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'{{Short description|Transfers between the Old and New Worlds}} {{Use mdy dates|date=November 2014}} {{Use American English|date=January 2023}} {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 275 | image1 = New World Domesticated plants.JPG | caption1 = '''[[New World]] native plants'''<br/>Clockwise, from top left:<br/>1. [[Maize]] (''Zea mays'');<br/>2. [[Tomato]] (''Solanum lycopersicum'');<br/>3. [[Potato]] (''Solanum tuberosum'');<br/>4. [[Vanilla]] (''Vanilla'');<br/>5. [[Rubber tree]] (''Hevea brasiliensis'');<br/>6. [[Theobroma cacao|Cacao]] (''Theobroma cacao'');<br/>7. [[Tobacco]] (''Nicotiana rustica'') | image2 = Old World Domesticated plants1.jpg | caption2 = '''[[Old World]] native plants'''<br/>Clockwise, from top left:<br/>1. [[Citrus]] (''Citrus'');<br/>2. [[Apple]] (''Malus domestica'');<br/>3. [[Banana]] (''Musa'');<br/>4. [[Mango]] (''Mangifera'');<br/>5. [[Onion]] (''Allium'');<br/>6. [[Coffea|Coffee]] (''Coffea'');<br/>7. [[Wheat]] (''Triticum'' spp.);<br/>8. [[Rice]] (''Oryza sativa'')<!--please don't use naked br tags, they wreck formatting in whole article--> }} The '''Columbian exchange''', also known as the '''Columbian interchange''', was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between the [[New World]] (the [[Americas]]) in the [[Western Hemisphere]], and the [[Old World]] ([[Afro-Eurasia]]) in the [[Eastern Hemisphere]], in the late 15th and following centuries. It is named after the Italian explorer [[Christopher Columbus]] and is related to the [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonization]] and [[global trade]] following his [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus#First voyage|1492 voyage]]. Some of the exchanges were purposeful while others were unintended. [[Communicable diseases]] of Old World origin resulted in an 80 to 95 percent reduction in the number of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] from the 15th century onwards, most severely in the [[Influx of disease in the Caribbean|Caribbean]].<!--<ref name="McNeill 2019"/>--> fein fein fein fein fein fein The cultures of both hemispheres were significantly impacted by the migration of people, both free and enslaved, from the Old World to the New. European colonists and [[Atlantic slave trade|African slaves]] replaced Indigenous populations across the Americas, to varying degrees. The number of Africans taken to the New World was far greater than the number of Europeans moving to the New World in the first three centuries after Columbus.<!--<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/>--> The new contacts among the global population resulted in the interchange of a wide variety of [[crop]]s and [[livestock]], which supported increases in food production and population in the Old World. American crops such as [[maize]], [[potato]]es, [[tomato]]es, [[tobacco]], [[cassava]], [[sweet potatoes]], and [[chili pepper]]s became important crops around the world. Old World [[rice]], [[wheat]], [[sugar cane]], and [[livestock]], among other crops, became important in the New World. The term was first used in 1972 by the American historian and professor [[Alfred W. Crosby]] in his [[environmental history]] book ''[[The Columbian Exchange]]''.<!--<ref name="McNeill 2019"/>--> It was rapidly adopted by other historians and journalists. == Etymology == <!--spacing costs nothing and makes maintenance easier, thanks--> In 1972, [[Alfred W. Crosby]], an American historian at the [[University of Texas at Austin]], published the book ''[[The Columbian Exchange]]'',<ref name="Smithsonian"/>{{sfn|Crosby|1972}} and subsequent volumes in the 1970s. His primary focus was mapping the biological and cultural transfers that occurred between [[Old World|the Old]] and [[New World]]s. He studied the effects of [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]'s voyages between the two – specifically, the global diffusion of crops, seeds, and plants from the New World to the Old, which radically transformed [[agriculture]] in both regions.<ref name="Harvard University Press"/><ref name="Smithsonian">{{cite web |last=Gambino |first=Megan |title=Alfred W. Crosby on the Columbian Exchange |work=[[Smithsonian Magazine]] |date=October 4, 2011 |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/alfred-w-crosby-on-the-columbian-exchange-98116477/?no-ist |access-date=October 19, 2018}}</ref> His research made a lasting contribution to the way scholars understand the variety of contemporary ecosystems that arose due to these transfers.<ref name="Harvard University Press">{{cite book |last1=Carney |first1=Judith |title=Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas |url=https://archive.org/details/blackriceafrican00carn |url-access=registration |date=2001 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/blackriceafrican00carn/page/4 4–5]}}</ref> The term has become popular among historians and journalists and has since been enhanced with Crosby's later book in three editions, ''[[Ecological Imperialism (book)|Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900]]''. [[Charles C. Mann]], in his book ''[[1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created|1493]]'' further expands and updates Crosby's original research.<ref>{{cite book |last=de Vorsey |first=Louis |editor1-last=McIlwraith |editor1-first=Thomas F. |editor2-last=Muller |editor2-first=Edward K. |title=North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent |year=2001 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham, MD |page=27 |quote=Thanks to…Crosby's work, the term 'Columbian exchange' is now widely used… |chapter=The Tragedy of the Columbian Exchange}}</ref> == Background == The weight of scientific evidence is that humans first came to the New World from [[Siberia]] thousands of years ago. There is little additional evidence of contacts between the peoples of the Old World and those of the New World, although the literature speculating on pre-Columbian trans-oceanic journeys is extensive. The first inhabitants of the New World brought with them domestic dogs and, possibly, a container, the [[calabash]], both of which persisted in their new home.