" title="Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith">Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Series" title="Mahatma Gandhi Series">Indian currency (Gandhi Series,</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_New_Series" title="Mahatma Gandhi New Series">Gandhi New Series,</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_rupee" title="Indian rupee">Indian rupee</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_10_Rupee_Mahatma_Gandhi_postage_stamp" title="Indian 10 Rupee Mahatma Gandhi postage stamp">Indian 10 Rupee postage stamp</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Family_of_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Family of Mahatma Gandhi">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karamchand_Uttamchand_Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi">Karamchand Gandhi (father)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kasturba_Gandhi" title="Kasturba Gandhi">Kasturba (wife)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harilal_Gandhi" title="Harilal Gandhi">Harilal (son)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manilal_Gandhi" title="Manilal Gandhi">Manilal (son)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramdas_Gandhi" title="Ramdas Gandhi">Ramdas (son)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Devdas_Gandhi" title="Devdas Gandhi">Devdas (son)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maganlal_Gandhi" title="Maganlal Gandhi">Maganlal (cousin)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samaldas_Gandhi" title="Samaldas Gandhi">Samaldas (nephew)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arun_Manilal_Gandhi" title="Arun Manilal Gandhi">Arun (grandson)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ela_Gandhi" title="Ela Gandhi">Ela (granddaughter)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rajmohan_Gandhi" title="Rajmohan Gandhi">Rajmohan (grandson)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gopalkrishna_Gandhi" title="Gopalkrishna Gandhi">Gopalkrishna (grandson)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramchandra_Gandhi" title="Ramchandra Gandhi">Ramchandra (grandson)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kanu_Gandhi_(scientist)" title="Kanu Gandhi (scientist)">Kanu (grandson)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kanu_Gandhi" title="Kanu Gandhi">Kanu (grandnephew)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tushar_Gandhi" title="Tushar Gandhi">Tushar (great-grandson)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leela_Gandhi" title="Leela Gandhi">Leela (great-granddaughter)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abhay_and_Rani_Bang" title="Abhay and Rani Bang">Abhay Bang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdul_Ghaffar_Khan" title="Abdul Ghaffar Khan">Abdul Ghaffar Khan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brajkishore_Prasad" title="Brajkishore Prasad">Brajkishore Prasad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/C._Rajagopalachari" title="C. Rajagopalachari">C. Rajagopalachari</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eknath_Easwaran" title="Eknath Easwaran">Eknath Easwaran</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Draupadi_Murmu" class="mw-redirect" title="Draupadi Murmu">Draupadi Murmu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Bayrou" title="François Bayrou">François Bayrou</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gopaldas_Ambaidas_Desai" title="Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai">Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Govind_Vallabh_Pant" class="mw-redirect" title="Govind Vallabh Pant">Govind Vallabh Pant</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Joan_Bondurant" title="Joan Bondurant">Joan Bondurant</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lal_Bahadur_Shastri" title="Lal Bahadur Shastri">Lal Bahadur Shastri</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lanza_del_Vasto" title="Lanza del Vasto">Lanza del Vasto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maulana_Azad" title="Maulana Azad">Maulana Azad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maria_Lacerda_de_Moura" title="Maria Lacerda de Moura">Maria Lacerda de Moura</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mehdi_Bazargan" title="Mehdi Bazargan">Mehdi Bazargan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Morarji_Desai" title="Morarji Desai">Morarji Desai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Narendra Modi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rajendra_Prasad" title="Rajendra Prasad">Rajendra Prasad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramjee_Singh" title="Ramjee Singh">Ramjee Singh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pandurang_Sadashiv_Sane" title="Pandurang Sadashiv Sane">Sane Guruji</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vinoba_Bhave" title="Vinoba Bhave">Vinoba Bhave</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vallabhbhai_Patel" title="Vallabhbhai Patel">Vallabhbhai Patel</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Memorials_to_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Category:Memorials to Mahatma Gandhi">Memorials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Accra" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Accra">Ghana</a></li>
<li>India
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Gandhi_Maidan" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Gandhi Maidan">Patna</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Salt_Satyagraha_Memorial" title="National Salt Satyagraha Memorial">National Salt Satyagraha Memorial</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Parliament_of_India" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Parliament of India">New Delhi</a></li></ul></li>
<li>South Africa
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Johannesburg" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Pietermaritzburg" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Pietermaritzburg">Pietermaritzburg</a></li></ul></li>
<li>UK
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Parliament_Square" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Parliament Square">Parliament Square</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Tavistock_Square" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Tavistock Square">Tavistock Square</a></li></ul></li>
<li>U.S.
