Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Redirect|Nuclear blast|the record label|Nuclear Blast}}
{{Short description|Explosion from fission or fusion reaction}}
[[File:Operation Upshot-Knothole - Badger 001.jpg|right|250px|thumb|A 23 kiloton tower shot called [[Operation Upshot–Knothole|BADGER]], fired on April 18, 1953, at the [[Nevada Test Site]], as part of the [[Operation Upshot–Knothole]] [[nuclear testing|nuclear test series]].]]
[[File:Greenhouse George Early Fireball.ogv|right|250px|thumb|The [[operation Greenhouse|Greenhouse]] George test early fireball.]]
[[File:Operation Upshot test.ogv|thumb|Upshot–Knothole Grable test (film)]]
{{nuclear weapons}}
A '''nuclear explosion''' is an [[explosion]] that occurs as a result of the rapid release of energy from a high-speed [[nuclear reaction]]. The driving reaction may be [[nuclear fission]] or [[nuclear fusion]] or a multi-stage cascading combination of the two, though to date all fusion-based weapons have used a fission device to initiate fusion, and a [[pure fusion weapon]] remains a hypothetical device. Nuclear explosions are used in [[nuclear weapons]] and [[nuclear testing]].
Nuclear explosions are extremely destructive compared to conventional (chemical) explosives, because of the vastly greater energy density of nuclear fuel compared to chemical explosives. They are often associated with [[mushroom cloud]]s, since any large atmospheric explosion can create such a cloud. Nuclear explosions produce high levels of [[ionizing radiation]] and [[Nuclear fallout|radioactive debris]] that is harmful to humans and can cause moderate to severe skin burns, eye damage, [[radiation sickness]], [[radiation-induced cancer]] and possible death depending on how far a person is from the blast radius.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-22|title=CDC Radiation Emergencies {{!}} Frequently Asked Questions About a Nuclear Blast|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/emergencies/nuclearfaq.htm|access-date=2021-04-29|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us}}</ref> Nuclear explosions can also have detrimental effects on the climate, lasting from months to years. A small-scale nuclear war could release enough particles into the atmosphere to cause the planet to cool and cause crops, animals, and agriculture to disappear across the globe—an effect named [[nuclear winter]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rubinson|first=Paul|date=2014-01-02|title=The global effects of nuclear winter: science and antinuclear protest in the United States and the Soviet Union during the 1980s|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14682745.2012.759560|journal=Cold War History|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=47–69|doi=10.1080/14682745.2012.759560|s2cid=153883165|issn=1468-2745}}</ref>
==History ==
{{Main article|Nuclear weapons testing|List of nuclear weapons tests|History of nuclear weapons}}
=== The beginning (fission explosions) ===
The first manmade nuclear explosion occurred on July 16, 1945, at 5:50 am on the [[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity]] test site near [[Alamogordo, New Mexico]], in the [[United States]], an area now known as the [[White Sands Missile Range]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=U.S. Department of Energy|title=Trinity Site - World's First Nuclear Explosion|url=https://energy.gov/management/trinity-site-worlds-first-nuclear-explosion|website=Energy.gov Office of Management|access-date=23 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Taylor|first1=Alan|title=70 Years Since Trinity: The Day the Nuclear Age Began|journal=The Atlantic|date=July 16, 2015|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2015/07/70-years-since-trinity-when-we-tested-nuclear-bombs/398735/|access-date=23 December 2016}}</ref> The event involved the full-scale testing of an implosion-type fission [[atomic bomb]]. In a memorandum to the U.S. Secretary of War, [[Leslie Groves|General Leslie Groves]] describes the yield as equivalent to 15,000 to 20,000 tons of TNT.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Groves|first1=General Leslie|title=The First Nuclear Test in New Mexico: Memorandum for the Secretary of War, Subject: The Test|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/truman-bombtest/|access-date=23 December 2016|agency=PBS.org|publisher=United States War Department|date=July 18, 1945}}</ref> Following this test, a uranium-gun type nuclear bomb ([[Little Boy]]) was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, with a blast yield of 15 kilotons; and a plutonium implosion-type bomb ([[Fat Man]]) on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, with a blast yield of 21 kilotons. Fat Man and Little Boy are the only instances in history of nuclear weapons being used as an act of war.