<ref name="Erickson et al">{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.0509279102 |pmid=16352716 |pmc=1311910 |title=An Asian origin for a 10,000-year-old domesticated plant in the Americas |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=102 |issue=51 |pages=18315–20 |year=2005 |last1=Erickson |first1=D. L. |last2=Smith |first2=B. D. |last3=Clarke |first3=A. C. |last4=Sandweiss |first4=D. H. |last5=Tuross |first5=N. |bibcode=2005PNAS..10218315E |doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Norse colonization of North America|medieval explorations, visits, and brief residence]] of the [[Norsemen]] in [[Greenland]], [[Newfoundland]], and [[Vinland]] in the late 10th century and 11th century had no known impact on the Americas.<ref name="Heritage">{{cite web |title=The Norse in the North Atlantic |url=https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/exploration/norse-north-atlantic.php |website=Heritage: Newfoundland & Labrador |access-date=15 July 2021}}</ref> Many scientists accept that possible contact between [[Polynesians]] and coastal peoples in South America around the year 1200 resulted in genetic similarities and the adoption by Polynesians of an American crop, the [[sweet potato]].<ref name="Reuters">{{cite news |last1=Dunham |first1=Will |title=Study shows ancient contact between Polynesian and South American peoples |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-science-polynesia/study-shows-ancient-contact-between-polynesian-and-south-american-peoples-idUSKBN2492EU |website=Reuters |date=July 8, 2020 |access-date=15 July 2021}}</ref> However, it was only with the first voyage of the Italian explorer [[Christopher Columbus]] and his crew to the Americas in [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus#First voyage|1492]] that the Columbian exchange began, resulting in major transformations in the cultures and livelihoods of the peoples in both hemispheres.<ref name="McNeill 2019">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=McNeill |first1=J. R. |author1-link=J. R. McNeill |last2=Sampaolo |first2=Marco |last3=Wallenfeldt |first3=Jeff |date=30 September 2019 |origyear=28 September 2019 |title=Columbian Exchange |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Columbian-exchange |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |location=[[Edinburgh]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421055242/https://www.britannica.com/event/Columbian-exchange |archive-date=21 April 2020 |url-status=live |access-date=5 September 2021}}</ref> == Diseases == {{further|Native American disease and epidemics|Influx of disease in the Caribbean|Virgin soil epidemic|Cocoliztli epidemics}} [[File:Aztec smallpox victims.jpg|thumb|300px|upright|Sixteenth-century [[Aztec]] drawings of victims of [[smallpox]]]] The first manifestation of the Columbian exchange may have been the spread of [[syphilis]] from the native people of the [[Caribbean Sea]] to Europe. The [[history of syphilis]] has been well-studied, but the origin of the disease remains a subject of debate.<ref name=Kent08>{{cite journal |last1=Kent |first1=M.E. |last2=Romanelli |first2=F. |title=Reexamining syphilis: an update on epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and management |journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=226–236 |date=February 2008 |pmid=18212261 |doi=10.1345/aph.1K086 |s2cid=23899851 }}</ref> There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the [[Americas]] by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized.<ref name=Orgin10>{{cite journal |last1=Farhi |first1=D. |last2=Dupin |first2=N. |title=Origins of syphilis and management in the immunocompetent patient: facts and controversies |journal=Clinics in Dermatology |date=Sep–Oct 2010 |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=533–558 |pmid=20797514 |doi=10.1016/j.clindermatol.2010.03.011}}</ref> The first written descriptions of syphilis in the Old World came in 1493.<ref name="quartz">{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Tara C. |title=Thanks Columbus! The true story of how syphilis spread to Europe |quote=The first cases of the disease in the Old World were described in 1493. |url=http://qz.com/580139/thanks-columbus-the-true-story-of-how-syphilis-spread-to-europe/ |access-date=1 September 2016 |work=Quartz |date=December 23, 2015}}</ref> The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494–1495 among the army of [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] during its [[Italian War of 1494–1495|invasion of Naples]].<ref name="Orgin10"/><ref name=Music08>{{cite journal |last=Franzen |first=C. |title=Syphilis in composers and musicians—Mozart, Beethoven, Paganini, Schubert, Schumann, Smetana |journal=[[European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases]] |date=December 2008 |volume=27 |issue=12 |pages=1151–1157 |pmid=18592279 |doi=10.1007/s10096-008-0571-x |s2cid=947291 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Romm |first=Cari |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2016/02/the-neverending-story-of-the-origins-of-syphilis/463401/ |title=A New Skeleton and an Old Debate About Syphilis |work=[[The Atlantic]] |date=February 18, 2016}}</ref><ref name="sciame">{{cite magazine |last=Choi |first=Charles Q.| title=Case Closed? Columbus Introduced Syphilis to Europe |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/case-closed-columbus/ |access-date=1 September 2016 |magazine=[[Scientific American]] |date=December 27, 2011}}</ref> Many of the crew members who had served with Columbus had joined this army. After the victory, Charles's largely mercenary army returned to their respective homes, thereby spreading "the Great Pox" across Europe and killing up to five million people.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/study-traces-origins-of-syphilis-in-europe-to-new-world-1.717866 |title=Study traces origins of syphilis in Europe to New World |access-date=15 January 2008 |last=CBC News Staff |date=January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607124901/http://www.cbc.ca/health/story/2008/01/14/syphilis-columbus.html |archive-date=7 June 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Harper |first=Kristin |title=On the Origin of the Treponematoses: A Phylogenetic Approach |journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |date=January 2008 |volume=2 |issue=1 |page=e148 |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0000148 |pmid=18235852 |pmc=2217670 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }}</ref> The Columbian exchange of diseases in the other direction was by far deadlier. The peoples of the Americas previously had no exposure to European and African diseases and little or no immunity.