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi_(Davis,_California)" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi (Davis, California)">Davis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Denver)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Denver)">Denver</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi_(Houston)" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi (Houston)">Houston</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Memorial_(Milwaukee)" title="Mahatma Gandhi Memorial (Milwaukee)">Milwaukee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi_(New_York_City)" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi (New York City)">New York</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi_(San_Francisco)" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi (San Francisco)">San Francisco</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arch_of_Dignity,_Equality,_and_Justice" title="Arch of Dignity, Equality, and Justice">San Jose</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Memorial_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Mahatma Gandhi Memorial (Washington, D.C.)">Washington, D.C.</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Observances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Jayanti" title="Gandhi Jayanti">Gandhi Jayanti</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_Day_of_Non-Violence" title="International Day of Non-Violence">International Day of Non-Violence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martyrs%27_Day_(India)" title="Martyrs' Day (India)">Martyrs' Day</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Season_for_Nonviolence" title="Season for Nonviolence">Season for Nonviolence</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aga_Khan_Palace" title="Aga Khan Palace">Aga Khan Palace</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Bhawan,_Chandigarh" title="Gandhi Bhawan, Chandigarh">Gandhi Bhawan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Mandapam_(Chennai)" title="Gandhi Mandapam (Chennai)">Gandhi Mandapam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Market" title="Gandhi Market">Gandhi Market</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_(bookstore)" title="Gandhi (bookstore)">Bookstores</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Promenade" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhi Promenade">Gandhi Promenade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Smriti" title="Gandhi Smriti">Gandhi Smriti</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kanyakumari#Tourist_sites" title="Kanyakumari">Gandhi Memorial</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Memorial_Museum,_Madurai" title="Gandhi Memorial Museum, Madurai">Gandhi Memorial Museum, Madurai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Teerth" title="Gandhi Teerth">Gandhi Teerth</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi_Temple,_Bhatara" title="Gandhi Temple, Bhatara">Gandhi Temple, Bhatara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kaba_Gandhi_No_Delo" title="Kaba Gandhi No Delo">Kaba Gandhi No Delo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kirti_Mandir,_Porbandar" title="Kirti Mandir, Porbandar">Kirti Mandir</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_College" title="Mahatma Gandhi College">Mahatma Gandhi College</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Marine_National_Park" title="Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park">Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Memorial_Centre,_Matale" title="Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Centre, Matale">Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Centre, Matale</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mani_Bhavan" title="Mani Bhavan">Mani Bhavan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alfred_High_School_(Rajkot)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred High School (Rajkot)">Mohandas Gandhi High School</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Gandhi_Museum" title="National Gandhi Museum">National Gandhi Museum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Raj_Ghat_and_associated_memorials" title="Raj Ghat and associated memorials">Raj Ghat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_roads_named_after_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="List of roads named after Mahatma Gandhi">Roads named after Gandhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sabarmati_Ashram" title="Sabarmati Ashram">Sabarmati Ashram</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satyagraha_House" title="Satyagraha House">Satyagraha House</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li>
<li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li>
<li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li>
<li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(44 BC)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1486)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1756)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1949)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1976)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1991)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indian_independence_movement" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Indian_Independence_Movement" title="Template:Indian Independence Movement"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Indian_Independence_Movement" title="Template talk:Indian Independence Movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indian_Independence_Movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indian Independence