Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Ancient kingdom in Nubia, Africa}}
{{Redirect|Kushites|the people who speak Cushitic languages|Cushitic languages}}
{{About|the kingdom south of Egypt|the period of Kushite rule in Egypt|Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt}}
{{Infobox Former Country
| native_name = ''Qes''{{nbsp|2}}([[Meroitic language|Meroitic]]){{small|{{sfn|Török|1997|loc=p. 2 (1997 ed.)}}}}
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Kush
| common_name = Kush
| region =
| era = [[Bronze Age]] to [[Late Antiquity]]
| status =
| status_text =
| empire =
| government_type = Monarchy
| year_start = {{Circa|780 BC}}
| year_end = {{Circa|AD 350}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kuckertz |first=Josefine |date=2021 |title=Meroe and Egypt |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6061m848 |journal=UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology |language=en |pages=22}}</ref>
| event_start = Established
| date_start =
| event_end = Disestablished
| date_end =
| event1 = Capital moved to Meroe
| date_event1 = 591 BC
| event_pre =
| date_pre =
| event_post =
| date_post =
| p1 = New Kingdom of Egypt
| flag_p1 =
| s1 = Alodia
| flag_s1 = Possible Flag of the Kingdom of Alodia (c. 1350).svg
| s2 = Makuria
| flag_s2 = The flag of the 'Kingdom of Dongola' (Makuria) in the "Book of all kingdoms" (C. 1350).png
| s3 = Nobatia
| flag_s3 =
| s4 = Blemmyes
| flag_s4 =
| s5 =
| flag_s5 =
| image_flag =
| flag =
| flag_type =
| image_coat =
| symbol =
| symbol_type =
| image_map = File:Kushite heartland and Kushite Empire of the 25th dynasty circa 700 BCE.jpg
| image_map_caption = Kushite heartland, and Kushite Empire of the [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt]], circa 700 BC.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Dive beneath the pyramids of Sudan's black pharaohs |journal=National Geographic |date=2 July 2019 |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/2019/07/dive-ancient-pyramid-nuri-sudan/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702180435/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/2019/07/dive-ancient-pyramid-nuri-sudan/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 2, 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
| capital = [[Kerma]]<br>[[Napata]]<br>[[Meroë]]
| national_motto =
| national_anthem =
| common_languages = [[Meroitic language|Meroitic]]<br>[[Egyptian language|Egyptian]]{{sfn|Török|1997|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=i54rPFeGKewC&q=%22Kingdom+of+Kush%22+language&pg=PA49 p. 49 (1997 ed.)]}}<br>[[Blemmyes#Language|Blemmyan]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rilly |first1=Claude |date=2019 |chapter=Languages of Ancient Nubia |editor-last=Raue |editor-first=Dietrich |title=Handbook of Ancient Nubia |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-041669-5 |pages=133–4 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXWcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA134 |access-date=2019-11-20 |quote=The Blemmyan language is so close to modern Beja that it is probably nothing else than an early dialect of the same language.}}</ref><br>[[Old Nubian]]
| religion = [[Kushite religion]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/kushite-religion |title=Kushite Religion |website=encyclopedia.com |date= }}</ref><br>[[Kushite religion#Deities|Kushite polytheism]]<br>[[Ancient Egyptian religion]]
| currency =
| leader1 =
| leader2 =
| year_leader1 =
| year_leader2 = 340–355
| title_leader = [[List of monarchs of Kush|Monarch]]
| stat_year1 = Egyptian phase<ref name="Stearns">{{Cite book |editor-first=Peter N. |editor-last=Stearns |editor-link=Peter Stearns |title=The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged |title-link=Encyclopedia of World History |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MziRd4ddZz4C&pg=PA32 |edition=6th |year=2001 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-395-65237-4 |page=32 |chapter=(II.B.4.) East Africa, c. 2000–332 B.C.E. }}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
| stat_year2 = Meroite phase<ref name="Stearns" />
| stat_pop2 = 1,150,000
| today = [[Sudan]]<br />[[Egypt]]
| demonym = Kushite
| area_km2 =
| area_rank =
| GDP_PPP =
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}}
The '''Kingdom of Kush''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ʊ|ʃ|,_|k|ʌ|ʃ}}; [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]]: '''𓎡𓄿𓈙[[𓈉]]''' ''kꜣš'', [[Akkadian language|Assyrian]]: [[File:Rassam cylinder Ku-u-si.jpg|60px]] ''Kûsi'', in <small>[[LXX]]</small> Χους or Αἰθιοπία; {{lang-cop|{{Script/Coptic|ⲉϭⲱϣ}}}} ''Ecōš''; {{lang-he|כּוּשׁ}} ''Kūš''), also known as the '''Kushite Empire''', or simply '''Kush''', was an ancient kingdom in [[Nubia]], centered along the [[Nile Valley]] in what is now northern [[Sudan]] and southern [[Egypt]].
The region of Nubia was an early cradle of civilization, producing several complex societies that engaged in trade and industry.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2018-07-20|title=The Kingdoms of Kush|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/kingdoms-kush/|access-date=2020-08-29|website=National Geographic Society|language=en|archive-date=2020-05-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505060417/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/kingdoms-kush/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The city-state of [[Kerma]] emerged as the dominant political force between 2450 and 1450 BC, controlling the Nile Valley between the first and fourth [[Cataracts of the Nile|cataracts]], an area as large as Egypt. The Egyptians were the first to identify Kerma as "Kush" probably from the indigenous ethnonym "Kasu", over the next several centuries the two civilizations engaged in intermittent warfare, trade, and cultural exchange.<ref>Alberge, Dalya. "Tomb reveals Ancient Egypt's humiliating secret". ''[[The Times]]''. London.</ref>
Much of Nubia came under Egyptian rule during the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom period]] (1550–1070 BC). Following Egypt's disintegration amid the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]], the Kushites reestablished a kingdom in [[Napata]] (now modern [[Karima, Sudan]]). Though Kush had developed many cultural affinities with Egypt, such as the veneration of [[Amun]], and the royal families of both kingdoms occasionally intermarried, Kushite culture, language and ethnicity was distinct; Egyptian art distinguished the people of Kush by their dress, appearance, and even method of transportation.<ref name=":1" />
In the 8th century BC, [[Kashta|King Kashta]] ("the Kushite") peacefully became King of Upper Egypt, while his daughter, [[Amenirdis I|Amenirdis]], was appointed as Divine Adoratrice of Amun in [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]].{{sfn|Török|1997|pp=144–6}} His successor [[Piye]] invaded Lower Egypt, establishing the Kushite-ruled [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-fifth Dynasty]]. Piye's daughter, [[Shepenupet II]], was also appointed Divine Adoratrice of Amun. The [[List of monarchs of Kush|monarchs of Kush]] ruled Egypt for over a century until the [[Assyrian conquest of Egypt|Assyrian conquest]], finally being expelled by the [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] kings [[Esarhaddon]] and [[Ashurbanipal]] in the mid-seventh century BC. Following the severing of ties with Egypt, the Kushite imperial capital was located at [[Meroë]], during which time it was known by the Greeks as [[Aethiopia]].
From the third century BC to the third century AD, northern Nubia would be invaded and annexed by Egypt. Ruled by the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Macedonians]] and [[Roman empire|Romans]] for the next 600 years, this territory would be known in the Greco-Roman world as [[Dodekaschoinos]]. It was later taken back under control by the fourth Kushite king, [[Yesebokheamani]]. The Kingdom of Kush persisted as a major regional power until the fourth century AD when it weakened and disintegrated from internal rebellion amid worsening climatic conditions and invasions and conquest of the kingdom of Kush by the [[Noba]] people who introduced the Nubian languages and gave their name to Nubia itself. Because the [[Noba]] and the [[Blemmyes]] were at war with the Kushites the [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumites]] took advantage of this, capturing Meroë and looting its gold, marking the end of the kingdom and its dissolution into the three polities of [[Nobatia]], [[Makuria]] and [[Alodia]], though the Aksumite presence in Meroe was likely short lived. Sometime after this event, the Kingdom of [[Alodia]] would gain control of the southern territory of the former Meroitic empire including parts of Eritrea.<ref>Derek Welsby (2014): "The Kingdom of Alwa" in "The Fourth Cataract and Beyond". Peeters.</ref>
Long overshadowed by its more prominent Egyptian neighbor, archaeological discoveries since the late 20th century have revealed Kush to be an advanced civilization in its own right. The Kushites had their own unique language and script; maintained a complex economy based on trade and industry; mastered archery; and developed a complex, urban society with uniquely high levels of female participation.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|author=Isma'il Kushkush |author2=Matt Stirn|title=Why Sudan's Remarkable Ancient Civilization Has Been Overlooked by History|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/|access-date=2020-08-23|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en}}</ref>
== Name ==
{{infobox hieroglyphs
|width = 270px
|title=''Kush''
|name = {{center|<hiero>k-G1-S:N25</hiero>}}
|name transcription = k3š
|name explanation = ''Ku'sh''
}}
The native name of the Kingdom was recorded in [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] as ''{{lang|egy|[[wikt:kꜣš|kꜣš]]}}'', likely pronounced {{IPA-all|kuɫuʃ}} or {{IPA-all|kuʔuʃ}} in [[Middle Egyptian language|Middle Egyptian]], when the term was first used for Nubia, based on the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]]-era [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] transliteration of the genitive ''kūsi''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goldenberg|first=David M.|title=The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iTyJ3HiNOAsC&pg=PA144 |year=2005|edition=New|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12370-7|page=17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Esarhaddon and Egypt: An Analysis of the First Invasion of Egypt|last = Spalinger|first = Anthony|date = 1974|journal = Orientalia |series=Nova Series |volume=43 |pages=295–326, XI}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Gd6aAAAAQBAJ&q=ancient+egyptian+allen|publisher = Cambridge University Press|date = 2013-07-11|access-date = 2015-04-15|isbn = 978-1-107-03246-0|first = James P.|last = Allen|page = 53}}</ref>
It is also an ethnic term for the native population who initiated the kingdom of Kush. The term is also displayed in the names of Kushite persons,{{sfn|Török|1997}} such as King [[Kashta]] (a transcription of ''kꜣš-tꜣ'' "(one from) the land of Kush"). Geographically, Kush referred to the region south of the [[first cataract]] in general. Kush also was the home of the rulers of the [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|25th Dynasty]].<ref name="Van 2011">Van, de M. M. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. Print.</ref>
The name ''Kush'', since at least the time of [[Josephus]], has been connected with the biblical character [[Cush (Bible)|Cush]], in the [[Hebrew Bible]] ({{lang-he|כּוּשׁ}}), son of [[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]] (Genesis 10:6). Ham had four sons named: Cush, [[Put (biblical figure)|Put]], [[Canaan (son of Ham)|Canaan]], and [[Mizraim]] (Hebrew name for Egypt). According to the Bible, [[Nimrod]], a son of Cush, was the founder and king of [[Babylon]], [[Uruk|Erech]], [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]] and [[Calneh]], in [[Shinar]] (Gen 10:10).<ref name="kingjamesbibleonline.org">{{Cite web|url=http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Genesis-10-10/|title=GENESIS 10:10 KJV "And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar."|website=www.kingjamesbibleonline.org}}</ref> The Bible also makes reference to someone named Cush who is a [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamite]] (Psalms 7:1, KJV).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Psalms-Chapter-7/|title=PSALMS CHAPTER 7 KJV|website=www.kingjamesbibleonline.org}}</ref>
In [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] sources Kush was known as ''Kous'' (Κους) or ''[[Aithiopia|Aethiopia]]'' (Αἰθιοπία).{{sfn|Török|1997|loc=p. 69 ff (1997 ed.)}}
== History ==
=== Prelude ===
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| header = Kerma culture<br /><small>(c.2500 BC–c.1550 BC)</small>
| image1 = Wallpaper group-pmg-4.jpg
| caption1 = Kerma bowl, 1700-1550 BC. [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]]
| image2 = Exposition Nubia, Land of the Black Pharaohs – Mirror. Kerma Period, 1700-1550 BC.jpg
| caption2 = Mirror. End of [[Kerma culture|Kerma Period]], 1700-1550 BC. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
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==== Kerma culture (2500–1500 BC) ====
{{Main|Kerma culture}}
The [[Kerma culture]] was an early civilization centered in [[Kerma]], [[Sudan]]. It flourished from around 2500 BC to 1500 BC in ancient [[Nubia]]. The Kerma culture was based in the southern part of Nubia, or "[[Upper Nubia]]" (in parts of present-day northern and central [[Sudan]]), and later extended its reach northward into Lower Nubia and the border of Egypt.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Hafsaas-Tsakos |first1= Henriette |title= The Kingdom of Kush: An African Centre on the Periphery of the Bronze Age World System |journal= Norwegian Archaeological Review |date=2009 |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages= 50–70 |doi= 10.1080/00293650902978590 |s2cid= 154430884 |url= https://www.academia.edu/2380609 }}</ref> The polity seems to have been one of several [[Nile Valley]] states during the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt]]. In the Kingdom of Kerma's latest phase, lasting from about 1700–1500 BC, it absorbed the Sudanese kingdom of [[Sai (island)|Sai]] and became a sizable, populous empire rivaling Egypt.
==== Egyptian Nubia (1504–1070 BC) ====
[[File:Nubian Prince Hekanefer bringing tribute for King Tut, 18th dynasty, Tomb of Huy.jpg|thumb|Nubian Prince [[Heqanefer]] bringing tribute for The Egyptian King [[Tutankhamun]], 18th dynasty, Tomb of Huy. {{Circa|1342}} – {{Circa| 1325}} BC]][[Mentuhotep II]], the 21st century BC founder of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]], is recorded to have undertaken campaigns against Kush in the 29th and 31st years of his reign. This is the earliest Egyptian reference to ''Kush''; the [[Nubia]]n region had gone by other names in the Old Kingdom.<ref>''Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia'', Richard A. Lobban Jr., p. 254.</ref> Under [[Thutmose I]], Egypt made several campaigns south.
The Egyptians ruled Kush in the New kingdom beginning when the Egyptian King Thutmose I occupied Kush and destroyed its capital, Kerma.<ref>De Mola, Paul J. "Interrelations of Kerma and Pharaonic Egypt". Ancient History Encyclopedia: https://www.worldhistory.org/article/487/</ref>
This eventually resulted in their annexation of Nubia {{Circa|1504 BC}}. Around 1500 BC, Nubia was absorbed into the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]], but rebellions continued for centuries. After the conquest, Kerma culture was increasingly Egyptianized, yet rebellions continued for 220 years until {{Circa|1300 BC}}. Nubia nevertheless became a key province of the New Kingdom, economically, politically, and spiritually. Indeed, major pharaonic ceremonies were held at Jebel Barkal near Napata.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jebelbarkal.org/|title=Jebal Barkal: History and Archaeology of Ancient Napata|access-date=21 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602094858/http://jebelbarkal.org/|archive-date=2 June 2013|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> As an Egyptian colony from the 16th century BC, Nubia ("Kush") was governed by an Egyptian [[Viceroy of Kush]].
Resistance to the early eighteenth Dynasty Egyptian rule by neighboring Kush is evidenced in the writings of [[Ahmose, son of Ebana]], an Egyptian warrior who served under Nebpehtrya Ahmose (1539–1514 BC), Djeserkara Amenhotep I (1514–1493 BC), and Aakheperkara Thutmose I (1493–1481 BC). At the end of the [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period]] (mid-sixteenth century BC), Egypt faced the twin existential threats—the [[Hyksos]] in the North and the Kushites in the South. Taken from the autobiographical inscriptions on the walls of his tomb-chapel, the Egyptians undertook campaigns to defeat Kush and conquer Nubia under the rule of [[Amenhotep I]] (1514–1493 BC). In Ahmose's writings, the Kushites are described as [[archery|archers]], "Now after his Majesty had slain the Bedoin of Asia, he sailed upstream to [[Upper Nubia]] to destroy the Nubian bowmen."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Writings from Ancient Egypt|last=Wilkinson|first=Toby|publisher=Penguin Classics|year=2016|isbn=978-0-14-139595-1|location=United Kingdom|pages=19}}</ref> The tomb writings contain two other references to the Nubian bowmen of Kush. By 1200 BC, Egyptian involvement in the [[Dongola Reach]] was nonexistent.
Egypt's international prestige had declined considerably towards the end of the [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt|Third Intermediate Period]]. Its historical allies, the inhabitants of [[Canaan]], had fallen to the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] (1365–1020 BC), and then the resurgent [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] (935–605 BC). The [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], from the tenth century BC onwards, had once more expanded from northern [[Mesopotamia]], and conquered a vast empire, including the whole of the [[Near East]], and much of [[Anatolia]], the eastern [[Mediterranean]], the [[Caucasus]] and [[History of Iran#Early Iron Age|early Iron Age Iran]].
According to Josephus Flavius, the biblical Moses led the Egyptian army in a siege of the Kushite city of Meroe. To end the siege Princess Tharbis was given to Moses as a (diplomatic) bride, and thus the Egyptian army retreated back to Egypt.<ref>Flavius Josephus. 'Antiquities of the Jews'. Whiston 2-10-2.</ref>
=== Formation ({{circa}} 1070–754 BC) ===
[[File:Relief In The Semna Temple (3) (34074139275).jpg|thumb|Relief from the temple of [[Semna (Nubia)|Semna]] depicting queen-king [[Karimala]] approaching [[Isis]], 10th–9th century BC{{sfn|Williams|2020|pp=413–414}}]]
With the disintegration of the New Kingdom around 1070 BC, ''Kush'' became an independent kingdom centered at [[Napata]] in modern northern Sudan.<ref>Morkot, Robert G. "On the Priestly Origin of the Napatan Kings: The Adaptation, Demise, and Resurrection of Ideas in Writing Nubian History" in O'Connor, David and Andrew Reid, eds. ''Ancient Egypt in Africa (Encounters with Ancient Egypt) (University College London Institute of Archaeology Publications)'' Left Coast Press (1 Aug 2003) {{ISBN|978-1-59874-205-3}} p.151</ref> This more-Egyptianized "Kingdom of Kush" emerged, possibly from Kerma, and regained the region's independence from Egypt. The extent of cultural/political continuity between the [[Kerma culture]] and the chronologically succeeding Kingdom of Kush is difficult to determine. The latter polity began to emerge around 1000 BC, 500 years after the end of the Kingdom of Kerma.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}
[[File:Gebel Barkal.jpg|thumb|[[Jebel Barkal]] was venerated as residence of [[Amun]] and became an essential symbol of Kushite kingship]]
[[File:Lepsius el-Kurru pyramids.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.2|The pyramids of [[el-Kurru]] after [[Carl Richard Lepsius]], 1859]]
The first Kushite king known by name was [[Alara of Nubia|Alara]], who ruled somewhere between 800{{sfn|Emberling|2023|p=110}} and 760 BC.{{sfn|Török|1997|p=123}} No contemporary inscriptions of him exist.{{sfn|Emberling|2023|p=110}} He was first mentioned in the funerary stela of his daughter [[Tabiry]], the wife of king [[Piye]]. Later royal inscriptions remember Alara as the founder of the dynasty, some calling him "chieftain", others "king". A 7th century inscription claimed that his sister was the grandmother of king [[Taharqo]].{{sfn|Török|1997|pp=123–125}} An inscription of the 5th century king [[Amanineteyerike]] remembered Alara's reign as long and successful.{{sfn|Kendall|1999|p=45}} Alara was probably buried at el-Kurru, although there exists no inscription to identify his tomb.{{sfn|Emberling|2023|p=110}} It has been proposed that it was Alara who turned Kush from a chiefdom to an Egyptianized kingdom centered around the cult of [[Amun]].{{sfn|Török|1997|p=126}}
<!--Dental trait analysis of fossils dating from the Meroitic period in [[Semna (Nubia)|Semna]], in northern Nubia near Egypt, found that they displayed traits similar to those of populations inhabiting the [[Nile]], [[Horn of Africa]], and [[Maghreb]]. Traits from mesolithic and southern Nubia around Meroe however indicated a closer affinity with other sub-Saharan dental records. It is indicative of a north–south gradient along the Nile river.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Irish|first1=Joel D.|title=Dental morphological affinities of Late Pleistocene through recent sub-Saharan and North African peoples|journal=Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'anthropologie de Paris|date=1998|volume=10|issue=3|pages=237–272|doi=10.3406/bmsap.1998.2517|url=http://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/bmsap_0037-8984_1998_num_10_3_2517.pdf|access-date=17 June 2017}} {{dead link|date=March 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
-->
=== Rule over Egypt (754 BC–656 BC) ===
{{Main|Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt}}
Alara's successor [[Kashta]] extended Kushite control north to [[Elephantine]] and [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]] in [[Upper Egypt]]. Kashta's successor [[Piye#Piye's Conquest of Egypt|Piye]] seized control of Lower Egypt around 727 BC.<ref>Shaw (2002) p. 345</ref> Piye's [[Stele of Piye|Victory Stela]], celebrating these campaigns between 728 and 716 BC, was found in the Amun temple at Jebel Barkal. He invaded an Egypt fragmented into four kingdoms, ruled by King [[Peftjauawybast]], King [[Nimlot of Hermopolis|Nimlot]], King [[Iuput II]], and King [[Osorkon IV]].<ref name=David>{{Cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=David |title=The Nubian Past |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location=Oxon |isbn=978-0-415-36988-6 |pages=2, 75, 77–78}}</ref>{{rp|115,120}}
[[File:Rulers of Kush, Kerma Museum.jpg|thumb|Statues of various rulers of the late 25th Dynasty–early Napatan period: [[Tantamani]], [[Taharqa]] (rear), [[Senkamanisken]], again [[Tantamani]] (rear), [[Aspelta]], [[Anlamani]], again [[Senkamanisken]]. [[Kerma Museum]].<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Janine A. |last1=Ducommun |last2=Elshazly |first2=Hesham |title=Kerma and the royal cache |url=https://www.academia.edu/3714044 |language=en |date=April 15, 2009 |via=Academia.edu}}</ref>]]
Why the Kushites chose to enter Egypt at this crucial point of foreign domination is subject to debate. Archaeologist Timothy Kendall offers his own hypotheses, connecting it to a claim of legitimacy associated with [[Jebel Barkal]].<ref name="Kendall, T.K. 2002">Kendall, T.K., 2002. Napatan Temples: a Case Study from Gebel Barkal. The Mythological Nubian Origin of Egyptian Kingship and the Formation of the Napatan State. Tenth International Conference of Nubian Studies. Rome, September 9–14, 2002.</ref> Kendall cites the Victory Stele of Piye at Jebel Barkal, which states that "[[Amun]] of Napata granted me to be ruler of every foreign country," and "Amun in Thebes granted me to be ruler of the Black Land ([[Km (hieroglyph)#km.t|Kmt]])". According to Kendall, "foreign lands" in this regard seems to include Lower Egypt while "Kmt" seems to refer to a united Upper Egypt and Nubia.<ref name="Kendall, T.K. 2002" />
Piye's successor, [[Shabataka]], defeated the Saite kings of northern Egypt between 711 and 710 BC and installed himself as king in [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]. He then established ties with [[Sargon II]] of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]].<ref name=David />{{rp|120}} After the reign of [[Shabaka]], Pharaoh [[Taharqa]]'s army undertook successful military campaigns, as attested by the "list of conquered Asiatic principalities" from the Mut temple at Karnak and "conquered peoples and countries (Libyans, Shasu nomads, Phoenicians?, Khor in Palestine)" from Sanam temple inscriptions.{{sfn|Török|1997|pp=132-3, 153-84}} However the regions in the southern Levant claimed by Shabataka were
seen by Assyria as under their dominion, and imperial ambitions of both the [[Mesopotamian]] based [[Assyrian Empire]] and [[Kushite Empire]] made war with the 25th dynasty inevitable. In 701 BC, Taharqa and his army aided [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and King [[Hezekiah]] in withstanding a siege by King [[Sennacherib]] of the Assyrians (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9).<ref name=Aubin>{{Cite book|title=The Rescue of Jerusalem|date=2002|publisher=Soho Press, Inc.|isbn=1-56947-275-0|location=New York, NY|pages=x, 141–144|last1=Aubin|first1=Henry T.}}</ref> There are various theories (Taharqa's army,<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Rescue of Jerusalem|date=2002|publisher=Soho Press, Inc.|isbn=1-56947-275-0|location=New York, NY|pages=x, 127, 129–130, 139–152|last1=Aubin|first1=Henry T.}}</ref> disease, divine intervention, Hezekiah's surrender or agreeing to pay tribute) as to why the Assyrians failed to take the city.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Rescue of Jerusalem|date=2002|publisher=Soho Press, Inc.|isbn=1-56947-275-0|location=New York, NY|pages=x, 119|last1=Aubin|first1=Henry T.}}</ref> Historian [[László Török]] mentions that Egypt's army "was beaten at Eltekeh" under Taharqa's command, but "the battle could be interpreted as a victory for the double kingdom", since Assyria did not take Jerusalem, however the Egyptian and Kushite forces withdrew to Egypt and the Assyrian king [[Sennacherib]] appears to have occupied part of the Sinai.{{sfn|Török|1997|p=170}}
[[File:Pyramids of Nuri (cropped).jpg|thumb|Pyramids of [[Nuri]], built between the reigns of [[Taharqa]] (circa 670 BC) and [[Nastasen]] (circa 310 BC).]]
The power of the 25th Dynasty reached a climax under Taharqa. The Nile valley empire was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom. New prosperity{{sfn|Török|1997}} revived Egyptian culture.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Diop|first=Cheikh Anta|title=The African Origin of Civilization|year=1974|publisher=Lawrence Hill Books|location=Chicago, Illinois|isbn=1-55652-072-7|pages=219–221}}</ref> Religion, the arts, and architecture were restored to their glorious Old, Middle, and New Kingdom forms. The Kushite pharaohs built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bonnet|first=Charles|title=The Nubian Pharaohs|year=2006|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press|location=New York|isbn=978-977-416-010-3|pages=142–154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5ab7-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 | title= (still image) Aethiopen. Barkal [Jebel Barkal]. Nördliche Pyramidengruppe. Pyr. 15: a. Nordwand; b. Westwand., (1849–1856)|author=Digital Collections, The New York Public Library |access-date=August 20, 2020 |publisher=The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations}}</ref> It was during the 25th dynasty that the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of pyramids (many in modern Sudan) since the Middle Kingdom.<ref name="Mokhtar1990">{{Cite book|last=Mokhtar|first=G.|title=General History of Africa|year=1990|publisher=University of California Press|location=California, USA|isbn=0-520-06697-9|pages=161–163}}</ref><ref name="Emberling2011">{{Cite book|last=Emberling|first=Geoff|title=Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa|year=2011|publisher=Institute for the Study of the Ancient World|location=New York|pages=9–11}}</ref><ref name="Silverman1997">{{Cite book|last=Silverman|first=David|title=Ancient Egypt|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-19-521270-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ancientegypt00davi_0/page/36 36–37]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientegypt00davi_0/page/36}}</ref> The Kushites developed their own script, the [[Meroitic alphabet]], which was influenced by Egyptian writing systems {{Circa|700–600 BC}}, although it appears to have been wholly confined to the royal court and major temples.<ref name="autogenerated1" />
==== Assyrian conquest of Egypt ====
{{Main|Assyrian conquest of Egypt}}
[[File:Ashurbanipal II's army attacking Memphis, Egypt, 645-635 BCE, from Nineveh, Iraq. British Museum.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Wall panel depicting [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] soldiers storming a Kushite fortress in Egypt. [[Niniveh]], [[Iraq]].]]
Taharqa and his [[Judean]] allies initially defeated the Assyrians at [[Ashkelon]] when war broke out in 674 BC.{{cn|date=September 2023}} The relatively small Assyrian force had first defeafed Canaanite and Arab tribes in the region and then immediately marched at great speed on Ashkelon, leaving them exhausted.{{cn|date=September 2023}} However, in 671 BC, the Assyrian King [[Esarhaddon]] started the [[Assyrian conquest of Egypt]] with a larger and better prepared force. The Assyrians advanced rapidly and decisively. Memphis was taken, and Taharqa fled to Nubia, while his heir and other family members were taken to the Assyrian capital [[Nineveh]] as prisoners. Esarhaddon boasted how he "deported all Aethiopians from Egypt, leaving not one to pay homage to me" However, the native Egyptian vassal rulers installed by Esarhaddon as puppets were unable to effectively retain full control of the entire country, and Taharqa was able to regain control of Memphis. Esarhaddon's 669 BC campaign to once more eject Taharqa was abandoned when Esarhaddon died in [[Harran]] on the way to Egypt, leaving Esarhaddon's successor, [[Ashurbanipal]] the task. He defeated Taharqa, driving his forces back into Nubia, and Taharqa died in Napata soon after in 664 BC.<ref name=David />{{rp|121}}
[[File:King Tanutamani, el-Kurru.jpeg|thumb|Wall painting of king [[Tantamani]] from his tomb in [[el-Kurru]], under whom Egypt was lost for good]]
Taharqa's successor, [[Tantamani]] sailed north from Napata, through [[Elephantine]], and to Thebes with a large army, where he was "ritually installed as the king of Egypt."<ref name="Török98_185">{{harvnb|Török|1997|p=185}}</ref> From Thebes, Tantamani began his attempt at reconquest{{r|Török98_185}} and regained control of a part of southern Egypt as far as Memphis from the native Egyptian puppet rulers installed by the Assyrians.<ref name=Welsby>{{harvnb |Welsby |1996 |pp=64–65}}</ref> Tantamani's dream stele states that he restored order from the chaos, where royal temples and cults were not being maintained.{{r|Török98_185}} After defeating Sais and killing Assyria's vassal, [[Necho I]], in Memphis, "some local dynasts formally surrendered, while others withdrew to their fortresses."{{r|Török98_185}}{{rp|185}} Tantamani proceeded north of Memphis, invading Lower Egypt and, besieged cities in the Delta, a number of which surrendered to him.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}} The Assyrians, who had maintained only a small military presence in the north, then sent a large army southwards in 663 BC. Tantamani was decisively routed, and the Assyrian army [[Sack of Thebes|sacked Thebes]] to such an extent it never truly recovered. Tantamani was chased back to Nubia, but he continued to try and assert control over Upper Egypt until {{Circa| 656 BC}}. At this date, a native Egyptian ruler, [[Psamtik I]] son of Necho, placed on the throne as a vassal of [[Ashurbanipal]], took control of Thebes.{{sfn|Török|1997}}<ref>Georges Roux – Ancient Iraq pp. 330–332</ref> The last links between Kush and Upper Egypt were severed after hostilities with the Saite kings in the 590s BC.<ref name=David />{{rp|121–122}}
=== Napatan period (656 BC–{{circa}} 270 BC)===
Kushite civilization continued for several centuries. According to Welsby, "throughout the Saite, Persian, Ptolemaic, and Roman periods, the Kushite rulers—the descendants of the XXVth Dynasty pharaohs, and the guardians of the Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5aa9-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 | title= (still image) Aethiopen. Dynastie XXV, 3. Barkal [Jebel Barkal]. Grosser Felsentempel, Ostwand der Vorhalle., (1849–1856)|author=Digital Collections, The New York Public Library |access-date=August 20, 2020 |publisher=The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations}}</ref>—could have pressed their 'legitimate' claim for control of Egypt and they thus posed a potential threat to the rulers of Egypt."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|66–67}}
[[File:Reliefs in Persepolis نگاره های تخت جمشید 05.jpg|thumb|Kushite delegation on a Persian relief from the [[Apadana]] palace ({{Circa|500 BC}})]]
[[Herodotus]] mentioned an invasion of Kush by the [[Achaemenid]] ruler [[Cambyses II|Cambyses]] ({{Circa|530 BC}}). By some accounts Cambyses succeeded in occupying the area between the [[Cataracts of the Nile|first and second Nile cataract]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dandamaev |first1=M. A. |title=A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire |date=1989 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9004091726 |pages=80–81 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ms30qA6nyMsC&pg=PA80 |language=en}}</ref> however Herodotus mentions that "his expedition failed miserably in the desert."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|65–66}} Achaemenid inscriptions from both Egypt and Iran include Kush as part of the Achaemenid empire.<ref name=DS>{{Cite book |last1=Sircar |first1=Dineschandra |title=Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India |date=1971 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120806900 |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AqKw1Mn8WcwC&pg=PA25 |language=en}}</ref> For example, the DNa inscription of [[Darius I]] ({{reign|522|486|era=BC}}) on his tomb at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] mentions ''Kūšīyā'' ([[Old Persian cuneiform]]: 𐎤𐎢𐏁𐎡𐎹𐎠, pronounced ''Kūshīyā'') among the territories being "ruled over" by the [[Achaemenid Empire]].<ref>[https://www.livius.org/sources/content/achaemenid-royal-inscriptions/dna/? Line 30 of the DNa inscription]</ref><ref name=DS /> Derek Welsby states "scholars have doubted that this Persian expedition ever took place, but... archaeological evidence suggests that the fortress of [[Dorginarti]] near the second cataract served as Persia's southern boundary."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|65–66}}
From around 425–300 BC, beginning under the rule of king [[Amanineteyerike|Amannote-erike]], Kush saw a series of kings who revitalized older practices such as the erection of royal steles or royal statues. It was likely also in this period when several older pyramids, among them that of Taharqo, were enlarged. The stele of king [[Harsiotef]], who from around 400 BC ruled for at least 35 years, reports how he fought a multitude of campaigns against enemies ranging from Meroe in the south to Lower Nubia in the north while also donating to temples throughout Kush. King [[Nastasen]] ({{circa}} 325) waged several wars against nomad groups and again in Lower Nubia.{{sfn|Emberling|2023|pp=140–141}} Nastasen was the last king to be buried at Nuri.{{sfn|Török|1997|p=394}} His successors built six pyramids at Jebel Barkal and two in the old necropolis of el-Kurru, although the lack of inscriptions prevents identifying their occupants. It seems likely that this was a time of unrest and conflict within the royal elite.{{sfn|Emberling|2023|pp=141–143}}
=== Meroitic period ({{circa}} 270 BC–4th century AD) ===
{{Main|Meroë}}
[[Aspelta]] moved the capital to [[Meroë]], considerably farther south than [[Napata]], possibly {{Circa| 591 BC}},<ref name="Ohaegbulam1990">{{Cite book|author=Festus Ugboaja Ohaegbulam|title=Towards an understanding of the African experience from historical and contemporary perspectives|url=https://archive.org/details/towardsunderstan00ohae|url-access=registration|access-date=17 March 2011|date=1 October 1990|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=978-0-8191-7941-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/towardsunderstan00ohae/page/66 66]}}</ref> just after the sack of Napata by [[Psamtik II]]. [[Martin Meredith]] states the Kushite rulers chose Meroë, between the [[Cataracts of the Nile|Fifth and Sixth Cataracts]], because it was on the fringe of the summer rainfall belt, and the area was rich in iron ore and hardwood for [[iron working]]. The location also afforded access to trade routes to the [[Red Sea]]. The Kush traded iron products with the Romans, in addition to gold, ivory and slaves. The [[Butana]] plain was stripped of its forests, leaving behind [[slag]] piles.<ref name=Martin>{{Cite book |last1=Meredith |first1=Martin |title=The Fortunes of Africa |date=2014 |publisher=Public Affairs |location=New York |isbn=978-1-61039-635-6 |pages=43–44}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Shillington |first1=Kevin |title=History of Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=London |isbn=978-0-230-30847-3 |pages=50–51}}</ref>
[[File:Jewelry found on the Mummy of Nubian King AMANINATAKILEBTE (538-519 BC). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.jpg|thumb|Jewelry found on the Mummy of Nubian King [[Amaninatakilebte]] (538-519 BC), Nuri pyramid 10. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.]]
[[File:Gold flower shaped Diadem, found in te Pyramid of King Talakhamani (435–431 B.C.).jpg|thumb|Gold flower shaped diadem, found in the Pyramid of King [[Talakhamani]] (435–431 BC), [[Nuri pyramid]] 16. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.]]
In about 300 BC, the move to Meroë was made more complete when the [[monarchs]] began to be buried there, instead of at Napata. One theory is that this represents the monarchs breaking away from the power of the priests at Napata. According to [[Diodorus Siculus]], Kushite king [[Ergamenes]] defied the priests and had them slaughtered. This story may refer to the first ruler to be buried at Meroë with a similar name such as [[Arqamani]],<ref>Fage, J. D.: Roland Anthony Oliver (1979) ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-21592-7}} p. 228 [https://books.google.com/books?id=hb8YXTINiDMC&dq=Ergamenes+is+Arqamani&pg=PA228]</ref> who ruled many years after the royal cemetery was opened at Meroë. During this same period, the Kushite authority may have extended some 1,500 km along the Nile River valley from the Egyptian frontier in the north to areas far south of modern Khartoum and probably also substantial territories to the east and west.<ref>Edwards, page 141</ref>
There is some record of conflict between the Kushites and Ptolemies. In 275 or 274 BC, Ptolemy II (r. 283–246 BC) sent an army to Nubia, and defeated the Kingdom of Kush, annexing to Egypt the area later known as [[Triakontaschoinos]]. In addition, There was a serious revolt at the end of Ptolemy IV, around 204 BC, and the Kushites likely tried to interfere in Ptolemaic affairs.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|67}} It has been suggested that this led to Ptolemy V defacing the name of Arqamani on inscriptions at Philae.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|67}} "Arqamani constructed a small entrance hall to the temple built by Ptolemy IV at selchis and constructed a temple at Philae to which Ptolemy contributed an entrance hall."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|66}} There is evidence of Ptolemaic occupation as far south as the second cataract, but recent finds at Qasr Ibrim, such as "the total absence of Ptolemaic pottery" have cast doubts on the effectiveness of the occupation. Dynastic struggles led to the Ptolemies abandoning the area, so "the Kushites reasserted their control...with Qasr Ibrim occupied" (by the Kushites) and other locations perhaps garrisoned.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|67}}
According to Welsby, after the Romans assumed control of Egypt, they negotiated with the Kushites at Philae and drew the southern border of [[Roman Egypt]] at Aswan.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|67}} [[Theodor Mommsen]] and Welsby state the Kingdom of Kush became a client Kingdom, which was similar to the situation under Ptolemaic rule of Egypt. Kushite ambition and excessive Roman taxation are two theories for a revolt that was supported by Kushite armies.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|67–68}} The ancient historians, Strabo and Pliny, give accounts of the conflict with Roman Egypt.