{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=165}} An epidemic of [[swine influenza]] beginning in 1493 killed many of the [[Taino]] people inhabiting [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] islands. The pre-contact population of the island of [[Hispaniola]] was probably at least 500,000, but by 1526, fewer than 500 were still alive. Spanish exploitation was part of the cause of the near-extinction of the native people.{{sfn|Mann|2011|pages=11-12, 414}} In 1518, [[smallpox]] was first recorded in the Americas and became the deadliest imported Old World disease. Forty percent of the 200,000 people living in the [[Aztec]] capital of [[Tenochtitlan]], later [[Mexico City]], are estimated to have died of smallpox in 1520 during the war of the Aztecs with conquistador [[Hernán Cortés]].<ref name="Gunderman">{{cite web |last=Gunderman |first=Richard |title=How smallpox devastated the Aztecs -- and helped Spain conquer an American civilization 500 years ago |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/how-smallpox-devastated-the-aztecs-and-helped-spain-conquer-an-american-civilization-500-years-ago |website=PBS |date=February 23, 2019 |access-date=15 July 2021}}</ref> Epidemics, possibly of smallpox and spread from [[Central America]], devastated the population of the [[Inca Empire]] a few years before the arrival of the Spanish.<ref name="D'Altroy">{{cite book |last=D'Altroy |first=Terence N. |title=The Incas |date=2003 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, Massachusetts |isbn=9780631176770 |page=76}}</ref> [[Native American disease and epidemics|The ravages of Old World diseases]] and Spanish exploitation reduced the [[Mexican people|Mexican]] population from an estimated 20 million to barely more than a million in the 16th century.<ref name="Library of Congress">{{cite book |last1=Merrill |first1=Tim L. |last2=Miro |first2=Ramon |title=Mexico: A Country Study |date=1996 |publisher=Library of Congress |location=Washington, D.C. |url=http://countrystudies.us/mexico/53.htm}}</ref> The indigenous population of [[Peru]] decreased from about 9 million in the pre-Columbian era, to 600,000 in 1620.<ref name="Denevan">{{cite journal |last=Denevan |first=William M. |title=Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1630 by Noble David Cook |journal=The Americas |date=October 1983 |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=281–284 |doi=10.2307/980770 |jstor=980770 |s2cid=148174483 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/980770 |access-date=28 May 2021}}</ref> An estimated 80–95 percent of the Native American population died in epidemics within the first 100–150 years following 1492. Nunn and Qian also refer to the calculations of the scientist David Cook, in which in some cases no one survived due to diseases. The deadliest Old World diseases in the Americas were smallpox, [[measles]], [[whooping cough]], [[chicken pox]], [[bubonic plague]], [[typhus]], and [[malaria]].{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|pages=164-165}} == Enslavement of Africans == [[File:1670 virginia tobacco slaves.jpg|thumb|300px|upright|A depiction of slaves working at a [[slave plantation|plantation]] in [[Virginia]], 1670]] The [[Atlantic slave trade]] consisted of the involuntary immigration of 11.7 million Africans, primarily from West Africa, to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries, far outnumbering the about 3.4 million Europeans who migrated, most voluntarily, to the New World between 1492 and 1840.{{sfn|Mann|2011|page=286}} The prevalence of African slaves in the New World was related to the demographic decline of New World peoples and the need of European colonists for labor. Another reason for the demand for slaves was the cultivation of special crops, for example, sugar cane, which were suitable for the climatic conditions of the new lands and were very popular.{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=181}} The Africans had greater immunities to Old World diseases than the New World peoples, and were less likely to die from those diseases that had been brought to the New World. The journey of enslaved Africans from Africa to America is commonly known as the "[[middle passage]]".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gates |first1=Louis |title=100 Amazing Facts About the Negro |url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/ |website=PBS |date=January 2, 2013 |publisher=WNET |access-date=25 October 2018}}</ref> Enslaved Africans helped shape an emerging African-American culture in the New World. They participated in both skilled and unskilled labor. For example, according to the work of [[James L. Watson (anthropologist)|James L. Watson]], slaves were involved in handicraft production. They could also work as ordinary workers, and as managers of small enterprises in the commercial or industrial sphere.<ref>{{cite book |last=Watson |first=James L. |author1-link=James L. Watson (anthropologist) |title=Asian and African Systems of Slavery |year=1980 |publisher= Basil Blackwell |location=University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California |pages=34}}</ref> Their descendants gradually developed an ethnicity that drew from the numerous African tribes as well as European nationalities.<ref name="Carney">{{cite book |last1=Carney |first1=Judith |title=Black Rice |url=https://archive.org/details/blackriceafrican00carn |url-access=registration |date=2001 |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages= [https://archive.org/details/blackriceafrican00carn/page/2 2–8]}}</ref>{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=181}} The descendants of African slaves make up a majority of the population in some Caribbean countries, notably [[Haiti]] and [[Jamaica]], and a sizeable minority in most American countries.{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=183}} According to the scholar Jean MacGregor, in the New World there was denial and rebellion against slavery. The rebels went into the rainforests, fought the colonizers, refusing to stop until the signing of agreements, or gathered in settlements. Conscious preservation of ethnic characteristics was considered an unspoken manifestation of resistance. This applied to both men and women, but women had a greater influence on the transmission of ethnic culture to future generations as they were engaged in the upbringing of children.