Movement"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indian_independence_movement" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_India#Indian_independence_movement_(1885–1947)" title="History of India">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonisation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portuguese_settlement_in_Chittagong" title="Portuguese settlement in Chittagong">Porto Grande de Bengala</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dutch_Bengal" title="Dutch Bengal">Dutch Bengal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Battle of Plassey</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battle_of_Buxar" title="Battle of Buxar">Battle of Buxar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anglo-Mysore_Wars" title="Anglo-Mysore Wars">Anglo-Mysore Wars</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="First Anglo-Mysore War">First</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Second Anglo-Mysore War">Second</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Third Anglo-Mysore War">Third</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fourth_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Fourth Anglo-Mysore War">Fourth</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Anglo-Maratha Wars
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="First Anglo-Maratha War">First</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Second Anglo-Maratha War">Second</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Third Anglo-Maratha War">Third</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gwalior_campaign" title="Gwalior campaign">Gwalior</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polygar_Wars" title="Polygar Wars">Polygar Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vellore_Mutiny" title="Vellore Mutiny">Vellore Mutiny</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Anglo-Sikh War">First Anglo-Sikh War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Anglo-Sikh War">Second Anglo-Sikh War</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sannyasi_rebellion" title="Sannyasi rebellion">Sannyasi rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Rebellion of 1857</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radcliffe_Line" title="Radcliffe Line">Radcliffe Line</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:British_India" title="Category:British India">more</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophies<br />and ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkarism</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gandhism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Hindu nationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_nationalism" title="Indian nationalism">Indian nationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khilafat_Movement" title="Khilafat Movement">Khilafat Movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muslim_nationalism_in_South_Asia" title="Muslim nationalism in South Asia">Muslim nationalism in South Asia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialism_in_India" title="Socialism in India">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swadeshi_movement" title="Swadeshi movement">Swadeshi movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swaraj" title="Swaraj">Swaraj</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events and<br /> movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)" title="Partition of Bengal (1905)">Partition of Bengal (1905)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1947)" title="Partition of Bengal (1947)">Partition of Bengal (1947)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revolutionary_movement_for_Indian_independence" title="Revolutionary movement for Indian independence">Revolutionaries</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Direct_Action_Day" title="Direct Action Day">Direct Action Day</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Delhi_conspiracy_case" title="Delhi conspiracy case">Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Indian_Sociologist" title="The Indian Sociologist">The Indian Sociologist</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1915_Singapore_Mutiny" title="1915 Singapore Mutiny">Singapore Mutiny</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93German_Conspiracy" title="Hindu–German Conspiracy">Hindu–German Conspiracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Champaran_Satyagraha" title="Champaran Satyagraha">Champaran Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kheda_Satyagraha_of_1918" title="Kheda Satyagraha of 1918">Kheda Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rowlatt_Committee" title="Rowlatt Committee">Rowlatt Committee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rowlatt_Act" title="Rowlatt Act">Rowlatt Bills</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jallianwala_Bagh_massacre" title="Jallianwala Bagh massacre">Jallianwala Bagh massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Noakhali_riots" title="Noakhali riots">Noakhali riots</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Non-cooperation_movement_(1919%E2%80%931922)" title="Non-cooperation movement (1919–1922)">Non-cooperation movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christmas_Day_Plot" title="Christmas Day Plot">Christmas Day Plot</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coolie-Begar_movement" title="Coolie-Begar movement">Coolie-Begar movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chauri_Chaura_incident" title="Chauri Chaura incident">Chauri Chaura incident, 1922</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kakori_conspiracy" title="Kakori conspiracy">Kakori conspiracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qissa_Khwani_massacre" title="Qissa Khwani massacre">Qissa Khwani massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flag_Satyagraha" title="Flag Satyagraha">Flag Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bardoli_Satyagraha" title="Bardoli Satyagraha">Bardoli</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Simon_Commission" title="Simon Commission">1928 Protests</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nehru_Report" title="Nehru Report">Nehru Report</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fourteen_Points_of_Jinnah" title="Fourteen Points of Jinnah">Fourteen Points of Jinnah</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Purna_Swaraj" title="Purna Swaraj">Purna Swaraj</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salt_March" title="Salt March">Salt March</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dharasana_Satyagraha" title="Dharasana Satyagraha">Dharasana Satyagraha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vedaranyam_March" title="Vedaranyam March">Vedaranyam March</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chittagong_armoury_raid" title="Chittagong armoury raid">Chittagong armoury raid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gandhi%E2%80%93Irwin_Pact" title="Gandhi–Irwin Pact">Gandhi–Irwin Pact</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Round_Table_Conferences_(India)" title="Round Table Conferences (India)">Round table conferences</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1935" title="Government of India Act 1935">Act of 1935</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aundh_Experiment" title="Aundh Experiment">Aundh Experiment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Legion" title="Indian Legion">Indian Legion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cripps_Mission" title="Cripps Mission">Cripps Mission</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quit_India_Movement" title="Quit India Movement">Quit India</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royal_Indian_Navy_mutiny" title="Royal Indian Navy mutiny">Bombay Mutiny</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Royal_Air_Force_strikes_of_1946" title="Royal Air Force strikes of 1946">Royal Air Force strikes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_of_Yanaon" title="Coup d'état of Yanaon">Coup d'état of Yanaon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_India" title="Provisional Government of India">Provisional Government of India</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Independence_Day_(India)" title="Independence Day (India)">Independence Day</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/All_India_States_Peoples%27_Conference" title="All India States Peoples' Conference">Praja Mandala movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lucknow_Pact" title="Lucknow Pact">Lucknow Pact</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/All_India_Kisan_Sabha" title="All India Kisan Sabha">All India Kisan Sabha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/All-India_Muslim_League" title="All-India Muslim League">All-India Muslim League</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anushilan_Samiti" title="Anushilan Samiti">Anushilan Samiti</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arya_Samaj" title="Arya Samaj">Arya Samaj</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Berlin_Committee" title="Berlin Committee">Berlin Committee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ghadar_Movement" title="Ghadar Movement">Ghadar Movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hindustan_Socialist_Republican_Association" title="Hindustan Socialist Republican Association">Hindustan Socialist Republican Association</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Indian_National_Congress" title="History of the Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/India_House" title="India House">India House</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Home_Rule_movement" title="Indian Home Rule movement">Indian Home Rule movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Independence_League" title="Indian Independence League">Indian Independence League</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_National_Army" title="Indian National Army">Indian National Army</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jugantar" title="Jugantar">Jugantar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khaksar_movement" title="Khaksar movement">Khaksar movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khudai_Khidmatgar" title="Khudai Khidmatgar">Khudai Khidmatgar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swaraj_Party" title="Swaraj Party">Swaraj Party</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Indian_independence_movement" title="Category:Indian independence movement">more</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social<br />reformers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/A._Vaidyanatha_Iyer" title="A. Vaidyanatha Iyer">A. Vaidyanatha Iyer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ayya_Vaikundar" title="Ayya Vaikundar">Ayya Vaikundar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ayyankali" title="Ayyankali">Ayyankali</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baba_Amte" title="Baba Amte">Baba Amte</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bal_Gangadhar_Tilak" title="Bal Gangadhar Tilak">Bal Gangadhar Tilak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati" title="Dayananda Saraswati">Dayananda Saraswati</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dhondo_Keshav_Karve" title="Dhondo Keshav Karve">Dhondo Keshav Karve</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/G._Subramania_Iyer" title="G. Subramania Iyer">G. Subramania