On August 29, 1949, the USSR became the second country to successfully test a nuclear weapon. RDS-1, dubbed "First Lightning" by the Soviets and "Joe-1" by the US, produced a 20 kiloton explosion and was essentially a copy of the American Fat Man plutonium implosion design.<ref>{{Cite web|title=VENONA Dated Documents|url=https://www.nsa.gov/news-features/declassified-documents/venona/dated/|access-date=2021-04-30|website=www.nsa.gov}}</ref>
=== Thermonuclear Era (fusion explosions) ===
The United States' first thermonuclear weapon, [[Ivy Mike]], was detonated on 1 November 1952 at [[Enewetak Atoll]] and yielded 10 Megatons of explosive force. The first thermonuclear weapon tested by the USSR, RDS-6s (Joe-4), was detonated on August 12, 1953, at the [[Semipalatinsk Test Site]] in [[Kazakhstan]] and yielded about 400 kilotons.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Soviet Nuclear Weapons Program|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/Sovwpnprog.html|access-date=2021-04-30|website=nuclearweaponarchive.org}}</ref> RDS-6s' design, nicknamed the Sloika, was remarkably similar to a version designed for the U.S. by [[Edward Teller]] nicknamed the "[[Alarm Clock (nuclear device)|Alarm Clock]]", in that the nuclear device was a two-stage weapon: the first explosion was triggered by [[Nuclear fission|fission]] and the second more powerful explosion by [[Nuclear fusion|fusion]]. The Sloika core consisted of a series of concentric spheres with alternating materials to help boost the explosive yield.
=== Proliferation Era ===
In the years following [[World War II]], eight countries have conducted nuclear tests with 2475 devices fired in 2120 tests.<ref name="Yang">{{citation|last1=Yang|first1=Xiaoping|first2=Robert|last2=North|first3=Carl|last3=Romney|first4=Paul G.|last4=Richards|date=August 2000|title=Worldwide Nuclear Explosions|url=http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~richards/my_papers/WW_nuclear_tests_IASPEI_HB.pdf|access-date=2013-12-31}}</ref> In 1963, the United States, [[Soviet Union]], and [[United Kingdom]] signed the [[Limited Test Ban Treaty]], pledging to refrain from testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space. The treaty permitted underground tests. Many other non-nuclear nations acceded to the Treaty following its entry into force; however, [[France]] and [[China]] (both nuclear weapons states) have not.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
The primary application to date has been military (i.e. nuclear weapons), and the remainder of explosions include the following:
* [[Nuclear pulse propulsion]], including using a nuclear explosion as asteroid deflection strategy.
* Power generation; see [[PACER (fusion)|PACER]]
* [[Peaceful nuclear explosions]]
==Nuclear weapons==
{{Main article|Nuclear weapons|History of nuclear weapons}}
[[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|Two nuclear weapons have been deployed]] in combat—both by the United States against [[Japan]] in World War II. The first event occurred on the morning of 6 August 1945, when the [[United States Army Air Forces]] dropped a [[uranium]] gun-type device, code-named "Little Boy", on the city of [[Hiroshima]], killing 70,000 people, including 20,000 Japanese combatants and 20,000 Korean [[Unfree labour|slave laborers]]. The second event occurred three days later when the United States Army Air Forces dropped a [[plutonium]] implosion-type device, code-named "Fat Man", on the city of [[Nagasaki]]. It killed 39,000 people, including 27,778 Japanese munitions employees, 2,000 Korean slave laborers, and 150 Japanese combatants. In total, around 109,000 people were killed in these bombings. Nuclear weapons are largely seen as a 'deterrent' by most governments; the sheer scale of the destruction caused by nuclear weapons has discouraged their use in warfare. {{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
===Nuclear testing===
{{Main article|Nuclear testing|List of nuclear weapons tests}}