<ref>{{cite book |last=MacGregor |first=Jean |title=The Columbus Quincentennial: A Sourcebook |year=1992 |location=Olympia, Washington |publisher=Washington Center for Improving the Quality of Undergraduate Education, The Evergreen State College |pages=73–74}}</ref> == Effects == === Crops === [[File:Intikawan Amantani.jpg|thumb|300px|upright|[[Andén|Andenes]] on [[Taquile]] are used to grow traditional [[Andes|Andean]] [[Staple food|staples]] such as [[quinoa]] and [[potato]]es, alongside [[wheat]]—a European introduction.]] Because of the new trading resulting from the Columbian exchange, several plants native to the Americas have since spread around the world, including [[potato]]es, [[maize]], [[tomato]]es, and [[tobacco]].<ref name="ley196512">{{Cite magazine |last=Ley |first=Willy |date=December 1965 |title=The Healthfull Aromatick Herbe |department=For Your Information |magazine=Galaxy Science Fiction |pages=88–98}}</ref> Before 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of [[South America]]. By the 18th century, they were cultivated and consumed widely in Europe and had become important crops in both [[India]] and North America. A highly caloric crop,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/785077528 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Food History |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor-first=Jeffrey M. |editor-last=Pilcher |isbn=978-0-19-972993-7 |location=Oxford |oclc=785077528}}</ref> potatoes eventually became an important staple food in the diets of many Europeans, contributing to an estimated 12 to 25% of the population growth in Afro-Eurasia between 1700 and 1900.<ref name="Nunn Quian 2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Nunn |first1=Nathan |last2=Qian |first2=Nancy |date=2011 |title=The Potato's Contribution to Population and Urbanization: Evidence from a Historical Experiment |journal=[[Quarterly Journal of Economics]] |volume=2 |pages=593–650}}</ref> Many European rulers, including [[Frederick the Great]] of Prussia and [[Catherine the Great]] of Russia, encouraged the cultivation of the potato.{{sfn|Crosby|2003|p=184}}<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010">{{harvnb|Nunn|Qian|2010}}</ref><ref name="Mann">{{cite book |last=Mann |first=Charles C. |title=1493 |date=2011 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |location=New York |isbn=9780307265722 |page=286}}</ref> Despite their lack of some essential nutrients such as vitamins D and A, potatoes came to satisfy major portions of the nutritional needs of people around the world. According to one study, the introduction of potatoes to the Old World accounts for 47 percent of the increase in urbanization between 1700 and 1900.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> [[Maize]] and [[cassava]] were introduced from South America by the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] in the 16th century,<ref>[http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/suprtubr.htm "Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208143623/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/suprtubr.htm |date=December 8, 2013 }}, The Ohio State University</ref> and gradually replaced [[sorghum]] and [[millet]] as Africa's most important food crops.<ref>[http://scitizen.com/biotechnology/maize-streak-virus-resistant-transgenic-maize-an-african-solution-to-an-african-problem_a-28-925.html "Maize Streak Virus-Resistant Transgenic Maize: an African solution to an African Problem"], ''Scitizen'', August 7, 2007</ref> [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonizers]] of the 16th century introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and [[sweet potato]]es, and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090924212813/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm "China's Population: Readings and Maps"], Columbia University, East Asian Curriculum Project</ref> On a larger scale, the introduction of potatoes and maize to the Old World "resulted in caloric and nutritional improvements over previously existing staples" throughout the Eurasian landmass,<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> enabling more varied and abundant food production.{{sfn|Crosby|2003|p=177}} Cassava was in greater demand in the Old World than maize. These crops also have negative consequences when overused (for example, the nutritional diseases [[pellagra]] and [[konzo]]), but this has not diminished the importance of maize and cassava to human nutrition.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> The discovery of the Americas brought the Old World not only many previously unknown plant species but also new arable landscapes with favorable soils for growing highly valued Old World crops, such as [[sugarcane]] and [[coffee]]. Sugar had long been important to Old World populations and found even greater importance when cultivated in the New World, as it is high-calorie and inexpensive. It was actively used in cooking and is thought to have increased the well-being of its consumers.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> Coffee, introduced in the Americas circa 1720 from Africa and the Middle East, and sugarcane, introduced from the [[Indian subcontinent]] to the [[Spanish West Indies]], subsequently became the primary commodity crops and exported goods of extensive [[Latin America]]n [[Hacienda|plantations]]. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, [[chili pepper]]s and potatoes from South America in turn became integral parts of [[Indian cuisine]].<ref name=Collingham2006>{{cite book |last=Collingham |first=Lizzie |title=Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors |url=https://archive.org/details/curry00lizz |url-access=registration |year=2006 |chapter=Vindaloo: the Portuguese and the chili pepper |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-988381-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/curry00lizz/page/47 47–73]}}</ref> The discovery and spread of chili peppers in particular contributed to the creation of many well-known dishes and spices now intimately identified with Old World locales, including Korean [[kimchi]], Indian [[curry]], and Hungarian [[paprika]]. Because crops traveled widely but at least initially their endemic fungi did not, for a limited time yields were somewhat higher in the new regions to which they were introduced, a form of [[ecological release]]. Dark & Gent (2001) termed this the "{{visible anchor|yield honeymoon}}". However, the exchange of pathogens has continued alongside globalization, and crops have declined back toward their endemic yields.