[[File:Bronze head from an over-life-sized statue of Augustus.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Bronze [[Meroë Head|head of Emperor Augustus]] found under the staircase of a temple in Meroe]]
[[File:Prince Arikankharer Slaying His Enemies, Meroitic, beginning of first century AD, sandstone - Worcester Art Museum - IMG 7535.JPG|thumb|Meroitic prince smiting his enemies (early first century AD)]]
[[Strabo]] describes a war with the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] in the first century BC. According to Strabo, the Kushites "sacked Aswan with an army of 30,000 men and destroyed imperial statues...at Philae." A "fine over-life-size [[Meroë Head|bronze head of the emperor Augustus]]" was found buried in Meroe in front of a temple.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|68}} After the initial victories of [[Kandake]] (or "Candace") [[Amanirenas]] against Roman Egypt, the Kushites were defeated and [[Napata]] sacked.<ref name="afraf.oxfordjournals.org">[https://web.archive.org/web/20080910215200/http://afraf.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/XXVIII/CIX/55.pdf Arthur E. Robinson, "The Arab Dynasty of Dar For (Darfur): Part II", ''Journal of the Royal African Society'' (Lond). XXVIII: 55–67 (October, 1928)]</ref> Remarkably, the destruction of the capital of Napata was not a crippling blow to the Kushites and did not frighten Candace enough to prevent her from again engaging in combat with the Roman military. In 22 BC, a large Kushite force moved northward with intention of attacking [[Qasr Ibrim]].{{r|jackson2002}}{{rp|149}}
Alerted to the advance, [[Gaius Petronius]], prefect of Roman Egypt, again marched south and managed to reach Qasr Ibrim and bolster its defenses before the invading Kushites arrived. Welsby states after a Kushite attack on Primis (Qasr Ibrim),<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|69–70}} the Kushites sent ambassadors to negotiate a peace settlement with Petronius. The Kushites succeeded in negotiating a peace treaty on favorable terms.<ref name="afraf.oxfordjournals.org" /> Trade between the two nations increased{{r|jackson2002}}{{rp|149}} and the Roman Egyptian border being extended to "Hiera Sykaminos (Maharraqa)."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|70}} This arrangement "guaranteed peace for most of the next 300 years" and there is "no definite evidence of further clashes."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|70}}
It is possible that the Roman emperor [[Nero]] planned another attempt to conquer Kush before his death in AD 68.<ref name="jackson2002">{{Cite book | title=At Empire's Edge: Exploring Rome's Egyptian Frontier | publisher=Yale University Press | author=Jackson, Robert B. | year=2002 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pkBctdZcn84C | isbn=0-300-08856-6}}</ref>{{rp|150–151}} Nero sent two [[centurion]]s upriver as far as [[Bahr el Ghazal River]] in 66 AD in an attempt to discover the source of the Nile, per [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]],<ref name=Martin />{{rp|43}} or plan an attack, per [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]].
====Decline and fall ====
Kush began to fade as a power by the first or second century AD, sapped by the war with the Roman province of Egypt and the decline of its traditional industries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page90.shtml|title=BBC World Service – The Story of Africa|website=www.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> However, there is evidence of third century AD Kushite Kings at Philae in demotic and inscription.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|71}} It has been suggested that the Kushites reoccupied lower Nubia after Roman forces were withdrawn to Aswan. Kushite activities led others to note "a de facto Kushite control of that area (as far north as Philae) for part of the third century AD.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|71}} Thereafter, it weakened and disintegrated due to internal rebellion.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}
[[File:Aksum, iscrizione di re ezana, in greco, sabeo e ge'ez, 330-350 dc ca. 10.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|The [[Ezana Stone|stele]] of [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] Emperor [[Ezana]] commemorating his expedition against the Noba and Kush]]
The fall of Meroe is often associated with an [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] invasion.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=67}} An Aksumite presence in Meroe is confirmed by two fragmentary Greek inscriptions.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|pp=71–75}} The better preserved one referred to military actions and the imposition of a tribute.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|pp=72–73}} They probably belonged to Aksumite victory monuments and were dedicated to [[Ares]]/[[Maher (god)|Maher]], the god of war.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|pp=74–75}} Thus, they must have been erected before Aksum's conversion to Christianity in around 340, perhaps by king [[Ousanas]] (r. {{circa}} 310–330).{{sfn|Hatke|2013|pp=67, 76–77, 94}} An inscription from Aksum mentioning Kush as vassal kingdom may also be attributed to Ousanas.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|pp=69–71}} The trilingual [[Ezana Stone|stele]] of his successor [[Ezana]] describes another expedition which happened after 340.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=94}} Ezana's army followed the course of the Atbara until reaching the Nile confluence, where he waged war against Kush.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=116}} Meroe itself is not mentioned, suggesting that Ezana did not attack the town.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=145}} Aksum's presence in Nubia was likely short-lived.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=79}}
Meroitic texts from as early as the 1st century BC hint to conflicts with the [[Noba]], who lived west of the Nile and were governed by their own chiefs and kings. Perhaps it was the increasingly arid climate that forced them to attack the Nile Valley, although they would not manage to break through until the 4th century.{{sfn|Rilly|2008|pp=215–217}} The Ezana stele mentioned that they had occupied Kushite towns{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=114}} and were active as far east as the [[Tekezé River|Takeze River]], where they harassed Aksumite vassals.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=104}} These attacks and them breaking oaths they had sworn to Ezana were the main reason for his Nubian expedition.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=121}} It has been proposed that the Noba were not necessarily [[Nubian language|Nubian-speakers]], but that the term "Noba" was rather a pejorative Meroitic word applied to a large variety of people living outside the Meroitic state.{{sfn|Edwards|2011|pp=503–508}} A Meroitic stele found at [[Gebel Adda]] from around 300 AD, however, seems to mention a king bearing the Nubian name Trotihi.{{sfn|Rilly|2019|p=138}} A bowl from a 4th-century elite burial in [[el-Hobagi]] features a Meroitic-Nubian inscription mentioning a "king", but identifying the interred individual and the polity he ruled over remains problematic.{{sfn|Rilly|2019|p=138}}{{sfn|Sakamoto|2022|pp=369–370}}
At Meroe, the last pyramids as well as non-royal burials are dated to the mid-4th century,{{sfn|Török|2009||p=517}} which is conventionally thought to be when the kingdom of Kush came to an end. Afterwards began the so-called "post-Meroitic" period.{{sfn|el-Tayeb|2020|pp=772–773}} This period saw a decline of urbanism, the disappearance of the Meroitic religion and script{{sfn|Edwards|2019|p=947}} as well as the emergence of regional elites buried in large tumuli.{{sfn|Edwards|2019|p=950}} Princely burials from [[Qustul]] ({{circa}} 380–410) and [[Ballana]] (410–500) in Lower Nubia are connected to the rise of [[Nobatia]].{{sfn|Török|2009|pp=520–521}} To its north were the [[Blemmyes]], who in around 394 established a [[Blemmye Kingdom|kingdom]] centered around Talmis{{sfn|Török|2009|pp=524–525}} that lasted until it was conquered by Nobatia in around 450.{{sfn|Török|2009|pp=527–528}} The political developments south of the third cataract remain obscure,{{sfn|Török|2009|pp=537–538}} but it appears that [[Old Dongola|Dongola]], the later capital of [[Makuria]] as well as [[Soba (city)|Soba]], the capital of [[Alodia]], were founded in that period. Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia eventually converted to Christianity in the 6th century, marking the beginning of medieval Nubia.{{sfn|Edwards|2013|p=791}}
== Language and writing ==
[[File:Meroitische Inschrift, Meroe 1. Jh. n. Chr., Aegyptisches Museum, Muenchen-1.jpg|thumb|Meroitic [[ostracon]]]]
The [[Meroitic language]] was spoken in Meroë and Sudan during the Meroitic period (attested from 300 BC). It became extinct around 400 AD. It is uncertain to which language family the Meroitic language is a part of. Kirsty Rowan suggests that Meroitic, like the [[Egyptian language]], belongs to the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] family. She bases this on its sound inventory and [[phonotactics]], which she argues are similar to those of the Afro-Asiatic languages and dissimilar from those of the Nilo-Saharan languages.<ref>Rowan, Kirsty (2011). "Meroitic Consonant and Vowel Patterning". ''Lingua Aegytia'', 19.</ref><ref>Rowan, Kirsty (2006), [http://www.soas.ac.uk/linguistics/research/workingpapers/volume-14/file37822.pdf "Meroitic – An Afroasiatic Language?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227133051/http://www.soas.ac.uk/linguistics/research/workingpapers/volume-14/file37822.pdf |date=2015-12-27 }} ''{{abbr|SOAS|School of Oriental and African Studies}} Working Papers in Linguistics'' 14:169–206.</ref>
Claude Rilly proposes that Meroitic, like the [[Nobiin language]], belongs to the [[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic]] branch of the [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] family, based in part on its syntax, morphology, and known vocabulary.<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Rilly, Claude |author2=de Voogt, Alex |date=2012 |title=The Meroitic Language and Writing System |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-00866-3 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Rilly, Claude |year=2004 |url=http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/projets/clhass/PageWeb/ressources/Isolats/Meroitic%20Rilly%202004.pdf |title=The Linguistic Position of Meroitic |journal=Sudan Electronic Journal of Archaeology and Anthropology |access-date=2017-11-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923213222/http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/projets/clhass/PageWeb/ressources/Isolats/Meroitic%20Rilly%202004.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rilly |first=Claude |date=2016 |chapter=Meroitic |editor-last1=Stauder-Porchet |editor-first1=Julie |editor-last2=Stauder |editor-first2=Andréas |editor-last3=Willeke |editor-first3=Wendrich |title=UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology |location=Los Angeles |publisher=[[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] |chapter-url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3128r3sw }}</ref>
In the Napatan Period Egyptian hieroglyphs were used: at this time writing seems to have been restricted to the court and temples. From the second century BC, there was a separate Meroitic writing system. The language was written in two forms of the [[Meroitic alphabet]]: Meroitic Cursive, which was written with a [[stylus]] and was used for general record-keeping; and Meroitic Hieroglyphic, which was carved in stone or used for royal or religious documents. It is not well understood due to the scarcity of [[bilingual]] texts. The earliest inscription in Meroitic writing dates from between 180 and 170 BC. These hieroglyphics were found engraved on the temple of Queen [[Shanakdakhete]]. Meroitic Cursive is written horizontally, and reads from right to left.<ref name="Howf">{{Cite book|last1=Fischer|first1=Steven Roger|title=History of Writing|date=2004|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=1-86189-588-7|pages=133–134|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iYMXnSko5QwC|access-date=16 January 2015}}</ref> This was an alphabetic script with 23 signs used in a hieroglyphic form (mainly on monumental art) and in a cursive form. The latter was widely used; so far some 1,278 texts using this version are known (Leclant 2000). The script was deciphered by Griffith, but the language behind it is still a problem, with only a few words understood by modern scholars. It is not as yet possible to connect the Meroitic language with other known languages.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/nubia/mwriting.html|title=Meroitic script|website=www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk}}</ref> For a time, it was also possibly used to write the [[Old Nubian language]] of the successor Nubian kingdoms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/nubia/mwriting.html |title="Meroe: Writing", ''Digital Egypt,'' University College, London |publisher=Digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=2012-09-06}}</ref>
== Technology, medicine, and mathematics ==
=== Technology ===
The natives of the Kingdom of Kush developed a type of water wheel or [[scoop wheel]], the [[saqiyah]], named kolē by the Kush.<ref name=Mokhtar1981_309>{{Cite book |author1=Ki-Zerbo, J. |author2=Mokhtar, G. |date=1981 |title=Ancient civilizations of Africa |publisher=Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa |isbn=978-0-435-94805-4 |page=309 |access-date= 2012-06-19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcMU94GUC&pg=PA309 }}</ref> The saqiyah was developed during the [[Meroitic period]] to improve irrigation. The introduction of this machine had a decisive influence on agriculture especially in [[Dongola Reach|Dongola]] as this wheel lifted water 3 to 8 meters with much less expenditure of labor and time than the [[shaduf]], which was the previous chief irrigation device in the kingdom. The shaduf relied on human energy but the saqiyah was driven by buffalos or other animals.{{r|Mokhtar1981_309}} The people of [[Kerma culture|Kerma]], ancestors to the Kushites, built bronze [[kiln]]s through which they manufactured objects of daily use such as [[razors]], [[mirrors]] and [[tweezers]].{{sfn|Bianchi|2004|p=81}}
[[File:Der große Hafir von Musawwarat fungiert jetzt als Tränke für die Tiere und Herden in der Region.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The "Great [[Hafir]]" (reservoir) at [[Musawwarat es-Sufra]]]]
The Kushites developed a form of [[reservoir]], known as a [[hafir]], during the Meroitic period. Eight hundred ancient and modern hafirs have been registered in the Meroitic town of [[Butana]].<ref name=Hintze1963_222>{{harvnb|Hintze|1963|pp=222–4}}</ref>
The functions of hafirs were to catch water during the rainy season for storage, to ensure water is available for several months during the dry season as well as supply drinking water, irrigate fields, and water cattle.{{r|Hintze1963_222}} The Great Hafir, or Great Reservoir, near the Lion Temple in [[Musawwarat es-Sufra]] is a notable hafir built by the Kushites.<ref name="The Great Hafir" /> It was built to retain the rainfall of the short, wet season. It is 250 m in diameter and 6.3 m deep.<ref name="The Great Hafir">{{Citation |last=Näser |first=Claudia |chapter=The Great Hafir at Musawwarat es-Sufra: Fieldwork of the Archaeological Mission of Humboldt University Berlin in 2005 and 2006 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/2639941 |editor1=Godlewski, Włodzimierz |editor2= Łajtar, Adam |title=Between the Cataracts. Proceedings of the 11th Conference of Nubian Studies, Warsaw University, 27 August – 2 September 2006, Part two, fascicule 1: Session papers, PAM Suppl. Series 2.2/1 |location=Warsaw |year=2010 |pages=39–46 |language=en |access-date=2020-10-04 |publisher=Warsaw University Press |doi=10.31338/uw.9788323533344|isbn=978-83-235-3334-4 }}</ref>{{r|Hintze1963_222}}
[[bloomery|Bloomeries]] and [[blast furnace]]s could have been used in metalworking at Meroë.{{sfn|Humphris|Charlton|Keen|Sauder|2018|p= 399}} Early records of bloomery furnaces dated at least to seventh and sixth century BC have been discovered in Kush. The ancient bloomeries that produced metal tools for the Kushites produced a surplus for sale.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Collins |first1=Robert O. |last2=Burns |first2=James M. |date=8 February 2007 |title=A History of Sub-Saharan Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86746-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PZcX2jQFTRcC&pg=PA61}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6tsaBtp0WrMC&pg=PA173 |title=The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan |first=David N. |last=Edwards |date=29 July 2004 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-203-48276-6}}</ref>{{sfn|Humphris|Charlton|Keen|Sauder|2018|pp=399–416}}
=== Medicine ===
Nubian [[mummies]] studied in the 1990s revealed that Kush was a pioneer of [[History of antibiotics|early antibiotics]].<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Armelagos, George |date=2000 |title=Take Two Beers and Call Me in 1,600 Years: Use of Tetracycline by Nubians and Ancient Egyptians |journal=Natural History |volume=109 |s2cid=89542474 |pages=50–3 }}</ref>
[[Tetracycline]] was being used by Nubians, based on bone remains between 350 AD and 550 AD. The antibiotic was in wide commercial use only in the mid 20th century. The theory states that earthen jars containing grain used for making beer contained the bacterium [[streptomyces]], which produced tetracycline. Although Nubians were not aware of tetracycline, they could have noticed that people fared better by drinking beer. According to Charlie Bamforth, a professor of biochemistry and brewing science at the University of California, Davis, "They must have consumed it because it was rather tastier than the grain from which it was derived. They would have noticed people fared better by consuming this product than they were just consuming the grain itself."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roach |first=John |date=17 May 2005 |title=Antibiotic Beer Gave Ancient Africans Health Buzz |journal=National Geographic |url=http://www.houblon.net/spip.php?article2100 |access-date=28 January 2021 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207142106/http://www.houblon.net/spip.php?article2100 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
=== Mathematics ===
Based on engraved plans of Meroitic King [[Amanikhabali]]'s pyramids, Nubians had a sophisticated understanding of mathematics as they appreciated the harmonic ratio. The engraved plans is indicative of much to be revealed about Nubian mathematics.{{sfn|Bianchi|2004|p=230}} The [[Nubia|ancient Nubians]] also established a system of geometry which they used in creating early versions of [[sun clock]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Gnomons at Meroë and Early Trigonometry|first=Leo|last=Depuydt|date=1 January 1998|journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology|volume=84|pages=171–180|doi=10.2307/3822211|jstor=3822211}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|title=Neolithic Skywatchers|date=27 May 1998|first=Andrew|last=Slayman|website=Archaeology Magazine Archive|access-date=17 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605234044/http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|archive-date=5 June 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> During the Meroitic period in Nubian history, the Nubians used a trigonometric methodology similar to the Egyptians.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO5FCVIxz2YC&q=nubia&pg=PA744|title=A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy|last=Neugebauer|first=O.|date=2004-09-17|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-06995-9|language=en}}</ref>
== Military ==
{{Main|Military of ancient Nubia}}
[[File:Meroë, the City of the Ethiopians - being an account of a first season's excavations on the site, 1909-1910 (1911) (14741938026).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Relief of a battle scene on temple [[Temple M 250|Meroe 250]] (also known as "Sun Temple"), 1st century AD]]
During the siege of [[Hermopolis]] in the eighth century BC, [[siege towers]] were built for the Kushite army led by [[Piye]], in order to enhance the efficiency of Kushite archers and [[Sling (weapon)|slingers]].<ref name="Siege Warfare in Ancient Egypt">{{Cite web |url=https://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/siegewarfare.html| title=Siege warfare in ancient Egypt |publisher=Tour Egypt|access-date=23 May 2020}}</ref>
After leaving Thebes, Piye's first objective was besieging [[Ashmunein]]. Following his army's lack of success he undertook the personal supervision of operations including the erection of a siege tower from which Kushite archers could fire down into the city.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dodson |first=Aidan |date=1996 |title=Monarchs of the nile |publisher=American Univ. in Cairo Press |isbn=978-9774246005 |page=178 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsq0AHsC-YMC&q=Kushite+siege+towers&pg=PA178}}</ref>
Early shelters protecting [[sapper]]s armed with poles trying to breach mud-brick ramparts gave way to [[battering rams]].<ref name="Siege Warfare in Ancient Egypt" />
[[Archery|Bowmen]] were the most important force components in the Kushite military.<ref name="Jim Hamm 2000. pp. 138-152">Jim Hamm. 2000. The Traditional Bowyer's Bible, Volume 3, pp. 138-152</ref> Ancient sources{{which|date=October 2021}}{{who|date=October 2021}} indicate that Kushite archers favored one-piece bows that were between six and seven feet long, with a draw strength so powerful that many of the archers used their feet to bend their bows. However, [[composite bows]] were also used in their arsenal.<ref name="Jim Hamm 2000. pp. 138-152" /> Greek historian [[Herodotus]] indicated that primary bow construction was of seasoned palm wood, with arrows made of cane.<ref name="Jim Hamm 2000. pp. 138-152" /> Kushite arrows were often [[poison arrows|poisoned-tipped]].
[[War Elephants|Elephants]] were occasionally used in warfare during the Meroitic period, as seen in the war against Rome around 20 BC.<ref name="Rome's Enemies">{{Cite book|last=Nicolle|first=David|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26551074|title=Rome's enemies.|date=26 March 1991|publisher=Osprey|others=Illustrated by Angus McBride|isbn=1-85532-166-1|location=London|pages=11–15|oclc=26551074}}</ref>
== Architecture ==
[[File:Sudan Meroe Pyramids 30sep2005 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|The pyramids of Meroe – [[UNESCO]] World Heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gebel Barkal and the Sites of the Napatan Region |website=UNESCO – World Heritage Convention |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1073}}</ref>]]
{{Main|Nubian pyramids}}
[[File:Temple Amon Napata elevation 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal|Amun temple]] of [[Jebel Barkal]], originally built during the Egyptian New Kingdom but greatly enhanced by Piye]]
During the [[Bronze Age]], [[Nubia]]n ancestors of the Kingdom of Kush built speoi (a speos is a temple or tomb cut into a rock face) between 3700 and 3250 BC. This greatly influenced the architecture of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]].{{sfn|Bianchi|2004|p=227}}
Tomb monuments were one of the more recognizable expressions of Kushite architecture. Uniquely Kushite tomb monuments were found from the beginning of the empire, at el Kurru, to the decline of the kingdom. These monuments developed organically from Middle Nile (e.g. A-group) burial types. Tombs became progressively larger during the 25th dynasty, culminating in Taharqa's underground rectangular building with "aisles of square piers...the whole being cut from the living rock."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|103}} Kushites also created pyramids,<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5abf-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 | title= (still image) Aethiopen. Begerauîeh [Begrawiya]. Pyramidengruppe A. Pyr. 9. Südwand., (1849–1856)|author=Digital Collections, The New York Public Library |access-date=August 20, 2020 |publisher=The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5acc-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 | title= (still image) Aethiopen. Begerauîeh [Begrawiya]. Pyramidengruppe A. Pyr. 15. Pylon., (1849–1856)|author=Digital Collections, The New York Public Library |access-date=August 20, 2020 |publisher=The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations}}</ref> mud-brick temples (deffufa), and masonry temples.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5adc-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 | title= (still image) Aethiopen. Naga [Naqa]. Tempel a. Vorderseite des Pylons., (1849–1856)|author=Digital Collections, The New York Public Library |access-date=August 20, 2020 |publisher=The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5ad5-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 | title= (still image) Aethiopen. Begerauîeh [Begrawiya]. Pyramidengruppe A. Pyr. 31. Pylon., (1849–1856)|author=Digital Collections, The New York Public Library |access-date=August 20, 2020 |publisher=The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations}}</ref> Kushites borrowed much from Egypt, as it relates to temple design. Kushite temples were quite diverse in their plans, except for the Amun temples which all have the same basic plan. The Jebel Barkal and Meroe Amun temples are exceptions with the 150 m long Jebel Barkal being "by far the largest 'Egyptian' temple ever built in Nubia."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|118}} Temples for major Egyptian deities were built on "a system of internal harmonic proportions" based on "one or more rectangles each with sides in the ratio of 8:5"<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|133}}<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5acb-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 | title= (still image) Aethiopen. Begerauîeh [Begrawiya]. Pyramidengruppe A. Pyr. 14. Westwand., (1849–1856)|author=Digital Collections, The New York Public Library |access-date=August 20, 2020 |publisher=The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations}}</ref> Kush also invented [[Nubian vault]]s.
[[File:Naqa Apedamak temple.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The so-called "Roman kiosk" (right) and temple of [[Apedemak]] (left), [[Naqa]] (1st century AD)]]
Piye is thought to have constructed the first true pyramid at el Kurru. Pyramids are "the archetypal tomb monument of the Kushite royal family" and found at "el Kurru, Nuri, Jebel Barkal, and Meroe."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|105}} The Kushite pyramids are smaller with steeper sides than northern Egyptian pyramids. The Kushites are thought to have copied the pyramids of New Kingdom elites, as opposed to Old and Middle Kingdom pharaohs.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|105–106}} Kushite housing consisted mostly of circular timber huts with some apartment houses with several two-room apartments. The apartment houses likely accommodated extended families.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
The Kushites built a stone-paved road at Jebel Barkal, are thought to have built piers/harbors on the Nile river, and many wells.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/19/science/19kush.html?8dpc=&_r=1&adxnnl=1&oref=slogin&adxnnlx=1182262099-4sntH5YApEoKiDu/wy49HQ John Noble Wilford, "Scholars Race to Recover a Lost Kingdom on the Nile"], ''[[New York Times]]'' (June 19, 2007)</ref>
==Economy==
[[File:Taharqa & Shabaka papyrus, Thebes.jpeg|thumb|[[Hieratic]] papyrus written during the reigns of Taharqa and Shabaqa discussing financial matters, Thebes]]
Some scholars{{who|date=December 2013}} believe the economy in the Kingdom of Kush was a redistributive system. The state would collect taxes in the form of surplus produce and would redistribute it to the people. Others believe that most of the society worked on the land and required nothing from the state and did not contribute to the state. Northern Kush seems to have been more productive and wealthier than the Southern area.<ref name="Welsby, Derek A 1996">{{harvnb |Welsby |1996 |p={{page needed|date=December 2021}}}}</ref>
== Kush and Egyptology ==
On account of the Kingdom of Kush's proximity to [[Ancient Egypt]] – the [[first cataract]] at [[Elephantine]] usually being considered the traditional border between the two [[Polity|polities]] – and because the 25th dynasty ruled over both states in the eighth century BC, from the Rift Valley to the [[Taurus mountains]], historians have closely associated the study of Kush with Egyptology, in keeping with the general assumption that the complex sociopolitical development of Egypt's neighbors can be understood in terms of Egyptian models.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} As a result, the political structure and organization of Kush as an independent ancient state has not received as thorough attention from scholars, and there remains much ambiguity especially surrounding the earliest periods of the state.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} Edwards has suggested that the study of the region could benefit from increased recognition of Kush as a state in its own right, with distinct cultural conditions, rather than merely as a secondary state on the periphery of Egypt.<ref name="edwards 1998">{{Cite web|title=David N. Edwards, "Meroe and the Sudanic Kingdoms", "Journal of African History" (UK). Vol. 39 No. 2 (1998), pp 175–193|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2F22648_C6A5D4D0922E24022C27DEA7035B07DB_journals__AFH_AFH39_02_S002185379700717Xa.pdf&cover=Y&code=2a79b8f52131a8547fc0936b8a4b398c}}</ref>
== Gallery ==
<gallery class="center" widths="225" heights="250">
File:Taharqo, Black Pharaohs Cache (Dukki Gel ) , Kerma Museum,Sudan (2).jpg|Portrait of [[Taharqa]], [[Kerma Museum]]
File:The Archer King, National Museum of Sudan, Khartoum, Sudan, North-East Africa (cropped).jpg|The "Archer King", an unknown king of Meroe, 3rd century BC. [[National Museum of Sudan]].
File:Shrine of the 25th dynasty pharaoh and Kushite King Taharqa Egypt 7th century BCE.jpg|Taharqa's shrine, Ashmolean museum in Oxford, UK
File:Taharqa's kiosk. Karnak Temple.jpg|[[Taharqa]]'s kiosk, Karnak Temple
File:Pharaoh Taharqa of Ancient Egypt's 25th Dynasty.jpg|Pharaoh Taharqa of Ancient Egypt's 25th Dynasty. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford UK
File:Vaso con decoración de rostros de demonios. Época meroítica.jpg|Meroitic pottery, Nelluah (Egyptian Nubia)
</gallery>
== See also ==
* [[Aethiopia]] is an ancient Greek geographical term which referred to the regions of Sudan and areas south of the Sahara desert.
* [[List of monarchs of Kush]]
* [[Merowe Dam]]
* [[Nubiology]]
* [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
=== Sources ===
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}}
*{{cite book |last=Emberling |first=Geoff |year=2023 |title=The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East |volume=4 |chapter=Kush under the Dynasty of Napata |editor=Karen Radner |editor2=Nadine Moeller |editor3=D.T. Potts |publisher=Oxford University |pages=82–160}}
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*{{cite book |last=Edwards |first=David |year=2013 |title=The Oxford Handbook of African Archaeology |chapter=Medieval and post-medieval states of the Nile Valley |publisher=Oxford University |editor=Peter Mitchell, Paul Lane |pages=789–798}}
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}}
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}}
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}}
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* {{Cite book |author=Oliver, Roland |title=The Cambridge History of Africa Volume 3 1050 – c. 1600 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |date=1975 |isbn=0-521-20981-1}}
* {{Cite book |author=Oliver, Roland |title=The Cambridge history of Africa. Vol. 2, From c. 500 BC to AD 1050 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |date=1978 |isbn=0-521-20981-1}}
* {{Cite book |author=Shillington, Kevin |title=Encyclopedia of African History, Vol. 1 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |year=2004 |pages=1912 Pages |isbn=1-57958-245-1
}}
* {{Cite book |last=Török |first=László |date=1997 |chapter=The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization |title=Handbook of Oriental Studies |others=Section 1 the Near and Middle East |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004104488
}}
*{{cite book |last=Török| first=László |year=2009 |title=Between Two Worlds. The Frontier Region between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC – AD 500 |publisher=Brill}}
*{{Cite book |last=Welsby |first=Derek |title=The Kingdom of Kush: the Napatan and Meroitic empires |publisher=Published for the Trustees of the British Museum by British Museum Press |publication-place=London |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7141-0986-2 |oclc=34888835}}
* {{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Bruce Beyer |year=2020 |chapter=The Napatan Neo-Kushite State 1: The Intermediate Period and Second Empire |pages=411–422 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Nubia |editor=Bruce Beyer Williams |publisher=Oxford University}}
== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book |last=Baud |first=Michel |title=Méroé. Un empire sur le Nil |year=2010 |publisher=Officina Libraria |isbn=978-8889854501 |language=fr }}
* {{Cite book |last=Breyer |first=Francis |title=Einführung in die Meroitistik |year=2014 |publisher=Lit |isbn=978-3-643-12805-8 |language=de }}
* {{Cite book | last=Lenoble |first=Patrice |year=2018 |title=El-Hobagi: Une Necropole De Rang Imperial Au Soudan Central |publisher=Institut Francais D'archeologie Orientale}}
* {{Cite book | last=Pope |first=Jeremy |year=2014 |title=The Double Kingdom Under Taharqa |publisher=Brill}}
* {{Cite book |author1-last=Valbelle |author1-first=Dominique |author2-last=Bonnet |author2-first=Charles |title=The Nubian Pharaohs |year=2006 |publisher=The American University in Cairo Press |isbn=978-9774160103 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Yvanes |first=Elsa |chapter=Clothing the elite? Patterns of textile production and consumption in ancient Sudan and Nubia |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/38111132 |year=2018 |title=Dynamics and Organisation of Textile Production in Past Societies in Europe and the Mediterranean |volume=31 |pages=81–92 }}
== External links ==
{{Commons category|Kingdom of Kush}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070621204134/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070619-gold-nile.html Dan Morrison, "Ancient Gold Center Discovered on the Nile", National Geographic News]
* [http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/CIVAFRCA/KUSH.HTM "Civilizations in Africa: Kush", Washington State University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070501062512/http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/CIVAFRCA/KUSH.HTM |date=2007-05-01 }}
*[https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/ancient-africa-queens-nubia "Remembering the Remarkable Queens Who Ruled Ancient Nubia"] at [[Atlas Obscura]], December 15, 2021
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190519102901/http://www.africankingdoms.com/ African Kingdoms {{!}} Kush]
* {{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20051027005838/http://www.ancientsudan.org/ Ancient Sudan (Nubia) website]}}
* [https://www.jstor.org/pss/593008 Joseph Poplicha, "The Biblical Nimrod and the Kingdom of Eanna", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', Vol. 49, (1929), pp. 303–317]
* [http://www.kerma.ch/index.php?lang=en Kerma website] Official website of the Swiss archeological mission to Sudan.
* Josefine Kuckertz: ''Meroe and Egypt.'' In Wolfram Grajetzki, Solange Ashby, Willeke Wendrich (eds.): ''UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology.'' Los Angeles 2021, {{ISSN|2693-7425}} ([https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6061m848 online]).
{{History of Nubia footer|state=collapsed}}{{Kushite religion footer|state=collapsed}}{{Kushite Monarchs footer|state=collapsed}}{{Empires}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Kingdom of Kush| ]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 8th century BC]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 4th century]]
[[Category:11th-century BC establishments]]
[[Category:350s disestablishments]]
[[Category:Roman client kingdoms]]
[[Category:Former kingdoms]]
[[Category:Former empires]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Ancient kingdom in Nubia, Africa}}
{{Redirect|Kushites|the people who speak Cushitic languages|Cushitic languages}}
{{About|the kingdom south of Egypt|the period of Kushite rule in Egypt|Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt}}
{{Infobox Former Country
| native_name = ''Qes''{{nbsp|2}}([[Meroitic language|Meroitic]]){{small|{{sfn|Török|1997|loc=p. 2 (1997 ed.)}}}}
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Kush
| common_name = Kush
| region =
| era = [[Bronze Age]] to [[Late Antiquity]]
| status =
| status_text =
| empire =
| government_type = Monarchy
| year_start = {{Circa|780 BC}}
| year_end = {{Circa|AD 350}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kuckertz |first=Josefine |date=2021 |title=Meroe and Egypt |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6061m848 |journal=UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology |language=en |pages=22}}</ref>
| event_start = Established
| date_start =
| event_end = Disestablished
| date_end =
| event1 = Capital moved to Meroe
| date_event1 = 591 BC
| event_pre =
| date_pre =
| event_post =
| date_post =
| p1 = New Kingdom of Egypt
| flag_p1 =
| s1 = Alodia
| flag_s1 = Possible Flag of the Kingdom of Alodia (c. 1350).svg
| s2 = Makuria
| flag_s2 = The flag of the 'Kingdom of Dongola' (Makuria) in the "Book of all kingdoms" (C. 1350).png
| s3 = Nobatia
| flag_s3 =
| s4 = Blemmyes
| flag_s4 =
| s5 =
| flag_s5 =
| image_flag =
| flag =
| flag_type =
| image_coat =
| symbol =
| symbol_type =
| image_map = File:Kushite heartland and Kushite Empire of the 25th dynasty circa 700 BCE.jpg
| image_map_caption = Kushite heartland, and Kushite Empire of the [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt]], circa 700 BC.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Dive beneath the pyramids of Sudan's black pharaohs |journal=National Geographic |date=2 July 2019 |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/2019/07/dive-ancient-pyramid-nuri-sudan/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702180435/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/2019/07/dive-ancient-pyramid-nuri-sudan/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 2, 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
| capital = [[Kerma]]<br>[[Napata]]<br>[[Meroë]]
| national_motto =
| national_anthem =
| common_languages = [[Meroitic language|Meroitic]]<br>[[Egyptian language|Egyptian]]{{sfn|Török|1997|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=i54rPFeGKewC&q=%22Kingdom+of+Kush%22+language&pg=PA49 p. 49 (1997 ed.)]}}<br>[[Blemmyes#Language|Blemmyan]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rilly |first1=Claude |date=2019 |chapter=Languages of Ancient Nubia |editor-last=Raue |editor-first=Dietrich |title=Handbook of Ancient Nubia |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-041669-5 |pages=133–4 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXWcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA134 |access-date=2019-11-20 |quote=The Blemmyan language is so close to modern Beja that it is probably nothing else than an early dialect of the same language.}}</ref><br>[[Old Nubian]]
| religion = [[Kushite religion]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/kushite-religion |title=Kushite Religion |website=encyclopedia.com |date= }}</ref><br>[[Kushite religion#Deities|Kushite polytheism]]<br>[[Ancient Egyptian religion]]
| currency =
| leader1 =
| leader2 =
| year_leader1 =
| year_leader2 = 340–355
| title_leader = [[List of monarchs of Kush|Monarch]]
| stat_year1 = Egyptian phase<ref name="Stearns">{{Cite book |editor-first=Peter N. |editor-last=Stearns |editor-link=Peter Stearns |title=The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged |title-link=Encyclopedia of World History |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MziRd4ddZz4C&pg=PA32 |edition=6th |year=2001 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-395-65237-4 |page=32 |chapter=(II.B.4.) East Africa, c. 2000–332 B.C.E. }}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
| stat_year2 = Meroite phase<ref name="Stearns" />
| stat_pop2 = 1,150,000
| today = [[Sudan]]<br />[[Egypt]]
| demonym = Kushite
| area_km2 =
| area_rank =
| GDP_PPP =
| GDP_PPP_year =
| HDI =
| HDI_year =
}}
The '''Kingdom of Kush''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ʊ|ʃ|,_|k|ʌ|ʃ}}; [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]]: '''𓎡𓄿𓈙[[𓈉]]''' ''kꜣš'', [[Akkadian language|Assyrian]]: [[File:Rassam cylinder Ku-u-si.jpg|60px]] ''Kûsi'', in <small>[[LXX]]</small> Χους or Αἰθιοπία; {{lang-cop|{{Script/Coptic|ⲉϭⲱϣ}}}} ''Ecōš''; {{lang-he|כּוּשׁ}} ''Kūš''), also known as the '''Kushite Empire''', or simply '''Kush''', was an ancient kingdom in [[Nubia]], centered along the [[Nile Valley]] in what is now northern [[Sudan]] and southern [[Egypt]].