Since the [[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity test]] and excluding combat use, countries with nuclear weapons have detonated roughly 1,700 nuclear explosions, all but six as tests. Of these, six were [[peaceful nuclear explosion]]s. Nuclear tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness, yield and explosive capability of nuclear weapons. Throughout the 20th century, most nations that have developed nuclear weapons had a staged test of them. Testing nuclear weapons can yield information about how the weapons work, as well as how the weapons behave under various conditions and how structures behave when subjected to a nuclear explosion. Additionally, nuclear testing has often been used as an indicator of scientific and military strength, and many tests have been overtly political in their intention; most [[list of countries with nuclear weapons|nuclear weapons states]] publicly declared their nuclear status by means of a nuclear test. Nuclear tests have taken place at more than 60 locations across the world; some in secluded areas and others more densely populated.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The legacy of nuclear testing|url=https://www.icanw.org/the_legacy_of_nuclear_testing|access-date=2021-04-29|website=ICAN|language=en}}</ref> Detonation of nuclear weapons (in a test or during war) releases radioactive fallout that concerned the public in the 1950s. This led to the Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963 signed by the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union. This treaty banned nuclear weapons testing in the atmosphere, outer space, and under water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our Documents - Test Ban Treaty (1963)|url=https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=95#:~:text=On%20August%205,%201963,%20the%20Limited%20Test%20Ban,the%20atmosphere,%20in%20outer%20space,%20and%20under%20water.|access-date=2021-04-29|website=www.ourdocuments.gov| date=9 April 2021 }}</ref>
==Effects of nuclear explosions==
{{Main article |Effects of nuclear explosions}}
=== Shockwaves and radiation ===
The dominant effect of a nuclear weapon (the blast and thermal radiation) are the same physical damage mechanisms as conventional [[Explosive material|explosive]]s, but the energy produced by a nuclear explosive is millions of times more per gram and the temperatures reached are in the tens of [[megakelvin]]. Nuclear weapons are quite different from conventional weapons because of the huge amount of explosive energy that they can put out and the different kinds of effects they make, like high temperatures and ionizing radiation.
The devastating impact of the explosion does not stop after the initial blast, as with conventional explosives. A cloud of nuclear radiation travels from the [[hypocenter]] of the explosion, causing an impact to life forms even after the heat waves have ceased. The health effects on humans from nuclear explosions comes from the initial shockwave, the radiation exposure, and the fallout. The initial shockwave and radiation exposure come from the immediate blast which has different effects on the health of humans depending on the distance from the center of the blast. The shockwave can rupture eardrums and lungs, can also throw people back, and cause buildings to collapse.<ref>{{Cite book|date=2005-09-06|title=Effects of Nuclear Earth-Penetrator and Other Weapons|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.17226/11282|doi=10.17226/11282|isbn=978-0-309-09673-7}}</ref> Radiation exposure is delivered at the initial blast and can continue for an extended amount of time in the form of nuclear fallout. The main health effect of nuclear fallout is cancer and birth defects because radiation causes changes in cells that can either kill or make them abnormal.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Effects to the Human Body From Nuclear Fallout|url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/shimp1/|access-date=2021-04-29|website=large.stanford.edu}}</ref> Any nuclear explosion (or [[nuclear war]]) would have wide-ranging, long-term, catastrophic effects. [[Radioactive contamination]] would cause [[genetic mutation]]s and cancer across many generations.<ref>[[Malcolm Fraser]] and [[Tilman Ruff]]. [http://www.theage.com.au/comment/2015-is-the-year-to-ban-nuclear-weapons-20150219-13jali.html#ixzz4BTMwrzJ2 2015 is the year to ban nuclear weapons],
''[[The Age]]'', February 19, 2015.</ref>
=== Nuclear winter ===