Iyer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gazulu_Lakshminarasu_Chetty" title="Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty">Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gopal_Ganesh_Agarkar" title="Gopal Ganesh Agarkar">Gopal Ganesh Agarkar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gopal_Hari_Deshmukh" title="Gopal Hari Deshmukh">Gopal Hari Deshmukh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gopaldas_Ambaidas_Desai" title="Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai">Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ishwar_Chandra_Vidyasagar" title="Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar">Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/J._B._Kripalani" title="J. B. Kripalani">J. B. Kripalani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jyotirao_Phule" title="Jyotirao Phule">Jyotirao Phule</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kandukuri_Veeresalingam" title="Kandukuri Veeresalingam">Kandukuri Veeresalingam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahadev_Govind_Ranade" title="Mahadev Govind Ranade">Mahadev Govind Ranade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muthulakshmi_Reddy" title="Muthulakshmi Reddy">Muthulakshmi Reddy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Narayana_Guru" title="Narayana Guru">Narayana Guru</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niralamba_Swami" title="Niralamba Swami">Niralamba Swami</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pandita_Ramabai" title="Pandita Ramabai">Pandita Ramabai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Periyar" title="Periyar">Periyar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ram_Mohan_Roy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ram Mohan Roy">Ram Mohan Roy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rettamalai_Srinivasan" title="Rettamalai Srinivasan">Rettamalai Srinivasan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sahajanand_Saraswati" title="Sahajanand Saraswati">Sahajanand Saraswati</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Savitribai_Phule" title="Savitribai Phule">Savitribai Phule</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shahu_of_Kolhapur" title="Shahu of Kolhapur">Shahu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sister_Nivedita" title="Sister Nivedita">Sister Nivedita</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Sri Aurobindo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syed_Ahmad_Khan" title="Syed Ahmad Khan">Syed Ahmad Khan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vakkom_Moulavi" title="Vakkom Moulavi">Vakkom Moulavi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vinayak_Damodar_Savarkar" title="Vinayak Damodar Savarkar">Vinayak Damodar Savarkar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vinoba_Bhave" title="Vinoba Bhave">Vinoba Bhave</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vitthal_Ramji_Shinde" title="Vitthal Ramji Shinde">Vitthal Ramji Shinde</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independence<br /> activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abul_Kalam_Azad" class="mw-redirect" title="Abul Kalam Azad">Abul Kalam Azad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Accamma_Cherian" title="Accamma Cherian">Accamma Cherian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achyut_Patwardhan" title="Achyut Patwardhan">Achyut Patwardhan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/A._K._Fazlul_Huq" title="A. K. Fazlul Huq">A. K. Fazlul Huq</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alluri_Sitarama_Raju" title="Alluri Sitarama Raju">Alluri Sitarama Raju</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annapurna_Maharana" title="Annapurna Maharana">Annapurna Maharana</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annie_Besant" title="Annie Besant">Annie Besant</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ashfaqulla_Khan" title="Ashfaqulla Khan">Ashfaqulla Khan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kunwar_Singh" title="Kunwar Singh">Babu Kunwar Singh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bagha_Jatin" title="Bagha Jatin">Bagha Jatin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bahadur_Shah_Zafar" title="Bahadur Shah Zafar">Bahadur Shah II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bakht_Khan" title="Bakht Khan">Bakht Khan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bal_Gangadhar_Tilak" title="Bal Gangadhar Tilak">Bal Gangadhar Tilak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Basawon_Singh" title="Basawon Singh">Basawon Singh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Begum_Hazrat_Mahal" title="Begum Hazrat Mahal">Begum Hazrat Mahal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bhagat_Singh" title="Bhagat Singh">Bhagat Singh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bharathidasan" title="Bharathidasan">Bharathidasan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bhavabhushan_Mitra" title="Bhavabhushan Mitra">Bhavabhushan Mitra</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bhikaiji_Cama" title="Bhikaiji Cama">Bhikaiji Cama</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bhupendra_Kumar_Datta" title="Bhupendra Kumar Datta">Bhupendra Kumar Datta</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bidhan_Chandra_Roy" title="Bidhan Chandra Roy">Bidhan Chandra Roy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bipin_Chandra_Pal" title="Bipin Chandra Pal">Bipin Chandra Pal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/C._Rajagopalachari" title="C. Rajagopalachari">C. Rajagopalachari</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chandra_Shekhar_Azad" title="Chandra Shekhar Azad">Chandra Shekhar