The region of Nubia was an early cradle of sudan is the best 🙏🗿civilization, producing several complex societies that engaged in trade and industry.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2018-07-20|title=The Kingdoms of Kush|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/kingdoms-kush/|access-date=2020-08-29|website=National Geographic Society|language=en|archive-date=2020-05-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505060417/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/kingdoms-kush/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The city-state of [[Kerma]] emerged as the dominant political force between 2450 and 1450 BC, controlling the Nile Valley between the first and fourth [[Cataracts of the Nile|cataracts]], an area as large as Egypt. The Egyptians were the first to identify Kerma as "Kush" probably from the indigenous ethnonym "Kasu", over the next several centuries the two civilizations engaged in intermittent warfare, trade, and cultural exchange.<ref>Alberge, Dalya. "Tomb reveals Ancient Egypt's humiliating secret". ''[[The Times]]''. London.</ref>
Much of Nubia came under Egyptian rule during the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom period]] (1550–1070 BC). Following Egypt's disintegration amid the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]], the Kushites reestablished a kingdom in [[Napata]] (now modern [[Karima, Sudan]]). Though Kush had developed many cultural affinities with Egypt, such as the veneration of [[Amun]], and the royal families of both kingdoms occasionally intermarried, Kushite culture, language and ethnicity was distinct; Egyptian art distinguished the people of Kush by their dress, appearance, and even method of transportation.<ref name=":1" />
In the 8th century BC, [[Kashta|King Kashta]] ("the Kushite") peacefully became King of Upper Egypt, while his daughter, [[Amenirdis I|Amenirdis]], was appointed as Divine Adoratrice of Amun in [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]].{{sfn|Török|1997|pp=144–6}} His successor [[Piye]] invaded Lower Egypt, establishing the Kushite-ruled [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-fifth Dynasty]]. Piye's daughter, [[Shepenupet II]], was also appointed Divine Adoratrice of Amun. The [[List of monarchs of Kush|monarchs of Kush]] ruled Egypt for over a century until the [[Assyrian conquest of Egypt|Assyrian conquest]], finally being expelled by the [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] kings [[Esarhaddon]] and [[Ashurbanipal]] in the mid-seventh century BC. Following the severing of ties with Egypt, the Kushite imperial capital was located at [[Meroë]], during which time it was known by the Greeks as [[Aethiopia]].
From the third century BC to the third century AD, northern Nubia would be invaded and annexed by Egypt. Ruled by the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Macedonians]] and [[Roman empire|Romans]] for the next 600 years, this territory would be known in the Greco-Roman world as [[Dodekaschoinos]]. It was later taken back under control by the fourth Kushite king, [[Yesebokheamani]]. The Kingdom of Kush persisted as a major regional power until the fourth century AD when it weakened and disintegrated from internal rebellion amid worsening climatic conditions and invasions and conquest of the kingdom of Kush by the [[Noba]] people who introduced the Nubian languages and gave their name to Nubia itself. Because the [[Noba]] and the [[Blemmyes]] were at war with the Kushites the [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumites]] took advantage of this, capturing Meroë and looting its gold, marking the end of the kingdom and its dissolution into the three polities of [[Nobatia]], [[Makuria]] and [[Alodia]], though the Aksumite presence in Meroe was likely short lived. Sometime after this event, the Kingdom of [[Alodia]] would gain control of the southern territory of the former Meroitic empire including parts of Eritrea.<ref>Derek Welsby (2014): "The Kingdom of Alwa" in "The Fourth Cataract and Beyond". Peeters.</ref>
Long overshadowed by its more prominent Egyptian neighbor, archaeological discoveries since the late 20th century have revealed Kush to be an advanced civilization in its own right. The Kushites had their own unique language and script; maintained a complex economy based on trade and industry; mastered archery; and developed a complex, urban society with uniquely high levels of female participation.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|author=Isma'il Kushkush |author2=Matt Stirn|title=Why Sudan's Remarkable Ancient Civilization Has Been Overlooked by History|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/|access-date=2020-08-23|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en}}</ref>
== Name ==
{{infobox hieroglyphs
|width = 270px
|title=''Kush''
|name = {{center|<hiero>k-G1-S:N25</hiero>}}
|name transcription = k3š
|name explanation = ''Ku'sh''
}}
The native name of the Kingdom was recorded in [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] as ''{{lang|egy|[[wikt:kꜣš|kꜣš]]}}'', likely pronounced {{IPA-all|kuɫuʃ}} or {{IPA-all|kuʔuʃ}} in [[Middle Egyptian language|Middle Egyptian]], when the term was first used for Nubia, based on the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]]-era [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] transliteration of the genitive ''kūsi''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goldenberg|first=David M.|title=The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iTyJ3HiNOAsC&pg=PA144 |year=2005|edition=New|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12370-7|page=17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Esarhaddon and Egypt: An Analysis of the First Invasion of Egypt|last = Spalinger|first = Anthony|date = 1974|journal = Orientalia |series=Nova Series |volume=43 |pages=295–326, XI}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Gd6aAAAAQBAJ&q=ancient+egyptian+allen|publisher = Cambridge University Press|date = 2013-07-11|access-date = 2015-04-15|isbn = 978-1-107-03246-0|first = James P.|last = Allen|page = 53}}</ref>
It is also an ethnic term for the native population who initiated the kingdom of Kush. The term is also displayed in the names of Kushite persons,{{sfn|Török|1997}} such as King [[Kashta]] (a transcription of ''kꜣš-tꜣ'' "(one from) the land of Kush"). Geographically, Kush referred to the region south of the [[first cataract]] in general. Kush also was the home of the rulers of the [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|25th Dynasty]].<ref name="Van 2011">Van, de M. M. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. Print.</ref>
The name ''Kush'', since at least the time of [[Josephus]], has been connected with the biblical character [[Cush (Bible)|Cush]], in the [[Hebrew Bible]] ({{lang-he|כּוּשׁ}}), son of [[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]] (Genesis 10:6). Ham had four sons named: Cush, [[Put (biblical figure)|Put]], [[Canaan (son of Ham)|Canaan]], and [[Mizraim]] (Hebrew name for Egypt). According to the Bible, [[Nimrod]], a son of Cush, was the founder and king of [[Babylon]], [[Uruk|Erech]], [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]] and [[Calneh]], in [[Shinar]] (Gen 10:10).<ref name="kingjamesbibleonline.org">{{Cite web|url=http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Genesis-10-10/|title=GENESIS 10:10 KJV "And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar."|website=www.kingjamesbibleonline.org}}</ref> The Bible also makes reference to someone named Cush who is a [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamite]] (Psalms 7:1, KJV).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Psalms-Chapter-7/|title=PSALMS CHAPTER 7 KJV|website=www.kingjamesbibleonline.org}}</ref>
In [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] sources Kush was known as ''Kous'' (Κους) or ''[[Aithiopia|Aethiopia]]'' (Αἰθιοπία).{{sfn|Török|1997|loc=p. 69 ff (1997 ed.)}}
== History ==
=== Prelude ===
{{multiple image
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| header = Kerma culture<br /><small>(c.2500 BC–c.1550 BC)</small>
| image1 = Wallpaper group-pmg-4.jpg
| caption1 = Kerma bowl, 1700-1550 BC. [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]]
| image2 = Exposition Nubia, Land of the Black Pharaohs – Mirror. Kerma Period, 1700-1550 BC.jpg
| caption2 = Mirror. End of [[Kerma culture|Kerma Period]], 1700-1550 BC. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
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}}
==== Kerma culture (2500–1500 BC) ====
{{Main|Kerma culture}}
The [[Kerma culture]] was an early civilization centered in [[Kerma]], [[Sudan]]. It flourished from around 2500 BC to 1500 BC in ancient [[Nubia]]. The Kerma culture was based in the southern part of Nubia, or "[[Upper Nubia]]" (in parts of present-day northern and central [[Sudan]]), and later extended its reach northward into Lower Nubia and the border of Egypt.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Hafsaas-Tsakos |first1= Henriette |title= The Kingdom of Kush: An African Centre on the Periphery of the Bronze Age World System |journal= Norwegian Archaeological Review |date=2009 |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages= 50–70 |doi= 10.1080/00293650902978590 |s2cid= 154430884 |url= https://www.academia.edu/2380609 }}</ref> The polity seems to have been one of several [[Nile Valley]] states during the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt]]. In the Kingdom of Kerma's latest phase, lasting from about 1700–1500 BC, it absorbed the Sudanese kingdom of [[Sai (island)|Sai]] and became a sizable, populous empire rivaling Egypt.
==== Egyptian Nubia (1504–1070 BC) ====
[[File:Nubian Prince Hekanefer bringing tribute for King Tut, 18th dynasty, Tomb of Huy.jpg|thumb|Nubian Prince [[Heqanefer]] bringing tribute for The Egyptian King [[Tutankhamun]], 18th dynasty, Tomb of Huy. {{Circa|1342}} – {{Circa| 1325}} BC]][[Mentuhotep II]], the 21st century BC founder of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]], is recorded to have undertaken campaigns against Kush in the 29th and 31st years of his reign. This is the earliest Egyptian reference to ''Kush''; the [[Nubia]]n region had gone by other names in the Old Kingdom.<ref>''Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia'', Richard A. Lobban Jr., p. 254.</ref> Under [[Thutmose I]], Egypt made several campaigns south.
The Egyptians ruled Kush in the New kingdom beginning when the Egyptian King Thutmose I occupied Kush and destroyed its capital, Kerma.<ref>De Mola, Paul J. "Interrelations of Kerma and Pharaonic Egypt". Ancient History Encyclopedia: https://www.worldhistory.org/article/487/</ref>
This eventually resulted in their annexation of Nubia {{Circa|1504 BC}}. Around 1500 BC, Nubia was absorbed into the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]], but rebellions continued for centuries. After the conquest, Kerma culture was increasingly Egyptianized, yet rebellions continued for 220 years until {{Circa|1300 BC}}. Nubia nevertheless became a key province of the New Kingdom, economically, politically, and spiritually. Indeed, major pharaonic ceremonies were held at Jebel Barkal near Napata.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jebelbarkal.org/|title=Jebal Barkal: History and Archaeology of Ancient Napata|access-date=21 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602094858/http://jebelbarkal.org/|archive-date=2 June 2013|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> As an Egyptian colony from the 16th century BC, Nubia ("Kush") was governed by an Egyptian [[Viceroy of Kush]].
Resistance to the early eighteenth Dynasty Egyptian rule by neighboring Kush is evidenced in the writings of [[Ahmose, son of Ebana]], an Egyptian warrior who served under Nebpehtrya Ahmose (1539–1514 BC), Djeserkara Amenhotep I (1514–1493 BC), and Aakheperkara Thutmose I (1493–1481 BC). At the end of the [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period]] (mid-sixteenth century BC), Egypt faced the twin existential threats—the [[Hyksos]] in the North and the Kushites in the South. Taken from the autobiographical inscriptions on the walls of his tomb-chapel, the Egyptians undertook campaigns to defeat Kush and conquer Nubia under the rule of [[Amenhotep I]] (1514–1493 BC). In Ahmose's writings, the Kushites are described as [[archery|archers]], "Now after his Majesty had slain the Bedoin of Asia, he sailed upstream to [[Upper Nubia]] to destroy the Nubian bowmen."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Writings from Ancient Egypt|last=Wilkinson|first=Toby|publisher=Penguin Classics|year=2016|isbn=978-0-14-139595-1|location=United Kingdom|pages=19}}</ref> The tomb writings contain two other references to the Nubian bowmen of Kush. By 1200 BC, Egyptian involvement in the [[Dongola Reach]] was nonexistent.
Egypt's international prestige had declined considerably towards the end of the [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt|Third Intermediate Period]]. Its historical allies, the inhabitants of [[Canaan]], had fallen to the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] (1365–1020 BC), and then the resurgent [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] (935–605 BC). The [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], from the tenth century BC onwards, had once more expanded from northern [[Mesopotamia]], and conquered a vast empire, including the whole of the [[Near East]], and much of [[Anatolia]], the eastern [[Mediterranean]], the [[Caucasus]] and [[History of Iran#Early Iron Age|early Iron Age Iran]].
According to Josephus Flavius, the biblical Moses led the Egyptian army in a siege of the Kushite city of Meroe. To end the siege Princess Tharbis was given to Moses as a (diplomatic) bride, and thus the Egyptian army retreated back to Egypt.<ref>Flavius Josephus. 'Antiquities of the Jews'. Whiston 2-10-2.</ref>
=== Formation ({{circa}} 1070–754 BC) ===
[[File:Relief In The Semna Temple (3) (34074139275).jpg|thumb|Relief from the temple of [[Semna (Nubia)|Semna]] depicting queen-king [[Karimala]] approaching [[Isis]], 10th–9th century BC{{sfn|Williams|2020|pp=413–414}}]]
With the disintegration of the New Kingdom around 1070 BC, ''Kush'' became an independent kingdom centered at [[Napata]] in modern northern Sudan.<ref>Morkot, Robert G. "On the Priestly Origin of the Napatan Kings: The Adaptation, Demise, and Resurrection of Ideas in Writing Nubian History" in O'Connor, David and Andrew Reid, eds. ''Ancient Egypt in Africa (Encounters with Ancient Egypt) (University College London Institute of Archaeology Publications)'' Left Coast Press (1 Aug 2003) {{ISBN|978-1-59874-205-3}} p.151</ref> This more-Egyptianized "Kingdom of Kush" emerged, possibly from Kerma, and regained the region's independence from Egypt. The extent of cultural/political continuity between the [[Kerma culture]] and the chronologically succeeding Kingdom of Kush is difficult to determine. The latter polity began to emerge around 1000 BC, 500 years after the end of the Kingdom of Kerma.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}
[[File:Gebel Barkal.jpg|thumb|[[Jebel Barkal]] was venerated as residence of [[Amun]] and became an essential symbol of Kushite kingship]]
[[File:Lepsius el-Kurru pyramids.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.2|The pyramids of [[el-Kurru]] after [[Carl Richard Lepsius]], 1859]]
The first Kushite king known by name was [[Alara of Nubia|Alara]], who ruled somewhere between 800{{sfn|Emberling|2023|p=110}} and 760 BC.{{sfn|Török|1997|p=123}} No contemporary inscriptions of him exist.{{sfn|Emberling|2023|p=110}} He was first mentioned in the funerary stela of his daughter [[Tabiry]], the wife of king [[Piye]]. Later royal inscriptions remember Alara as the founder of the dynasty, some calling him "chieftain", others "king". A 7th century inscription claimed that his sister was the grandmother of king [[Taharqo]].{{sfn|Török|1997|pp=123–125}} An inscription of the 5th century king [[Amanineteyerike]] remembered Alara's reign as long and successful.{{sfn|Kendall|1999|p=45}} Alara was probably buried at el-Kurru, although there exists no inscription to identify his tomb.{{sfn|Emberling|2023|p=110}} It has been proposed that it was Alara who turned Kush from a chiefdom to an Egyptianized kingdom centered around the cult of [[Amun]].{{sfn|Török|1997|p=126}}
<!--Dental trait analysis of fossils dating from the Meroitic period in [[Semna (Nubia)|Semna]], in northern Nubia near Egypt, found that they displayed traits similar to those of populations inhabiting the [[Nile]], [[Horn of Africa]], and [[Maghreb]]. Traits from mesolithic and southern Nubia around Meroe however indicated a closer affinity with other sub-Saharan dental records. It is indicative of a north–south gradient along the Nile river.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Irish|first1=Joel D.|title=Dental morphological affinities of Late Pleistocene through recent sub-Saharan and North African peoples|journal=Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'anthropologie de Paris|date=1998|volume=10|issue=3|pages=237–272|doi=10.3406/bmsap.1998.2517|url=http://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/bmsap_0037-8984_1998_num_10_3_2517.pdf|access-date=17 June 2017}} {{dead link|date=March 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
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=== Rule over Egypt (754 BC–656 BC) ===
{{Main|Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt}}
Alara's successor [[Kashta]] extended Kushite control north to [[Elephantine]] and [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]] in [[Upper Egypt]]. Kashta's successor [[Piye#Piye's Conquest of Egypt|Piye]] seized control of Lower Egypt around 727 BC.<ref>Shaw (2002) p. 345</ref> Piye's [[Stele of Piye|Victory Stela]], celebrating these campaigns between 728 and 716 BC, was found in the Amun temple at Jebel Barkal. He invaded an Egypt fragmented into four kingdoms, ruled by King [[Peftjauawybast]], King [[Nimlot of Hermopolis|Nimlot]], King [[Iuput II]], and King [[Osorkon IV]].<ref name=David>{{Cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=David |title=The Nubian Past |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location=Oxon |isbn=978-0-415-36988-6 |pages=2, 75, 77–78}}</ref>{{rp|115,120}}
[[File:Rulers of Kush, Kerma Museum.jpg|thumb|Statues of various rulers of the late 25th Dynasty–early Napatan period: [[Tantamani]], [[Taharqa]] (rear), [[Senkamanisken]], again [[Tantamani]] (rear), [[Aspelta]], [[Anlamani]], again [[Senkamanisken]]. [[Kerma Museum]].<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Janine A. |last1=Ducommun |last2=Elshazly |first2=Hesham |title=Kerma and the royal cache |url=https://www.academia.edu/3714044 |language=en |date=April 15, 2009 |via=Academia.edu}}</ref>]]
Why the Kushites chose to enter Egypt at this crucial point of foreign domination is subject to debate. Archaeologist Timothy Kendall offers his own hypotheses, connecting it to a claim of legitimacy associated with [[Jebel Barkal]].<ref name="Kendall, T.K. 2002">Kendall, T.K., 2002. Napatan Temples: a Case Study from Gebel Barkal. The Mythological Nubian Origin of Egyptian Kingship and the Formation of the Napatan State. Tenth International Conference of Nubian Studies. Rome, September 9–14, 2002.</ref> Kendall cites the Victory Stele of Piye at Jebel Barkal, which states that "[[Amun]] of Napata granted me to be ruler of every foreign country," and "Amun in Thebes granted me to be ruler of the Black Land ([[Km (hieroglyph)#km.t|Kmt]])". According to Kendall, "foreign lands" in this regard seems to include Lower Egypt while "Kmt" seems to refer to a united Upper Egypt and Nubia.<ref name="Kendall, T.K. 2002" />
Piye's successor, [[Shabataka]], defeated the Saite kings of northern Egypt between 711 and 710 BC and installed himself as king in [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]. He then established ties with [[Sargon II]] of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]].<ref name=David />{{rp|120}} After the reign of [[Shabaka]], Pharaoh [[Taharqa]]'s army undertook successful military campaigns, as attested by the "list of conquered Asiatic principalities" from the Mut temple at Karnak and "conquered peoples and countries (Libyans, Shasu nomads, Phoenicians?, Khor in Palestine)" from Sanam temple inscriptions.{{sfn|Török|1997|pp=132-3, 153-84}} However the regions in the southern Levant claimed by Shabataka were
seen by Assyria as under their dominion, and imperial ambitions of both the [[Mesopotamian]] based [[Assyrian Empire]] and [[Kushite Empire]] made war with the 25th dynasty inevitable. In 701 BC, Taharqa and his army aided [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and King [[Hezekiah]] in withstanding a siege by King [[Sennacherib]] of the Assyrians (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9).<ref name=Aubin>{{Cite book|title=The Rescue of Jerusalem|date=2002|publisher=Soho Press, Inc.|isbn=1-56947-275-0|location=New York, NY|pages=x, 141–144|last1=Aubin|first1=Henry T.}}</ref> There are various theories (Taharqa's army,<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Rescue of Jerusalem|date=2002|publisher=Soho Press, Inc.|isbn=1-56947-275-0|location=New York, NY|pages=x, 127, 129–130, 139–152|last1=Aubin|first1=Henry T.}}</ref> disease, divine intervention, Hezekiah's surrender or agreeing to pay tribute) as to why the Assyrians failed to take the city.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Rescue of Jerusalem|date=2002|publisher=Soho Press, Inc.|isbn=1-56947-275-0|location=New York, NY|pages=x, 119|last1=Aubin|first1=Henry T.}}</ref> Historian [[László Török]] mentions that Egypt's army "was beaten at Eltekeh" under Taharqa's command, but "the battle could be interpreted as a victory for the double kingdom", since Assyria did not take Jerusalem, however the Egyptian and Kushite forces withdrew to Egypt and the Assyrian king [[Sennacherib]] appears to have occupied part of the Sinai.{{sfn|Török|1997|p=170}}
[[File:Pyramids of Nuri (cropped).jpg|thumb|Pyramids of [[Nuri]], built between the reigns of [[Taharqa]] (circa 670 BC) and [[Nastasen]] (circa 310 BC).]]
The power of the 25th Dynasty reached a climax under Taharqa. The Nile valley empire was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom. New prosperity{{sfn|Török|1997}} revived Egyptian culture.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Diop|first=Cheikh Anta|title=The African Origin of Civilization|year=1974|publisher=Lawrence Hill Books|location=Chicago, Illinois|isbn=1-55652-072-7|pages=219–221}}</ref> Religion, the arts, and architecture were restored to their glorious Old, Middle, and New Kingdom forms. The Kushite pharaohs built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bonnet|first=Charles|title=The Nubian Pharaohs|year=2006|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press|location=New York|isbn=978-977-416-010-3|pages=142–154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5ab7-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 | title= (still image) Aethiopen. Barkal [Jebel Barkal]. Nördliche Pyramidengruppe. Pyr. 15: a. Nordwand; b. Westwand., (1849–1856)|author=Digital Collections, The New York Public Library |access-date=August 20, 2020 |publisher=The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations}}</ref> It was during the 25th dynasty that the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of pyramids (many in modern Sudan) since the Middle Kingdom.<ref name="Mokhtar1990">{{Cite book|last=Mokhtar|first=G.|title=General History of Africa|year=1990|publisher=University of California Press|location=California, USA|isbn=0-520-06697-9|pages=161–163}}</ref><ref name="Emberling2011">{{Cite book|last=Emberling|first=Geoff|title=Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa|year=2011|publisher=Institute for the Study of the Ancient World|location=New York|pages=9–11}}</ref><ref name="Silverman1997">{{Cite book|last=Silverman|first=David|title=Ancient Egypt|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-19-521270-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ancientegypt00davi_0/page/36 36–37]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientegypt00davi_0/page/36}}</ref> The Kushites developed their own script, the [[Meroitic alphabet]], which was influenced by Egyptian writing systems {{Circa|700–600 BC}}, although it appears to have been wholly confined to the royal court and major temples.<ref name="autogenerated1" />
==== Assyrian conquest of Egypt ====
{{Main|Assyrian conquest of Egypt}}
[[File:Ashurbanipal II's army attacking Memphis, Egypt, 645-635 BCE, from Nineveh, Iraq. British Museum.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Wall panel depicting [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] soldiers storming a Kushite fortress in Egypt. [[Niniveh]], [[Iraq]].]]
Taharqa and his [[Judean]] allies initially defeated the Assyrians at [[Ashkelon]] when war broke out in 674 BC.{{cn|date=September 2023}} The relatively small Assyrian force had first defeafed Canaanite and Arab tribes in the region and then immediately marched at great speed on Ashkelon, leaving them exhausted.{{cn|date=September 2023}} However, in 671 BC, the Assyrian King [[Esarhaddon]] started the [[Assyrian conquest of Egypt]] with a larger and better prepared force. The Assyrians advanced rapidly and decisively. Memphis was taken, and Taharqa fled to Nubia, while his heir and other family members were taken to the Assyrian capital [[Nineveh]] as prisoners. Esarhaddon boasted how he "deported all Aethiopians from Egypt, leaving not one to pay homage to me" However, the native Egyptian vassal rulers installed by Esarhaddon as puppets were unable to effectively retain full control of the entire country, and Taharqa was able to regain control of Memphis. Esarhaddon's 669 BC campaign to once more eject Taharqa was abandoned when Esarhaddon died in [[Harran]] on the way to Egypt, leaving Esarhaddon's successor, [[Ashurbanipal]] the task. He defeated Taharqa, driving his forces back into Nubia, and Taharqa died in Napata soon after in 664 BC.<ref name=David />{{rp|121}}
[[File:King Tanutamani, el-Kurru.jpeg|thumb|Wall painting of king [[Tantamani]] from his tomb in [[el-Kurru]], under whom Egypt was lost for good]]
Taharqa's successor, [[Tantamani]] sailed north from Napata, through [[Elephantine]], and to Thebes with a large army, where he was "ritually installed as the king of Egypt."<ref name="Török98_185">{{harvnb|Török|1997|p=185}}</ref> From Thebes, Tantamani began his attempt at reconquest{{r|Török98_185}} and regained control of a part of southern Egypt as far as Memphis from the native Egyptian puppet rulers installed by the Assyrians.<ref name=Welsby>{{harvnb |Welsby |1996 |pp=64–65}}</ref> Tantamani's dream stele states that he restored order from the chaos, where royal temples and cults were not being maintained.{{r|Török98_185}} After defeating Sais and killing Assyria's vassal, [[Necho I]], in Memphis, "some local dynasts formally surrendered, while others withdrew to their fortresses."{{r|Török98_185}}{{rp|185}} Tantamani proceeded north of Memphis, invading Lower Egypt and, besieged cities in the Delta, a number of which surrendered to him.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}} The Assyrians, who had maintained only a small military presence in the north, then sent a large army southwards in 663 BC. Tantamani was decisively routed, and the Assyrian army [[Sack of Thebes|sacked Thebes]] to such an extent it never truly recovered. Tantamani was chased back to Nubia, but he continued to try and assert control over Upper Egypt until {{Circa| 656 BC}}. At this date, a native Egyptian ruler, [[Psamtik I]] son of Necho, placed on the throne as a vassal of [[Ashurbanipal]], took control of Thebes.{{sfn|Török|1997}}<ref>Georges Roux – Ancient Iraq pp. 330–332</ref> The last links between Kush and Upper Egypt were severed after hostilities with the Saite kings in the 590s BC.<ref name=David />{{rp|121–122}}
=== Napatan period (656 BC–{{circa}} 270 BC)===
Kushite civilization continued for several centuries. According to Welsby, "throughout the Saite, Persian, Ptolemaic, and Roman periods, the Kushite rulers—the descendants of the XXVth Dynasty pharaohs, and the guardians of the Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5aa9-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 | title= (still image) Aethiopen. Dynastie XXV, 3. Barkal [Jebel Barkal]. Grosser Felsentempel, Ostwand der Vorhalle., (1849–1856)|author=Digital Collections, The New York Public Library |access-date=August 20, 2020 |publisher=The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations}}</ref>—could have pressed their 'legitimate' claim for control of Egypt and they thus posed a potential threat to the rulers of Egypt."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|66–67}}
[[File:Reliefs in Persepolis نگاره های تخت جمشید 05.jpg|thumb|Kushite delegation on a Persian relief from the [[Apadana]] palace ({{Circa|500 BC}})]]
[[Herodotus]] mentioned an invasion of Kush by the [[Achaemenid]] ruler [[Cambyses II|Cambyses]] ({{Circa|530 BC}}). By some accounts Cambyses succeeded in occupying the area between the [[Cataracts of the Nile|first and second Nile cataract]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dandamaev |first1=M. A. |title=A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire |date=1989 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9004091726 |pages=80–81 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ms30qA6nyMsC&pg=PA80 |language=en}}</ref> however Herodotus mentions that "his expedition failed miserably in the desert."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|65–66}} Achaemenid inscriptions from both Egypt and Iran include Kush as part of the Achaemenid empire.<ref name=DS>{{Cite book |last1=Sircar |first1=Dineschandra |title=Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India |date=1971 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120806900 |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AqKw1Mn8WcwC&pg=PA25 |language=en}}</ref> For example, the DNa inscription of [[Darius I]] ({{reign|522|486|era=BC}}) on his tomb at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] mentions ''Kūšīyā'' ([[Old Persian cuneiform]]: 𐎤𐎢𐏁𐎡𐎹𐎠, pronounced ''Kūshīyā'') among the territories being "ruled over" by the [[Achaemenid Empire]].<ref>[https://www.livius.org/sources/content/achaemenid-royal-inscriptions/dna/? Line 30 of the DNa inscription]</ref><ref name=DS /> Derek Welsby states "scholars have doubted that this Persian expedition ever took place, but... archaeological evidence suggests that the fortress of [[Dorginarti]] near the second cataract served as Persia's southern boundary."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|65–66}}
From around 425–300 BC, beginning under the rule of king [[Amanineteyerike|Amannote-erike]], Kush saw a series of kings who revitalized older practices such as the erection of royal steles or royal statues. It was likely also in this period when several older pyramids, among them that of Taharqo, were enlarged. The stele of king [[Harsiotef]], who from around 400 BC ruled for at least 35 years, reports how he fought a multitude of campaigns against enemies ranging from Meroe in the south to Lower Nubia in the north while also donating to temples throughout Kush. King [[Nastasen]] ({{circa}} 325) waged several wars against nomad groups and again in Lower Nubia.{{sfn|Emberling|2023|pp=140–141}} Nastasen was the last king to be buried at Nuri.{{sfn|Török|1997|p=394}} His successors built six pyramids at Jebel Barkal and two in the old necropolis of el-Kurru, although the lack of inscriptions prevents identifying their occupants. It seems likely that this was a time of unrest and conflict within the royal elite.{{sfn|Emberling|2023|pp=141–143}}
=== Meroitic period ({{circa}} 270 BC–4th century AD) ===
{{Main|Meroë}}
[[Aspelta]] moved the capital to [[Meroë]], considerably farther south than [[Napata]], possibly {{Circa| 591 BC}},<ref name="Ohaegbulam1990">{{Cite book|author=Festus Ugboaja Ohaegbulam|title=Towards an understanding of the African experience from historical and contemporary perspectives|url=https://archive.org/details/towardsunderstan00ohae|url-access=registration|access-date=17 March 2011|date=1 October 1990|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=978-0-8191-7941-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/towardsunderstan00ohae/page/66 66]}}</ref> just after the sack of Napata by [[Psamtik II]]. [[Martin Meredith]] states the Kushite rulers chose Meroë, between the [[Cataracts of the Nile|Fifth and Sixth Cataracts]], because it was on the fringe of the summer rainfall belt, and the area was rich in iron ore and hardwood for [[iron working]]. The location also afforded access to trade routes to the [[Red Sea]]. The Kush traded iron products with the Romans, in addition to gold, ivory and slaves. The [[Butana]] plain was stripped of its forests, leaving behind [[slag]] piles.<ref name=Martin>{{Cite book |last1=Meredith |first1=Martin |title=The Fortunes of Africa |date=2014 |publisher=Public Affairs |location=New York |isbn=978-1-61039-635-6 |pages=43–44}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Shillington |first1=Kevin |title=History of Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=London |isbn=978-0-230-30847-3 |pages=50–51}}</ref>
[[File:Jewelry found on the Mummy of Nubian King AMANINATAKILEBTE (538-519 BC). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.jpg|thumb|Jewelry found on the Mummy of Nubian King [[Amaninatakilebte]] (538-519 BC), Nuri pyramid 10. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.]]
[[File:Gold flower shaped Diadem, found in te Pyramid of King Talakhamani (435–431 B.C.).jpg|thumb|Gold flower shaped diadem, found in the Pyramid of King [[Talakhamani]] (435–431 BC), [[Nuri pyramid]] 16. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.]]
In about 300 BC, the move to Meroë was made more complete when the [[monarchs]] began to be buried there, instead of at Napata. One theory is that this represents the monarchs breaking away from the power of the priests at Napata. According to [[Diodorus Siculus]], Kushite king [[Ergamenes]] defied the priests and had them slaughtered. This story may refer to the first ruler to be buried at Meroë with a similar name such as [[Arqamani]],<ref>Fage, J. D.: Roland Anthony Oliver (1979) ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-21592-7}} p. 228 [https://books.google.com/books?id=hb8YXTINiDMC&dq=Ergamenes+is+Arqamani&pg=PA228]</ref> who ruled many years after the royal cemetery was opened at Meroë. During this same period, the Kushite authority may have extended some 1,500 km along the Nile River valley from the Egyptian frontier in the north to areas far south of modern Khartoum and probably also substantial territories to the east and west.<ref>Edwards, page 141</ref>
There is some record of conflict between the Kushites and Ptolemies. In 275 or 274 BC, Ptolemy II (r. 283–246 BC) sent an army to Nubia, and defeated the Kingdom of Kush, annexing to Egypt the area later known as [[Triakontaschoinos]]. In addition, There was a serious revolt at the end of Ptolemy IV, around 204 BC, and the Kushites likely tried to interfere in Ptolemaic affairs.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|67}} It has been suggested that this led to Ptolemy V defacing the name of Arqamani on inscriptions at Philae.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|67}} "Arqamani constructed a small entrance hall to the temple built by Ptolemy IV at selchis and constructed a temple at Philae to which Ptolemy contributed an entrance hall."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|66}} There is evidence of Ptolemaic occupation as far south as the second cataract, but recent finds at Qasr Ibrim, such as "the total absence of Ptolemaic pottery" have cast doubts on the effectiveness of the occupation. Dynastic struggles led to the Ptolemies abandoning the area, so "the Kushites reasserted their control...with Qasr Ibrim occupied" (by the Kushites) and other locations perhaps garrisoned.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|67}}
According to Welsby, after the Romans assumed control of Egypt, they negotiated with the Kushites at Philae and drew the southern border of [[Roman Egypt]] at Aswan.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|67}} [[Theodor Mommsen]] and Welsby state the Kingdom of Kush became a client Kingdom, which was similar to the situation under Ptolemaic rule of Egypt. Kushite ambition and excessive Roman taxation are two theories for a revolt that was supported by Kushite armies.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|67–68}} The ancient historians, Strabo and Pliny, give accounts of the conflict with Roman Egypt.
[[File:Bronze head from an over-life-sized statue of Augustus.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Bronze [[Meroë Head|head of Emperor Augustus]] found under the staircase of a temple in Meroe]]
[[File:Prince Arikankharer Slaying His Enemies, Meroitic, beginning of first century AD, sandstone - Worcester Art Museum - IMG 7535.JPG|thumb|Meroitic prince smiting his enemies (early first century AD)]]
[[Strabo]] describes a war with the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] in the first century BC. According to Strabo, the Kushites "sacked Aswan with an army of 30,000 men and destroyed imperial statues...at Philae." A "fine over-life-size [[Meroë Head|bronze head of the emperor Augustus]]" was found buried in Meroe in front of a temple.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|68}} After the initial victories of [[Kandake]] (or "Candace") [[Amanirenas]] against Roman Egypt, the Kushites were defeated and [[Napata]] sacked.<ref name="afraf.oxfordjournals.org">[https://web.archive.org/web/20080910215200/http://afraf.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/XXVIII/CIX/55.pdf Arthur E. Robinson, "The Arab Dynasty of Dar For (Darfur): Part II", ''Journal of the Royal African Society'' (Lond). XXVIII: 55–67 (October, 1928)]</ref> Remarkably, the destruction of the capital of Napata was not a crippling blow to the Kushites and did not frighten Candace enough to prevent her from again engaging in combat with the Roman military. In 22 BC, a large Kushite force moved northward with intention of attacking [[Qasr Ibrim]].{{r|jackson2002}}{{rp|149}}
Alerted to the advance, [[Gaius Petronius]], prefect of Roman Egypt, again marched south and managed to reach Qasr Ibrim and bolster its defenses before the invading Kushites arrived. Welsby states after a Kushite attack on Primis (Qasr Ibrim),<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|69–70}} the Kushites sent ambassadors to negotiate a peace settlement with Petronius. The Kushites succeeded in negotiating a peace treaty on favorable terms.<ref name="afraf.oxfordjournals.org" /> Trade between the two nations increased{{r|jackson2002}}{{rp|149}} and the Roman Egyptian border being extended to "Hiera Sykaminos (Maharraqa)."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|70}} This arrangement "guaranteed peace for most of the next 300 years" and there is "no definite evidence of further clashes."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|70}}
It is possible that the Roman emperor [[Nero]] planned another attempt to conquer Kush before his death in AD 68.<ref name="jackson2002">{{Cite book | title=At Empire's Edge: Exploring Rome's Egyptian Frontier | publisher=Yale University Press | author=Jackson, Robert B. | year=2002 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pkBctdZcn84C | isbn=0-300-08856-6}}</ref>{{rp|150–151}} Nero sent two [[centurion]]s upriver as far as [[Bahr el Ghazal River]] in 66 AD in an attempt to discover the source of the Nile, per [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]],<ref name=Martin />{{rp|43}} or plan an attack, per [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]].