<ref name="Drenth-Guest-2016">{{cite journal |last1=Drenth |first1=André |last2=Guest |first2=David I. |title=Fungal and Oomycete Diseases of Tropical Tree Fruit Crops |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=54 |issue=1 |date=2016-08-04 |issn=0066-4286 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-080615-095944 |pages=373–395|pmid=27491435 }}</ref> The Spanish were the first Europeans to grow [[Theobroma cacao|cacao]], in 1590. Though cacao was usually consumed by European populations in the form of sweets and was at first treated as an expensive luxury item, [[chocolate]] helped with fatigue and provided energy. As for [[vanilla]], the pods of the plant after chemical treatment acquired an aroma, which was then used both in cooking and in perfumery.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> ==== Rice ==== {{see also|Rice production in the United States}} [[Rice]] was another crop that became widely cultivated during the Columbian exchange. As the demand in the New World grew, so did the knowledge of how to cultivate it. The two primary species used were ''[[Oryza glaberrima]]'' and ''[[Oryza sativa]]'', originating from West Africa and Southeast Asia, respectively. European planters in the New World relied upon the skills of African slaves to cultivate both species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carney |first=Judith A. |date=2001 |title=African Rice in the Columbian Exchange |jstor=3647168 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=377–396 |doi=10.1017/s0021853701007940 |pmid=18551802 |s2cid=37074402}}</ref> [[Province of Georgia|Georgia]], [[Province of South Carolina|South Carolina]], [[Captaincy General of Cuba|Cuba]], and [[Puerto Rico]] were major centers of rice production during the colonial era. Enslaved Africans brought their knowledge of water control, milling, [[winnowing]], and other agrarian practices to the fields. This widespread knowledge among African slaves eventually led to rice becoming a staple food in the New World.<ref name="Harvard University Press"/><ref>{{cite book |first=Seaman Ashahel |last=Knapp |title=Rice culture in the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/CAT87201521 |edition=Public domain |year=1900 |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture |pages=[https://archive.org/details/CAT87201521/page/n6 6]–}}</ref> ==== Fruits ==== [[Citrus fruit]]s and [[grape]]s were brought to the Americas from the Mediterranean. At first planters struggled to adapt these crops to New World climates, but by the late 19th century they were cultivated more consistently.<ref>{{cite web |last=McNeill |first=J.R. |title=The Columbian Exchange |url=https://www.ncpedia.org/anchor/columbian-exchange |website=[[NCpedia]] |publisher=[[State Library of North Carolina]] |access-date=23 October 2018}}</ref> [[Banana]]s were introduced into the Americas in the 16th century by Portuguese sailors, who came across the fruits in West Africa while engaged in commercial ventures and the slave trade. Despite this early introduction they were consumed in minimal amounts in the Americas as late as the 1880s. The U.S. did not see major increases in banana consumption until large plantations were established in the Caribbean.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gibson |first1=Arthur |title=Bananas & Plantains |url=http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Musa/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614121141/http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Musa/index.html |archive-date=June 14, 2012 |url-status=dead |publisher=University of California, Los Angeles}}</ref> The [[Manila galleon]] trading network introduced American plants such as [[chayote]] and [[papaya]] into Southeast Asia; these were incorporated into the cuisines there.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amano |first1=Noel |last2=Bankoff |first2=Greg |last3=Findley |first3=David Max |last4=Barretto-Tesoro |first4=Grace |last5=Roberts |first5=Patrick |title=Archaeological and historical insights into the ecological impacts of pre-colonial and colonial introductions into the Philippine Archipelago |journal=The Holocene |date=February 2021 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=313–330 |doi=10.1177/0959683620941152}}</ref> ==== Tomatoes ==== {{further|Tomato}} Long before the arrival of the Spaniards, wild tomatoes came from Central America to South America, thereby initiating the cultivation of tomatoes in different parts of the Americas.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> In 1544, [[Pietro Andrea Mattioli]], a [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Tuscan]] physician and botanist, wrote that the tomato was eaten fried in oil.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McCue |first=George Allen |title=The History of the Use of the Tomato: An Annotated Bibliography |journal= Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden |year=1952 |volume= 39 |issue=4 |pages=291–292 |doi=10.2307/2399094 |jstor=2399094 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/20101657}}</ref> The first Italian cookbook to include tomato sauce, ''Lo Scalco alla Moderna'' ("The Modern Steward"), was written by Italian chef [[Antonio Latini]] and was published in two volumes in 1692 and 1694. In 1790, the use of tomato sauce with pasta appeared for the first time, in the Italian cookbook ''L'Apicio Moderno'' ("The Modern [[Apicius]]"), by chef [[Francesco Leonardi (chef)|Francesco Leonardi]].<ref name=leo>''L'Arte della cucina in Italia'', Emilio Faccioli, Einaudi, Milano, 1987</ref> Since then, tomatoes have become regular contributors to the diets of Western consumers.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> The most problematic thing about eating tomatoes was storage. In hot weather, tomatoes deteriorated in just a few days. Canning solved this problem by allowing the product to be stored for months. Although canning was expensive in the beginning, after the introduction of mechanical labor, tomatoes became available to everyone.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> === Livestock === {{further|Plains Indians#Horses}} [[File:George Catlin - Buffalo hunt.jpg|thumb|300px|upright|Native Americans learned to use horses to chase [[American bison|bison]], dramatically expanding their hunting range.]] Initially, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went in one direction, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. [[Horse]]s, [[donkeys]], [[mule]]s, [[pigs]], [[cattle]], [[sheep]], [[goats]], [[chickens]], [[dogs]], [[cats]], and [[bees]] were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses.<ref name="Francis2006-livestock">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Francis |editor-first=John Michael |encyclopedia=Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: a Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia |title=Columbian Exchange—Livestock |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMNoS-g1h8cC&pg=PA303 |year=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-421-9 |pages=303–308}}</ref> While mesoamerican peoples, Mayas in particular, already practiced [[apiculture]],{{Sfn|Valadez Azúa|2004|p=5}} producing [[wax]] and [[honey]] from a variety of bees, such as ''[[Melipona]]'' or ''[[Trigona]]'',{{Sfn|Valadez Azúa|2004|pp=6–7}} European bees (''[[Apis mellifera]]'')—were more productive, delivering a honey with less water content and allowing for an easier extraction from beehives—were introduced in New Spain, becoming an important part of farming production.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Valadez Azúa |first=Raúl |title=Retomando la apicultura del México antiguo |year=2004 |journal=Veterinaria |volume=4 |issue=2 |page=11 |publisher=[[Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México]] |url=https://fmvz.unam.mx/fmvz/imavet/v4n2a04/v4n2a04.pdf}}</ref> The effects of the introduction of European livestock on the environments and peoples of the New World were not always positive. In the Caribbean, the proliferation of European animals consumed native fauna and undergrowth, changing habitat. If free ranging, the animals often damaged ''conucos,'' plots managed by indigenous peoples for subsistence.<ref name="Palmie">{{cite book |last=Palmie |first=Stephan |title=The Caribbean: A History of the Region and its Peoples |date=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=9780226645087}}</ref> The [[Mapuche]] of [[Araucanía (historic region)|Araucanía]] were fast to adopt the horse from the Spanish, and improve their military capabilities as they fought the [[Arauco War]] against Spanish colonizers.<ref name=DilleMaterial2014>{{cite book |last=Dillehay |first=Tom D. |date=2014|editor-last=Dillehay |editor-first=Tom |title=The Teleoscopic Polity |chapter=Archaeological Material Manifestations |publisher=Springer |pages=101–121 |isbn=978-3-319-03128-6 |author-link=Tom Dillehay }}</ref><ref name=BengoaAntiguo250-251>{{cite book |last=Bengoa |first=José |author-link=José Bengoa|title=Historia de los antiguos mapuches del sur |year=2003 |publisher=Catalonia |location=Santiago |isbn=978-956-8303-02-0 |language=es|pages=250–251}}</ref> Until the arrival of the Spanish, the Mapuches had largely maintained [[chilihueques]] ([[llamas]]) as livestock. The Spanish introduction of sheep caused some competition between the two domesticated species. Anecdotal evidence of the mid-17th century show that by then both species coexisted but that the sheep far outnumbered the llamas. The decline of llamas reached a point in the late 18th century when only the Mapuche from [[San José de la Mariquina|Mariquina]] and the Huequén next to [[Angol]] raised llamas.<ref name=Torrejonetal2004>{{cite journal |last1=Torrejón |first1=Fernando |last2=Cisternas |first2=Marco |last3=Araneda |first3=Alberto |date=2004 |title=Efectos ambientales de la colonización española desde el río Maullín al archipiélago de Chiloé, sur de Chile |language=es |trans-title=Environmental effects of the Spanish colonization from de Maullín river to the Chiloé archipelago, southern Chile |url=http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0716-078X2004000400009&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en |journal=[[Revista Chilena de Historia Natural]] |volume=77 |issue= 4 |pages=661–677 |doi=10.4067/s0716-078x2004000400009|doi-access=free }}</ref> In the [[Chiloé Archipelago]] the introduction of [[pig]]s by the Spanish proved a success. They could feed on the abundant [[shellfish]] and [[algae]] exposed by the large [[tide]]s.<ref name=Torrejonetal2004/> In the other direction, the [[turkey (bird)|turkey]], [[guinea pig]], and the [[Muscovy duck]] were New World animals that were transferred to Europe.{{sfn|Crosby|1972|p=212}} === Medicines === European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of [[quinine]], the first effective treatment for [[malaria]]. [[Cinchona]] trees from the Andes were processed and [[quinine]] was obtained from their bark.<ref name = "Nunn Qian 2010"/> Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause [[sickle-cell disease]].{{sfn|Nunn|Qian|2010|page=164}} The resistance of sub-Saharan Africans to malaria in the southern United States and the Caribbean contributed greatly to the specific character of the Africa-sourced slavery in those regions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Esposito |first=Elena |date=Summer 2015 |title=Side Effects of Immunities: the African Slave Trade |url=http://eh.net/eha/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Esposito.pdf |journal=[[European University Institute]] |access-date=October 30, 2018|archive-date=November 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112014228/https://eh.net/eha/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Esposito.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> Similarly, [[yellow fever]] is thought to have been brought to the Americas from Africa via the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Because it was endemic in Africa, many people there had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did African-descended persons when exposed to yellow fever in Africa and the Americas, where [[History of yellow fever|numerous epidemics]] swept the colonies beginning in the 17th century and continuing into the late 19th century. The disease caused widespread fatalities in the Caribbean during the heyday of slave-based sugar plantation. The replacement of native forests by sugar plantations and factories facilitated its spread in the tropical area by reducing the number of potential natural mosquito predators. The means of yellow fever transmission was unknown until 1881, when [[Carlos Finlay]] suggested that the disease was transmitted through mosquitoes, now known to be female mosquitoes of the species ''[[Aedes aegypti]]''.{{sfn|Palmie|2011}} === Cultural exchanges === [[File:Evangelización por la Orden Franciscana.jpg|thumb|300px|upright|The [[History of the Catholic Church in Mexico|evangelization of Mexico]]]] One of the results of the movement of people between New and Old Worlds were cultural exchanges. For example, in the article "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800", Pieter Emmer makes the point that "from 1500 onward, a 'clash of cultures' had begun in the Atlantic".