Azad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chetram_Jatav" title="Chetram Jatav">Chetram Jatav</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chittaranjan_Das" title="Chittaranjan Das">Chittaranjan Das</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji" title="Dadabhai Naoroji">Dadabhai Naoroji</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati" title="Dayananda Saraswati">Dayananda Saraswati</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dhan_Singh" title="Dhan Singh">Dhan Singh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dukkipati_Nageswara_Rao" title="Dukkipati Nageswara Rao">Dukkipati Nageswara Rao</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gopal Krishna Gokhale</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Govind_Ballabh_Pant" title="Govind Ballabh Pant">Govind Ballabh Pant</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Har_Dayal" title="Har Dayal">Har Dayal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hemu_Kalani" title="Hemu Kalani">Hemu Kalani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inayatullah_Khan_Mashriqi" title="Inayatullah Khan Mashriqi">Inayatullah Khan Mashriqi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jatindra_Mohan_Sengupta" title="Jatindra Mohan Sengupta">Jatindra Mohan Sengupta</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jatindra_Nath_Das" title="Jatindra Nath Das">Jatindra Nath Das</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/K._Kamaraj" title="K. Kamaraj">K. Kamaraj</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kanaiyalal_Maneklal_Munshi" title="Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi">Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abdul_Ghaffar_Khan" title="Abdul Ghaffar Khan">Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khudiram_Bose" title="Khudiram Bose">Khudiram Bose</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shri_Krishna_Sinha" title="Shri Krishna Sinha">Shri Krishna Singh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lala_Lajpat_Rai" title="Lala Lajpat Rai">Lala Lajpat Rai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/M._Bhaktavatsalam" title="M. Bhaktavatsalam">M. Bhaktavatsalam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/M._N._Roy" title="M. N. Roy">M. N. Roy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maghfoor_Ahmad_Ajazi" title="Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi">Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahadaji_Shinde" title="Mahadaji Shinde">Mahadaji Shinde</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mangal_Pandey" title="Mangal Pandey">Mangal Pandey</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mir_Qasim" title="Mir Qasim">Mir Qasim</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mithuben_Petit" title="Mithuben Petit">Mithuben Petit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Jauhar" title="Mohammad Ali Jauhar">Mohammad Ali Jauhar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah" title="Muhammad Ali Jinnah">Muhammad Ali Jinnah</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muhammad_Mian_Mansoor_Ansari" title="Muhammad Mian Mansoor Ansari">Muhammad Mian Mansoor Ansari</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nagnath_Naikwadi" title="Nagnath Naikwadi">Nagnath Naikwadi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nana_Fadnavis" title="Nana Fadnavis">Nana Fadnavis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nana_Saheb_Peshwa_II" title="Nana Saheb Peshwa II">Nana Saheb</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/P._Kakkan" title="P. Kakkan">P. Kakkan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prafulla_Chaki" title="Prafulla Chaki">Prafulla Chaki</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pritilata_Waddedar" title="Pritilata Waddedar">Pritilata Waddedar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Purushottam_Das_Tandon" title="Purushottam Das Tandon">Purushottam Das Tandon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ramaswamy_Venkataraman" title="Ramaswamy Venkataraman">R. Venkataraman</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rahul_Sankrityayan" title="Rahul Sankrityayan">Rahul Sankrityayan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rajendra_Prasad" title="Rajendra Prasad">Rajendra Prasad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ram_Prasad_Bismil" title="Ram Prasad Bismil">Ram Prasad Bismil</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rani_of_Jhansi" title="Rani of Jhansi">Rani Lakshmibai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rash_Behari_Bose" title="Rash Behari Bose">Rash Behari Bose</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sahajanand_Saraswati" title="Sahajanand Saraswati">Sahajanand Saraswati</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sangolli_Rayanna" title="Sangolli Rayanna">Sangolli Rayanna</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sarojini_Naidu" title="Sarojini Naidu">Sarojini Naidu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satyapal_Dang" title="Satyapal Dang">Satyapal Dang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shuja-ud-Daula" title="Shuja-ud-Daula">Shuja-ud-Daula</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shyamji_Krishna_Varma" title="Shyamji Krishna Varma">Shyamji Krishna Varma</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pir_of_Pagaro_VI" title="Pir of Pagaro VI">Sibghatullah Shah Rashidi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siraj_ud-Daulah" title="Siraj ud-Daulah">Siraj ud-Daulah</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Subhas_Chandra_Bose" title="Subhas Chandra Bose">Subhas Chandra Bose</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Subramania_Bharati" title="Subramania Bharati">Subramania