====Decline and fall ====
Kush began to fade as a power by the first or second century AD, sapped by the war with the Roman province of Egypt and the decline of its traditional industries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page90.shtml|title=BBC World Service – The Story of Africa|website=www.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> However, there is evidence of third century AD Kushite Kings at Philae in demotic and inscription.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|71}} It has been suggested that the Kushites reoccupied lower Nubia after Roman forces were withdrawn to Aswan. Kushite activities led others to note "a de facto Kushite control of that area (as far north as Philae) for part of the third century AD.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|71}} Thereafter, it weakened and disintegrated due to internal rebellion.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}
[[File:Aksum, iscrizione di re ezana, in greco, sabeo e ge'ez, 330-350 dc ca. 10.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|The [[Ezana Stone|stele]] of [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] Emperor [[Ezana]] commemorating his expedition against the Noba and Kush]]
The fall of Meroe is often associated with an [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] invasion.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=67}} An Aksumite presence in Meroe is confirmed by two fragmentary Greek inscriptions.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|pp=71–75}} The better preserved one referred to military actions and the imposition of a tribute.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|pp=72–73}} They probably belonged to Aksumite victory monuments and were dedicated to [[Ares]]/[[Maher (god)|Maher]], the god of war.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|pp=74–75}} Thus, they must have been erected before Aksum's conversion to Christianity in around 340, perhaps by king [[Ousanas]] (r. {{circa}} 310–330).{{sfn|Hatke|2013|pp=67, 76–77, 94}} An inscription from Aksum mentioning Kush as vassal kingdom may also be attributed to Ousanas.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|pp=69–71}} The trilingual [[Ezana Stone|stele]] of his successor [[Ezana]] describes another expedition which happened after 340.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=94}} Ezana's army followed the course of the Atbara until reaching the Nile confluence, where he waged war against Kush.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=116}} Meroe itself is not mentioned, suggesting that Ezana did not attack the town.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=145}} Aksum's presence in Nubia was likely short-lived.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=79}}
Meroitic texts from as early as the 1st century BC hint to conflicts with the [[Noba]], who lived west of the Nile and were governed by their own chiefs and kings. Perhaps it was the increasingly arid climate that forced them to attack the Nile Valley, although they would not manage to break through until the 4th century.{{sfn|Rilly|2008|pp=215–217}} The Ezana stele mentioned that they had occupied Kushite towns{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=114}} and were active as far east as the [[Tekezé River|Takeze River]], where they harassed Aksumite vassals.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=104}} These attacks and them breaking oaths they had sworn to Ezana were the main reason for his Nubian expedition.{{sfn|Hatke|2013|p=121}} It has been proposed that the Noba were not necessarily [[Nubian language|Nubian-speakers]], but that the term "Noba" was rather a pejorative Meroitic word applied to a large variety of people living outside the Meroitic state.{{sfn|Edwards|2011|pp=503–508}} A Meroitic stele found at [[Gebel Adda]] from around 300 AD, however, seems to mention a king bearing the Nubian name Trotihi.{{sfn|Rilly|2019|p=138}} A bowl from a 4th-century elite burial in [[el-Hobagi]] features a Meroitic-Nubian inscription mentioning a "king", but identifying the interred individual and the polity he ruled over remains problematic.{{sfn|Rilly|2019|p=138}}{{sfn|Sakamoto|2022|pp=369–370}}
At Meroe, the last pyramids as well as non-royal burials are dated to the mid-4th century,{{sfn|Török|2009||p=517}} which is conventionally thought to be when the kingdom of Kush came to an end. Afterwards began the so-called "post-Meroitic" period.{{sfn|el-Tayeb|2020|pp=772–773}} This period saw a decline of urbanism, the disappearance of the Meroitic religion and script{{sfn|Edwards|2019|p=947}} as well as the emergence of regional elites buried in large tumuli.{{sfn|Edwards|2019|p=950}} Princely burials from [[Qustul]] ({{circa}} 380–410) and [[Ballana]] (410–500) in Lower Nubia are connected to the rise of [[Nobatia]].{{sfn|Török|2009|pp=520–521}} To its north were the [[Blemmyes]], who in around 394 established a [[Blemmye Kingdom|kingdom]] centered around Talmis{{sfn|Török|2009|pp=524–525}} that lasted until it was conquered by Nobatia in around 450.{{sfn|Török|2009|pp=527–528}} The political developments south of the third cataract remain obscure,{{sfn|Török|2009|pp=537–538}} but it appears that [[Old Dongola|Dongola]], the later capital of [[Makuria]] as well as [[Soba (city)|Soba]], the capital of [[Alodia]], were founded in that period. Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia eventually converted to Christianity in the 6th century, marking the beginning of medieval Nubia.{{sfn|Edwards|2013|p=791}}
== Language and writing ==
[[File:Meroitische Inschrift, Meroe 1. Jh. n. Chr., Aegyptisches Museum, Muenchen-1.jpg|thumb|Meroitic [[ostracon]]]]
The [[Meroitic language]] was spoken in Meroë and Sudan during the Meroitic period (attested from 300 BC). It became extinct around 400 AD. It is uncertain to which language family the Meroitic language is a part of. Kirsty Rowan suggests that Meroitic, like the [[Egyptian language]], belongs to the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] family. She bases this on its sound inventory and [[phonotactics]], which she argues are similar to those of the Afro-Asiatic languages and dissimilar from those of the Nilo-Saharan languages.<ref>Rowan, Kirsty (2011). "Meroitic Consonant and Vowel Patterning". ''Lingua Aegytia'', 19.</ref><ref>Rowan, Kirsty (2006), [http://www.soas.ac.uk/linguistics/research/workingpapers/volume-14/file37822.pdf "Meroitic – An Afroasiatic Language?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227133051/http://www.soas.ac.uk/linguistics/research/workingpapers/volume-14/file37822.pdf |date=2015-12-27 }} ''{{abbr|SOAS|School of Oriental and African Studies}} Working Papers in Linguistics'' 14:169–206.</ref>
Claude Rilly proposes that Meroitic, like the [[Nobiin language]], belongs to the [[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic]] branch of the [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] family, based in part on its syntax, morphology, and known vocabulary.<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Rilly, Claude |author2=de Voogt, Alex |date=2012 |title=The Meroitic Language and Writing System |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-00866-3 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Rilly, Claude |year=2004 |url=http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/projets/clhass/PageWeb/ressources/Isolats/Meroitic%20Rilly%202004.pdf |title=The Linguistic Position of Meroitic |journal=Sudan Electronic Journal of Archaeology and Anthropology |access-date=2017-11-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923213222/http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/projets/clhass/PageWeb/ressources/Isolats/Meroitic%20Rilly%202004.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rilly |first=Claude |date=2016 |chapter=Meroitic |editor-last1=Stauder-Porchet |editor-first1=Julie |editor-last2=Stauder |editor-first2=Andréas |editor-last3=Willeke |editor-first3=Wendrich |title=UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology |location=Los Angeles |publisher=[[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] |chapter-url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3128r3sw }}</ref>
In the Napatan Period Egyptian hieroglyphs were used: at this time writing seems to have been restricted to the court and temples. From the second century BC, there was a separate Meroitic writing system. The language was written in two forms of the [[Meroitic alphabet]]: Meroitic Cursive, which was written with a [[stylus]] and was used for general record-keeping; and Meroitic Hieroglyphic, which was carved in stone or used for royal or religious documents. It is not well understood due to the scarcity of [[bilingual]] texts. The earliest inscription in Meroitic writing dates from between 180 and 170 BC. These hieroglyphics were found engraved on the temple of Queen [[Shanakdakhete]]. Meroitic Cursive is written horizontally, and reads from right to left.<ref name="Howf">{{Cite book|last1=Fischer|first1=Steven Roger|title=History of Writing|date=2004|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=1-86189-588-7|pages=133–134|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iYMXnSko5QwC|access-date=16 January 2015}}</ref> This was an alphabetic script with 23 signs used in a hieroglyphic form (mainly on monumental art) and in a cursive form. The latter was widely used; so far some 1,278 texts using this version are known (Leclant 2000). The script was deciphered by Griffith, but the language behind it is still a problem, with only a few words understood by modern scholars. It is not as yet possible to connect the Meroitic language with other known languages.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/nubia/mwriting.html|title=Meroitic script|website=www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk}}</ref> For a time, it was also possibly used to write the [[Old Nubian language]] of the successor Nubian kingdoms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/nubia/mwriting.html |title="Meroe: Writing", ''Digital Egypt,'' University College, London |publisher=Digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=2012-09-06}}</ref>
== Technology, medicine, and mathematics ==
=== Technology ===
The natives of the Kingdom of Kush developed a type of water wheel or [[scoop wheel]], the [[saqiyah]], named kolē by the Kush.<ref name=Mokhtar1981_309>{{Cite book |author1=Ki-Zerbo, J. |author2=Mokhtar, G. |date=1981 |title=Ancient civilizations of Africa |publisher=Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa |isbn=978-0-435-94805-4 |page=309 |access-date= 2012-06-19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcMU94GUC&pg=PA309 }}</ref> The saqiyah was developed during the [[Meroitic period]] to improve irrigation. The introduction of this machine had a decisive influence on agriculture especially in [[Dongola Reach|Dongola]] as this wheel lifted water 3 to 8 meters with much less expenditure of labor and time than the [[shaduf]], which was the previous chief irrigation device in the kingdom. The shaduf relied on human energy but the saqiyah was driven by buffalos or other animals.{{r|Mokhtar1981_309}} The people of [[Kerma culture|Kerma]], ancestors to the Kushites, built bronze [[kiln]]s through which they manufactured objects of daily use such as [[razors]], [[mirrors]] and [[tweezers]].{{sfn|Bianchi|2004|p=81}}
[[File:Der große Hafir von Musawwarat fungiert jetzt als Tränke für die Tiere und Herden in der Region.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The "Great [[Hafir]]" (reservoir) at [[Musawwarat es-Sufra]]]]
The Kushites developed a form of [[reservoir]], known as a [[hafir]], during the Meroitic period. Eight hundred ancient and modern hafirs have been registered in the Meroitic town of [[Butana]].<ref name=Hintze1963_222>{{harvnb|Hintze|1963|pp=222–4}}</ref>
The functions of hafirs were to catch water during the rainy season for storage, to ensure water is available for several months during the dry season as well as supply drinking water, irrigate fields, and water cattle.{{r|Hintze1963_222}} The Great Hafir, or Great Reservoir, near the Lion Temple in [[Musawwarat es-Sufra]] is a notable hafir built by the Kushites.<ref name="The Great Hafir" /> It was built to retain the rainfall of the short, wet season. It is 250 m in diameter and 6.3 m deep.<ref name="The Great Hafir">{{Citation |last=Näser |first=Claudia |chapter=The Great Hafir at Musawwarat es-Sufra: Fieldwork of the Archaeological Mission of Humboldt University Berlin in 2005 and 2006 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/2639941 |editor1=Godlewski, Włodzimierz |editor2= Łajtar, Adam |title=Between the Cataracts. Proceedings of the 11th Conference of Nubian Studies, Warsaw University, 27 August – 2 September 2006, Part two, fascicule 1: Session papers, PAM Suppl. Series 2.2/1 |location=Warsaw |year=2010 |pages=39–46 |language=en |access-date=2020-10-04 |publisher=Warsaw University Press |doi=10.31338/uw.9788323533344|isbn=978-83-235-3334-4 }}</ref>{{r|Hintze1963_222}}
[[bloomery|Bloomeries]] and [[blast furnace]]s could have been used in metalworking at Meroë.{{sfn|Humphris|Charlton|Keen|Sauder|2018|p= 399}} Early records of bloomery furnaces dated at least to seventh and sixth century BC have been discovered in Kush. The ancient bloomeries that produced metal tools for the Kushites produced a surplus for sale.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Collins |first1=Robert O. |last2=Burns |first2=James M. |date=8 February 2007 |title=A History of Sub-Saharan Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86746-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PZcX2jQFTRcC&pg=PA61}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6tsaBtp0WrMC&pg=PA173 |title=The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan |first=David N. |last=Edwards |date=29 July 2004 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-203-48276-6}}</ref>{{sfn|Humphris|Charlton|Keen|Sauder|2018|pp=399–416}}
=== Medicine ===
Nubian [[mummies]] studied in the 1990s revealed that Kush was a pioneer of [[History of antibiotics|early antibiotics]].<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Armelagos, George |date=2000 |title=Take Two Beers and Call Me in 1,600 Years: Use of Tetracycline by Nubians and Ancient Egyptians |journal=Natural History |volume=109 |s2cid=89542474 |pages=50–3 }}</ref>
[[Tetracycline]] was being used by Nubians, based on bone remains between 350 AD and 550 AD. The antibiotic was in wide commercial use only in the mid 20th century. The theory states that earthen jars containing grain used for making beer contained the bacterium [[streptomyces]], which produced tetracycline. Although Nubians were not aware of tetracycline, they could have noticed that people fared better by drinking beer. According to Charlie Bamforth, a professor of biochemistry and brewing science at the University of California, Davis, "They must have consumed it because it was rather tastier than the grain from which it was derived. They would have noticed people fared better by consuming this product than they were just consuming the grain itself."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roach |first=John |date=17 May 2005 |title=Antibiotic Beer Gave Ancient Africans Health Buzz |journal=National Geographic |url=http://www.houblon.net/spip.php?article2100 |access-date=28 January 2021 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207142106/http://www.houblon.net/spip.php?article2100 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
=== Mathematics ===
Based on engraved plans of Meroitic King [[Amanikhabali]]'s pyramids, Nubians had a sophisticated understanding of mathematics as they appreciated the harmonic ratio. The engraved plans is indicative of much to be revealed about Nubian mathematics.{{sfn|Bianchi|2004|p=230}} The [[Nubia|ancient Nubians]] also established a system of geometry which they used in creating early versions of [[sun clock]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Gnomons at Meroë and Early Trigonometry|first=Leo|last=Depuydt|date=1 January 1998|journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology|volume=84|pages=171–180|doi=10.2307/3822211|jstor=3822211}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|title=Neolithic Skywatchers|date=27 May 1998|first=Andrew|last=Slayman|website=Archaeology Magazine Archive|access-date=17 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605234044/http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|archive-date=5 June 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> During the Meroitic period in Nubian history, the Nubians used a trigonometric methodology similar to the Egyptians.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO5FCVIxz2YC&q=nubia&pg=PA744|title=A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy|last=Neugebauer|first=O.|date=2004-09-17|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-06995-9|language=en}}</ref>
== Military ==
{{Main|Military of ancient Nubia}}
[[File:Meroë, the City of the Ethiopians - being an account of a first season's excavations on the site, 1909-1910 (1911) (14741938026).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Relief of a battle scene on temple [[Temple M 250|Meroe 250]] (also known as "Sun Temple"), 1st century AD]]
During the siege of [[Hermopolis]] in the eighth century BC, [[siege towers]] were built for the Kushite army led by [[Piye]], in order to enhance the efficiency of Kushite archers and [[Sling (weapon)|slingers]].<ref name="Siege Warfare in Ancient Egypt">{{Cite web |url=https://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/siegewarfare.html| title=Siege warfare in ancient Egypt |publisher=Tour Egypt|access-date=23 May 2020}}</ref>
After leaving Thebes, Piye's first objective was besieging [[Ashmunein]]. Following his army's lack of success he undertook the personal supervision of operations including the erection of a siege tower from which Kushite archers could fire down into the city.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dodson |first=Aidan |date=1996 |title=Monarchs of the nile |publisher=American Univ. in Cairo Press |isbn=978-9774246005 |page=178 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsq0AHsC-YMC&q=Kushite+siege+towers&pg=PA178}}</ref>
Early shelters protecting [[sapper]]s armed with poles trying to breach mud-brick ramparts gave way to [[battering rams]].<ref name="Siege Warfare in Ancient Egypt" />
[[Archery|Bowmen]] were the most important force components in the Kushite military.<ref name="Jim Hamm 2000. pp. 138-152">Jim Hamm. 2000. The Traditional Bowyer's Bible, Volume 3, pp. 138-152</ref> Ancient sources{{which|date=October 2021}}{{who|date=October 2021}} indicate that Kushite archers favored one-piece bows that were between six and seven feet long, with a draw strength so powerful that many of the archers used their feet to bend their bows. However, [[composite bows]] were also used in their arsenal.<ref name="Jim Hamm 2000. pp. 138-152" /> Greek historian [[Herodotus]] indicated that primary bow construction was of seasoned palm wood, with arrows made of cane.<ref name="Jim Hamm 2000. pp. 138-152" /> Kushite arrows were often [[poison arrows|poisoned-tipped]].
[[War Elephants|Elephants]] were occasionally used in warfare during the Meroitic period, as seen in the war against Rome around 20 BC.<ref name="Rome's Enemies">{{Cite book|last=Nicolle|first=David|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26551074|title=Rome's enemies.|date=26 March 1991|publisher=Osprey|others=Illustrated by Angus McBride|isbn=1-85532-166-1|location=London|pages=11–15|oclc=26551074}}</ref>
== Architecture ==
[[File:Sudan Meroe Pyramids 30sep2005 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|The pyramids of Meroe – [[UNESCO]] World Heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gebel Barkal and the Sites of the Napatan Region |website=UNESCO – World Heritage Convention |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1073}}</ref>]]
{{Main|Nubian pyramids}}
[[File:Temple Amon Napata elevation 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal|Amun temple]] of [[Jebel Barkal]], originally built during the Egyptian New Kingdom but greatly enhanced by Piye]]
During the [[Bronze Age]], [[Nubia]]n ancestors of the Kingdom of Kush built speoi (a speos is a temple or tomb cut into a rock face) between 3700 and 3250 BC. This greatly influenced the architecture of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]].{{sfn|Bianchi|2004|p=227}}
Tomb monuments were one of the more recognizable expressions of Kushite architecture. Uniquely Kushite tomb monuments were found from the beginning of the empire, at el Kurru, to the decline of the kingdom. These monuments developed organically from Middle Nile (e.g. A-group) burial types. Tombs became progressively larger during the 25th dynasty, culminating in Taharqa's underground rectangular building with "aisles of square piers...the whole being cut from the living rock."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|103}} Kushites also created pyramids,<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5abf-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 | title= (still image) Aethiopen. Begerauîeh [Begrawiya]. Pyramidengruppe A. Pyr. 9. Südwand., (1849–1856)|author=Digital Collections, The New York Public Library |access-date=August 20, 2020 |publisher=The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5acc-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 | title= (still image) Aethiopen. Begerauîeh [Begrawiya]. Pyramidengruppe A. Pyr. 15. Pylon., (1849–1856)|author=Digital Collections, The New York Public Library |access-date=August 20, 2020 |publisher=The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations}}</ref> mud-brick temples (deffufa), and masonry temples.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5adc-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 | title= (still image) Aethiopen. Naga [Naqa]. Tempel a. Vorderseite des Pylons., (1849–1856)|author=Digital Collections, The New York Public Library |access-date=August 20, 2020 |publisher=The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5ad5-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 | title= (still image) Aethiopen. Begerauîeh [Begrawiya]. Pyramidengruppe A. Pyr. 31. Pylon., (1849–1856)|author=Digital Collections, The New York Public Library |access-date=August 20, 2020 |publisher=The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations}}</ref> Kushites borrowed much from Egypt, as it relates to temple design. Kushite temples were quite diverse in their plans, except for the Amun temples which all have the same basic plan. The Jebel Barkal and Meroe Amun temples are exceptions with the 150 m long Jebel Barkal being "by far the largest 'Egyptian' temple ever built in Nubia."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|118}} Temples for major Egyptian deities were built on "a system of internal harmonic proportions" based on "one or more rectangles each with sides in the ratio of 8:5"<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|133}}<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5acb-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 | title= (still image) Aethiopen. Begerauîeh [Begrawiya]. Pyramidengruppe A. Pyr. 14. Westwand., (1849–1856)|author=Digital Collections, The New York Public Library |access-date=August 20, 2020 |publisher=The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations}}</ref> Kush also invented [[Nubian vault]]s.
[[File:Naqa Apedamak temple.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The so-called "Roman kiosk" (right) and temple of [[Apedemak]] (left), [[Naqa]] (1st century AD)]]
Piye is thought to have constructed the first true pyramid at el Kurru. Pyramids are "the archetypal tomb monument of the Kushite royal family" and found at "el Kurru, Nuri, Jebel Barkal, and Meroe."<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|105}} The Kushite pyramids are smaller with steeper sides than northern Egyptian pyramids. The Kushites are thought to have copied the pyramids of New Kingdom elites, as opposed to Old and Middle Kingdom pharaohs.<ref name="Welsby" />{{rp|105–106}} Kushite housing consisted mostly of circular timber huts with some apartment houses with several two-room apartments. The apartment houses likely accommodated extended families.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
The Kushites built a stone-paved road at Jebel Barkal, are thought to have built piers/harbors on the Nile river, and many wells.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/19/science/19kush.html?8dpc=&_r=1&adxnnl=1&oref=slogin&adxnnlx=1182262099-4sntH5YApEoKiDu/wy49HQ John Noble Wilford, "Scholars Race to Recover a Lost Kingdom on the Nile"], ''[[New York Times]]'' (June 19, 2007)</ref>
==Economy==
[[File:Taharqa & Shabaka papyrus, Thebes.jpeg|thumb|[[Hieratic]] papyrus written during the reigns of Taharqa and Shabaqa discussing financial matters, Thebes]]
Some scholars{{who|date=December 2013}} believe the economy in the Kingdom of Kush was a redistributive system. The state would collect taxes in the form of surplus produce and would redistribute it to the people. Others believe that most of the society worked on the land and required nothing from the state and did not contribute to the state. Northern Kush seems to have been more productive and wealthier than the Southern area.<ref name="Welsby, Derek A 1996">{{harvnb |Welsby |1996 |p={{page needed|date=December 2021}}}}</ref>
== Kush and Egyptology ==
On account of the Kingdom of Kush's proximity to [[Ancient Egypt]] – the [[first cataract]] at [[Elephantine]] usually being considered the traditional border between the two [[Polity|polities]] – and because the 25th dynasty ruled over both states in the eighth century BC, from the Rift Valley to the [[Taurus mountains]], historians have closely associated the study of Kush with Egyptology, in keeping with the general assumption that the complex sociopolitical development of Egypt's neighbors can be understood in terms of Egyptian models.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} As a result, the political structure and organization of Kush as an independent ancient state has not received as thorough attention from scholars, and there remains much ambiguity especially surrounding the earliest periods of the state.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} Edwards has suggested that the study of the region could benefit from increased recognition of Kush as a state in its own right, with distinct cultural conditions, rather than merely as a secondary state on the periphery of Egypt.<ref name="edwards 1998">{{Cite web|title=David N. Edwards, "Meroe and the Sudanic Kingdoms", "Journal of African History" (UK). Vol. 39 No. 2 (1998), pp 175–193|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2F22648_C6A5D4D0922E24022C27DEA7035B07DB_journals__AFH_AFH39_02_S002185379700717Xa.pdf&cover=Y&code=2a79b8f52131a8547fc0936b8a4b398c}}</ref>
== Gallery ==
<gallery class="center" widths="225" heights="250">
File:Taharqo, Black Pharaohs Cache (Dukki Gel ) , Kerma Museum,Sudan (2).jpg|Portrait of [[Taharqa]], [[Kerma Museum]]
File:The Archer King, National Museum of Sudan, Khartoum, Sudan, North-East Africa (cropped).jpg|The "Archer King", an unknown king of Meroe, 3rd century BC. [[National Museum of Sudan]].
File:Shrine of the 25th dynasty pharaoh and Kushite King Taharqa Egypt 7th century BCE.jpg|Taharqa's shrine, Ashmolean museum in Oxford, UK
File:Taharqa's kiosk. Karnak Temple.jpg|[[Taharqa]]'s kiosk, Karnak Temple
File:Pharaoh Taharqa of Ancient Egypt's 25th Dynasty.jpg|Pharaoh Taharqa of Ancient Egypt's 25th Dynasty. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford UK
File:Vaso con decoración de rostros de demonios. Época meroítica.jpg|Meroitic pottery, Nelluah (Egyptian Nubia)
</gallery>
== See also ==
* [[Aethiopia]] is an ancient Greek geographical term which referred to the regions of Sudan and areas south of the Sahara desert.
* [[List of monarchs of Kush]]
* [[Merowe Dam]]
* [[Nubiology]]
* [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
=== Sources ===
* {{Cite book |last=Bianchi |first=Robert Steven |date=2004 |title=Daily Life of the Nubians |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-0-313-32501-4
}}
*{{cite book |last=Emberling |first=Geoff |year=2023 |title=The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East |volume=4 |chapter=Kush under the Dynasty of Napata |editor=Karen Radner |editor2=Nadine Moeller |editor3=D.T. Potts |publisher=Oxford University |pages=82–160}}
* {{Cite book |author=Edwards, David N. |title=The Nubian Past |publisher=Routledge |location=London |year=2004 |pages=348 Pages |isbn=0-415-36987-8}}
*{{cite book |last=Edwards |chapter=From Meroe to ‘Nubia’ – exploring culture change without the ‘Noba’ |year=2011 |title=La Pioche et La Plume (Hommages Archéologiques à Patrice Lenoble) |pages=501–514}}
*{{cite book |last=Edwards |first=David |year=2013 |title=The Oxford Handbook of African Archaeology |chapter=Medieval and post-medieval states of the Nile Valley |publisher=Oxford University |editor=Peter Mitchell, Paul Lane |pages=789–798}}
*{{cite book |last=Edwards |first=David |year=2019 |chapter=Post-Meroitic Nubia |title=Handbook of Ancient Nubia |publisher=De Gruyter |editor=Dietrich Raue |pages=943–964}}
*{{cite book |last=el-Tayeb |first=Mahmoud |year=2020 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Nubia |publisher=Oxford University |pages=731–758 |chapter=Post-Meroe in Upper Nubia}}
* {{Cite book |editor1-last=Fisher | editor1-first=Marjorie M. | editor2-last=Lacovara |editor2-first=Peter |editor3-last=Ikram |editor3-first=Salima |editor3-link=Salima Ikram |display-editors = 3 |editor4-last=D'Auria |editor4-first=Sue |title=Ancient Nubia: African Kingdoms on the Nile |publisher=The American University in Cairo Press | year=2012 | isbn= 978-977-416-478-1
}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hatke |first=George |year=2013 |title=Aksum and Nubia. Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa |publisher=New York University}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hintze |first=Fritz |date=1963 |chapter=Musawwarat as Sufra. Preliminary Report on the Excavations of the Institute of Egyptology, Humboldt University, Berlin, 1961–62 |volume=XI |title=Kush: Journal of the Sudan Antiquities Service |publisher=The Service |chapter-url=http://sfdas.com/IMG/pdf/kush_xi_part_ii.pdf
}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Humphris |first1=Jane |last2=Charlton |first2=Michael F. |last3=Keen |first3=Jake |last4=Sauder |first4=Lee |last5=Alshishani |first5=Fareed |display-authors=1 |date=June 2018 |title=Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at The Royal City of Meroe |journal=Journal of Field Archaeology |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=399–416 |doi=10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085 |doi-access=free
}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kendall| first=T. |year=1999 |chapter=The Origin of the Napatan State: El Kurru and the Evidence of the Royal Ancestors |title=Studien Zum Antiken Sudan Akten Der 7. Internationalen Tagung Für Meroitische Forschungen Vom 14. Bis 19. September 1992 in Gosen/bei Berlin |editor=Steffen Wenig |publisher=Harrassowitz |pages=3–117}}
* {{Cite book |author=Leclant, Jean |title=The empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe |publisher=UNESCO |location=London |year=2004 |pages=1912 Pages |isbn=1-57958-245-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Rilly |first=Claude |chapter=Enemy brothers: Kinship and relationship between Meroites and Nubians (Noba) |title=Between the Cataracts: Proceedings of the 11th Conference of Nubian Studies, Warsaw, 27 August – 2 September 2006. Part One |year=2008 |pages=211–225 |publisher=PAM |isbn=978-83-235-0271-5 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/36487671 }}
* {{cite book |last=Rilly |first=Claude |chapter=Languages of Ancient Nubia |title=Handbook of Ancient Nubia |editor=Dietrich Raue |publisher=De Gruyter |pages=129–154}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sakamoto |first=Tsubasa |year=2022 |title=The Star Who Appears in Thebes. Studies in Honour of Jiro Kondo |chapter=A (Post-)Meroitic chieftain at Jebel Umm Marrihi |editor=N. Kawai, B.G. Davies |pages=369–382 |publisher=Abercromby}}
* {{Cite book |author=Oliver, Roland |title=The Cambridge History of Africa Volume 3 1050 – c. 1600 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |date=1975 |isbn=0-521-20981-1}}
* {{Cite book |author=Oliver, Roland |title=The Cambridge history of Africa. Vol. 2, From c. 500 BC to AD 1050 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |date=1978 |isbn=0-521-20981-1}}
* {{Cite book |author=Shillington, Kevin |title=Encyclopedia of African History, Vol. 1 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |year=2004 |pages=1912 Pages |isbn=1-57958-245-1
}}
* {{Cite book |last=Török |first=László |date=1997 |chapter=The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization |title=Handbook of Oriental Studies |others=Section 1 the Near and Middle East |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004104488
}}
*{{cite book |last=Török| first=László |year=2009 |title=Between Two Worlds. The Frontier Region between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC – AD 500 |publisher=Brill}}
*{{Cite book |last=Welsby |first=Derek |title=The Kingdom of Kush: the Napatan and Meroitic empires |publisher=Published for the Trustees of the British Museum by British Museum Press |publication-place=London |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7141-0986-2 |oclc=34888835}}
* {{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Bruce Beyer |year=2020 |chapter=The Napatan Neo-Kushite State 1: The Intermediate Period and Second Empire |pages=411–422 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Nubia |editor=Bruce Beyer Williams |publisher=Oxford University}}
== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book |last=Baud |first=Michel |title=Méroé. Un empire sur le Nil |year=2010 |publisher=Officina Libraria |isbn=978-8889854501 |language=fr }}
* {{Cite book |last=Breyer |first=Francis |title=Einführung in die Meroitistik |year=2014 |publisher=Lit |isbn=978-3-643-12805-8 |language=de }}
* {{Cite book | last=Lenoble |first=Patrice |year=2018 |title=El-Hobagi: Une Necropole De Rang Imperial Au Soudan Central |publisher=Institut Francais D'archeologie Orientale}}
* {{Cite book | last=Pope |first=Jeremy |year=2014 |title=The Double Kingdom Under Taharqa |publisher=Brill}}
* {{Cite book |author1-last=Valbelle |author1-first=Dominique |author2-last=Bonnet |author2-first=Charles |title=The Nubian Pharaohs |year=2006 |publisher=The American University in Cairo Press |isbn=978-9774160103 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Yvanes |first=Elsa |chapter=Clothing the elite? Patterns of textile production and consumption in ancient Sudan and Nubia |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/38111132 |year=2018 |title=Dynamics and Organisation of Textile Production in Past Societies in Europe and the Mediterranean |volume=31 |pages=81–92 }}
== External links ==
{{Commons category|Kingdom of Kush}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070621204134/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070619-gold-nile.html Dan Morrison, "Ancient Gold Center Discovered on the Nile", National Geographic News]
* [http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/CIVAFRCA/KUSH.HTM "Civilizations in Africa: Kush", Washington State University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070501062512/http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/CIVAFRCA/KUSH.HTM |date=2007-05-01 }}
*[https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/ancient-africa-queens-nubia "Remembering the Remarkable Queens Who Ruled Ancient Nubia"] at [[Atlas Obscura]], December 15, 2021
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190519102901/http://www.africankingdoms.com/ African Kingdoms {{!}} Kush]
* {{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20051027005838/http://www.ancientsudan.org/ Ancient Sudan (Nubia) website]}}
* [https://www.jstor.org/pss/593008 Joseph Poplicha, "The Biblical Nimrod and the Kingdom of Eanna", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', Vol. 49, (1929), pp. 303–317]
* [http://www.kerma.ch/index.php?lang=en Kerma website] Official website of the Swiss archeological mission to Sudan.
* Josefine Kuckertz: ''Meroe and Egypt.'' In Wolfram Grajetzki, Solange Ashby, Willeke Wendrich (eds.): ''UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology.'' Los Angeles 2021, {{ISSN|2693-7425}} ([https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6061m848 online]).
{{History of Nubia footer|state=collapsed}}{{Kushite religion footer|state=collapsed}}{{Kushite Monarchs footer|state=collapsed}}{{Empires}}
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[[Category:Kingdom of Kush| ]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 8th century BC]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 4th century]]
[[Category:11th-century BC establishments]]
[[Category:350s disestablishments]]
[[Category:Roman client kingdoms]]
[[Category:Former kingdoms]]
[[Category:Former empires]]' |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient kingdom in Nubia, Africa</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Kushites" redirects here. For the people who speak Cushitic languages, see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic languages</a>.</div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the kingdom south of Egypt. For the period of Kushite rule in Egypt, see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a>.</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1229112069">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) 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.ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Kingdom of Kush</div><div class="ib-country-names"><i>Qes</i><span class="nowrap">  </span>(<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic</a>)<span style="font-size:85%;"><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997p._2_(1997_ed.)_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997p._2_(1997_ed.)-1">[1]</a></sup></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 780 BC</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> AD 350</span><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Kushite_heartland_and_Kushite_Empire_of_the_25th_dynasty_circa_700_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kushite heartland, and Kushite Empire of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, circa 700 BC.[3]"><img alt="Kushite heartland, and Kushite Empire of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, circa 700 BC.[3]" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Kushite_heartland_and_Kushite_Empire_of_the_25th_dynasty_circa_700_BCE.jpg/250px-Kushite_heartland_and_Kushite_Empire_of_the_25th_dynasty_circa_700_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Kushite_heartland_and_Kushite_Empire_of_the_25th_dynasty_circa_700_BCE.jpg/375px-Kushite_heartland_and_Kushite_Empire_of_the_25th_dynasty_circa_700_BCE.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Kushite_heartland_and_Kushite_Empire_of_the_25th_dynasty_circa_700_BCE.jpg/500px-Kushite_heartland_and_Kushite_Empire_of_the_25th_dynasty_circa_700_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2294" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Kushite heartland, and Kushite Empire of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a>, circa 700 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerma" title="Kerma">Kerma</a><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic</a><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidi54rPFeGKewCq22KingdomofKush22languagepgPA49_p._49_(1997_ed.)]_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidi54rPFeGKewCq22KingdomofKush22languagepgPA49_p._49_(1997_ed.)]-4">[4]</a></sup><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blemmyes#Language" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyan</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Nubian" title="Old Nubian">Old Nubian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kushite_religion" title="Kushite religion">Kushite religion</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kushite_religion#Deities" title="Kushite religion">Kushite polytheism</a><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Ancient Egyptian religion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Kushite</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data">Monarchy</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Kush" title="List of monarchs of Kush">Monarch</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1229112069"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 780 BC</span> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Capital moved to Meroe </div></th><td class="infobox-data">591 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Disestablished </div></th><td class="infobox-data"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> AD 350</span><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">
</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1229112069"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Meroite phase<sup id="cite_ref-Stearns_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stearns-7">[7]</a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1,150,000</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">
</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">
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<td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b>
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a>
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<td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;">
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a>
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Possible_Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Alodia_%28c._1350%29.svg/20px-Possible_Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Alodia_%28c._1350%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Possible_Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Alodia_%28c._1350%29.svg/30px-Possible_Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Alodia_%28c._1350%29.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Possible_Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Alodia_%28c._1350%29.svg/40px-Possible_Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Alodia_%28c._1350%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="876" data-file-height="648" /></span></span>
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makuria</a>
</td>
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/The_flag_of_the_%27Kingdom_of_Dongola%27_%28Makuria%29_in_the_%22Book_of_all_kingdoms%22_%28C._1350%29.png/20px-The_flag_of_the_%27Kingdom_of_Dongola%27_%28Makuria%29_in_the_%22Book_of_all_kingdoms%22_%28C._1350%29.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/The_flag_of_the_%27Kingdom_of_Dongola%27_%28Makuria%29_in_the_%22Book_of_all_kingdoms%22_%28C._1350%29.png/30px-The_flag_of_the_%27Kingdom_of_Dongola%27_%28Makuria%29_in_the_%22Book_of_all_kingdoms%22_%28C._1350%29.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/The_flag_of_the_%27Kingdom_of_Dongola%27_%28Makuria%29_in_the_%22Book_of_all_kingdoms%22_%28C._1350%29.png/40px-The_flag_of_the_%27Kingdom_of_Dongola%27_%28Makuria%29_in_the_%22Book_of_all_kingdoms%22_%28C._1350%29.png 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="268" /></span></span>
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nobatia" title="Nobatia">Nobatia</a>
</td>
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span>
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a>
</td>
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span>
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</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The <b>Kingdom of Kush</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ʊ/: 'u' in 'push'">ʊ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a>: <b>𓎡𓄿𓈙<a href="/enwiki/wiki/%F0%93%88%89" class="mw-redirect" title="𓈉">𓈉</a></b> <i>kꜣš</i>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Assyrian</a>: <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Rassam_cylinder_Ku-u-si.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Rassam_cylinder_Ku-u-si.jpg/60px-Rassam_cylinder_Ku-u-si.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Rassam_cylinder_Ku-u-si.jpg/90px-Rassam_cylinder_Ku-u-si.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Rassam_cylinder_Ku-u-si.jpg/120px-Rassam_cylinder_Ku-u-si.jpg 2x" data-file-width="542" data-file-height="93" /></a></span> <i>Kûsi</i>, in <small><a href="/enwiki/wiki/LXX" class="mw-redirect" title="LXX">LXX</a></small> Χους or Αἰθιοπία; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a>: <span lang="cop"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1107333977">.mw-parser-output .script-coptic{font-family:"Sophia Nubian","Noto Sans Coptic","FreeSerif","Quivira","Segoe UI Historic","Segoe UI Symbol","New Athena Unicode","MPH 2B Damase","Arial Coptic","Analecta","Antinoou"}</style><span class="script-coptic">ⲉϭⲱϣ</span></span> <i>Ecōš</i>; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">כּוּשׁ</span> <i>Kūš</i>), also known as the <b>Kushite Empire</b>, or simply <b>Kush</b>, was an ancient kingdom in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, centered along the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nile_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile Valley">Nile Valley</a> in what is now northern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> and southern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.