Another potential devastating effect of nuclear war is termed [[nuclear winter]]. The idea became popularized in mainstream culture during the 1980s, when [[Richard P. Turco]], [[Owen Toon]], Thomas P. Ackerman, [[James B. Pollack]] and [[Carl Sagan]] collaborated and produced a scientific study which suggested the Earth's weather and climate can be severely impacted by nuclear war.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Turco|first1=R. P.|last2=Toon|first2=O. B.|last3=Ackerman|first3=T. P.|last4=Pollack|first4=J. B.|last5=Sagan|first5= Carl |date= 1983-12-23|title=Nuclear Winter: Global Consequences of Multiple Nuclear Explosions|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.222.4630.1283|journal=Science|language= en |volume= 222|issue=4630|pages=1283–1292|doi=10.1126/science.222.4630.1283|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17773320|bibcode=1983Sci...222.1283T|s2cid=45515251}}</ref> The main idea is that once a conflict begins and the aggressors start detonating nuclear weapons, the explosions will eject small particles from the Earth's surface into the atmosphere as well as nuclear particles. It's also assumed that fires will break out and become widespread, similar to what happened at Hiroshima and Nagasaki during the end of WWII, which will cause soot and other harmful particles to also be introduced into the atmosphere.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2006-06-24|url=http://www.dtra.mil/toolbox/directorates/td/programs/nuclear_personnel/docs/DNATR805512F.pdf|access-date=2021-04-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060624185903/http://www.dtra.mil/toolbox/directorates/td/programs/nuclear_personnel/docs/DNATR805512F.pdf|archive-date=2006-06-24|title = Radiation Dose Reconstruction: U.S. Occupation Forces In Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, 1945-1946}}</ref> Once these harmful particles are lofted, strong upper-level winds in the troposphere can transport them thousands of kilometers and can end up transporting nuclear fallout and also alter the Earth's radiation budget. Once enough small particles are in the atmosphere, they can act as cloud condensation nuclei which will cause global cloud coverage to increase which in turn blocks incoming solar insolation and starts a global cooling period. This is not unlike one of the leading theories about the extinction of most dinosaur species, in that a large explosion ejected small particulate matter into the atmosphere and resulted in a global catastrophe characterized by cooler temperatures, acid rain, and the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary|KT Layer]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The KT extinction|url=https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/events/cowen1b.html|access-date=2021-04-30|website=ucmp.berkeley.edu}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Nuclear technology}}
* [[Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents]]
* [[Soviet nuclear well collapses]]
* [[Nuclear weapons in popular culture#List of visual depictions|Visual depictions of nuclear explosions in fiction]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* Video – [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JFiBXFFzT5c Nuclear Explosion Power Comparison]
* [https://nuclearsecrecy.com/nukemap/ NUKEMAP2.7 (modelling effects of nuclear explosion of various yield in various cities)]
{{Nuclear Technology}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Nuclear Explosion}}
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]
[[Category:Nuclear chemistry]]
[[Category:Nuclear weapon design]]
[[Category:Nuclear accidents and incidents]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Redirect|Nuclear blast|the record label|Nuclear Blast}}
{{Short description|Explosion from fission or fusion reaction}}
[[File:Operation Upshot-Knothole - Badger 001.jpg|right|250px|thumb|A 23 kiloton tower shot called [[Operation Upshot–Knothole|BADGER]], fired on April 18, 1953, at the [[Nevada Test Site]], ur momas part of the [[Operation Upshot–Knothole]] [[nuclear testing|nuclear test series]].]]
[[File:Greenhouse George Early Fireball.ogv|right|250px|thumb|The [[operation Greenhouse|Greenhouse]] George test early fireball.]]
[[File:Operation Upshot test.ogv|thumb|Upshot–Knothole Grable test (film)]]
{{nuclear weapons}}
A '''nuclear explosion''' is an [[explosion]] that occurs as a result of the rapid release of energy from a high-speed [[nuclear reaction]]. The driving reaction may be [[nuclear fission]] or [[nuclear fusion]] or a multi-stage cascading combination of the two, though to date all fusion-based weapons have used a fission device to initiate fusion, and a [[pure fusion weapon]] remains a hypothetical device. Nuclear explosions are used in [[nuclear weapons]] and [[nuclear testing]].