<ref>Emmer, Pieter. "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800". ''European Review'' 11, no. 1. Feb. 2003. p. 45–46</ref> This clash of culture involved the transfer of European values to indigenous cultures. As an example, the emergence of the concept of [[private property]] in regions where property was often viewed as communal, concepts of [[monogamy]] (although many indigenous peoples were already monogamous), the role of women and children in the social system, and different concepts of labor, including slavery.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Emmer |first=Pieter |title=The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800 |journal=European Review |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=February 2003 |page=46}}</ref> [[Tobacco]] was a New World agricultural product, originally a luxury good spread as part of the Columbian exchange. The tobacco trade increased demand for free labor and spread tobacco worldwide. The Spanish physician Nicolas Monardes (1493–1588) noted that "The black people that have gone from these parts to the Indies, have taken up the same manner and use of tobacco that the Indians have".<ref>Monardes, Nicholas. "Of the Tabaco and of his Greate Vertues". Frampton, John trans, Wolf, Michael, ed. Tobacco.org. Accessed June 1, 2017 http://archive.tobacco.org/History/monardes.html {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120607233337/http://archive.tobacco.org/History/monardes.html |date=June 7, 2012}}</ref> [[Tobacco]] was used in the Old World as medicine and currency.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> In the New World, it was the subject of religious customs.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> While the [[Mapuche]] of [[Araucanía (historic region)|Araucania]] adopted the horse, sheep, and wheat, the over-all scant adoption of Spanish technology and adherence to [[Mapuche religion|ancestral customs]] by Mapuche was a means of [[Resistance through culture|cultural resistance]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dillehy |first=Tom |title=Reflections on Araucanian/Mapuche Resilience, Independence, and Ethnomorphosis in Colonial (and Present-day) Chile |journal=Chungará (Arica) |date=2016 |volume=48 |issue=4 |url=https://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0717-73562016000400013&script=sci_arttext |access-date=27 April 2024}}</ref> According to Caroline Dodds Pennock, in [[Atlantic history]] indigenous people are often seen as static recipients of transatlantic encounters. But thousands of Native Americans crossed the ocean during the sixteenth century, some by choice.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pennock |first=Caroline |date=2020-06-01 |title=Aztecs Abroad? Uncovering the Early Indigenous Atlantic |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ahr/rhaa237 |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=125 |issue=3 |pages=787–814 |doi=10.1093/ahr/rhaa237}}</ref> == Organism examples == {{See also|New World crops|Agriculture in Mesoamerica|Muisca agriculture|List of food origins}} {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto;" |+ Post-Columbian transfers of native organisms with close ties to humans,<br/>Late 15th to 20th century |- ! style="width: 135px;" | Type of organism ! style="width: 220px;" | Afro-Eurasia to the Americas ! style="width: 220px;" | Americas to Afro-Eurasia |- | Domesticated animals | * [[cattle]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[chicken]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * large [[dog]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[donkey]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[Domestic duck|duck]] (domesticated mallard)<ref name="Hou et al 2011">{{cite journal |last=Hou |first=Z.‐C. |last2=Yang |first2=F.‐X. |last3=Qu |first3=L.‐J. |last4=Zheng |first4=J.‐X. |last5=Brun |first5=J.‐M. |last6=Basso |first6=B. |last7=Pitel |first7=F. |last8=Yang |first8=N. |last9=Xu |first9=G.‐Y. |title=Genetic structure of Eurasian and North American mallard ducks based on mtDNA data |journal=Animal Genetics |publisher=Wiley |volume=43 |issue=3 |date=23 September 2011 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2052.2011.02248.x |pages=352–355}}</ref> * [[goat]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[horse]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[Common ostrich|ostrich]] * [[pig]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[sheep]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> | <!--* [[alpaca]]{{cn}} * [[American mink]]{{cn}} * [[guinea pig]]{{cn}} * [[llama]]{{cn}} --> * [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]] (N. America) <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencealert.com/humans-weren-t-always-after-turkey-meat |title=Study Shows That Humans Domesticated Turkeys For Worshipping, Not Eating |first=David |last=Nield |website=sciencealert.com |date=18 January 2018 |access-date=21 January 2018 |archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422172943/https://www.sciencealert.com/humans-weren-t-always-after-turkey-meat|url-status=live}}</ref> * [[Muscovy duck]] (Mexico, S. America)<ref name="b761">{{cite book |last=Stahl |first=Peter W. |chapter=Animal Domestication in South America |editor1-last=Silverman |editor1-first=Helaine |editor2-last=Isbell |editor2-first=William |title=Handbook of South American Archaeology |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |publication-place=New York |date=2008-04-06 |isbn=978-0-387-74907-5 |pages=121–130 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226307839_Animal_Domestication_in_South_America}}</ref> |- | Cultivated plants | * [[almond]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> * [[apple]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants">{{cite web |last1=Mintz |first1=S. |last2=McNeil |first2=S. |title=Origins of Plants |url=https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/columbus/columbian_answers_plants.cfm |publisher=University of Houston |access-date=15 July 2024 |date=2018}}</ref> * [[cabbage]] (many varieties)<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[citrus]] ([[Orange (fruit)|orange]], [[lemon]], etc.)