</p><p>The region of Nubia was an early cradle of sudan is the best 🙏🗿civilization, producing several complex societies that engaged in trade and industry.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8">[8]</a></sup> The city-state of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerma" title="Kerma">Kerma</a> emerged as the dominant political force between 2450 and 1450 BC, controlling the Nile Valley between the first and fourth <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cataracts_of_the_Nile" title="Cataracts of the Nile">cataracts</a>, an area as large as Egypt. The Egyptians were the first to identify Kerma as "Kush" probably from the indigenous ethnonym "Kasu", over the next several centuries the two civilizations engaged in intermittent warfare, trade, and cultural exchange.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>Much of Nubia came under Egyptian rule during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom period</a> (1550–1070 BC). Following Egypt's disintegration amid the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a>, the Kushites reestablished a kingdom in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a> (now modern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karima,_Sudan" title="Karima, Sudan">Karima, Sudan</a>). Though Kush had developed many cultural affinities with Egypt, such as the veneration of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Amun</a>, and the royal families of both kingdoms occasionally intermarried, Kushite culture, language and ethnicity was distinct; Egyptian art distinguished the people of Kush by their dress, appearance, and even method of transportation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the 8th century BC, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kashta" title="Kashta">King Kashta</a> ("the Kushite") peacefully became King of Upper Egypt, while his daughter, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenirdis_I" title="Amenirdis I">Amenirdis</a>, was appointed as Divine Adoratrice of Amun in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997144–6_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997144–6-10">[10]</a></sup> His successor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a> invaded Lower Egypt, establishing the Kushite-ruled <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth Dynasty</a>. Piye's daughter, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shepenupet_II" title="Shepenupet II">Shepenupet II</a>, was also appointed Divine Adoratrice of Amun. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Kush" title="List of monarchs of Kush">monarchs of Kush</a> ruled Egypt for over a century until the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Assyrian conquest of Egypt">Assyrian conquest</a>, finally being expelled by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian</a> kings <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a> in the mid-seventh century BC. Following the severing of ties with Egypt, the Kushite imperial capital was located at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a>, during which time it was known by the Greeks as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aethiopia" title="Aethiopia">Aethiopia</a>.
</p><p>From the third century BC to the third century AD, northern Nubia would be invaded and annexed by Egypt. Ruled by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Macedonians</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman empire">Romans</a> for the next 600 years, this territory would be known in the Greco-Roman world as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dodekaschoinos" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodekaschoinos">Dodekaschoinos</a>. It was later taken back under control by the fourth Kushite king, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yesebokheamani" title="Yesebokheamani">Yesebokheamani</a>. The Kingdom of Kush persisted as a major regional power until the fourth century AD when it weakened and disintegrated from internal rebellion amid worsening climatic conditions and invasions and conquest of the kingdom of Kush by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Noba" title="Noba">Noba</a> people who introduced the Nubian languages and gave their name to Nubia itself. Because the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Noba" title="Noba">Noba</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a> were at war with the Kushites the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksumites</a> took advantage of this, capturing Meroë and looting its gold, marking the end of the kingdom and its dissolution into the three polities of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nobatia" title="Nobatia">Nobatia</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makuria</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a>, though the Aksumite presence in Meroe was likely short lived. Sometime after this event, the Kingdom of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a> would gain control of the southern territory of the former Meroitic empire including parts of Eritrea.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>Long overshadowed by its more prominent Egyptian neighbor, archaeological discoveries since the late 20th century have revealed Kush to be an advanced civilization in its own right. The Kushites had their own unique language and script; maintained a complex economy based on trade and industry; mastered archery; and developed a complex, urban society with uniquely high levels of female participation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Name"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Name</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Prelude"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Prelude</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Kerma_culture_(2500–1500_BC)"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Kerma culture (2500–1500 BC)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Egyptian_Nubia_(1504–1070_BC)"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Egyptian Nubia (1504–1070 BC)</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Formation_(c._1070–754_BC)"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Formation (c. 1070–754 BC)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Rule_over_Egypt_(754_BC–656_BC)"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Rule over Egypt (754 BC–656 BC)</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt"><span class="tocnumber">2.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Assyrian conquest of Egypt</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Napatan_period_(656_BC–c._270_BC)"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Napatan period (656 BC–c. 270 BC)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Meroitic_period_(c._270_BC–4th_century_AD)"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Meroitic period (c. 270 BC–4th century AD)</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Decline_and_fall"><span class="tocnumber">2.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Decline and fall</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Language_and_writing"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Language and writing</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Technology,_medicine,_and_mathematics"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Technology, medicine, and mathematics</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Technology"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Technology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Medicine"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Medicine</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Mathematics"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Mathematics</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Military"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Military</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Architecture"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Architecture</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Economy"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Economy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Kush_and_Egyptology"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Kush and Egyptology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Gallery"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Gallery</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">11.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1229112069"><table class="infobox" style="font-size:100%; width:270px; border-collapse:collapse; border:1px solid #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]]; background: #FFFFDE [[Category:Egypt portal]]; color: #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]]; line-height:inherit;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; background-color: #FFE39B [[Category:Egypt portal]]"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1229112069"><i>Kush</i> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="vertical-align:middle; background-color: #FFFFDE [[Category:Egypt portal]]; color: #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]]; border: #993300 [[Category:Egypt portal]] 1px solid; padding: 0.4em;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><table class="mw-hiero-table mw-hiero-outer" dir="ltr"><tbody><tr><td> <table class="mw-hiero-table"><tbody><tr> <td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/enwiki/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_V31.png?70ebb" height="11" title="V31 [k]" alt="k" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/enwiki/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_G1.png?4d556" height="38" title="G1" alt="G1" /></td><td><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/enwiki/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N37.png?33374" height="12" title="N37 [S]" alt="S" /><br /><img class="skin-invert" style="margin: 1px;" src="/enwiki/w/extensions/wikihiero/img/hiero_N25.png?6f14c" height="16" title="N25" alt="N25" /></td> </tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></div><br />k3š<br /><i>Ku'sh</i></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2">
</th></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The native name of the Kingdom was recorded in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a> as <i><span title="Ancient Egyptian-language text"><i lang="egy"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/k%EA%9C%A3%C5%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:kꜣš">kꜣš</a></i></span></i>, likely pronounced <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[kuɫuʃ]</a></span> or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[kuʔuʃ]</a></span> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Egyptian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Egyptian language">Middle Egyptian</a>, when the term was first used for Nubia, based on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a>-era <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> transliteration of the genitive <i>kūsi</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>It is also an ethnic term for the native population who initiated the kingdom of Kush. The term is also displayed in the names of Kushite persons,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997-16">[16]</a></sup> such as King <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kashta" title="Kashta">Kashta</a> (a transcription of <i>kꜣš-tꜣ</i> "(one from) the land of Kush"). Geographically, Kush referred to the region south of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_cataract" class="mw-redirect" title="First cataract">first cataract</a> in general. Kush also was the home of the rulers of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">25th Dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Van_2011_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_2011-17">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p>The name <i>Kush</i>, since at least the time of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, has been connected with the biblical character <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cush_(Bible)" title="Cush (Bible)">Cush</a>, in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">כּוּשׁ</span>), son of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ham_(son_of_Noah)" title="Ham (son of Noah)">Ham</a> (Genesis 10:6). Ham had four sons named: Cush, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Put_(biblical_figure)" title="Put (biblical figure)">Put</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canaan_(son_of_Ham)" title="Canaan (son of Ham)">Canaan</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mizraim" title="Mizraim">Mizraim</a> (Hebrew name for Egypt). According to the Bible, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nimrod" title="Nimrod">Nimrod</a>, a son of Cush, was the founder and king of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Erech</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkad</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Calneh" title="Calneh">Calneh</a>, in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shinar" title="Shinar">Shinar</a> (Gen 10:10).<sup id="cite_ref-kingjamesbibleonline.org_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kingjamesbibleonline.org-18">[18]</a></sup> The Bible also makes reference to someone named Cush who is a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tribe_of_Benjamin" title="Tribe of Benjamin">Benjamite</a> (Psalms 7:1, KJV).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p><p>In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Greek</a> sources Kush was known as <i>Kous</i> (Κους) or <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aithiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Aithiopia">Aethiopia</a></i> (Αἰθιοπία).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997p._69_ff_(1997_ed.)_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997p._69_ff_(1997_ed.)-20">[20]</a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prelude">Prelude</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Kerma culture<br /><small>(c.2500 BC–c.1550 BC)</small></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:151px;max-width:151px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:130px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Wallpaper_group-pmg-4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Wallpaper_group-pmg-4.jpg/149px-Wallpaper_group-pmg-4.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Wallpaper_group-pmg-4.jpg/224px-Wallpaper_group-pmg-4.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Wallpaper_group-pmg-4.jpg/298px-Wallpaper_group-pmg-4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1894" data-file-height="1650" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Kerma bowl, 1700-1550 BC. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Boston" title="Museum of Fine Arts, Boston">Museum of Fine Arts, Boston</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:187px;max-width:187px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:130px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Exposition_Nubia,_Land_of_the_Black_Pharaohs_%E2%80%93_Mirror._Kerma_Period,_1700-1550_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Exposition_Nubia%2C_Land_of_the_Black_Pharaohs_%E2%80%93_Mirror._Kerma_Period%2C_1700-1550_BC.jpg/185px-Exposition_Nubia%2C_Land_of_the_Black_Pharaohs_%E2%80%93_Mirror._Kerma_Period%2C_1700-1550_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Exposition_Nubia%2C_Land_of_the_Black_Pharaohs_%E2%80%93_Mirror._Kerma_Period%2C_1700-1550_BC.jpg/278px-Exposition_Nubia%2C_Land_of_the_Black_Pharaohs_%E2%80%93_Mirror._Kerma_Period%2C_1700-1550_BC.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Exposition_Nubia%2C_Land_of_the_Black_Pharaohs_%E2%80%93_Mirror._Kerma_Period%2C_1700-1550_BC.jpg/370px-Exposition_Nubia%2C_Land_of_the_Black_Pharaohs_%E2%80%93_Mirror._Kerma_Period%2C_1700-1550_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5804" data-file-height="4097" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Mirror. End of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerma_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerma culture">Kerma Period</a>, 1700-1550 BC. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston</div></div></div></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kerma_culture_(2500–1500_BC)"><span id="Kerma_culture_.282500.E2.80.931500_BC.29"></span>Kerma culture (2500–1500 BC)</h4><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerma_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerma culture">Kerma culture</a></div>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerma_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerma culture">Kerma culture</a> was an early civilization centered in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerma" title="Kerma">Kerma</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>. It flourished from around 2500 BC to 1500 BC in ancient <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>. The Kerma culture was based in the southern part of Nubia, or "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Upper_Nubia" title="Upper Nubia">Upper Nubia</a>" (in parts of present-day northern and central <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>), and later extended its reach northward into Lower Nubia and the border of Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> The polity seems to have been one of several <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nile_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile Valley">Nile Valley</a> states during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom of Egypt</a>. In the Kingdom of Kerma's latest phase, lasting from about 1700–1500 BC, it absorbed the Sudanese kingdom of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sai_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sai (island)">Sai</a> and became a sizable, populous empire rivaling Egypt.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Egyptian_Nubia_(1504–1070_BC)"><span id="Egyptian_Nubia_.281504.E2.80.931070_BC.29"></span>Egyptian Nubia (1504–1070 BC)</h4><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Nubian_Prince_Hekanefer_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut,_18th_dynasty,_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Nubian_Prince_Hekanefer_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_18th_dynasty%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg/220px-Nubian_Prince_Hekanefer_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_18th_dynasty%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Nubian_Prince_Hekanefer_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_18th_dynasty%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg/330px-Nubian_Prince_Hekanefer_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_18th_dynasty%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Nubian_Prince_Hekanefer_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_18th_dynasty%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg/440px-Nubian_Prince_Hekanefer_bringing_tribute_for_King_Tut%2C_18th_dynasty%2C_Tomb_of_Huy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Nubian Prince <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heqanefer" title="Heqanefer">Heqanefer</a> bringing tribute for The Egyptian King <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a>, 18th dynasty, Tomb of Huy. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1342</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1325</span> BC</figcaption></figure><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a>, the 21st century BC founder of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a>, is recorded to have undertaken campaigns against Kush in the 29th and 31st years of his reign. This is the earliest Egyptian reference to <i>Kush</i>; the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubian</a> region had gone by other names in the Old Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> Under <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thutmose_I" title="Thutmose I">Thutmose I</a>, Egypt made several campaigns south.
</p><p>The Egyptians ruled Kush in the New kingdom beginning when the Egyptian King Thutmose I occupied Kush and destroyed its capital, Kerma.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>This eventually resulted in their annexation of Nubia <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1504 BC</span>. Around 1500 BC, Nubia was absorbed into the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a>, but rebellions continued for centuries. After the conquest, Kerma culture was increasingly Egyptianized, yet rebellions continued for 220 years until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1300 BC</span>. Nubia nevertheless became a key province of the New Kingdom, economically, politically, and spiritually. Indeed, major pharaonic ceremonies were held at Jebel Barkal near Napata.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> As an Egyptian colony from the 16th century BC, Nubia ("Kush") was governed by an Egyptian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy_of_Kush" title="Viceroy of Kush">Viceroy of Kush</a>.
</p><p>Resistance to the early eighteenth Dynasty Egyptian rule by neighboring Kush is evidenced in the writings of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahmose,_son_of_Ebana" title="Ahmose, son of Ebana">Ahmose, son of Ebana</a>, an Egyptian warrior who served under Nebpehtrya Ahmose (1539–1514 BC), Djeserkara Amenhotep I (1514–1493 BC), and Aakheperkara Thutmose I (1493–1481 BC). At the end of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">Second Intermediate Period</a> (mid-sixteenth century BC), Egypt faced the twin existential threats—the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a> in the North and the Kushites in the South. Taken from the autobiographical inscriptions on the walls of his tomb-chapel, the Egyptians undertook campaigns to defeat Kush and conquer Nubia under the rule of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenhotep_I" title="Amenhotep I">Amenhotep I</a> (1514–1493 BC). In Ahmose's writings, the Kushites are described as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Archery" title="Archery">archers</a>, "Now after his Majesty had slain the Bedoin of Asia, he sailed upstream to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Upper_Nubia" title="Upper Nubia">Upper Nubia</a> to destroy the Nubian bowmen."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> The tomb writings contain two other references to the Nubian bowmen of Kush. By 1200 BC, Egyptian involvement in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dongola_Reach" title="Dongola Reach">Dongola Reach</a> was nonexistent.
</p><p>Egypt's international prestige had declined considerably towards the end of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">Third Intermediate Period</a>. Its historical allies, the inhabitants of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>, had fallen to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a> (1365–1020 BC), and then the resurgent <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (935–605 BC). The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a>, from the tenth century BC onwards, had once more expanded from northern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, and conquered a vast empire, including the whole of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>, and much of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, the eastern <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Iran#Early_Iron_Age" title="History of Iran">early Iron Age Iran</a>.
</p><p>According to Josephus Flavius, the biblical Moses led the Egyptian army in a siege of the Kushite city of Meroe. To end the siege Princess Tharbis was given to Moses as a (diplomatic) bride, and thus the Egyptian army retreated back to Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation_(c._1070–754_BC)"><span id="Formation_.28c._1070.E2.80.93754_BC.29"></span>Formation (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1070–754 BC)</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Relief_In_The_Semna_Temple_(3)_(34074139275).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Relief_In_The_Semna_Temple_%283%29_%2834074139275%29.jpg/220px-Relief_In_The_Semna_Temple_%283%29_%2834074139275%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Relief_In_The_Semna_Temple_%283%29_%2834074139275%29.jpg/330px-Relief_In_The_Semna_Temple_%283%29_%2834074139275%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Relief_In_The_Semna_Temple_%283%29_%2834074139275%29.jpg/440px-Relief_In_The_Semna_Temple_%283%29_%2834074139275%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3321" data-file-height="2492" /></a><figcaption>Relief from the temple of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semna_(Nubia)" title="Semna (Nubia)">Semna</a> depicting queen-king <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karimala" title="Karimala">Karimala</a> approaching <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Isis</a>, 10th–9th century BC<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2020413–414_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2020413–414-27">[27]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>With the disintegration of the New Kingdom around 1070 BC, <i>Kush</i> became an independent kingdom centered at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a> in modern northern Sudan.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> This more-Egyptianized "Kingdom of Kush" emerged, possibly from Kerma, and regained the region's independence from Egypt. The extent of cultural/political continuity between the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerma_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerma culture">Kerma culture</a> and the chronologically succeeding Kingdom of Kush is difficult to determine. The latter polity began to emerge around 1000 BC, 500 years after the end of the Kingdom of Kerma.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Gebel_Barkal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Gebel_Barkal.jpg/220px-Gebel_Barkal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Gebel_Barkal.jpg/330px-Gebel_Barkal.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Gebel_Barkal.jpg/440px-Gebel_Barkal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2016" data-file-height="1512" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jebel_Barkal" title="Jebel Barkal">Jebel Barkal</a> was venerated as residence of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Amun</a> and became an essential symbol of Kushite kingship</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Lepsius_el-Kurru_pyramids.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Lepsius_el-Kurru_pyramids.jpeg/260px-Lepsius_el-Kurru_pyramids.jpeg" decoding="async" width="260" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Lepsius_el-Kurru_pyramids.jpeg/390px-Lepsius_el-Kurru_pyramids.jpeg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Lepsius_el-Kurru_pyramids.jpeg/520px-Lepsius_el-Kurru_pyramids.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="607" /></a><figcaption>The pyramids of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/El-Kurru" title="El-Kurru">el-Kurru</a> after <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carl_Richard_Lepsius" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Richard Lepsius">Carl Richard Lepsius</a>, 1859</figcaption></figure>
<p>The first Kushite king known by name was <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alara_of_Nubia" class="mw-redirect" title="Alara of Nubia">Alara</a>, who ruled somewhere between 800<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023110_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023110-29">[29]</a></sup> and 760 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997123_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997123-30">[30]</a></sup> No contemporary inscriptions of him exist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023110_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023110-29">[29]</a></sup> He was first mentioned in the funerary stela of his daughter <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tabiry" title="Tabiry">Tabiry</a>, the wife of king <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a>. Later royal inscriptions remember Alara as the founder of the dynasty, some calling him "chieftain", others "king". A 7th century inscription claimed that his sister was the grandmother of king <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taharqo" class="mw-redirect" title="Taharqo">Taharqo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997123–125_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997123–125-31">[31]</a></sup> An inscription of the 5th century king <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanineteyerike" title="Amanineteyerike">Amanineteyerike</a> remembered Alara's reign as long and successful.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKendall199945_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall199945-32">[32]</a></sup> Alara was probably buried at el-Kurru, although there exists no inscription to identify his tomb.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023110_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023110-29">[29]</a></sup> It has been proposed that it was Alara who turned Kush from a chiefdom to an Egyptianized kingdom centered around the cult of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Amun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997126_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997126-33">[33]</a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rule_over_Egypt_(754_BC–656_BC)"><span id="Rule_over_Egypt_.28754_BC.E2.80.93656_BC.29"></span>Rule over Egypt (754 BC–656 BC)</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a></div>
<p>Alara's successor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kashta" title="Kashta">Kashta</a> extended Kushite control north to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a>. Kashta's successor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Piye#Piye's_Conquest_of_Egypt" title="Piye">Piye</a> seized control of Lower Egypt around 727 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> Piye's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stele_of_Piye" title="Stele of Piye">Victory Stela</a>, celebrating these campaigns between 728 and 716 BC, was found in the Amun temple at Jebel Barkal. He invaded an Egypt fragmented into four kingdoms, ruled by King <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peftjauawybast" title="Peftjauawybast">Peftjauawybast</a>, King <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nimlot_of_Hermopolis" title="Nimlot of Hermopolis">Nimlot</a>, King <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iuput_II" title="Iuput II">Iuput II</a>, and King <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Osorkon_IV" title="Osorkon IV">Osorkon IV</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-David_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-David-35">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 115, 120">: 115, 120 </span></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Rulers_of_Kush,_Kerma_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/220px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/330px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/440px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4295" data-file-height="3506" /></a><figcaption>Statues of various rulers of the late 25th Dynasty–early Napatan period: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tantamani</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a> (rear), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Senkamanisken" title="Senkamanisken">Senkamanisken</a>, again <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tantamani</a> (rear), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aspelta" title="Aspelta">Aspelta</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anlamani" title="Anlamani">Anlamani</a>, again <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Senkamanisken" title="Senkamanisken">Senkamanisken</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerma_Museum" title="Kerma Museum">Kerma Museum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>Why the Kushites chose to enter Egypt at this crucial point of foreign domination is subject to debate. Archaeologist Timothy Kendall offers his own hypotheses, connecting it to a claim of legitimacy associated with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jebel_Barkal" title="Jebel Barkal">Jebel Barkal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kendall,_T.K._2002_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kendall,_T.K._2002-37">[37]</a></sup> Kendall cites the Victory Stele of Piye at Jebel Barkal, which states that "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Amun</a> of Napata granted me to be ruler of every foreign country," and "Amun in Thebes granted me to be ruler of the Black Land (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Km_(hieroglyph)#km.t" class="mw-redirect" title="Km (hieroglyph)">Kmt</a>)". According to Kendall, "foreign lands" in this regard seems to include Lower Egypt while "Kmt" seems to refer to a united Upper Egypt and Nubia.<sup id="cite_ref-Kendall,_T.K._2002_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kendall,_T.K._2002-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p><p>Piye's successor, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shabataka" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabataka">Shabataka</a>, defeated the Saite kings of northern Egypt between 711 and 710 BC and installed himself as king in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a>. He then established ties with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon II</a> of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-David_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-David-35">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 120">: 120 </span></sup> After the reign of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shabaka" title="Shabaka">Shabaka</a>, Pharaoh <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a>'s army undertook successful military campaigns, as attested by the "list of conquered Asiatic principalities" from the Mut temple at Karnak and "conquered peoples and countries (Libyans, Shasu nomads, Phoenicians?, Khor in Palestine)" from Sanam temple inscriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997132–3,_153–84_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997132–3,_153–84-38">[38]</a></sup> However the regions in the southern Levant claimed by Shabataka were
seen by Assyria as under their dominion, and imperial ambitions of both the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mesopotamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian">Mesopotamian</a> based <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assyrian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Empire">Assyrian Empire</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kushite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Kushite Empire">Kushite Empire</a> made war with the 25th dynasty inevitable. In 701 BC, Taharqa and his army aided <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Judah</a> and King <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hezekiah" title="Hezekiah">Hezekiah</a> in withstanding a siege by King <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a> of the Assyrians (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9).<sup id="cite_ref-Aubin_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aubin-39">[39]</a></sup> There are various theories (Taharqa's army,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> disease, divine intervention, Hezekiah's surrender or agreeing to pay tribute) as to why the Assyrians failed to take the city.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> Historian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_T%C3%B6r%C3%B6k" title="László Török">László Török</a> mentions that Egypt's army "was beaten at Eltekeh" under Taharqa's command, but "the battle could be interpreted as a victory for the double kingdom", since Assyria did not take Jerusalem, however the Egyptian and Kushite forces withdrew to Egypt and the Assyrian king <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a> appears to have occupied part of the Sinai.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997170_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997170-42">[42]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Pyramids_of_Nuri_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Pyramids_of_Nuri_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Pyramids_of_Nuri_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Pyramids_of_Nuri_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Pyramids_of_Nuri_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Pyramids_of_Nuri_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Pyramids_of_Nuri_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="553" /></a><figcaption>Pyramids of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuri" title="Nuri">Nuri</a>, built between the reigns of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a> (circa 670 BC) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nastasen" title="Nastasen">Nastasen</a> (circa 310 BC).</figcaption></figure>
<p>The power of the 25th Dynasty reached a climax under Taharqa. The Nile valley empire was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom. New prosperity<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997-16">[16]</a></sup> revived Egyptian culture.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> Religion, the arts, and architecture were restored to their glorious Old, Middle, and New Kingdom forms. The Kushite pharaohs built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> It was during the 25th dynasty that the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of pyramids (many in modern Sudan) since the Middle Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-Mokhtar1990_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mokhtar1990-46">[46]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Emberling2011_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emberling2011-47">[47]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Silverman1997_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silverman1997-48">[48]</a></sup> The Kushites developed their own script, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meroitic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Meroitic alphabet">Meroitic alphabet</a>, which was influenced by Egyptian writing systems <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 700–600 BC</span>, although it appears to have been wholly confined to the royal court and major temples.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-49">[49]</a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt">Assyrian conquest of Egypt</h4><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Assyrian conquest of Egypt">Assyrian conquest of Egypt</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Ashurbanipal_II%27s_army_attacking_Memphis,_Egypt,_645-635_BCE,_from_Nineveh,_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Ashurbanipal_II%27s_army_attacking_Memphis%2C_Egypt%2C_645-635_BCE%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg/310px-Ashurbanipal_II%27s_army_attacking_Memphis%2C_Egypt%2C_645-635_BCE%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Ashurbanipal_II%27s_army_attacking_Memphis%2C_Egypt%2C_645-635_BCE%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg/465px-Ashurbanipal_II%27s_army_attacking_Memphis%2C_Egypt%2C_645-635_BCE%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Ashurbanipal_II%27s_army_attacking_Memphis%2C_Egypt%2C_645-635_BCE%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg/620px-Ashurbanipal_II%27s_army_attacking_Memphis%2C_Egypt%2C_645-635_BCE%2C_from_Nineveh%2C_Iraq._British_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5598" data-file-height="3397" /></a><figcaption>Wall panel depicting <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Assyrian</a> soldiers storming a Kushite fortress in Egypt. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niniveh" class="mw-redirect" title="Niniveh">Niniveh</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Taharqa and his <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Judean" class="mw-redirect" title="Judean">Judean</a> allies initially defeated the Assyrians at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ashkelon" title="Ashkelon">Ashkelon</a> when war broke out in 674 BC.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The relatively small Assyrian force had first defeafed Canaanite and Arab tribes in the region and then immediately marched at great speed on Ashkelon, leaving them exhausted.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, in 671 BC, the Assyrian King <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a> started the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Assyrian conquest of Egypt">Assyrian conquest of Egypt</a> with a larger and better prepared force. The Assyrians advanced rapidly and decisively. Memphis was taken, and Taharqa fled to Nubia, while his heir and other family members were taken to the Assyrian capital <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a> as prisoners. Esarhaddon boasted how he "deported all Aethiopians from Egypt, leaving not one to pay homage to me" However, the native Egyptian vassal rulers installed by Esarhaddon as puppets were unable to effectively retain full control of the entire country, and Taharqa was able to regain control of Memphis. Esarhaddon's 669 BC campaign to once more eject Taharqa was abandoned when Esarhaddon died in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harran" title="Harran">Harran</a> on the way to Egypt, leaving Esarhaddon's successor, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a> the task. He defeated Taharqa, driving his forces back into Nubia, and Taharqa died in Napata soon after in 664 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-David_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-David-35">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 121">: 121 </span></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:King_Tanutamani,_el-Kurru.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/King_Tanutamani%2C_el-Kurru.jpeg/220px-King_Tanutamani%2C_el-Kurru.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/King_Tanutamani%2C_el-Kurru.jpeg/330px-King_Tanutamani%2C_el-Kurru.jpeg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/King_Tanutamani%2C_el-Kurru.jpeg/440px-King_Tanutamani%2C_el-Kurru.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2503" data-file-height="2311" /></a><figcaption>Wall painting of king <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tantamani</a> from his tomb in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/El-Kurru" title="El-Kurru">el-Kurru</a>, under whom Egypt was lost for good</figcaption></figure>
<p>Taharqa's successor, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tantamani</a> sailed north from Napata, through <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a>, and to Thebes with a large army, where he was "ritually installed as the king of Egypt."<sup id="cite_ref-Török98_185_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Török98_185-50">[50]</a></sup> From Thebes, Tantamani began his attempt at reconquest<sup id="cite_ref-Török98_185_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Török98_185-50">[50]</a></sup> and regained control of a part of southern Egypt as far as Memphis from the native Egyptian puppet rulers installed by the Assyrians.<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup> Tantamani's dream stele states that he restored order from the chaos, where royal temples and cults were not being maintained.<sup id="cite_ref-Török98_185_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Török98_185-50">[50]</a></sup> After defeating Sais and killing Assyria's vassal, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Necho_I" title="Necho I">Necho I</a>, in Memphis, "some local dynasts formally surrendered, while others withdrew to their fortresses."<sup id="cite_ref-Török98_185_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Török98_185-50">[50]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 185">: 185 </span></sup> Tantamani proceeded north of Memphis, invading Lower Egypt and, besieged cities in the Delta, a number of which surrendered to him.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Assyrians, who had maintained only a small military presence in the north, then sent a large army southwards in 663 BC. Tantamani was decisively routed, and the Assyrian army <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sack_of_Thebes" title="Sack of Thebes">sacked Thebes</a> to such an extent it never truly recovered. Tantamani was chased back to Nubia, but he continued to try and assert control over Upper Egypt until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 656 BC</span>. At this date, a native Egyptian ruler, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a> son of Necho, placed on the throne as a vassal of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a>, took control of Thebes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> The last links between Kush and Upper Egypt were severed after hostilities with the Saite kings in the 590s BC.<sup id="cite_ref-David_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-David-35">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 121–122">: 121–122 </span></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Napatan_period_(656_BC–c._270_BC)"><span id="Napatan_period_.28656_BC.E2.80.93c._270_BC.29"></span>Napatan period (656 BC–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 270 BC)</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Kushite civilization continued for several centuries. According to Welsby, "throughout the Saite, Persian, Ptolemaic, and Roman periods, the Kushite rulers—the descendants of the XXVth Dynasty pharaohs, and the guardians of the Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup>—could have pressed their 'legitimate' claim for control of Egypt and they thus posed a potential threat to the rulers of Egypt."<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 66–67">: 66–67 </span></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Reliefs_in_Persepolis_%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AF_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Reliefs_in_Persepolis_%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AF_05.jpg/220px-Reliefs_in_Persepolis_%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AF_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Reliefs_in_Persepolis_%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AF_05.jpg/330px-Reliefs_in_Persepolis_%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AF_05.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Reliefs_in_Persepolis_%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AF_05.jpg/440px-Reliefs_in_Persepolis_%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AF_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2667" /></a><figcaption>Kushite delegation on a Persian relief from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apadana" title="Apadana">Apadana</a> palace (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500 BC</span>)</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> mentioned an invasion of Kush by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid">Achaemenid</a> ruler <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 530 BC</span>). By some accounts Cambyses succeeded in occupying the area between the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cataracts_of_the_Nile" title="Cataracts of the Nile">first and second Nile cataract</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> however Herodotus mentions that "his expedition failed miserably in the desert."<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 65–66">: 65–66 </span></sup> Achaemenid inscriptions from both Egypt and Iran include Kush as part of the Achaemenid empire.<sup id="cite_ref-DS_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DS-55">[55]</a></sup> For example, the DNa inscription of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 522–486 BC</span>) on his tomb at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rustam" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqsh-e Rustam">Naqsh-e Rustam</a> mentions <i>Kūšīyā</i> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a>: 𐎤𐎢𐏁𐎡𐎹𐎠, pronounced <i>Kūshīyā</i>) among the territories being "ruled over" by the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DS_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DS-55">[55]</a></sup> Derek Welsby states "scholars have doubted that this Persian expedition ever took place, but... archaeological evidence suggests that the fortress of <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Dorginarti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dorginarti (page does not exist)">Dorginarti</a> near the second cataract served as Persia's southern boundary."<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 65–66">: 65–66 </span></sup>
</p><p>From around 425–300 BC, beginning under the rule of king <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanineteyerike" title="Amanineteyerike">Amannote-erike</a>, Kush saw a series of kings who revitalized older practices such as the erection of royal steles or royal statues. It was likely also in this period when several older pyramids, among them that of Taharqo, were enlarged. The stele of king <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harsiotef" title="Harsiotef">Harsiotef</a>, who from around 400 BC ruled for at least 35 years, reports how he fought a multitude of campaigns against enemies ranging from Meroe in the south to Lower Nubia in the north while also donating to temples throughout Kush. King <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nastasen" title="Nastasen">Nastasen</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 325) waged several wars against nomad groups and again in Lower Nubia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023140–141_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023140–141-57">[57]</a></sup> Nastasen was the last king to be buried at Nuri.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997394_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997394-58">[58]</a></sup> His successors built six pyramids at Jebel Barkal and two in the old necropolis of el-Kurru, although the lack of inscriptions prevents identifying their occupants. It seems likely that this was a time of unrest and conflict within the royal elite.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023141–143_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023141–143-59">[59]</a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meroitic_period_(c._270_BC–4th_century_AD)"><span id="Meroitic_period_.28c._270_BC.E2.80.934th_century_AD.29"></span>Meroitic period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 270 BC–4th century AD)</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a></div>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aspelta" title="Aspelta">Aspelta</a> moved the capital to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a>, considerably farther south than <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a>, possibly <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 591 BC</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-Ohaegbulam1990_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohaegbulam1990-60">[60]</a></sup> just after the sack of Napata by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Psamtik_II" title="Psamtik II">Psamtik II</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Martin_Meredith" title="Martin Meredith">Martin Meredith</a> states the Kushite rulers chose Meroë, between the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cataracts_of_the_Nile" title="Cataracts of the Nile">Fifth and Sixth Cataracts</a>, because it was on the fringe of the summer rainfall belt, and the area was rich in iron ore and hardwood for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iron_working" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron working">iron working</a>. The location also afforded access to trade routes to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>. The Kush traded iron products with the Romans, in addition to gold, ivory and slaves. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Butana" title="Butana">Butana</a> plain was stripped of its forests, leaving behind <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a> piles.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-61">[61]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Jewelry_found_on_the_Mummy_of_Nubian_King_AMANINATAKILEBTE_(538-519_BC)._Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Boston.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Jewelry_found_on_the_Mummy_of_Nubian_King_AMANINATAKILEBTE_%28538-519_BC%29._Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston.jpg/220px-Jewelry_found_on_the_Mummy_of_Nubian_King_AMANINATAKILEBTE_%28538-519_BC%29._Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Jewelry_found_on_the_Mummy_of_Nubian_King_AMANINATAKILEBTE_%28538-519_BC%29._Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston.jpg/330px-Jewelry_found_on_the_Mummy_of_Nubian_King_AMANINATAKILEBTE_%28538-519_BC%29._Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Jewelry_found_on_the_Mummy_of_Nubian_King_AMANINATAKILEBTE_%28538-519_BC%29._Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston.jpg/440px-Jewelry_found_on_the_Mummy_of_Nubian_King_AMANINATAKILEBTE_%28538-519_BC%29._Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Boston.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1517" data-file-height="997" /></a><figcaption>Jewelry found on the Mummy of Nubian King <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amaninatakilebte" title="Amaninatakilebte">Amaninatakilebte</a> (538-519 BC), Nuri pyramid 10. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Gold_flower_shaped_Diadem,_found_in_te_Pyramid_of_King_Talakhamani_(435%E2%80%93431_B.C.).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Gold_flower_shaped_Diadem%2C_found_in_te_Pyramid_of_King_Talakhamani_%28435%E2%80%93431_B.C.%29.jpg/220px-Gold_flower_shaped_Diadem%2C_found_in_te_Pyramid_of_King_Talakhamani_%28435%E2%80%93431_B.C.%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Gold_flower_shaped_Diadem%2C_found_in_te_Pyramid_of_King_Talakhamani_%28435%E2%80%93431_B.C.%29.jpg/330px-Gold_flower_shaped_Diadem%2C_found_in_te_Pyramid_of_King_Talakhamani_%28435%E2%80%93431_B.C.%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Gold_flower_shaped_Diadem%2C_found_in_te_Pyramid_of_King_Talakhamani_%28435%E2%80%93431_B.C.%29.jpg/440px-Gold_flower_shaped_Diadem%2C_found_in_te_Pyramid_of_King_Talakhamani_%28435%E2%80%93431_B.C.%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1570" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Gold flower shaped diadem, found in the Pyramid of King <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Talakhamani" title="Talakhamani">Talakhamani</a> (435–431 BC), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuri_pyramid" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuri pyramid">Nuri pyramid</a> 16. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.</figcaption></figure>
<p>In about 300 BC, the move to Meroë was made more complete when the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Monarchs">monarchs</a> began to be buried there, instead of at Napata. One theory is that this represents the monarchs breaking away from the power of the priests at Napata. According to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>, Kushite king <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ergamenes" title="Ergamenes">Ergamenes</a> defied the priests and had them slaughtered. This story may refer to the first ruler to be buried at Meroë with a similar name such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arqamani" title="Arqamani">Arqamani</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> who ruled many years after the royal cemetery was opened at Meroë. During this same period, the Kushite authority may have extended some 1,500 km along the Nile River valley from the Egyptian frontier in the north to areas far south of modern Khartoum and probably also substantial territories to the east and west.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup>
</p><p>There is some record of conflict between the Kushites and Ptolemies. In 275 or 274 BC, Ptolemy II (r. 283–246 BC) sent an army to Nubia, and defeated the Kingdom of Kush, annexing to Egypt the area later known as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Triakontaschoinos" title="Triakontaschoinos">Triakontaschoinos</a>. In addition, There was a serious revolt at the end of Ptolemy IV, around 204 BC, and the Kushites likely tried to interfere in Ptolemaic affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 67">: 67 </span></sup> It has been suggested that this led to Ptolemy V defacing the name of Arqamani on inscriptions at Philae.<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 67">: 67 </span></sup> "Arqamani constructed a small entrance hall to the temple built by Ptolemy IV at selchis and constructed a temple at Philae to which Ptolemy contributed an entrance hall."<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 66">: 66 </span></sup> There is evidence of Ptolemaic occupation as far south as the second cataract, but recent finds at Qasr Ibrim, such as "the total absence of Ptolemaic pottery" have cast doubts on the effectiveness of the occupation. Dynastic struggles led to the Ptolemies abandoning the area, so "the Kushites reasserted their control...with Qasr Ibrim occupied" (by the Kushites) and other locations perhaps garrisoned.<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 67">: 67 </span></sup>
</p><p>According to Welsby, after the Romans assumed control of Egypt, they negotiated with the Kushites at Philae and drew the southern border of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a> at Aswan.<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 67">: 67 </span></sup> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Theodor Mommsen</a> and Welsby state the Kingdom of Kush became a client Kingdom, which was similar to the situation under Ptolemaic rule of Egypt. Kushite ambition and excessive Roman taxation are two theories for a revolt that was supported by Kushite armies.<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 67–68">: 67–68 </span></sup> The ancient historians, Strabo and Pliny, give accounts of the conflict with Roman Egypt.