Bharati</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Subramaniya_Siva" title="Subramaniya Siva">Subramaniya Siva</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Surya_Sen" title="Surya Sen">Surya Sen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Syama_Prasad_Mukherjee" title="Syama Prasad Mukherjee">Syama Prasad Mukherjee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tara_Rani_Srivastava" title="Tara Rani Srivastava">Tara Rani Srivastava</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tarak_Nath_Das" title="Tarak Nath Das">Tarak Nath Das</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tatya_Tope" title="Tatya Tope">Tatya Tope</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tiruppur_Kumaran" title="Tiruppur Kumaran">Tiruppur Kumaran</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ubaidullah_Sindhi" title="Ubaidullah Sindhi">Ubaidullah Sindhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/V._O._Chidambaram_Pillai" title="V. O. Chidambaram Pillai">V. O. Chidamabaram</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/V._K._Krishna_Menon" title="V. K. Krishna Menon">V. K. Krishna Menon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vallabhbhai_Patel" title="Vallabhbhai Patel">Vallabhbhai Patel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vanchinathan" title="Vanchinathan">Vanchinathan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Veeran_Sundaralingam" title="Veeran Sundaralingam">Veeran Sundaralingam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vinayak_Damodar_Savarkar" title="Vinayak Damodar Savarkar">Vinayak Damodar Savarkar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Virendranath_Chattopadhyaya" title="Virendranath Chattopadhyaya">Virendranath Chattopadhyaya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yashwantrao_Holkar" title="Yashwantrao Holkar">Yashwantrao Holkar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yogendra_Shukla" title="Yogendra Shukla">Yogendra Shukla</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Indian_independence_activists" title="Category:Indian independence activists">more</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">British leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Archibald_Wavell,_1st_Earl_Wavell" title="Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell">Wavell</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Canning,_1st_Earl_Canning" title="Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning">Canning</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Charles_Cornwallis,_1st_Marquess_Cornwallis" title="Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis">Cornwallis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edward_Wood,_1st_Earl_of_Halifax" title="Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax">Irwin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frederic_Thesiger,_1st_Viscount_Chelmsford" title="Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford">Chelmsford</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Curzon,_1st_Marquess_Curzon_of_Kedleston" title="George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston">Curzon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/George_Robinson,_1st_Marquess_of_Ripon" title="George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon">Ripon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gilbert_Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound,_1st_Earl_of_Minto" title="Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 1st Earl of Minto">Minto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_Broun-Ramsay,_1st_Marquess_of_Dalhousie" title="James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie">Dalhousie</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lord_William_Bentinck" title="Lord William Bentinck">Bentinck</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Louis_Mountbatten,_1st_Earl_Mountbatten_of_Burma" title="Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma">Mountbatten</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Richard_Wellesley,_1st_Marquess_Wellesley" title="Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley">Wellesley</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Bulwer-Lytton,_1st_Earl_of_Lytton" title="Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton">Lytton</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Robert_Clive" title="Robert Clive">Clive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sir_James_Outram,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir James Outram, 1st Baronet">Outram</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stafford_Cripps" title="Stafford Cripps">Cripps</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Victor_Hope,_2nd_Marquess_of_Linlithgow" title="Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow">Linlithgow</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Warren_Hastings" title="Warren Hastings">Hastings</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/1946_Cabinet_Mission_to_India" title="1946 Cabinet Mission to India">Cabinet Mission</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Constitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of India (1947–present)">Republic of India</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Indian annexation of Goa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indian_Independence_Act_1947" title="Indian Independence Act 1947">Indian Independence Act</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Political_integration_of_India" title="Political integration of India">Political integration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Simla_Conference" title="Simla Conference">Simla Conference</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1715794558' |