<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> * [[coffee]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> * [[lettuce]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[melon]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> * [[oat]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[olive]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> * [[onion]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[peach]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[pear]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[radish]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> * [[rice]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[rye]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[sorghum]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> * [[soybean]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> * [[sugarcane]] and [[sugar beet]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[turnip]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[wheat]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> | * [[avocado]]<ref name="Crosby 2001">{{harvnb|Crosby|2001}}</ref> * [[cassava]] (manioc, tapioca, yuca)<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[cocoa bean]] (cacao)<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> * [[cotton]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> (long-staple species) * [[cranberry]] ([[cranberry#Species and description|bearberry]] species) * [[cucurbita|squashes]], including [[pumpkin]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[guava]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> (common) * [[maize]] (corn)<ref>{{cite book |last=Earle |first=Rebecca |author-link=Rebecca Earle |title=The Body of the Conquistador: Food, Race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2012 |pages=17, 144, 151}}</ref> * [[papaya]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[peanut]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> * [[pineapple]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[potato]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[sweet potato]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[sunflower]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[tobacco]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[tomato]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> |- | Infectious diseases | * [[bubonic plague]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[cholera]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[malaria]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[measles]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[smallpox]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[typhoid fever]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> * [[yellow fever]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> | * [[syphilis]] (probably)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hemarjata |first=Peera |date=17 June 2019 |title=Revisiting the Great Imitator: The Origin and History of Syphilis |url=https://asm.org/Articles/2019/June/Revisiting-the-Great-Imitator,-Part-I-The-Origin-a |access-date=27 November 2023 |website=[[American Society for Microbiology]]}}</ref><!--many more sources at [[Syphilis]]--> |} == See also == * [[Arab Agricultural Revolution]] * [[Early impact of Mesoamerican goods in Iberian society]] * [[Great American Interchange]] * [[List of food plants native to the Americas]] * [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories]] * [[Transformation of culture]] == References == {{reflist}} == Sources == * {{cite book |last=Crosby |first=Alfred W. |author-link=Alfred W. Crosby |title=The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 |year=1972 |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |isbn=978-0-8371-5821-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/columbianexchang00cros }} ** {{cite book |last=Crosby |first=Alfred W. |author-mask=————— |title=The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger]] |year=2003}} * {{cite web |last=Crosby |first=Alfred W. |author-link=Alfred W. Crosby |title=The Columbian Exchange: Plants, Animals, and Disease between the Old and New Worlds |publisher=[[National Humanities Center]] |date=December 2001 |url=https://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/nattrans/ntecoindian/essays/columbianb.htm}} * {{cite journal |last1=Nunn |first1=Nathan |last2=Qian |first2=Nancy |year=2010 |title=The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas |journal=[[Journal of Economic Perspectives]] |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=163–188 |jstor=25703506 |doi=10.1257/jep.24.2.163 |citeseerx=10.1.1.232.9242 |url=http://www.econ.yale.edu/~nq3/NANCYS_Yale_Website/resources/papers/NunnQianJEP.pdf }} == Further reading == * ''[http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/worlds-together-worlds-apart3/ Worlds Together, Worlds Apart]'' by Jeremy Adelman, Stephen Aron, Stephen Kotkin, et al. * [http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/nattrans/ntecoindian/essays/columbian.htm The Columbian Exchange: Plants, Animals, and Disease between the Old and New Worlds] by [[Alfred Crosby|Alfred W. Crosby]] (2009) * ''[[1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus]]'', New York: Alfred A. Knopf, by Charles C. Mann (2005); at [https://books.google.com/books?id=KPKMDQAAQBAJ Google Books]. * Specht, Joshua; Stockland, Etienne (2017). ''The Columbian Exchange''. CRC Press. * ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=styODQAAQBAJ Indian Givers: How the Indians of the Americas Transformed the World]'' by Jack Weatherford (2010) == External links == * "[https://web.archive.org/web/20150510082054/http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/Ethnobotany/page5.php Foods that Changed the World]"—Steven R. King {{Agriculture footer}} {{Indigenous peoples of the Americas}} {{Pre-Columbian North America}} {{Globalization}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Columbian exchange}} [[Category:Age of Discovery]] [[Category:Agricultural revolutions]] [[Category:History of Europe]] [[Category:History of agriculture]] [[Category:History of globalization]] [[Category:History of indigenous peoples of the Americas]] [[Category:History of the Americas]] [[Category:History of the Atlantic Ocean]] [[Category:Horticulture]] [[Category:Introduced species]] [[Category:Invasive species]] [[Category:Spanish colonization of the Americas]] [[Category:Spanish exploration in the Age of Discovery]] [[Category:Transatlantic cultural exchange]] [[Category:Western culture]]'