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Bronze_head_from_an_over-life-sized_statue_of_Augustus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Bronze_head_from_an_over-life-sized_statue_of_Augustus.jpg/180px-Bronze_head_from_an_over-life-sized_statue_of_Augustus.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Bronze_head_from_an_over-life-sized_statue_of_Augustus.jpg/270px-Bronze_head_from_an_over-life-sized_statue_of_Augustus.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Bronze_head_from_an_over-life-sized_statue_of_Augustus.jpg/360px-Bronze_head_from_an_over-life-sized_statue_of_Augustus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3120" data-file-height="4855" /></a><figcaption>Bronze <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mero%C3%AB_Head" title="Meroë Head">head of Emperor Augustus</a> found under the staircase of a temple in Meroe</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Prince_Arikankharer_Slaying_His_Enemies,_Meroitic,_beginning_of_first_century_AD,_sandstone_-_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7535.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Prince_Arikankharer_Slaying_His_Enemies%2C_Meroitic%2C_beginning_of_first_century_AD%2C_sandstone_-_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7535.JPG/220px-Prince_Arikankharer_Slaying_His_Enemies%2C_Meroitic%2C_beginning_of_first_century_AD%2C_sandstone_-_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7535.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Prince_Arikankharer_Slaying_His_Enemies%2C_Meroitic%2C_beginning_of_first_century_AD%2C_sandstone_-_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7535.JPG/330px-Prince_Arikankharer_Slaying_His_Enemies%2C_Meroitic%2C_beginning_of_first_century_AD%2C_sandstone_-_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7535.JPG 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Prince_Arikankharer_Slaying_His_Enemies%2C_Meroitic%2C_beginning_of_first_century_AD%2C_sandstone_-_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7535.JPG/440px-Prince_Arikankharer_Slaying_His_Enemies%2C_Meroitic%2C_beginning_of_first_century_AD%2C_sandstone_-_Worcester_Art_Museum_-_IMG_7535.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2752" data-file-height="2419" /></a><figcaption>Meroitic prince smiting his enemies (early first century AD)</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> describes a war with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a> in the first century BC. According to Strabo, the Kushites "sacked Aswan with an army of 30,000 men and destroyed imperial statues...at Philae." A "fine over-life-size <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mero%C3%AB_Head" title="Meroë Head">bronze head of the emperor Augustus</a>" was found buried in Meroe in front of a temple.<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 68">: 68 </span></sup> After the initial victories of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kandake" title="Kandake">Kandake</a> (or "Candace") <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanirenas" title="Amanirenas">Amanirenas</a> against Roman Egypt, the Kushites were defeated and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a> sacked.<sup id="cite_ref-afraf.oxfordjournals.org_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-afraf.oxfordjournals.org-65">[65]</a></sup> Remarkably, the destruction of the capital of Napata was not a crippling blow to the Kushites and did not frighten Candace enough to prevent her from again engaging in combat with the Roman military. In 22 BC, a large Kushite force moved northward with intention of attacking <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qasr_Ibrim" title="Qasr Ibrim">Qasr Ibrim</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-jackson2002_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jackson2002-66">[66]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 149">: 149 </span></sup>
Alerted to the advance, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gaius_Petronius" title="Gaius Petronius">Gaius Petronius</a>, prefect of Roman Egypt, again marched south and managed to reach Qasr Ibrim and bolster its defenses before the invading Kushites arrived. Welsby states after a Kushite attack on Primis (Qasr Ibrim),<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 69–70">: 69–70 </span></sup> the Kushites sent ambassadors to negotiate a peace settlement with Petronius. The Kushites succeeded in negotiating a peace treaty on favorable terms.<sup id="cite_ref-afraf.oxfordjournals.org_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-afraf.oxfordjournals.org-65">[65]</a></sup> Trade between the two nations increased<sup id="cite_ref-jackson2002_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jackson2002-66">[66]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 149">: 149 </span></sup> and the Roman Egyptian border being extended to "Hiera Sykaminos (Maharraqa)."<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 70">: 70 </span></sup> This arrangement "guaranteed peace for most of the next 300 years" and there is "no definite evidence of further clashes."<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 70">: 70 </span></sup>
</p><p>It is possible that the Roman emperor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> planned another attempt to conquer Kush before his death in AD 68.<sup id="cite_ref-jackson2002_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jackson2002-66">[66]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 150–151">: 150–151 </span></sup> Nero sent two <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Centurion" title="Centurion">centurions</a> upriver as far as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bahr_el_Ghazal_River" title="Bahr el Ghazal River">Bahr el Ghazal River</a> in 66 AD in an attempt to discover the source of the Nile, per <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Martin_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-61">[61]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 43">: 43 </span></sup> or plan an attack, per <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a>.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decline_and_fall">Decline and fall</h4><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Kush began to fade as a power by the first or second century AD, sapped by the war with the Roman province of Egypt and the decline of its traditional industries.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup> However, there is evidence of third century AD Kushite Kings at Philae in demotic and inscription.<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 71">: 71 </span></sup> It has been suggested that the Kushites reoccupied lower Nubia after Roman forces were withdrawn to Aswan. Kushite activities led others to note "a de facto Kushite control of that area (as far north as Philae) for part of the third century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 71">: 71 </span></sup> Thereafter, it weakened and disintegrated due to internal rebellion.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Aksum,_iscrizione_di_re_ezana,_in_greco,_sabeo_e_ge%27ez,_330-350_dc_ca._10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._10.jpg/200px-Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._10.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._10.jpg/300px-Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._10.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._10.jpg/400px-Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5022" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ezana_Stone" title="Ezana Stone">stele</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksumite</a> Emperor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ezana" class="mw-redirect" title="Ezana">Ezana</a> commemorating his expedition against the Noba and Kush</figcaption></figure>
<p>The fall of Meroe is often associated with an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksumite</a> invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201367_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201367-68">[68]</a></sup> An Aksumite presence in Meroe is confirmed by two fragmentary Greek inscriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201371–75_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201371–75-69">[69]</a></sup> The better preserved one referred to military actions and the imposition of a tribute.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201372–73_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201372–73-70">[70]</a></sup> They probably belonged to Aksumite victory monuments and were dedicated to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ares" title="Ares">Ares</a>/<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maher_(god)" title="Maher (god)">Maher</a>, the god of war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201374–75_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201374–75-71">[71]</a></sup> Thus, they must have been erected before Aksum's conversion to Christianity in around 340, perhaps by king <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ousanas" title="Ousanas">Ousanas</a> (r. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 310–330).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201367,_76–77,_94_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201367,_76–77,_94-72">[72]</a></sup> An inscription from Aksum mentioning Kush as vassal kingdom may also be attributed to Ousanas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201369–71_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201369–71-73">[73]</a></sup> The trilingual <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ezana_Stone" title="Ezana Stone">stele</a> of his successor <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ezana" class="mw-redirect" title="Ezana">Ezana</a> describes another expedition which happened after 340.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201394_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201394-74">[74]</a></sup> Ezana's army followed the course of the Atbara until reaching the Nile confluence, where he waged war against Kush.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke2013116_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke2013116-75">[75]</a></sup> Meroe itself is not mentioned, suggesting that Ezana did not attack the town.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke2013145_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke2013145-76">[76]</a></sup> Aksum's presence in Nubia was likely short-lived.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201379_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201379-77">[77]</a></sup>
</p><p>Meroitic texts from as early as the 1st century BC hint to conflicts with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Noba" title="Noba">Noba</a>, who lived west of the Nile and were governed by their own chiefs and kings. Perhaps it was the increasingly arid climate that forced them to attack the Nile Valley, although they would not manage to break through until the 4th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERilly2008215–217_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERilly2008215–217-78">[78]</a></sup> The Ezana stele mentioned that they had occupied Kushite towns<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke2013114_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke2013114-79">[79]</a></sup> and were active as far east as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tekez%C3%A9_River" title="Tekezé River">Takeze River</a>, where they harassed Aksumite vassals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke2013104_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke2013104-80">[80]</a></sup> These attacks and them breaking oaths they had sworn to Ezana were the main reason for his Nubian expedition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke2013121_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke2013121-81">[81]</a></sup> It has been proposed that the Noba were not necessarily <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nubian language">Nubian-speakers</a>, but that the term "Noba" was rather a pejorative Meroitic word applied to a large variety of people living outside the Meroitic state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2011503–508_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2011503–508-82">[82]</a></sup> A Meroitic stele found at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gebel_Adda" title="Gebel Adda">Gebel Adda</a> from around 300 AD, however, seems to mention a king bearing the Nubian name Trotihi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERilly2019138_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERilly2019138-83">[83]</a></sup> A bowl from a 4th-century elite burial in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/El-Hobagi" title="El-Hobagi">el-Hobagi</a> features a Meroitic-Nubian inscription mentioning a "king", but identifying the interred individual and the polity he ruled over remains problematic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERilly2019138_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERilly2019138-83">[83]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESakamoto2022369–370_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESakamoto2022369–370-84">[84]</a></sup>
</p><p>At Meroe, the last pyramids as well as non-royal burials are dated to the mid-4th century,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök2009517_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök2009517-85">[85]</a></sup> which is conventionally thought to be when the kingdom of Kush came to an end. Afterwards began the so-called "post-Meroitic" period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEel-Tayeb2020772–773_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEel-Tayeb2020772–773-86">[86]</a></sup> This period saw a decline of urbanism, the disappearance of the Meroitic religion and script<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2019947_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2019947-87">[87]</a></sup> as well as the emergence of regional elites buried in large tumuli.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2019950_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2019950-88">[88]</a></sup> Princely burials from <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qustul" title="Qustul">Qustul</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 380–410) and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ballana" title="Ballana">Ballana</a> (410–500) in Lower Nubia are connected to the rise of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nobatia" title="Nobatia">Nobatia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök2009520–521_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök2009520–521-89">[89]</a></sup> To its north were the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a>, who in around 394 established a <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Blemmye_Kingdom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Blemmye Kingdom (page does not exist)">kingdom</a> centered around Talmis<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök2009524–525_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök2009524–525-90">[90]</a></sup> that lasted until it was conquered by Nobatia in around 450.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök2009527–528_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök2009527–528-91">[91]</a></sup> The political developments south of the third cataract remain obscure,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök2009537–538_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök2009537–538-92">[92]</a></sup> but it appears that <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Dongola" title="Old Dongola">Dongola</a>, the later capital of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makuria</a> as well as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soba_(city)" title="Soba (city)">Soba</a>, the capital of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a>, were founded in that period. Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia eventually converted to Christianity in the 6th century, marking the beginning of medieval Nubia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2013791_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2013791-93">[93]</a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_and_writing">Language and writing</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Meroitische_Inschrift,_Meroe_1._Jh._n._Chr.,_Aegyptisches_Museum,_Muenchen-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Meroitische_Inschrift%2C_Meroe_1._Jh._n._Chr.%2C_Aegyptisches_Museum%2C_Muenchen-1.jpg/220px-Meroitische_Inschrift%2C_Meroe_1._Jh._n._Chr.%2C_Aegyptisches_Museum%2C_Muenchen-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Meroitische_Inschrift%2C_Meroe_1._Jh._n._Chr.%2C_Aegyptisches_Museum%2C_Muenchen-1.jpg/330px-Meroitische_Inschrift%2C_Meroe_1._Jh._n._Chr.%2C_Aegyptisches_Museum%2C_Muenchen-1.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Meroitische_Inschrift%2C_Meroe_1._Jh._n._Chr.%2C_Aegyptisches_Museum%2C_Muenchen-1.jpg/440px-Meroitische_Inschrift%2C_Meroe_1._Jh._n._Chr.%2C_Aegyptisches_Museum%2C_Muenchen-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2625" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>Meroitic <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ostracon" title="Ostracon">ostracon</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic language</a> was spoken in Meroë and Sudan during the Meroitic period (attested from 300 BC). It became extinct around 400 AD. It is uncertain to which language family the Meroitic language is a part of. Kirsty Rowan suggests that Meroitic, like the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian language</a>, belongs to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> family. She bases this on its sound inventory and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phonotactics" title="Phonotactics">phonotactics</a>, which she argues are similar to those of the Afro-Asiatic languages and dissimilar from those of the Nilo-Saharan languages.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup>
Claude Rilly proposes that Meroitic, like the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nobiin_language" title="Nobiin language">Nobiin language</a>, belongs to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Eastern Sudanic languages">Eastern Sudanic</a> branch of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a> family, based in part on its syntax, morphology, and known vocabulary.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the Napatan Period Egyptian hieroglyphs were used: at this time writing seems to have been restricted to the court and temples. From the second century BC, there was a separate Meroitic writing system. The language was written in two forms of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meroitic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Meroitic alphabet">Meroitic alphabet</a>: Meroitic Cursive, which was written with a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stylus" title="Stylus">stylus</a> and was used for general record-keeping; and Meroitic Hieroglyphic, which was carved in stone or used for royal or religious documents. It is not well understood due to the scarcity of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bilingual" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingual">bilingual</a> texts. The earliest inscription in Meroitic writing dates from between 180 and 170 BC. These hieroglyphics were found engraved on the temple of Queen <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanakdakhete" title="Shanakdakhete">Shanakdakhete</a>. Meroitic Cursive is written horizontally, and reads from right to left.<sup id="cite_ref-Howf_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howf-99">[99]</a></sup> This was an alphabetic script with 23 signs used in a hieroglyphic form (mainly on monumental art) and in a cursive form. The latter was widely used; so far some 1,278 texts using this version are known (Leclant 2000). The script was deciphered by Griffith, but the language behind it is still a problem, with only a few words understood by modern scholars. It is not as yet possible to connect the Meroitic language with other known languages.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-49">[49]</a></sup> For a time, it was also possibly used to write the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Nubian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Nubian language">Old Nubian language</a> of the successor Nubian kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology,_medicine,_and_mathematics"><span id="Technology.2C_medicine.2C_and_mathematics"></span>Technology, medicine, and mathematics</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology">Technology</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>The natives of the Kingdom of Kush developed a type of water wheel or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scoop_wheel" title="Scoop wheel">scoop wheel</a>, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saqiyah" title="Saqiyah">saqiyah</a>, named kolē by the Kush.<sup id="cite_ref-Mokhtar1981_309_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mokhtar1981_309-101">[101]</a></sup> The saqiyah was developed during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meroitic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Meroitic period">Meroitic period</a> to improve irrigation. The introduction of this machine had a decisive influence on agriculture especially in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dongola_Reach" title="Dongola Reach">Dongola</a> as this wheel lifted water 3 to 8 meters with much less expenditure of labor and time than the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shaduf" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaduf">shaduf</a>, which was the previous chief irrigation device in the kingdom. The shaduf relied on human energy but the saqiyah was driven by buffalos or other animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Mokhtar1981_309_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mokhtar1981_309-101">[101]</a></sup> The people of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerma_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerma culture">Kerma</a>, ancestors to the Kushites, built bronze <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kiln" title="Kiln">kilns</a> through which they manufactured objects of daily use such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Razors" class="mw-redirect" title="Razors">razors</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mirrors" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirrors">mirrors</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tweezers" title="Tweezers">tweezers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBianchi200481_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBianchi200481-102">[102]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Der_gro%C3%9Fe_Hafir_von_Musawwarat_fungiert_jetzt_als_Tr%C3%A4nke_f%C3%BCr_die_Tiere_und_Herden_in_der_Region.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Der_gro%C3%9Fe_Hafir_von_Musawwarat_fungiert_jetzt_als_Tr%C3%A4nke_f%C3%BCr_die_Tiere_und_Herden_in_der_Region.jpg/330px-Der_gro%C3%9Fe_Hafir_von_Musawwarat_fungiert_jetzt_als_Tr%C3%A4nke_f%C3%BCr_die_Tiere_und_Herden_in_der_Region.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Der_gro%C3%9Fe_Hafir_von_Musawwarat_fungiert_jetzt_als_Tr%C3%A4nke_f%C3%BCr_die_Tiere_und_Herden_in_der_Region.jpg/495px-Der_gro%C3%9Fe_Hafir_von_Musawwarat_fungiert_jetzt_als_Tr%C3%A4nke_f%C3%BCr_die_Tiere_und_Herden_in_der_Region.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Der_gro%C3%9Fe_Hafir_von_Musawwarat_fungiert_jetzt_als_Tr%C3%A4nke_f%C3%BCr_die_Tiere_und_Herden_in_der_Region.jpg/660px-Der_gro%C3%9Fe_Hafir_von_Musawwarat_fungiert_jetzt_als_Tr%C3%A4nke_f%C3%BCr_die_Tiere_und_Herden_in_der_Region.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2804" data-file-height="1379" /></a><figcaption>The "Great <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hafir" title="Hafir">Hafir</a>" (reservoir) at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Musawwarat es-Sufra</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The Kushites developed a form of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">reservoir</a>, known as a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hafir" title="Hafir">hafir</a>, during the Meroitic period. Eight hundred ancient and modern hafirs have been registered in the Meroitic town of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Butana" title="Butana">Butana</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hintze1963_222_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hintze1963_222-103">[103]</a></sup>
The functions of hafirs were to catch water during the rainy season for storage, to ensure water is available for several months during the dry season as well as supply drinking water, irrigate fields, and water cattle.<sup id="cite_ref-Hintze1963_222_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hintze1963_222-103">[103]</a></sup> The Great Hafir, or Great Reservoir, near the Lion Temple in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Musawwarat es-Sufra</a> is a notable hafir built by the Kushites.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Great_Hafir_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Great_Hafir-104">[104]</a></sup> It was built to retain the rainfall of the short, wet season. It is 250 m in diameter and 6.3 m deep.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Great_Hafir_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Great_Hafir-104">[104]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hintze1963_222_103-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hintze1963_222-103">[103]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">Bloomeries</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a> could have been used in metalworking at Meroë.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphrisCharltonKeenSauder2018399_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphrisCharltonKeenSauder2018399-105">[105]</a></sup> Early records of bloomery furnaces dated at least to seventh and sixth century BC have been discovered in Kush. The ancient bloomeries that produced metal tools for the Kushites produced a surplus for sale.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphrisCharltonKeenSauder2018399–416_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphrisCharltonKeenSauder2018399–416-108">[108]</a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Nubian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mummies" class="mw-redirect" title="Mummies">mummies</a> studied in the 1990s revealed that Kush was a pioneer of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="History of antibiotics">early antibiotics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tetracycline" title="Tetracycline">Tetracycline</a> was being used by Nubians, based on bone remains between 350 AD and 550 AD. The antibiotic was in wide commercial use only in the mid 20th century. The theory states that earthen jars containing grain used for making beer contained the bacterium <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Streptomyces" title="Streptomyces">streptomyces</a>, which produced tetracycline. Although Nubians were not aware of tetracycline, they could have noticed that people fared better by drinking beer. According to Charlie Bamforth, a professor of biochemistry and brewing science at the University of California, Davis, "They must have consumed it because it was rather tastier than the grain from which it was derived. They would have noticed people fared better by consuming this product than they were just consuming the grain itself."<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Based on engraved plans of Meroitic King <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Amanikhabali&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amanikhabali (page does not exist)">Amanikhabali</a>'s pyramids, Nubians had a sophisticated understanding of mathematics as they appreciated the harmonic ratio. The engraved plans is indicative of much to be revealed about Nubian mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBianchi2004230_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBianchi2004230-111">[111]</a></sup> The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">ancient Nubians</a> also established a system of geometry which they used in creating early versions of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sun_clock" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun clock">sun clocks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup> During the Meroitic period in Nubian history, the Nubians used a trigonometric methodology similar to the Egyptians.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Nubia" title="Military of ancient Nubia">Military of ancient Nubia</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Mero%C3%AB,_the_City_of_the_Ethiopians_-_being_an_account_of_a_first_season%27s_excavations_on_the_site,_1909-1910_(1911)_(14741938026).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Mero%C3%AB%2C_the_City_of_the_Ethiopians_-_being_an_account_of_a_first_season%27s_excavations_on_the_site%2C_1909-1910_%281911%29_%2814741938026%29.jpg/260px-Mero%C3%AB%2C_the_City_of_the_Ethiopians_-_being_an_account_of_a_first_season%27s_excavations_on_the_site%2C_1909-1910_%281911%29_%2814741938026%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Mero%C3%AB%2C_the_City_of_the_Ethiopians_-_being_an_account_of_a_first_season%27s_excavations_on_the_site%2C_1909-1910_%281911%29_%2814741938026%29.jpg/390px-Mero%C3%AB%2C_the_City_of_the_Ethiopians_-_being_an_account_of_a_first_season%27s_excavations_on_the_site%2C_1909-1910_%281911%29_%2814741938026%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Mero%C3%AB%2C_the_City_of_the_Ethiopians_-_being_an_account_of_a_first_season%27s_excavations_on_the_site%2C_1909-1910_%281911%29_%2814741938026%29.jpg/520px-Mero%C3%AB%2C_the_City_of_the_Ethiopians_-_being_an_account_of_a_first_season%27s_excavations_on_the_site%2C_1909-1910_%281911%29_%2814741938026%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2320" data-file-height="1452" /></a><figcaption>Relief of a battle scene on temple <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Temple_M_250&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Temple M 250 (page does not exist)">Meroe 250</a> (also known as "Sun Temple"), 1st century AD</figcaption></figure>
<p>During the siege of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hermopolis" title="Hermopolis">Hermopolis</a> in the eighth century BC, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siege_towers" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege towers">siege towers</a> were built for the Kushite army led by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a>, in order to enhance the efficiency of Kushite archers and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sling_(weapon)" title="Sling (weapon)">slingers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Siege_Warfare_in_Ancient_Egypt_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siege_Warfare_in_Ancient_Egypt-115">[115]</a></sup>
After leaving Thebes, Piye's first objective was besieging <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ashmunein" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashmunein">Ashmunein</a>. Following his army's lack of success he undertook the personal supervision of operations including the erection of a siege tower from which Kushite archers could fire down into the city.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup>
Early shelters protecting <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sapper" title="Sapper">sappers</a> armed with poles trying to breach mud-brick ramparts gave way to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Battering_rams" class="mw-redirect" title="Battering rams">battering rams</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Siege_Warfare_in_Ancient_Egypt_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siege_Warfare_in_Ancient_Egypt-115">[115]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Archery" title="Archery">Bowmen</a> were the most important force components in the Kushite military.<sup id="cite_ref-Jim_Hamm_2000._pp._138-152_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jim_Hamm_2000._pp._138-152-117">[117]</a></sup> Ancient sources<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (October 2021)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (October 2021)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> indicate that Kushite archers favored one-piece bows that were between six and seven feet long, with a draw strength so powerful that many of the archers used their feet to bend their bows. However, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Composite_bows" class="mw-redirect" title="Composite bows">composite bows</a> were also used in their arsenal.<sup id="cite_ref-Jim_Hamm_2000._pp._138-152_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jim_Hamm_2000._pp._138-152-117">[117]</a></sup> Greek historian <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> indicated that primary bow construction was of seasoned palm wood, with arrows made of cane.<sup id="cite_ref-Jim_Hamm_2000._pp._138-152_117-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jim_Hamm_2000._pp._138-152-117">[117]</a></sup> Kushite arrows were often <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poison_arrows" class="mw-redirect" title="Poison arrows">poisoned-tipped</a>.
</p><p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/War_Elephants" class="mw-redirect" title="War Elephants">Elephants</a> were occasionally used in warfare during the Meroitic period, as seen in the war against Rome around 20 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Rome's_Enemies_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rome's_Enemies-118">[118]</a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_30sep2005_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_30sep2005_2.jpg/310px-Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_30sep2005_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_30sep2005_2.jpg/465px-Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_30sep2005_2.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_30sep2005_2.jpg/620px-Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_30sep2005_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1161" data-file-height="679" /></a><figcaption>The pyramids of Meroe – <a href="/enwiki/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> World Heritage.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubian_pyramids" title="Nubian pyramids">Nubian pyramids</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Temple_Amon_Napata_elevation_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Temple_Amon_Napata_elevation_2.jpg/260px-Temple_Amon_Napata_elevation_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Temple_Amon_Napata_elevation_2.jpg/390px-Temple_Amon_Napata_elevation_2.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Temple_Amon_Napata_elevation_2.jpg/520px-Temple_Amon_Napata_elevation_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="723" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Temple_of_Amun,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal">Amun temple</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jebel_Barkal" title="Jebel Barkal">Jebel Barkal</a>, originally built during the Egyptian New Kingdom but greatly enhanced by Piye</figcaption></figure>
<p>During the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubian</a> ancestors of the Kingdom of Kush built speoi (a speos is a temple or tomb cut into a rock face) between 3700 and 3250 BC. This greatly influenced the architecture of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBianchi2004227_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBianchi2004227-120">[120]</a></sup>
Tomb monuments were one of the more recognizable expressions of Kushite architecture. Uniquely Kushite tomb monuments were found from the beginning of the empire, at el Kurru, to the decline of the kingdom. These monuments developed organically from Middle Nile (e.g. A-group) burial types. Tombs became progressively larger during the 25th dynasty, culminating in Taharqa's underground rectangular building with "aisles of square piers...the whole being cut from the living rock."<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 103">: 103 </span></sup> Kushites also created pyramids,<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></sup> mud-brick temples (deffufa), and masonry temples.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup> Kushites borrowed much from Egypt, as it relates to temple design. Kushite temples were quite diverse in their plans, except for the Amun temples which all have the same basic plan. The Jebel Barkal and Meroe Amun temples are exceptions with the 150 m long Jebel Barkal being "by far the largest 'Egyptian' temple ever built in Nubia."<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 118">: 118 </span></sup> Temples for major Egyptian deities were built on "a system of internal harmonic proportions" based on "one or more rectangles each with sides in the ratio of 8:5"<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 133">: 133 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup> Kush also invented <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubian_vault" title="Nubian vault">Nubian vaults</a>.
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Naqa_Apedamak_temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Naqa_Apedamak_temple.jpg/260px-Naqa_Apedamak_temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Naqa_Apedamak_temple.jpg/390px-Naqa_Apedamak_temple.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Naqa_Apedamak_temple.jpg/520px-Naqa_Apedamak_temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2788" data-file-height="1636" /></a><figcaption>The so-called "Roman kiosk" (right) and temple of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apedemak" title="Apedemak">Apedemak</a> (left), <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Naqa" title="Naqa">Naqa</a> (1st century AD)</figcaption></figure>
<p>Piye is thought to have constructed the first true pyramid at el Kurru. Pyramids are "the archetypal tomb monument of the Kushite royal family" and found at "el Kurru, Nuri, Jebel Barkal, and Meroe."<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 105">: 105 </span></sup> The Kushite pyramids are smaller with steeper sides than northern Egyptian pyramids. The Kushites are thought to have copied the pyramids of New Kingdom elites, as opposed to Old and Middle Kingdom pharaohs.<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby_51-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby-51">[51]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 105–106">: 105–106 </span></sup> Kushite housing consisted mostly of circular timber huts with some apartment houses with several two-room apartments. The apartment houses likely accommodated extended families.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>The Kushites built a stone-paved road at Jebel Barkal, are thought to have built piers/harbors on the Nile river, and many wells.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Taharqa_%26_Shabaka_papyrus,_Thebes.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Taharqa_%26_Shabaka_papyrus%2C_Thebes.jpeg/220px-Taharqa_%26_Shabaka_papyrus%2C_Thebes.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Taharqa_%26_Shabaka_papyrus%2C_Thebes.jpeg/330px-Taharqa_%26_Shabaka_papyrus%2C_Thebes.jpeg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Taharqa_%26_Shabaka_papyrus%2C_Thebes.jpeg/440px-Taharqa_%26_Shabaka_papyrus%2C_Thebes.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="4854" data-file-height="2801" /></a><figcaption><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a> papyrus written during the reigns of Taharqa and Shabaqa discussing financial matters, Thebes</figcaption></figure>
<p>Some scholars<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (December 2013)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> believe the economy in the Kingdom of Kush was a redistributive system. The state would collect taxes in the form of surplus produce and would redistribute it to the people. Others believe that most of the society worked on the land and required nothing from the state and did not contribute to the state. Northern Kush seems to have been more productive and wealthier than the Southern area.<sup id="cite_ref-Welsby,_Derek_A_1996_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsby,_Derek_A_1996-127">[127]</a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kush_and_Egyptology">Kush and Egyptology</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>On account of the Kingdom of Kush's proximity to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> – the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_cataract" class="mw-redirect" title="First cataract">first cataract</a> at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a> usually being considered the traditional border between the two <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polities</a> – and because the 25th dynasty ruled over both states in the eighth century BC, from the Rift Valley to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taurus_mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Taurus mountains">Taurus mountains</a>, historians have closely associated the study of Kush with Egyptology, in keeping with the general assumption that the complex sociopolitical development of Egypt's neighbors can be understood in terms of Egyptian models.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> As a result, the political structure and organization of Kush as an independent ancient state has not received as thorough attention from scholars, and there remains much ambiguity especially surrounding the earliest periods of the state.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Edwards has suggested that the study of the region could benefit from increased recognition of Kush as a state in its own right, with distinct cultural conditions, rather than merely as a secondary state on the periphery of Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-edwards_1998_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-edwards_1998-128">[128]</a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 255px; height: 280px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Taharqo,_Black_Pharaohs_Cache_(Dukki_Gel_)_,_Kerma_Museum,Sudan_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait of Taharqa, Kerma Museum"><img alt="Portrait of Taharqa, Kerma Museum" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Taharqo%2C_Black_Pharaohs_Cache_%28Dukki_Gel_%29_%2C_Kerma_Museum%2CSudan_%282%29.jpg/195px-Taharqo%2C_Black_Pharaohs_Cache_%28Dukki_Gel_%29_%2C_Kerma_Museum%2CSudan_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="195" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Taharqo%2C_Black_Pharaohs_Cache_%28Dukki_Gel_%29_%2C_Kerma_Museum%2CSudan_%282%29.jpg/293px-Taharqo%2C_Black_Pharaohs_Cache_%28Dukki_Gel_%29_%2C_Kerma_Museum%2CSudan_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Taharqo%2C_Black_Pharaohs_Cache_%28Dukki_Gel_%29_%2C_Kerma_Museum%2CSudan_%282%29.jpg/390px-Taharqo%2C_Black_Pharaohs_Cache_%28Dukki_Gel_%29_%2C_Kerma_Museum%2CSudan_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3844" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Portrait of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerma_Museum" title="Kerma Museum">Kerma Museum</a></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 260px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 255px; height: 280px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:The_Archer_King,_National_Museum_of_Sudan,_Khartoum,_Sudan,_North-East_Africa_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The "Archer King", an unknown king of Meroe, 3rd century BC. National Museum of Sudan."><img alt="The "Archer King", an unknown king of Meroe, 3rd century BC. National Museum of Sudan." src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/The_Archer_King%2C_National_Museum_of_Sudan%2C_Khartoum%2C_Sudan%2C_North-East_Africa_%28cropped%29.jpg/105px-The_Archer_King%2C_National_Museum_of_Sudan%2C_Khartoum%2C_Sudan%2C_North-East_Africa_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/The_Archer_King%2C_National_Museum_of_Sudan%2C_Khartoum%2C_Sudan%2C_North-East_Africa_%28cropped%29.jpg/158px-The_Archer_King%2C_National_Museum_of_Sudan%2C_Khartoum%2C_Sudan%2C_North-East_Africa_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/The_Archer_King%2C_National_Museum_of_Sudan%2C_Khartoum%2C_Sudan%2C_North-East_Africa_%28cropped%29.jpg/211px-The_Archer_King%2C_National_Museum_of_Sudan%2C_Khartoum%2C_Sudan%2C_North-East_Africa_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1472" data-file-height="3481" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The "Archer King", an unknown king of Meroe, 3rd century BC. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Museum_of_Sudan" title="National Museum of Sudan">National Museum of Sudan</a>.</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 260px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 255px; height: 280px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Shrine_of_the_25th_dynasty_pharaoh_and_Kushite_King_Taharqa_Egypt_7th_century_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Taharqa's shrine, Ashmolean museum in Oxford, UK"><img alt="Taharqa's shrine, Ashmolean museum in Oxford, UK" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Shrine_of_the_25th_dynasty_pharaoh_and_Kushite_King_Taharqa_Egypt_7th_century_BCE.jpg/225px-Shrine_of_the_25th_dynasty_pharaoh_and_Kushite_King_Taharqa_Egypt_7th_century_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Shrine_of_the_25th_dynasty_pharaoh_and_Kushite_King_Taharqa_Egypt_7th_century_BCE.jpg/338px-Shrine_of_the_25th_dynasty_pharaoh_and_Kushite_King_Taharqa_Egypt_7th_century_BCE.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Shrine_of_the_25th_dynasty_pharaoh_and_Kushite_King_Taharqa_Egypt_7th_century_BCE.jpg/450px-Shrine_of_the_25th_dynasty_pharaoh_and_Kushite_King_Taharqa_Egypt_7th_century_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Taharqa's shrine, Ashmolean museum in Oxford, UK</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 260px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 255px; height: 280px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Taharqa%27s_kiosk._Karnak_Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Taharqa's kiosk, Karnak Temple"><img alt="Taharqa's kiosk, Karnak Temple" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Taharqa%27s_kiosk._Karnak_Temple.jpg/225px-Taharqa%27s_kiosk._Karnak_Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Taharqa%27s_kiosk._Karnak_Temple.jpg/338px-Taharqa%27s_kiosk._Karnak_Temple.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Taharqa%27s_kiosk._Karnak_Temple.jpg/450px-Taharqa%27s_kiosk._Karnak_Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a>'s kiosk, Karnak Temple</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 260px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 255px; height: 280px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Pharaoh_Taharqa_of_Ancient_Egypt%27s_25th_Dynasty.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pharaoh Taharqa of Ancient Egypt's 25th Dynasty. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford UK"><img alt="Pharaoh Taharqa of Ancient Egypt's 25th Dynasty. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford UK" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Pharaoh_Taharqa_of_Ancient_Egypt%27s_25th_Dynasty.jpg/166px-Pharaoh_Taharqa_of_Ancient_Egypt%27s_25th_Dynasty.jpg" decoding="async" width="166" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Pharaoh_Taharqa_of_Ancient_Egypt%27s_25th_Dynasty.jpg/250px-Pharaoh_Taharqa_of_Ancient_Egypt%27s_25th_Dynasty.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Pharaoh_Taharqa_of_Ancient_Egypt%27s_25th_Dynasty.jpg/333px-Pharaoh_Taharqa_of_Ancient_Egypt%27s_25th_Dynasty.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Pharaoh Taharqa of Ancient Egypt's 25th Dynasty. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford UK</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 260px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 255px; height: 280px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Vaso_con_decoraci%C3%B3n_de_rostros_de_demonios._%C3%89poca_mero%C3%ADtica.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Meroitic pottery, Nelluah (Egyptian Nubia)"><img alt="Meroitic pottery, Nelluah (Egyptian Nubia)" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Vaso_con_decoraci%C3%B3n_de_rostros_de_demonios._%C3%89poca_mero%C3%ADtica.jpg/225px-Vaso_con_decoraci%C3%B3n_de_rostros_de_demonios._%C3%89poca_mero%C3%ADtica.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Vaso_con_decoraci%C3%B3n_de_rostros_de_demonios._%C3%89poca_mero%C3%ADtica.jpg/338px-Vaso_con_decoraci%C3%B3n_de_rostros_de_demonios._%C3%89poca_mero%C3%ADtica.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Vaso_con_decoraci%C3%B3n_de_rostros_de_demonios._%C3%89poca_mero%C3%ADtica.jpg/450px-Vaso_con_decoraci%C3%B3n_de_rostros_de_demonios._%C3%89poca_mero%C3%ADtica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3738" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Meroitic pottery, Nelluah (Egyptian Nubia)</div>
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</ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kush&action=edit&section=22"title="Edit section: See also"
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<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aethiopia" title="Aethiopia">Aethiopia</a> is an ancient Greek geographical term which referred to the regions of Sudan and areas south of the Sahara desert.</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Kush" title="List of monarchs of Kush">List of monarchs of Kush</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merowe_Dam" title="Merowe Dam">Merowe Dam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubiology" title="Nubiology">Nubiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt_family_tree" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree">Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
<a role="button"
href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kush&action=edit&section=23"title="Edit section: References"
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217336898">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997p._2_(1997_ed.)-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997p._2_(1997_ed.)_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök1997">Török 1997</a>, p. 2 (1997 ed.).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKuckertz2021" class="citation journal cs1">Kuckertz, Josefine (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6061m848">"Meroe and Egypt"</a>. <i>UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology</i>: 22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=UCLA+Encyclopedia+of+Egyptology&rft.atitle=Meroe+and+Egypt&rft.pages=22&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Kuckertz&rft.aufirst=Josefine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F6061m848&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190702180435/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/2019/07/dive-ancient-pyramid-nuri-sudan/">"Dive beneath the pyramids of Sudan's black pharaohs"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i>. 2 July 2019. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/2019/07/dive-ancient-pyramid-nuri-sudan/">the original</a> on July 2, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Dive+beneath+the+pyramids+of+Sudan%27s+black+pharaohs&rft.date=2019-07-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fculture%2F2019%2F07%2Fdive-ancient-pyramid-nuri-sudan%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidi54rPFeGKewCq22KingdomofKush22languagepgPA49_p._49_(1997_ed.)]-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidi54rPFeGKewCq22KingdomofKush22languagepgPA49_p._49_(1997_ed.)]_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök1997">Török 1997</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i54rPFeGKewC&q=%22Kingdom+of+Kush%22+language&pg=PA49">p. 49 (1997 ed.)</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRilly2019" class="citation book cs1">Rilly, Claude (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mXWcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA134">"Languages of Ancient Nubia"</a>. In Raue, Dietrich (ed.). <i>Handbook of Ancient Nubia</i>. De Gruyter. pp. 133–4. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-041669-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-041669-5"><bdi>978-3-11-041669-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-11-20</span></span>. <q>The Blemmyan language is so close to modern Beja that it is probably nothing else than an early dialect of the same language.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Languages+of+Ancient+Nubia&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Ancient+Nubia&rft.pages=133-4&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-3-11-041669-5&rft.aulast=Rilly&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmXWcDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/kushite-religion">"Kushite Religion"</a>. <i>encyclopedia.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Kushite+Religion&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fenvironment%2Fencyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps%2Fkushite-religion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Stearns-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stearns_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stearns_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFStearns2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peter_Stearns" title="Peter Stearns">Stearns, Peter N.</a>, ed. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MziRd4ddZz4C&pg=PA32">"(II.B.4.) East Africa, c. 2000–332 B.C.E."</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_World_History" title="Encyclopedia of World History"><i>The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged</i></a> (6th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 32. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-65237-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-65237-4"><bdi>978-0-395-65237-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%28II.B.4.%29+East+Africa%2C+c.+2000%E2%80%93332+B.C.E.&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+World+History%3A+Ancient%2C+Medieval%2C+and+Modern%2C+Chronologically+Arranged&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=32&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-395-65237-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMziRd4ddZz4C%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:1-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200505060417/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/kingdoms-kush/">"The Kingdoms of Kush"</a>. <i>National Geographic Society</i>. 2018-07-20. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/kingdoms-kush/">the original</a> on 2020-05-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+Society&rft.atitle=The+Kingdoms+of+Kush&rft.date=2018-07-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.org%2Fmedia%2Fkingdoms-kush%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alberge, Dalya. "Tomb reveals Ancient Egypt's humiliating secret". <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></i>. London.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997144–6-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997144–6_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök1997">Török 1997</a>, pp. 144–6.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Derek Welsby (2014): "The Kingdom of Alwa" in "The Fourth Cataract and Beyond". Peeters.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFIsma'il_KushkushMatt_Stirn" class="citation news cs1">Isma'il Kushkush; Matt Stirn. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/">"Why Sudan's Remarkable Ancient Civilization Has Been Overlooked by History"</a>. <i>Smithsonian Magazine</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=Why+Sudan%27s+Remarkable+Ancient+Civilization+Has+Been+Overlooked+by+History&rft.au=Isma%27il+Kushkush&rft.au=Matt+Stirn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Ftravel%2Fsudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGoldenberg2005" class="citation book cs1">Goldenberg, David M. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iTyJ3HiNOAsC&pg=PA144"><i>The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam</i></a> (New ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 17. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12370-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12370-7"><bdi>978-0-691-12370-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Curse+of+Ham%3A+Race+and+Slavery+in+Early+Judaism%2C+Christianity%2C+and+Islam&rft.pages=17&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-691-12370-7&rft.aulast=Goldenberg&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiTyJ3HiNOAsC%26pg%3DPA144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSpalinger1974" class="citation journal cs1">Spalinger, Anthony (1974). "Esarhaddon and Egypt: An Analysis of the First Invasion of Egypt". <i>Orientalia</i>. Nova Series. <b>43</b>: 295–326, XI.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Orientalia&rft.atitle=Esarhaddon+and+Egypt%3A+An+Analysis+of+the+First+Invasion+of+Egypt&rft.volume=43&rft.pages=295-326%2C+XI&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Spalinger&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2013" class="citation book cs1">Allen, James P. (2013-07-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gd6aAAAAQBAJ&q=ancient+egyptian+allen"><i>The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 53. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03246-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03246-0"><bdi>978-1-107-03246-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-04-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Egyptian+Language%3A+An+Historical+Study&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013-07-11&rft.isbn=978-1-107-03246-0&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=James+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGd6aAAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dancient%2Begyptian%2Ballen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök1997">Török 1997</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Van_2011-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Van_2011_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van, de M. M. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. Print.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-kingjamesbibleonline.org-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kingjamesbibleonline.org_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Genesis-10-10/">"GENESIS 10:10 KJV "And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>www.kingjamesbibleonline.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.kingjamesbibleonline.org&rft.atitle=GENESIS+10%3A10+KJV+%22And+the+beginning+of+his+kingdom+was+Babel%2C+and+Erech%2C+and+Accad%2C+and+Calneh%2C+in+the+land+of+Shinar.%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kingjamesbibleonline.org%2FGenesis-10-10%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Psalms-Chapter-7/">"PSALMS CHAPTER 7 KJV"</a>. <i>www.kingjamesbibleonline.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.kingjamesbibleonline.org&rft.atitle=PSALMS+CHAPTER+7+KJV&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kingjamesbibleonline.org%2FPsalms-Chapter-7%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997p._69_ff_(1997_ed.)-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997p._69_ff_(1997_ed.)_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök1997">Török 1997</a>, p. 69 ff (1997 ed.).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHafsaas-Tsakos2009" class="citation journal cs1">Hafsaas-Tsakos, Henriette (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2380609">"The Kingdom of Kush: An African Centre on the Periphery of the Bronze Age World System"</a>. <i>Norwegian Archaeological Review</i>. <b>42</b> (1): 50–70. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00293650902978590">10.1080/00293650902978590</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154430884">154430884</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Norwegian+Archaeological+Review&rft.atitle=The+Kingdom+of+Kush%3A+An+African+Centre+on+the+Periphery+of+the+Bronze+Age+World+System&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=50-70&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00293650902978590&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154430884%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hafsaas-Tsakos&rft.aufirst=Henriette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2380609&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia</i>, Richard A. Lobban Jr., p. 254.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">De Mola, Paul J. "Interrelations of Kerma and Pharaonic Egypt". Ancient History Encyclopedia: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/487/">https://www.worldhistory.org/article/487/</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130602094858/http://jebelbarkal.org/">"Jebal Barkal: History and Archaeology of Ancient Napata"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jebelbarkal.org/">the original</a> on 2 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jebal+Barkal%3A+History+and+Archaeology+of+Ancient+Napata&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jebelbarkal.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2016" class="citation book cs1">Wilkinson, Toby (2016). <i>Writings from Ancient Egypt</i>. United Kingdom: Penguin Classics. p. 19. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-139595-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-139595-1"><bdi>978-0-14-139595-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writings+from+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-14-139595-1&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Toby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Flavius Josephus. 'Antiquities of the Jews'. Whiston 2-10-2.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams2020413–414-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2020413–414_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams2020">Williams 2020</a>, pp. 413–414.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morkot, Robert G. "On the Priestly Origin of the Napatan Kings: The Adaptation, Demise, and Resurrection of Ideas in Writing Nubian History" in O'Connor, David and Andrew Reid, eds. <i>Ancient Egypt in Africa (Encounters with Ancient Egypt) (University College London Institute of Archaeology Publications)</i> Left Coast Press (1 Aug 2003) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59874-205-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59874-205-3">978-1-59874-205-3</a> p.151</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023110-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023110_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023110_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023110_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEmberling2023">Emberling 2023</a>, p. 110.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997123-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997123_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök1997">Török 1997</a>, p. 123.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997123–125-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997123–125_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök1997">Török 1997</a>, pp. 123–125.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall199945-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKendall199945_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKendall1999">Kendall 1999</a>, p. 45.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997126-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997126_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök1997">Török 1997</a>, p. 126.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw (2002) p. 345</span>
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<li id="cite_note-David-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-David_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_35-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2004" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, David (2004). <i>The Nubian Past</i>. Oxon: Routledge. pp. 2, 75, 77–78. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-36988-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-36988-6"><bdi>978-0-415-36988-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nubian+Past&rft.place=Oxon&rft.pages=2%2C+75%2C+77-78&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-415-36988-6&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDucommunElshazly2009" class="citation web cs1">Ducommun, Janine A.; Elshazly, Hesham (April 15, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3714044">"Kerma and the royal cache"</a> – via Academia.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kerma+and+the+royal+cache&rft.date=2009-04-15&rft.aulast=Ducommun&rft.aufirst=Janine+A.&rft.au=Elshazly%2C+Hesham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3714044&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Kendall,_T.K._2002-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kendall,_T.K._2002_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kendall,_T.K._2002_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kendall, T.K., 2002. Napatan Temples: a Case Study from Gebel Barkal. The Mythological Nubian Origin of Egyptian Kingship and the Formation of the Napatan State. Tenth International Conference of Nubian Studies. Rome, September 9–14, 2002.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997132–3,_153–84-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997132–3,_153–84_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök1997">Török 1997</a>, pp. 132–3, 153–84.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Aubin-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Aubin_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAubin2002" class="citation book cs1">Aubin, Henry T. (2002). <i>The Rescue of Jerusalem</i>. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 141–144. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56947-275-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-56947-275-0"><bdi>1-56947-275-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rescue+of+Jerusalem&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=x%2C+141-144&rft.pub=Soho+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-56947-275-0&rft.aulast=Aubin&rft.aufirst=Henry+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAubin2002" class="citation book cs1">Aubin, Henry T. (2002). <i>The Rescue of Jerusalem</i>. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 127, 129–130, 139–152. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56947-275-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-56947-275-0"><bdi>1-56947-275-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rescue+of+Jerusalem&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=x%2C+127%2C+129-130%2C+139-152&rft.pub=Soho+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-56947-275-0&rft.aulast=Aubin&rft.aufirst=Henry+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAubin2002" class="citation book cs1">Aubin, Henry T. (2002). <i>The Rescue of Jerusalem</i>. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 119. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56947-275-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-56947-275-0"><bdi>1-56947-275-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rescue+of+Jerusalem&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=x%2C+119&rft.pub=Soho+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-56947-275-0&rft.aulast=Aubin&rft.aufirst=Henry+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997170-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997170_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök1997">Török 1997</a>, p. 170.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDiop1974" class="citation book cs1">Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). <i>The African Origin of Civilization</i>. Chicago, Illinois: Lawrence Hill Books. pp. 219–221. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55652-072-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-55652-072-7"><bdi>1-55652-072-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+African+Origin+of+Civilization&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=219-221&rft.pub=Lawrence+Hill+Books&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=1-55652-072-7&rft.aulast=Diop&rft.aufirst=Cheikh+Anta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBonnet2006" class="citation book cs1">Bonnet, Charles (2006). <i>The Nubian Pharaohs</i>. New York: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 142–154. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-416-010-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-977-416-010-3"><bdi>978-977-416-010-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nubian+Pharaohs&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=142-154&rft.pub=The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-977-416-010-3&rft.aulast=Bonnet&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDigital_Collections,_The_New_York_Public_Library" class="citation web cs1">Digital Collections, The New York Public Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5ab7-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99">"(still image) Aethiopen. Barkal [Jebel Barkal]. Nördliche Pyramidengruppe. Pyr. 15: a. Nordwand; b. Westwand., (1849–1856)"</a>. The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 20,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%28still+image%29+Aethiopen.+Barkal+%5BJebel+Barkal%5D.+N%C3%B6rdliche+Pyramidengruppe.+Pyr.+15%3A+a.+Nordwand%3B+b.+Westwand.%2C+%281849%E2%80%931856%29&rft.pub=The+New+York+Public+Library%2C+Astor%2C+Lenox%2C+and+Tilden+Foundations&rft.au=Digital+Collections%2C+The+New+York+Public+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcollections.nypl.org%2Fitems%2F510d47d9-5ab7-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Mokhtar1990-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mokhtar1990_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMokhtar1990" class="citation book cs1">Mokhtar, G. (1990). <i>General History of Africa</i>. California, USA: University of California Press. pp. 161–163. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-06697-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-06697-9"><bdi>0-520-06697-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+History+of+Africa&rft.place=California%2C+USA&rft.pages=161-163&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-520-06697-9&rft.aulast=Mokhtar&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Emberling2011-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Emberling2011_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEmberling2011" class="citation book cs1">Emberling, Geoff (2011). <i>Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa</i>. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. pp. 9–11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nubia%3A+Ancient+Kingdoms+of+Africa&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=9-11&rft.pub=Institute+for+the+Study+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Emberling&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Silverman1997-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Silverman1997_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSilverman1997" class="citation book cs1">Silverman, David (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientegypt00davi_0/page/36"><i>Ancient Egypt</i></a></span>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientegypt00davi_0/page/36">36–37</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-521270-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-521270-3"><bdi>0-19-521270-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=36-37&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-19-521270-3&rft.aulast=Silverman&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientegypt00davi_0%2Fpage%2F36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/nubia/mwriting.html">"Meroitic script"</a>. <i>www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Meroitic+script&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Fnubia%2Fmwriting.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Török98_185-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Török98_185_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Török98_185_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Török98_185_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Török98_185_50-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök1997">Török 1997</a>, p. 185</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Welsby-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welsby_51-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWelsby1996">Welsby 1996</a>, pp. 64–65</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Georges Roux – Ancient Iraq pp. 330–332</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDigital_Collections,_The_New_York_Public_Library" class="citation web cs1">Digital Collections, The New York Public Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5aa9-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99">"(still image) Aethiopen. Dynastie XXV, 3. Barkal [Jebel Barkal]. Grosser Felsentempel, Ostwand der Vorhalle., (1849–1856)"</a>. The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 20,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%28still+image%29+Aethiopen.+Dynastie+XXV%2C+3.+Barkal+%5BJebel+Barkal%5D.+Grosser+Felsentempel%2C+Ostwand+der+Vorhalle.%2C+%281849%E2%80%931856%29&rft.pub=The+New+York+Public+Library%2C+Astor%2C+Lenox%2C+and+Tilden+Foundations&rft.au=Digital+Collections%2C+The+New+York+Public+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcollections.nypl.org%2Fitems%2F510d47d9-5aa9-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDandamaev1989" class="citation book cs1">Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ms30qA6nyMsC&pg=PA80"><i>A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire</i></a>. BRILL. pp. 80–81. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004091726" title="Special:BookSources/9004091726"><bdi>9004091726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Political+History+of+the+Achaemenid+Empire&rft.pages=80-81&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9004091726&rft.aulast=Dandamaev&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dms30qA6nyMsC%26pg%3DPA80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-DS-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DS_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DS_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSircar1971" class="citation book cs1">Sircar, Dineschandra (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AqKw1Mn8WcwC&pg=PA25"><i>Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 25. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120806900" title="Special:BookSources/9788120806900"><bdi>9788120806900</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+the+Geography+of+Ancient+and+Medieval+India&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=9788120806900&rft.aulast=Sircar&rft.aufirst=Dineschandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAqKw1Mn8WcwC%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/sources/content/achaemenid-royal-inscriptions/dna/?">Line 30 of the DNa inscription</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023140–141-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023140–141_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEmberling2023">Emberling 2023</a>, pp. 140–141.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök1997394-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök1997394_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök1997">Török 1997</a>, p. 394.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023141–143-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmberling2023141–143_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEmberling2023">Emberling 2023</a>, pp. 141–143.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Ohaegbulam1990-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ohaegbulam1990_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFestus_Ugboaja_Ohaegbulam1990" class="citation book cs1">Festus Ugboaja Ohaegbulam (1 October 1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/towardsunderstan00ohae"><i>Towards an understanding of the African experience from historical and contemporary perspectives</i></a></span>. University Press of America. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/towardsunderstan00ohae/page/66">66</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8191-7941-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8191-7941-8"><bdi>978-0-8191-7941-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Towards+an+understanding+of+the+African+experience+from+historical+and+contemporary+perspectives&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1990-10-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8191-7941-8&rft.au=Festus+Ugboaja+Ohaegbulam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftowardsunderstan00ohae&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Martin-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Martin_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Martin_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMeredith2014" class="citation book cs1">Meredith, Martin (2014). <i>The Fortunes of Africa</i>. New York: Public Affairs. pp. 43–44. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61039-635-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61039-635-6"><bdi>978-1-61039-635-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fortunes+of+Africa&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=43-44&rft.pub=Public+Affairs&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-61039-635-6&rft.aulast=Meredith&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFShillington2012" class="citation book cs1">Shillington, Kevin (2012). <i>History of Africa</i>. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 50–51. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-30847-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-30847-3"><bdi>978-0-230-30847-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Africa&rft.place=London&rft.pages=50-51&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-230-30847-3&rft.aulast=Shillington&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fage, J. D.: Roland Anthony Oliver (1979) <i>The Cambridge History of Africa</i>, Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-21592-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-21592-7">0-521-21592-7</a> p. 228 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hb8YXTINiDMC&dq=Ergamenes+is+Arqamani&pg=PA228">[1]</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edwards, page 141</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-afraf.oxfordjournals.org-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-afraf.oxfordjournals.org_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-afraf.oxfordjournals.org_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080910215200/http://afraf.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/XXVIII/CIX/55.pdf">Arthur E. Robinson, "The Arab Dynasty of Dar For (Darfur): Part II", <i>Journal of the Royal African Society</i> (Lond). XXVIII: 55–67 (October, 1928)</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-jackson2002-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jackson2002_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jackson2002_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jackson2002_66-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJackson,_Robert_B.2002" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Robert B. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pkBctdZcn84C"><i>At Empire's Edge: Exploring Rome's Egyptian Frontier</i></a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-08856-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-08856-6"><bdi>0-300-08856-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=At+Empire%27s+Edge%3A+Exploring+Rome%27s+Egyptian+Frontier&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-300-08856-6&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Robert+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpkBctdZcn84C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page90.shtml">"BBC World Service – The Story of Africa"</a>. <i>www.bbc.co.uk</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bbc.co.uk&rft.atitle=BBC+World+Service+%E2%80%93+The+Story+of+Africa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fworldservice%2Fspecials%2F1624_story_of_africa%2Fpage90.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201367-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201367_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatke2013">Hatke 2013</a>, p. 67.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201371–75-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201371–75_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatke2013">Hatke 2013</a>, pp. 71–75.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201372–73-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201372–73_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatke2013">Hatke 2013</a>, pp. 72–73.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201374–75-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201374–75_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatke2013">Hatke 2013</a>, pp. 74–75.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201367,_76–77,_94-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201367,_76–77,_94_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatke2013">Hatke 2013</a>, pp. 67, 76–77, 94.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201369–71-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201369–71_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatke2013">Hatke 2013</a>, pp. 69–71.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201394-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201394_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatke2013">Hatke 2013</a>, p. 94.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke2013116-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke2013116_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatke2013">Hatke 2013</a>, p. 116.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke2013145-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke2013145_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatke2013">Hatke 2013</a>, p. 145.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke201379-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke201379_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatke2013">Hatke 2013</a>, p. 79.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERilly2008215–217-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERilly2008215–217_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRilly2008">Rilly 2008</a>, pp. 215–217.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke2013114-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke2013114_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatke2013">Hatke 2013</a>, p. 114.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke2013104-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke2013104_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatke2013">Hatke 2013</a>, p. 104.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatke2013121-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatke2013121_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatke2013">Hatke 2013</a>, p. 121.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2011503–508-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2011503–508_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdwards2011">Edwards 2011</a>, pp. 503–508.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERilly2019138-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERilly2019138_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERilly2019138_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRilly2019">Rilly 2019</a>, p. 138.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESakamoto2022369–370-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESakamoto2022369–370_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSakamoto2022">Sakamoto 2022</a>, pp. 369–370.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök2009517-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök2009517_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök2009">Török 2009</a>, p. 517.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEel-Tayeb2020772–773-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEel-Tayeb2020772–773_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFel-Tayeb2020">el-Tayeb 2020</a>, pp. 772–773.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2019947-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2019947_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdwards2019">Edwards 2019</a>, p. 947.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2019950-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2019950_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdwards2019">Edwards 2019</a>, p. 950.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök2009520–521-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök2009520–521_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök2009">Török 2009</a>, pp. 520–521.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök2009524–525-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök2009524–525_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök2009">Török 2009</a>, pp. 524–525.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök2009527–528-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök2009527–528_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök2009">Török 2009</a>, pp. 527–528.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETörök2009537–538-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETörök2009537–538_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTörök2009">Török 2009</a>, pp. 537–538.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2013791-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2013791_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdwards2013">Edwards 2013</a>, p. 791.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rowan, Kirsty (2011). "Meroitic Consonant and Vowel Patterning". <i>Lingua Aegytia</i>, 19.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rowan, Kirsty (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soas.ac.uk/linguistics/research/workingpapers/volume-14/file37822.pdf">"Meroitic – An Afroasiatic Language?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151227133051/http://www.soas.ac.uk/linguistics/research/workingpapers/volume-14/file37822.pdf">Archived</a> 2015-12-27 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i><abbr title="School of Oriental and African Studies">SOAS</abbr> Working Papers in Linguistics</i> 14:169–206.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRilly,_Claudede_Voogt,_Alex2012" class="citation book cs1">Rilly, Claude; de Voogt, Alex (2012). <i>The Meroitic Language and Writing System</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00866-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00866-3"><bdi>978-1-107-00866-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Meroitic+Language+and+Writing+System&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-107-00866-3&rft.au=Rilly%2C+Claude&rft.au=de+Voogt%2C+Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRilly,_Claude2004" class="citation journal cs1">Rilly, Claude (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923213222/http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/projets/clhass/PageWeb/ressources/Isolats/Meroitic%20Rilly%202004.pdf">"The Linguistic Position of Meroitic"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Sudan Electronic Journal of Archaeology and Anthropology</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/projets/clhass/PageWeb/ressources/Isolats/Meroitic%20Rilly%202004.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2015-09-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-11-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sudan+Electronic+Journal+of+Archaeology+and+Anthropology&rft.atitle=The+Linguistic+Position+of+Meroitic&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Rilly%2C+Claude&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr%2Fprojets%2Fclhass%2FPageWeb%2Fressources%2FIsolats%2FMeroitic%2520Rilly%25202004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRilly2016" class="citation book cs1">Rilly, Claude (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3128r3sw">"Meroitic"</a>. In Stauder-Porchet, Julie; Stauder, Andréas; Willeke, Wendrich (eds.). <i>UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology</i>. Los Angeles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">UCLA</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Meroitic&rft.btitle=UCLA+Encyclopedia+of+Egyptology&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=UCLA&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Rilly&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F3128r3sw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Howf-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Howf_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFischer2004" class="citation book cs1">Fischer, Steven Roger (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iYMXnSko5QwC"><i>History of Writing</i></a>. Reaktion Books. pp. 133–134. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86189-588-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-86189-588-7"><bdi>1-86189-588-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Writing&rft.pages=133-134&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-86189-588-7&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=Steven+Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiYMXnSko5QwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/nubia/mwriting.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Meroe: Writing", <i>Digital Egypt,</i> University College, London"</a>. Digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-09-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Meroe%3A+Writing%22%2C+Digital+Egypt%2C+University+College%2C+London&rft.pub=Digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk%2Fnubia%2Fmwriting.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Mokhtar1981_309-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mokhtar1981_309_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mokhtar1981_309_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKi-Zerbo,_J.Mokhtar,_G.1981" class="citation book cs1">Ki-Zerbo, J.; Mokhtar, G. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcMU94GUC&pg=PA309"><i>Ancient civilizations of Africa</i></a>. Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa. p. 309. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-435-94805-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-435-94805-4"><bdi>978-0-435-94805-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-06-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+civilizations+of+Africa&rft.pages=309&rft.pub=Unesco.+International+Scientific+Committee+for+the+Drafting+of+a+General+History+of+Africa&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-435-94805-4&rft.au=Ki-Zerbo%2C+J.&rft.au=Mokhtar%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgB6DcMU94GUC%26pg%3DPA309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBianchi200481-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBianchi200481_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBianchi2004">Bianchi 2004</a>, p. 81.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Hintze1963_222-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hintze1963_222_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hintze1963_222_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hintze1963_222_103-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHintze1963">Hintze 1963</a>, pp. 222–4</span>
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<li id="cite_note-The_Great_Hafir-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Great_Hafir_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Great_Hafir_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFNäser2010" class="citation cs2">Näser, Claudia (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2639941">"The Great Hafir at Musawwarat es-Sufra: Fieldwork of the Archaeological Mission of Humboldt University Berlin in 2005 and 2006"</a>, in Godlewski, Włodzimierz; Łajtar, Adam (eds.), <i>Between the Cataracts. Proceedings of the 11th Conference of Nubian Studies, Warsaw University, 27 August – 2 September 2006, Part two, fascicule 1: Session papers, PAM Suppl. Series 2.2/1</i>, Warsaw: Warsaw University Press, pp. 39–46, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31338%2Fuw.9788323533344">10.31338/uw.9788323533344</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-235-3334-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-235-3334-4"><bdi>978-83-235-3334-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-04</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Great+Hafir+at+Musawwarat+es-Sufra%3A+Fieldwork+of+the+Archaeological+Mission+of+Humboldt+University+Berlin+in+2005+and+2006&rft.btitle=Between+the+Cataracts.+Proceedings+of+the+11th+Conference+of+Nubian+Studies%2C+Warsaw+University%2C+27+August+%E2%80%93+2+September+2006%2C+Part+two%2C+fascicule+1%3A+Session+papers%2C+PAM+Suppl.+Series+2.2%2F1&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pages=39-46&rft.pub=Warsaw+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31338%2Fuw.9788323533344&rft.isbn=978-83-235-3334-4&rft.aulast=N%C3%A4ser&rft.aufirst=Claudia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2639941&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphrisCharltonKeenSauder2018399-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphrisCharltonKeenSauder2018399_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHumphrisCharltonKeenSauder2018">Humphris et al. 2018</a>, p. 399.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCollinsBurns2007" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Robert O.; Burns, James M. (8 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PZcX2jQFTRcC&pg=PA61"><i>A History of Sub-Saharan Africa</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86746-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86746-7"><bdi>978-0-521-86746-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Sub-Saharan+Africa&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007-02-08&rft.isbn=978-0-521-86746-7&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Robert+O.&rft.au=Burns%2C+James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPZcX2jQFTRcC%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2004" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, David N. (29 July 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6tsaBtp0WrMC&pg=PA173"><i>The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-48276-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-48276-6"><bdi>978-0-203-48276-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nubian+Past%3A+An+Archaeology+of+the+Sudan&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2004-07-29&rft.isbn=978-0-203-48276-6&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=David+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6tsaBtp0WrMC%26pg%3DPA173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphrisCharltonKeenSauder2018399–416-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphrisCharltonKeenSauder2018399–416_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHumphrisCharltonKeenSauder2018">Humphris et al. 2018</a>, pp. 399–416.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFArmelagos,_George2000" class="citation journal cs1">Armelagos, George (2000). "Take Two Beers and Call Me in 1,600 Years: Use of Tetracycline by Nubians and Ancient Egyptians". <i>Natural History</i>. <b>109</b>: 50–3. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:89542474">89542474</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Natural+History&rft.atitle=Take+Two+Beers+and+Call+Me+in+1%2C600+Years%3A+Use+of+Tetracycline+by+Nubians+and+Ancient+Egyptians&rft.volume=109&rft.pages=50-3&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A89542474%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Armelagos%2C+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRoach2005" class="citation journal cs1">Roach, John (17 May 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210207142106/http://www.houblon.net/spip.php?article2100">"Antibiotic Beer Gave Ancient Africans Health Buzz"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.houblon.net/spip.php?article2100">the original</a> on 7 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Antibiotic+Beer+Gave+Ancient+Africans+Health+Buzz&rft.date=2005-05-17&rft.aulast=Roach&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.houblon.net%2Fspip.php%3Farticle2100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBianchi2004230-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBianchi2004230_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBianchi2004">Bianchi 2004</a>, p. 230.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDepuydt1998" class="citation journal cs1">Depuydt, Leo (1 January 1998). "Gnomons at Meroë and Early Trigonometry". <i>The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology</i>. <b>84</b>: 171–180. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3822211">10.2307/3822211</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3822211">3822211</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Egyptian+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Gnomons+at+Mero%C3%AB+and+Early+Trigonometry&rft.volume=84&rft.pages=171-180&rft.date=1998-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3822211&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3822211%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Depuydt&rft.aufirst=Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSlayman1998" class="citation web cs1">Slayman, Andrew (27 May 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html">"Neolithic Skywatchers"</a>. <i>Archaeology Magazine Archive</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110605234044/http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Archaeology+Magazine+Archive&rft.atitle=Neolithic+Skywatchers&rft.date=1998-05-27&rft.aulast=Slayman&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archaeology.org%2Fonline%2Fnews%2Fnubia.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFNeugebauer2004" class="citation book cs1">Neugebauer, O. (2004-09-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vO5FCVIxz2YC&q=nubia&pg=PA744"><i>A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-06995-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-06995-9"><bdi>978-3-540-06995-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Mathematical+Astronomy&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2004-09-17&rft.isbn=978-3-540-06995-9&rft.aulast=Neugebauer&rft.aufirst=O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvO5FCVIxz2YC%26q%3Dnubia%26pg%3DPA744&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Siege_Warfare_in_Ancient_Egypt-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Siege_Warfare_in_Ancient_Egypt_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Siege_Warfare_in_Ancient_Egypt_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/siegewarfare.html">"Siege warfare in ancient Egypt"</a>. Tour Egypt<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Siege+warfare+in+ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=Tour+Egypt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.touregypt.net%2Ffeaturestories%2Fsiegewarfare.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDodson1996" class="citation book cs1">Dodson, Aidan (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsq0AHsC-YMC&q=Kushite+siege+towers&pg=PA178"><i>Monarchs of the nile</i></a>. American Univ. in Cairo Press. p. 178. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9774246005" title="Special:BookSources/978-9774246005"><bdi>978-9774246005</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Monarchs+of+the+nile&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=American+Univ.+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-9774246005&rft.aulast=Dodson&rft.aufirst=Aidan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJsq0AHsC-YMC%26q%3DKushite%2Bsiege%2Btowers%26pg%3DPA178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Jim_Hamm_2000._pp._138-152-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jim_Hamm_2000._pp._138-152_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jim_Hamm_2000._pp._138-152_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jim_Hamm_2000._pp._138-152_117-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jim Hamm. 2000. The Traditional Bowyer's Bible, Volume 3, pp. 138-152</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Rome's_Enemies-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rome's_Enemies_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFNicolle1991" class="citation book cs1">Nicolle, David (26 March 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26551074"><i>Rome's enemies</i></a>. Illustrated by Angus McBride. London: Osprey. pp. 11–15. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85532-166-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85532-166-1"><bdi>1-85532-166-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26551074">26551074</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%27s+enemies.&rft.place=London&rft.pages=11-15&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=1991-03-26&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26551074&rft.isbn=1-85532-166-1&rft.aulast=Nicolle&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F26551074&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1073">"Gebel Barkal and the Sites of the Napatan Region"</a>. <i>UNESCO – World Heritage Convention</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNESCO+%E2%80%93+World+Heritage+Convention&rft.atitle=Gebel+Barkal+and+the+Sites+of+the+Napatan+Region&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F1073&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBianchi2004227-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBianchi2004227_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBianchi2004">Bianchi 2004</a>, p. 227.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDigital_Collections,_The_New_York_Public_Library" class="citation web cs1">Digital Collections, The New York Public Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5abf-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99">"(still image) Aethiopen. Begerauîeh [Begrawiya]. Pyramidengruppe A. Pyr. 9. Südwand., (1849–1856)"</a>. The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 20,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%28still+image%29+Aethiopen.+Begerau%C3%AEeh+%5BBegrawiya%5D.+Pyramidengruppe+A.+Pyr.+9.+S%C3%BCdwand.%2C+%281849%E2%80%931856%29&rft.pub=The+New+York+Public+Library%2C+Astor%2C+Lenox%2C+and+Tilden+Foundations&rft.au=Digital+Collections%2C+The+New+York+Public+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcollections.nypl.org%2Fitems%2F510d47d9-5abf-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDigital_Collections,_The_New_York_Public_Library" class="citation web cs1">Digital Collections, The New York Public Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5acc-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99">"(still image) Aethiopen. Begerauîeh [Begrawiya]. Pyramidengruppe A. Pyr. 15. Pylon., (1849–1856)"</a>. The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 20,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%28still+image%29+Aethiopen.+Begerau%C3%AEeh+%5BBegrawiya%5D.+Pyramidengruppe+A.+Pyr.+15.+Pylon.%2C+%281849%E2%80%931856%29&rft.pub=The+New+York+Public+Library%2C+Astor%2C+Lenox%2C+and+Tilden+Foundations&rft.au=Digital+Collections%2C+The+New+York+Public+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcollections.nypl.org%2Fitems%2F510d47d9-5acc-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDigital_Collections,_The_New_York_Public_Library" class="citation web cs1">Digital Collections, The New York Public Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5adc-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99">"(still image) Aethiopen. Naga [Naqa]. Tempel a. Vorderseite des Pylons., (1849–1856)"</a>. The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 20,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%28still+image%29+Aethiopen.+Naga+%5BNaqa%5D.+Tempel+a.+Vorderseite+des+Pylons.%2C+%281849%E2%80%931856%29&rft.pub=The+New+York+Public+Library%2C+Astor%2C+Lenox%2C+and+Tilden+Foundations&rft.au=Digital+Collections%2C+The+New+York+Public+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcollections.nypl.org%2Fitems%2F510d47d9-5adc-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDigital_Collections,_The_New_York_Public_Library" class="citation web cs1">Digital Collections, The New York Public Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5ad5-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99">"(still image) Aethiopen. Begerauîeh [Begrawiya]. Pyramidengruppe A. Pyr. 31. Pylon., (1849–1856)"</a>. The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 20,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%28still+image%29+Aethiopen.+Begerau%C3%AEeh+%5BBegrawiya%5D.+Pyramidengruppe+A.+Pyr.+31.+Pylon.%2C+%281849%E2%80%931856%29&rft.pub=The+New+York+Public+Library%2C+Astor%2C+Lenox%2C+and+Tilden+Foundations&rft.au=Digital+Collections%2C+The+New+York+Public+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcollections.nypl.org%2Fitems%2F510d47d9-5ad5-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDigital_Collections,_The_New_York_Public_Library" class="citation web cs1">Digital Collections, The New York Public Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47d9-5acb-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99">"(still image) Aethiopen. Begerauîeh [Begrawiya]. Pyramidengruppe A. Pyr. 14. Westwand., (1849–1856)"</a>. The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 20,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%28still+image%29+Aethiopen.+Begerau%C3%AEeh+%5BBegrawiya%5D.+Pyramidengruppe+A.+Pyr.+14.+Westwand.%2C+%281849%E2%80%931856%29&rft.pub=The+New+York+Public+Library%2C+Astor%2C+Lenox%2C+and+Tilden+Foundations&rft.au=Digital+Collections%2C+The+New+York+Public+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcollections.nypl.org%2Fitems%2F510d47d9-5acb-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/19/science/19kush.html?8dpc=&_r=1&adxnnl=1&oref=slogin&adxnnlx=1182262099-4sntH5YApEoKiDu/wy49HQ">John Noble Wilford, "Scholars Race to Recover a Lost Kingdom on the Nile"</a>, <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i> (June 19, 2007)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Welsby,_Derek_A_1996-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Welsby,_Derek_A_1996_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWelsby1996">Welsby 1996</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-edwards_1998-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-edwards_1998_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2F22648_C6A5D4D0922E24022C27DEA7035B07DB_journals__AFH_AFH39_02_S002185379700717Xa.pdf&cover=Y&code=2a79b8f52131a8547fc0936b8a4b398c">"David N. Edwards, "Meroe and the Sudanic Kingdoms", "Journal of African History" (UK). Vol. 39 No. 2 (1998), pp 175–193"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=David+N.+Edwards%2C+%22Meroe+and+the+Sudanic+Kingdoms%22%2C+%22Journal+of+African+History%22+%28UK%29.+Vol.+39+No.+2+%281998%29%2C+pp+175%E2%80%93193&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.cambridge.org%2Fdownload.php%3Ffile%3D%252F22648_C6A5D4D0922E24022C27DEA7035B07DB_journals__AFH_AFH39_02_S002185379700717Xa.pdf%26cover%3DY%26code%3D2a79b8f52131a8547fc0936b8a4b398c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBianchi2004" class="citation book cs1">Bianchi, Robert Steven (2004). <i>Daily Life of the Nubians</i>. Greenwood. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32501-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32501-4"><bdi>978-0-313-32501-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+of+the+Nubians&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32501-4&rft.aulast=Bianchi&rft.aufirst=Robert+Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEmberling2023" class="citation book cs1">Emberling, Geoff (2023). "Kush under the Dynasty of Napata". In Karen Radner; Nadine Moeller; D.T. Potts (eds.). <i>The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East</i>. Vol. 4. Oxford University. pp. 82–160.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kush+under+the+Dynasty+of+Napata&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=82-160&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Emberling&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards,_David_N.2004" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, David N. (2004). <i>The Nubian Past</i>. London: Routledge. pp. 348 Pages. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-36987-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-36987-8"><bdi>0-415-36987-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nubian+Past&rft.place=London&rft.pages=348+Pages&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-415-36987-8&rft.au=Edwards%2C+David+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2011" class="citation book cs1">Edwards (2011). "From Meroe to 'Nubia' – exploring culture change without the 'Noba'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>La Pioche et La Plume (Hommages Archéologiques à Patrice Lenoble)</i>. pp. 501–514.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Meroe+to+%E2%80%98Nubia%E2%80%99+%E2%80%93+exploring+culture+change+without+the+%E2%80%98Noba%E2%80%99&rft.btitle=La+Pioche+et+La+Plume+%28Hommages+Arch%C3%A9ologiques+%C3%A0+Patrice+Lenoble%29&rft.pages=501-514&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Edwards&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2013" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, David (2013). "Medieval and post-medieval states of the Nile Valley". In Peter Mitchell, Paul Lane (ed.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of African Archaeology</i>. Oxford University. pp. 789–798.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Medieval+and+post-medieval+states+of+the+Nile+Valley&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+African+Archaeology&rft.pages=789-798&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2019" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, David (2019). "Post-Meroitic Nubia". In Dietrich Raue (ed.). <i>Handbook of Ancient Nubia</i>. De Gruyter. pp. 943–964.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Post-Meroitic+Nubia&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Ancient+Nubia&rft.pages=943-964&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFel-Tayeb2020" class="citation book cs1">el-Tayeb, Mahmoud (2020). "Post-Meroe in Upper Nubia". <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Nubia</i>. Oxford University. pp. 731–758.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Post-Meroe+in+Upper+Nubia&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Ancient+Nubia&rft.pages=731-758&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=el-Tayeb&rft.aufirst=Mahmoud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFisherLacovaraIkramD'Auria2012" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, Marjorie M.; Lacovara, Peter; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Salima_Ikram" title="Salima Ikram">Ikram, Salima</a>; et al., eds. (2012). <i>Ancient Nubia: African Kingdoms on the Nile</i>. The American University in Cairo Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-416-478-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-977-416-478-1"><bdi>978-977-416-478-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Nubia%3A+African+Kingdoms+on+the+Nile&rft.pub=The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-977-416-478-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHatke2013" class="citation book cs1">Hatke, George (2013). <i>Aksum and Nubia. Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa</i>. New York University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aksum+and+Nubia.+Warfare%2C+Commerce%2C+and+Political+Fictions+in+Ancient+Northeast+Africa&rft.pub=New+York+University&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Hatke&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHintze1963" class="citation book cs1">Hintze, Fritz (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sfdas.com/IMG/pdf/kush_xi_part_ii.pdf">"Musawwarat as Sufra. Preliminary Report on the Excavations of the Institute of Egyptology, Humboldt University, Berlin, 1961–62"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Kush: Journal of the Sudan Antiquities Service</i>. Vol. XI. The Service.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Musawwarat+as+Sufra.+Preliminary+Report+on+the+Excavations+of+the+Institute+of+Egyptology%2C+Humboldt+University%2C+Berlin%2C+1961%E2%80%9362&rft.btitle=Kush%3A+Journal+of+the+Sudan+Antiquities+Service&rft.pub=The+Service&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Hintze&rft.aufirst=Fritz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsfdas.com%2FIMG%2Fpdf%2Fkush_xi_part_ii.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHumphrisCharltonKeenSauder2018" class="citation journal cs1">Humphris, Jane; et al. (June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00934690.2018.1479085">"Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at The Royal City of Meroe"</a>. <i>Journal of Field Archaeology</i>. <b>43</b> (5): 399–416. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00934690.2018.1479085">10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Field+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Iron+Smelting+in+Sudan%3A+Experimental+Archaeology+at+The+Royal+City+of+Meroe&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=399-416&rft.date=2018-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00934690.2018.1479085&rft.aulast=Humphris&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft.au=Charlton%2C+Michael+F.&rft.au=Keen%2C+Jake&rft.au=Sauder%2C+Lee&rft.au=Alshishani%2C+Fareed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00934690.2018.1479085&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKendall1999" class="citation book cs1">Kendall, T. (1999). "The Origin of the Napatan State: El Kurru and the Evidence of the Royal Ancestors". In Steffen Wenig (ed.). <i>Studien Zum Antiken Sudan Akten Der 7. Internationalen Tagung Für Meroitische Forschungen Vom 14. Bis 19. September 1992 in Gosen/bei Berlin</i>. Harrassowitz. pp. 3–117.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Origin+of+the+Napatan+State%3A+El+Kurru+and+the+Evidence+of+the+Royal+Ancestors&rft.btitle=Studien+Zum+Antiken+Sudan+Akten+Der+7.+Internationalen+Tagung+F%C3%BCr+Meroitische+Forschungen+Vom+14.+Bis+19.+September+1992+in+Gosen%2Fbei+Berlin&rft.pages=3-117&rft.pub=Harrassowitz&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Kendall&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLeclant,_Jean2004" class="citation book cs1">Leclant, Jean (2004). <i>The empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe</i>. London: UNESCO. pp. 1912 Pages. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57958-245-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-57958-245-1"><bdi>1-57958-245-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+empire+of+Kush%3A+Napata+and+Meroe&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1912+Pages&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-57958-245-1&rft.au=Leclant%2C+Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRilly2008" class="citation book cs1">Rilly, Claude (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/36487671">"Enemy brothers: Kinship and relationship between Meroites and Nubians (Noba)"</a>. <i>Between the Cataracts: Proceedings of the 11th Conference of Nubian Studies, Warsaw, 27 August – 2 September 2006. Part One</i>. PAM. pp. 211–225. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-235-0271-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-235-0271-5"><bdi>978-83-235-0271-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Enemy+brothers%3A+Kinship+and+relationship+between+Meroites+and+Nubians+%28Noba%29&rft.btitle=Between+the+Cataracts%3A+Proceedings+of+the+11th+Conference+of+Nubian+Studies%2C+Warsaw%2C+27+August+%E2%80%93+2+September+2006.+Part+One&rft.pages=211-225&rft.pub=PAM&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-83-235-0271-5&rft.aulast=Rilly&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F36487671&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRilly" class="citation book cs1">Rilly, Claude. "Languages of Ancient Nubia". In Dietrich Raue (ed.). <i>Handbook of Ancient Nubia</i>. De Gruyter. pp. 129–154.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Languages+of+Ancient+Nubia&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Ancient+Nubia&rft.pages=129-154&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.aulast=Rilly&rft.aufirst=Claude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSakamoto2022" class="citation book cs1">Sakamoto, Tsubasa (2022). "A (Post-)Meroitic chieftain at Jebel Umm Marrihi". In N. Kawai, B.G. Davies (ed.). <i>The Star Who Appears in Thebes. Studies in Honour of Jiro Kondo</i>. Abercromby. pp. 369–382.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+%28Post-%29Meroitic+chieftain+at+Jebel+Umm+Marrihi&rft.btitle=The+Star+Who+Appears+in+Thebes.+Studies+in+Honour+of+Jiro+Kondo&rft.pages=369-382&rft.pub=Abercromby&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Sakamoto&rft.aufirst=Tsubasa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFOliver,_Roland1975" class="citation book cs1">Oliver, Roland (1975). <i>The Cambridge History of Africa Volume 3 1050 – c. 1600</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20981-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20981-1"><bdi>0-521-20981-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Africa+Volume+3+1050+%E2%80%93+c.+1600&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-521-20981-1&rft.au=Oliver%2C+Roland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFOliver,_Roland1978" class="citation book cs1">Oliver, Roland (1978). <i>The Cambridge history of Africa. Vol. 2, From c. 500 BC to AD 1050</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20981-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20981-1"><bdi>0-521-20981-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+Africa.+Vol.+2%2C+From+c.+500+BC+to+AD+1050&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-521-20981-1&rft.au=Oliver%2C+Roland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFShillington,_Kevin2004" class="citation book cs1">Shillington, Kevin (2004). <i>Encyclopedia of African History, Vol. 1</i>. London: Routledge. pp. 1912 Pages. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57958-245-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-57958-245-1"><bdi>1-57958-245-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+History%2C+Vol.+1&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1912+Pages&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-57958-245-1&rft.au=Shillington%2C+Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFTörök1997" class="citation book cs1">Török, László (1997). "The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization". <i>Handbook of Oriental Studies</i>. Section 1 the Near and Middle East. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004104488" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004104488"><bdi>978-9004104488</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Kingdom+of+Kush%3A+Handbook+of+the+Napatan-Meroitic+Civilization&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Oriental+Studies&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-9004104488&rft.aulast=T%C3%B6r%C3%B6k&rft.aufirst=L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFTörök2009" class="citation book cs1">Török, László (2009). <i>Between Two Worlds. The Frontier Region between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC – AD 500</i>. Brill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds.+The+Frontier+Region+between+Ancient+Nubia+and+Egypt+3700+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+500&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=T%C3%B6r%C3%B6k&rft.aufirst=L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWelsby1996" class="citation book cs1">Welsby, Derek (1996). <i>The Kingdom of Kush: the Napatan and Meroitic empires</i>. London: Published for the Trustees of the British Museum by British Museum Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-0986-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-0986-2"><bdi>978-0-7141-0986-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/34888835">34888835</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kingdom+of+Kush%3A+the+Napatan+and+Meroitic+empires&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Published+for+the+Trustees+of+the+British+Museum+by+British+Museum+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F34888835&rft.isbn=978-0-7141-0986-2&rft.aulast=Welsby&rft.aufirst=Derek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2020" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Bruce Beyer (2020). "The Napatan Neo-Kushite State 1: The Intermediate Period and Second Empire". In Bruce Beyer Williams (ed.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Nubia</i>. Oxford University. pp. 411–422.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Napatan+Neo-Kushite+State+1%3A+The+Intermediate+Period+and+Second+Empire&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Ancient+Nubia&rft.pages=411-422&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Bruce+Beyer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBaud2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Baud, Michel (2010). <i>Méroé. Un empire sur le Nil</i> (in French). Officina Libraria. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8889854501" title="Special:BookSources/978-8889854501"><bdi>978-8889854501</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=M%C3%A9ro%C3%A9.+Un+empire+sur+le+Nil&rft.pub=Officina+Libraria&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-8889854501&rft.aulast=Baud&rft.aufirst=Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBreyer2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Breyer, Francis (2014). <i>Einführung in die Meroitistik</i> (in German). Lit. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-643-12805-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-643-12805-8"><bdi>978-3-643-12805-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Einf%C3%BChrung+in+die+Meroitistik&rft.pub=Lit&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-643-12805-8&rft.aulast=Breyer&rft.aufirst=Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLenoble2018" class="citation book cs1">Lenoble, Patrice (2018). <i>El-Hobagi: Une Necropole De Rang Imperial Au Soudan Central</i>. Institut Francais D'archeologie Orientale.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=El-Hobagi%3A+Une+Necropole+De+Rang+Imperial+Au+Soudan+Central&rft.pub=Institut+Francais+D%27archeologie+Orientale&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Lenoble&rft.aufirst=Patrice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPope2014" class="citation book cs1">Pope, Jeremy (2014). <i>The Double Kingdom Under Taharqa</i>. Brill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Double+Kingdom+Under+Taharqa&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Pope&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFValbelleBonnet2006" class="citation book cs1">Valbelle, Dominique; Bonnet, Charles (2006). <i>The Nubian Pharaohs</i>. The American University in Cairo Press. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9774160103" title="Special:BookSources/978-9774160103"><bdi>978-9774160103</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nubian+Pharaohs&rft.pub=The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-9774160103&rft.aulast=Valbelle&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft.au=Bonnet%2C+Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFYvanes2018" class="citation book cs1">Yvanes, Elsa (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/38111132">"Clothing the elite? Patterns of textile production and consumption in ancient Sudan and Nubia"</a>. <i>Dynamics and Organisation of Textile Production in Past Societies in Europe and the Mediterranean</i>. Vol. 31. pp. 81–92.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Clothing+the+elite%3F+Patterns+of+textile+production+and+consumption+in+ancient+Sudan+and+Nubia&rft.btitle=Dynamics+and+Organisation+of+Textile+Production+in+Past+Societies+in+Europe+and+the+Mediterranean&rft.pages=81-92&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Yvanes&rft.aufirst=Elsa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F38111132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kush" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection">
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kingdom_of_Kush" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a></span>.</div></div>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070621204134/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070619-gold-nile.html">Dan Morrison, "Ancient Gold Center Discovered on the Nile", National Geographic News</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/CIVAFRCA/KUSH.HTM">"Civilizations in Africa: Kush", Washington State University</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070501062512/http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/CIVAFRCA/KUSH.HTM">Archived</a> 2007-05-01 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/ancient-africa-queens-nubia">"Remembering the Remarkable Queens Who Ruled Ancient Nubia"</a> at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atlas_Obscura" title="Atlas Obscura">Atlas Obscura</a>, December 15, 2021</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190519102901/http://www.africankingdoms.com/">African Kingdoms | Kush</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051027005838/http://www.ancientsudan.org/">Ancient Sudan (Nubia) website</a><sup><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></sup></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/593008">Joseph Poplicha, "The Biblical Nimrod and the Kingdom of Eanna", <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>, Vol. 49, (1929), pp. 303–317</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kerma.ch/index.php?lang=en">Kerma website</a> Official website of the Swiss archeological mission to Sudan.</li>
<li>Josefine Kuckertz: <i>Meroe and Egypt.</i> In Wolfram Grajetzki, Solange Ashby, Willeke Wendrich (eds.): <i>UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology.</i> Los Angeles 2021, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2693-7425">2693-7425</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6061m848">online</a>).</li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Nubia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#f0e4ae"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:History_of_Nubia_footer" title="Template:History of Nubia footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Nubia_footer" title="Template talk:History of Nubia footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Nubia_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Nubia footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Nubia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubia#History" title="Nubia">History of Nubia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Nubia" title="Category:Nubia">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historical_names_of_Nubia" title="Historical names of Nubia">Names of Nubia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Sudan" title="History of Sudan">History of Sudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Nubia" title="Military of ancient Nubia">Military</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lower_Nubia" title="Lower Nubia">Lower Nubia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Upper_Nubia" title="Upper Nubia">Upper Nubia</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-S12.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-S12.png" decoding="async" width="95" height="58" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="95" data-file-height="58" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_pre-colonial_Africa#North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa">Kingdoms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/A-Group_culture" title="A-Group culture">A-Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/A-Group_culture#Existence_of_the_B-Group" title="A-Group culture">B-Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/C-Group_culture" title="C-Group culture">C-Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerma_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerma culture">Kerma</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_al-Abwab" title="Kingdom of al-Abwab">Kingdom of al-Abwab</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kingdom of Kush</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Funj_Sultanate" title="Funj Sultanate">Kingdom of Sennar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makuria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medjay" title="Medjay">Medja</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nobatia" title="Nobatia">Nobatia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/X-Group_culture" title="X-Group culture">X-Group</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f4ebc4;;width:1%">Titles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kandake" title="Kandake">Kandake</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qore_(title)" title="Qore (title)">Qore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">Viceroy</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f4ebc4;;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">Rulers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Kerma" title="List of monarchs of Kerma">Monarchs of Kerma</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Kush" title="List of monarchs of Kush">Monarchs of Kush</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Makuria" title="List of rulers of Makuria"> Monarchs of Makuria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kandake#List_of_ruling_kandakes" title="Kandake">Queens of Kush</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy_of_Kush" title="Viceroy of Kush">Viceroy of Kush</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Archaeological_sites_in_Sudan" title="Category:Archaeological sites in Sudan">Locations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Al-Meragh" title="Al-Meragh">Al-Meragh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amara,_Nubia" title="Amara, Nubia">Amara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aniba_(Nubia)" title="Aniba (Nubia)">Aniba</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Askut" title="Askut">Askut</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ballana" title="Ballana">Ballana</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bigeh" title="Bigeh">Bigeh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deir_el-Bahari" title="Deir el-Bahari">Deir el-Bahari</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Debeira" title="Debeira">Debeira</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Triakontaschoinos" title="Triakontaschoinos">Dodekaschoinos</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Dongola" title="Old Dongola">Dongola</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dotawo" title="Dotawo">Dotawo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/El-Hobagi" title="El-Hobagi">El-Hobagi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/El-Kurru" title="El-Kurru">El-Kurru</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fadrus" title="Fadrus">Fadrus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Faras" title="Faras">Faras</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hamadab" title="Hamadab">Hamadab</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gala_Abu_Ahmed" title="Gala Abu Ahmed">Gala Abu Ahmed</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gebel_Adda" title="Gebel Adda">Jebel Adda</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Butana" title="Butana">Island of Meroë</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jebel_Barkal" title="Jebel Barkal">Jebel Barkal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jebel_Dosha" title="Jebel Dosha">Jebel Dosha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kadero_(archaeological_site)" title="Kadero (archaeological site)">Kadero</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kageras" title="Kageras">Kageras</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kawa,_Sudan" title="Kawa, Sudan">Kawa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kulb" title="Kulb">Kulb</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kulubnarti" title="Kulubnarti">Kulubnarti</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kumma_(Nubia)" title="Kumma (Nubia)">Kumma</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lisht" title="Lisht">Lisht</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meinarti" title="Meinarti">Meinarti</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Musawwarat es-Sufra</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubian_Desert" title="Nubian Desert">Nubian Desert</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sa%C3%AF_(island)" title="Saï (island)">Saï Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shalfak" title="Shalfak">Shalfak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Singa,_Sudan" title="Singa, Sudan">Singa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soba_(city)" title="Soba (city)">Soba</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soleb" title="Soleb">Soleb</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Umm_Ruweim" title="Umm Ruweim">Umm Ruweim</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wad_ban_Naqa" title="Wad ban Naqa">Wad ban Naqa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zuma,_Sudan" title="Zuma, Sudan">Zuma</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blemmyes#Language" title="Blemmyes">Blemmye</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meroitic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Meroitic alphabet">Meroitic alphabet</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Nubian" title="Old Nubian">Old Nubian</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f4ebc4;;width:1%">Religions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" title="Coptic Orthodox Church">Christianity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kushite_religion" title="Kushite religion">Kushite</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f4ebc4;;width:1%">Deities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>A</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Aman</a></li>
<li>Amanete</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amesemi" title="Amesemi">Amesemi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anhur" title="Anhur">Anhur</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anuket" title="Anuket">Anaka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apedemak" title="Apedemak">Apedemak</a></li>
<li>Aqedise</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arensnuphis" title="Arensnuphis">Arensnuphis</a></li>
<li>Ariten</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hathor" title="Hathor">Atari</a></li>
<li><b>B</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bastet" title="Bastet">Bastet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bes" title="Bes">Bes</a></li>
<li>Breith</li>
<li><b>D</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dedun" title="Dedun">Dedun</a></li>
<li><b>H</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heka_(god)" title="Heka (god)">Heka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hemen" title="Hemen">Hemen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horus" title="Horus">Horus</a></li>
<li><b>K</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khnum" title="Khnum">Khenmu</a></li>
<li><b>J</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Jesus</a></li>
<li><b>M</b></li>
<li>Makedeke</li>
<li>Mash</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mehit" title="Mehit">Mehit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Menhit" title="Menhit">Menhit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mandulis" title="Mandulis">Merul</a></li>
<li>Miket</li>
<li><b>N</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nu_(mythology)" title="Nu (mythology)">Nu</a></li>
<li><b>R</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ra" title="Ra">Ra</a></li>
<li><b>S</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satis_(goddess)" title="Satis (goddess)">Satis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sebiumeker" title="Sebiumeker">Sabomakal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sobek" title="Sobek">Sobek</a></li>
<li><b>T</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thoth" title="Thoth">Thoth</a></li>
<li><b>W</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Wusa</a></li>
<li><b>Y</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f4ebc4;;width:1%">Temples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Faras_Cathedral" title="Faras Cathedral">Faras Cathedral</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kulubnarti_church" title="Kulubnarti church">Kulubnarti church</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monastery_in_Ghazali" title="Monastery in Ghazali">Monastery in Ghazali</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philae_temple_complex" title="Philae temple complex">Philae temple complex</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qasr_Ibrim" title="Qasr Ibrim">Qasr Ibrim</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qustul" title="Qustul">Qustul</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semna_(Nubia)" title="Semna (Nubia)">Semna</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Temple_of_Amun,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal">Temple of Amun (Jebel Barkal)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra#Lion_Temple" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Temple of Apedemak (Lion Temple)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tabo_(Nubia)" title="Tabo (Nubia)">Temple of Amun (Tabo)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Temple_of_Dendur" title="Temple of Dendur">Temple of Dendur</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Temple_of_Mut,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Mut, Jebel Barkal">Temple of Mut</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Throne_Hall_of_Dongola" title="Throne Hall of Dongola">Throne Hall of Dongola</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tombos_(Nubia)" title="Tombos (Nubia)">Tombos</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Architecture_of_Sudan" title="Architecture of Sudan">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Monumental_depictions_of_Amanitore" title="Monumental depictions of Amanitore">Monumental depictions of Amanitore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubian_architecture" title="Nubian architecture">Nubian architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubian_pyramids" title="Nubian pyramids">Nubian pyramids</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubian_vault" title="Nubian vault">Nubian vault</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyramids_of_Mero%C3%AB" title="Pyramids of Meroë">Pyramids of Meroë</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sedeinga_pyramids" title="Sedeinga pyramids">Sedeinga pyramids</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#f0e4ae;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_technology" title="Ancient technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow and arrow</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">Gold mining</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hafir" title="Hafir">Hafir</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois technique</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#f0e4ae"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:History_of_Nubia" title="Category:History of Nubia">Category</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1228936124"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kushite_religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#F0E4AE"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Kushite_religion_footer" title="Template:Kushite religion footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Kushite_religion_footer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Kushite religion footer (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kushite_religion_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kushite religion footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kushite_religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kushite_religion" title="Kushite religion">Kushite religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kushite_religion#History" title="Kushite religion">Beliefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_afterlife_beliefs" title="Ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs">Afterlife</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubia#Christian_Nubia" title="Nubia">Christianity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_creation_myths" title="Ancient Egyptian creation myths">Creation myths</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eye_of_Ra" title="Eye of Ra">Eye of Ra</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flooding_of_the_Nile" title="Flooding of the Nile">Flooding of the Nile</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maat" title="Maat">Maat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egyptian_mythology" title="Egyptian mythology">Mythology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prophecy_of_Neferti" title="Prophecy of Neferti">Prophecy of Neferti</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_concept_of_the_soul" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul">Soul</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-S12.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-S12.png" decoding="async" width="95" height="58" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="95" data-file-height="58" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medjay#Pan-graves" title="Medjay">Burials</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Execration_texts" title="Execration texts">Execration texts</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_practices" title="Ancient Egyptian funerary practices">Funerals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mortuary_temple" title="Mortuary temple">Mortuary temple</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubian_pyramids" title="Nubian pyramids">Pyramids</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubian_architecture" title="Nubian architecture">Temples</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">Veneration of the dead</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kushite_religion#Deities" title="Kushite religion">Deities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Triads" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;;width:1%">Triads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elephantine#Elephantine_triad" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amesemi#The_Temples_of_Naqa" title="Amesemi">Naqa</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>A</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Aman</a></li>
<li>Amanete</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amesemi" title="Amesemi">Amesemi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anuket" title="Anuket">Anaka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apedemak" title="Apedemak">Apedemak</a></li>
<li>Aqedise</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arensnuphis" title="Arensnuphis">Arensnuphis</a></li>
<li>Ariten</li>
<li><b>B</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bes" title="Bes">Bes</a></li>
<li>Breith</li>
<li><b>D</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dedun" title="Dedun">Dedun</a></li>
<li><b>H</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heka_(god)" title="Heka (god)">Heka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hemen" title="Hemen">Hemen</a></li>
<li><b>K</b></li>
<li><b>M</b></li>
<li>Makedeke</li>
<li>Mash</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mehit" title="Mehit">Mehit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Menhit" title="Menhit">Menhit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mandulis" title="Mandulis">Merul</a></li>
<li>Miket</li>
<li><b>N</b></li>
<li><b>R</b></li>
<li><b>S</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sebiumeker" title="Sebiumeker">Sabomakal</a></li>
<li><b>T</b></li>
<li><b>W</b></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Wusa</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#History">Cultures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/A-Group_culture" title="A-Group culture">A-Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/A-Group_culture#Existence_of_the_B-Group" title="A-Group culture">B-Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/C-Group_culture" title="C-Group culture">C-Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerma_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerma culture">Kerma</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_al-Abwab" title="Kingdom of al-Abwab">Kingdom of al-Abwab</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makuria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medjay" title="Medjay">Medja</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nobatia" title="Nobatia">Nobatia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/X-Group_culture" title="X-Group culture">X-Group</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Locations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aniba_(Nubia)" title="Aniba (Nubia)">Aniba</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ballana" title="Ballana">Ballana</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bigeh" title="Bigeh">Bigeh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deir_el-Bahari" title="Deir el-Bahari">Deir el-Bahari</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Triakontaschoinos" title="Triakontaschoinos">Dodekaschoinos</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dotawo" title="Dotawo">Dotawo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jebel_Barkal" title="Jebel Barkal">Jebel Barkal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kawa,_Sudan" title="Kawa, Sudan">Kawa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lisht" title="Lisht">Lisht</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Musawwarat es-Sufra</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Philae_temple_complex" title="Philae temple complex">Philae temple complex</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qasr_Ibrim" title="Qasr Ibrim">Qasr Ibrim</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qustul" title="Qustul">Qustul</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semna_(Nubia)" title="Semna (Nubia)">Semna</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Temple_of_Amun,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal">Temple of Amun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Temple_of_Dendur" title="Temple of Dendur">Temple of Dendur</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Temple_of_Mut,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Mut, Jebel Barkal">Temple of Mut</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Throne_Hall_of_Dongola" title="Throne Hall of Dongola">Throne Hall of Dongola</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tombos_(Nubia)" title="Tombos (Nubia)">Tombos</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Sacred animals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abtu" title="Abtu">Abtu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barbary_lion" title="Barbary lion">Barbary lion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cattle_in_religion_and_mythology#Nubia" title="Cattle in religion and mythology">Cattle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Falcon" title="Falcon">Falcon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hieracosphinx" title="Hieracosphinx">Hieracosphinx</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medjed_(fish)" title="Medjed (fish)">Medjed</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nile_crocodile" title="Nile crocodile">Nile crocodile</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_African_elephant#History" title="North African elephant">North African elephant</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubian_ibex" title="Nubian ibex">Ram</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serpopard" title="Serpopard">Serpopard</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sphinx" title="Sphinx">Sphinx</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taweret" title="Taweret">Taweret</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uraeus" title="Uraeus">Uraeus</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Symbols and objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ankh" title="Ankh">Ankh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atef" title="Atef">Atef</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cartouche_(hieroglyph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartouche (hieroglyph)">Cartouche</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Christian cross">Christian cross</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crook_and_flail" title="Crook and flail">Crook and flail</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crown_of_justification" title="Crown of justification">Crown of justification</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deshret" title="Deshret">Deshret</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Djed" title="Djed">Djed</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egyptian_obelisk" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian obelisk">Egyptian obelisk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egyptian_pool" title="Egyptian pool">Egyptian pool</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eye_of_Horus" title="Eye of Horus">Eye of Horus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eye_of_Ra" title="Eye of Ra">Eye of Ra</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gold#History" title="Gold">Gold</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hafir" title="Hafir">Hafir</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hedjet" title="Hedjet">Hedjet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hemhem_crown" title="Hemhem crown">Hemhem crown</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hennu" title="Hennu">Hennu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Horus_on_the_Crocodiles" title="Horus on the Crocodiles">Horus on the Crocodiles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hypocephalus" title="Hypocephalus">Hypocephalus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Imiut_fetish" title="Imiut fetish">Imiut fetish</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khepresh" title="Khepresh">Khepresh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kneph" title="Kneph">Kneph</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Menat" title="Menat">Menat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nebu" title="Nebu">Nebu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nemes" title="Nemes">Nemes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pschent" title="Pschent">Pschent</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scarab_(artifact)" title="Scarab (artifact)">Scarab</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serekh" title="Serekh">Serekh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shen_ring" title="Shen ring">Shen ring</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Solar_barque" title="Solar barque">Solar barque</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tyet" title="Tyet">Tyet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ushabti" title="Ushabti">Ushabti</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vulture_crown" title="Vulture crown">Vulture crown</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Was-sceptre" title="Was-sceptre">Was-sceptre</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blemmyes#Language" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes language</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian language</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic language</a> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Meroitic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Meroitic alphabet">Meroitic alphabet</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Nubian" title="Old Nubian"> Nubian language</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#F0E4AE"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Category:Kingdom of Kush">Category</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1228936124"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kushite_monarchs_and_rulers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#F0E4AE"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Kushite_Monarchs_footer" title="Template:Kushite Monarchs footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Kushite_Monarchs_footer" title="Template talk:Kushite Monarchs footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kushite_Monarchs_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kushite Monarchs footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kushite_monarchs_and_rulers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Kushite monarchs and rulers</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Main topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Kush" title="List of monarchs of Kush"> Main article</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qore_(title)" title="Qore (title)">Qore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kandake" title="Kandake">Kandake</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kingdom of Kush</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Viceroy_of_Kush" title="Viceroy of Kush">Viceroy</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-S12.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Abydos-Bold-hieroglyph-S12.png" decoding="async" width="95" height="58" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="95" data-file-height="58" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Viceroys at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerma" title="Kerma">Kerma</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahmose_called_Si-Tayit" title="Ahmose called Si-Tayit">Si-Tayit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ahmose_called_Turo" title="Ahmose called Turo">Turo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seni" title="Seni">Seni</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Penre" title="Penre">Penre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inebny" title="Inebny">Amenemnekhu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nehi_(Viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Nehi (Viceroy of Kush)">Nehi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Usersatet" title="Usersatet">Usersatet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenhotep_(Viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Amenhotep (Viceroy of Kush)">Amenhotep</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Merymose" title="Merymose">Merymose</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thutmose_(viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Thutmose (viceroy of Kush)">Tuthmose</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenhotep_called_Huy" title="Amenhotep called Huy">Amenhotep called Huy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paser_I" title="Paser I">Paser I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amenemopet_(Viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Amenemopet (Viceroy of Kush)">Amenemopet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuny_(viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Yuny (viceroy of Kush)">Yuny</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heqanakht" title="Heqanakht">Heqanakht</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paser_II" title="Paser II">Paser II</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Huy_(Viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Huy (Viceroy of Kush)">Huy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Setau" title="Setau">Setau</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anhotep" title="Anhotep">Anhotep</a></li>
<li>Mernudjem</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khaemtir" title="Khaemtir">Khaemtir</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Messuy" title="Messuy">Messuy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seti_(Viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Seti (Viceroy of Kush)">Seti</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hori_I_(Viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Hori I (Viceroy of Kush)">Hori I</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hori_II_(Viceroy_of_Kush)" title="Hori II (Viceroy of Kush)">Hori II</a></li>
<li>Siese</li>
<li>Nahihor</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wentawat" title="Wentawat">Wentawat</a></li>
<li>Ramessesnakht</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pinehesy" title="Pinehesy">Pinehesy</a></li>
<li>Setmose</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Piankh" title="Piankh">Piankh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herihor" title="Herihor">Herihor</a></li>
<li>Akheperre</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neskhons" title="Neskhons">Neskhons</a></li>
<li>Pamiu I</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Napatan" class="mw-redirect" title="Napatan">Napatan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alara_of_Kush" title="Alara of Kush">Alara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kashta" title="Kashta">Kashta</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shebitku" title="Shebitku">Shebitku</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shabaka" title="Shabaka">Shabaka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tantamani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atlanersa" title="Atlanersa">Atlanersa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Senkamanisken" title="Senkamanisken">Senkamanisken</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anlamani" title="Anlamani">Anlamani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aspelta" title="Aspelta">Aspelta</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Early Meroitic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aramatle-qo" title="Aramatle-qo">Aramatle-qo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malonaqen" title="Malonaqen">Malonaqen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Analmaye" title="Analmaye">Analmaye</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amaninatakilebte" title="Amaninatakilebte">Amaninatakilebte</a></li>
<li>Piankhariten</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Karkamani" title="Karkamani">Karkamani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amaniastabarqa" title="Amaniastabarqa">Amaniastabarqa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Siaspiqa" title="Siaspiqa">Siaspiqa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nasakhma" title="Nasakhma">Nasakhma</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malewiebamani" title="Malewiebamani">Malewiebamani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Talakhamani" title="Talakhamani">Talakhamani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanineteyerike" title="Amanineteyerike">Amanineteyerike</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Baskakeren" title="Baskakeren">Baskakeren</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harsiotef" title="Harsiotef">Harsiotef</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akhraten" title="Akhraten">Akhraten</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanibakhi" title="Amanibakhi">Amanibakhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nastasen" title="Nastasen">Nastasen</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aktisanes" title="Aktisanes">Aktisanes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aryamani" title="Aryamani">Aryamani</a></li>
<li>Kash(...)amani</li>
<li>Arikepiankhiqo</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sabrakamani" title="Sabrakamani">Sabrakamani</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#F0E4AE;width:1%">Late Meroitic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arakamani" title="Arakamani">Arakamani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanislo" title="Amanislo">Amanislo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amantekha" title="Amantekha">Amantekha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arnekhamani" title="Arnekhamani">Arnekhamani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arqamani" title="Arqamani">Arqamani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Adikhalamani" title="Adikhalamani">Adikhalamani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tabirqo" title="Tabirqo">Tabirqo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nahirqo" title="Nahirqo">Nahirqo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tanyidamani" title="Tanyidamani">Tanyidamani</a></li>
<li>Pakhedateqo</li>
<li>Naqyrinsan</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Teriteqas" title="Teriteqas">Teriteqas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanirenas" title="Amanirenas">Amanirenas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanishakheto" title="Amanishakheto">Amanishakheto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanakdakhete" title="Shanakdakhete">Shanakdakhete</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nawidemak" title="Nawidemak">Nawidemak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanikhabale" title="Amanikhabale">Amanikhabale</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natakamani" title="Natakamani">Natakamani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanitore" title="Amanitore">Amanitore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shorkaror" title="Shorkaror">Shorkaror</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanikhareqerem" title="Amanikhareqerem">Amanikhareqerem</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanitenmemide" title="Amanitenmemide">Amanitenmemide</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanikhatashan" title="Amanikhatashan">Amanikhatashan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tarekeniwal" title="Tarekeniwal">Tarekeniwal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanikhalika" title="Amanikhalika">Amanikhalika</a></li>
<li>Aritenyesbokhe</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanitaraqide" title="Amanitaraqide">Amanitaraqide</a></li>
<li>Amanikhedolo</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Takideamani" title="Takideamani">Takideamani</a></li>
<li>Mashadakhel</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Teqorideamani" title="Teqorideamani">Teqorideamani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tamelerdeamani" title="Tamelerdeamani">Tamelerdeamani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Talakhidamani" title="Talakhidamani">Talakhidamani</a></li>
<li>Aryesbokhe</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yesebokheamani" title="Yesebokheamani">Yesebokheamani</a></li>
<li>Patrapeamani</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Amanipilade" title="Amanipilade">Amanipilade</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#F0E4AE"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:History_of_Nubia" title="Category:History of Nubia">Category</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1228936124"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kush</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Magadha" title="Magadha">Magadha</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nanda_Empire" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li>
<li>Bulgarian
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Burma">Burmese</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li>
<li>Burmese
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_Vietnam" title="History of Vietnam">Vietnamese</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mac</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Le</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay son</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_empires" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1228936124"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q241790#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q241790#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q241790#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/6631148574280424430004">VIAF</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/238983920">2</a></span></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Koush"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11980637h">France</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Koush"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11980637h">BnF data</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Kusch"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4033860-5">Germany</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Království Kuš"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge138163&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Koush"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027853667">IdRef</a></span></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