Nuclear explosions are extremely destructive compared to conventional (chemical) explosives, because of the vastly greater energy density of nuclear fuel compared to chemical explosives. They are often associated with [[mushroom cloud]]s, since any large atmospheric explosion can create such a cloud. Nuclear explosions produce high levels of [[ionizing radiation]] and [[Nuclear fallout|radioactive debris]] that is harmful to humans and can cause moderate to severe skin burns, eye damage, [[radiation sickness]], [[radiation-induced cancer]] and possible death depending on how far a person is from the blast radius.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-22|title=CDC Radiation Emergencies {{!}} Frequently Asked Questions About a Nuclear Blast|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/emergencies/nuclearfaq.htm|access-date=2021-04-29|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us}}</ref> Nuclear explosions can also have detrimental effects on the climate, lasting from months to years. A small-scale nuclear war could release enough particles into the atmosphere to cause the planet to cool and cause crops, animals, and agriculture to disappear across the globe—an effect named [[nuclear winter]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rubinson|first=Paul|date=2014-01-02|title=The global effects of nuclear winter: science and antinuclear protest in the United States and the Soviet Union during the 1980s|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14682745.2012.759560|journal=Cold War History|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=47–69|doi=10.1080/14682745.2012.759560|s2cid=153883165|issn=1468-2745}}</ref>
==History ==
{{Main article|Nuclear weapons testing|List of nuclear weapons tests|History of nuclear weapons}}
=== The beginning (fission explosions) ===
The first manmade nuclear explosion occurred on July 16, 1945, at 5:50 am on the [[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity]] test site near [[Alamogordo, New Mexico]], in the [[United States]], an area now known as the [[White Sands Missile Range]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=U.S. Department of Energy|title=Trinity Site - World's First Nuclear Explosion|url=https://energy.gov/management/trinity-site-worlds-first-nuclear-explosion|website=Energy.gov Office of Management|access-date=23 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Taylor|first1=Alan|title=70 Years Since Trinity: The Day the Nuclear Age Began|journal=The Atlantic|date=July 16, 2015|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2015/07/70-years-since-trinity-when-we-tested-nuclear-bombs/398735/|access-date=23 December 2016}}</ref> The event involved the full-scale testing of an implosion-type fission [[atomic bomb]]. In a memorandum to the U.S. Secretary of War, [[Leslie Groves|General Leslie Groves]] describes the yield as equivalent to 15,000 to 20,000 tons of TNT.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Groves|first1=General Leslie|title=The First Nuclear Test in New Mexico: Memorandum for the Secretary of War, Subject: The Test|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/truman-bombtest/|access-date=23 December 2016|agency=PBS.org|publisher=United States War Department|date=July 18, 1945}}</ref> Following this test, a uranium-gun type nuclear bomb ([[Little Boy]]) was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, with a blast yield of 15 kilotons; and a plutonium implosion-type bomb ([[Fat Man]]) on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, with a blast yield of 21 kilotons. Fat Man and Little Boy are the only instances in history of nuclear weapons being used as an act of war.
On August 29, 1949, the USSR became the second country to successfully test a nuclear weapon. RDS-1, dubbed "First Lightning" by the Soviets and "Joe-1" by the US, produced a 20 kiloton explosion and was essentially a copy of the American Fat Man plutonium implosion design.<ref>{{Cite web|title=VENONA Dated Documents|url=https://www.nsa.gov/news-features/declassified-documents/venona/dated/|access-date=2021-04-30|website=www.nsa.gov}}</ref>
=== Thermonuclear Era (fusion explosions) ===
The United States' first thermonuclear weapon, [[Ivy Mike]], was detonated on 1 November 1952 at [[Enewetak Atoll]] and yielded 10 Megatons of explosive force. The first thermonuclear weapon tested by the USSR, RDS-6s (Joe-4), was detonated on August 12, 1953, at the [[Semipalatinsk Test Site]] in [[Kazakhstan]] and yielded about 400 kilotons.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Soviet Nuclear Weapons Program|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/Sovwpnprog.html|access-date=2021-04-30|website=nuclearweaponarchive.org}}</ref> RDS-6s' design, nicknamed the Sloika, was remarkably similar to a version designed for the U.S. by [[Edward Teller]] nicknamed the "[[Alarm Clock (nuclear device)|Alarm Clock]]", in that the nuclear device was a two-stage weapon: the first explosion was triggered by [[Nuclear fission|fission]] and the second more powerful explosion by [[Nuclear fusion|fusion]]. The Sloika core consisted of a series of concentric spheres with alternating materials to help boost the explosive yield.
=== Proliferation Era ===
In the years following [[World War II]], eight countries have conducted nuclear tests with 2475 devices fired in 2120 tests.<ref name="Yang">{{citation|last1=Yang|first1=Xiaoping|first2=Robert|last2=North|first3=Carl|last3=Romney|first4=Paul G.|last4=Richards|date=August 2000|title=Worldwide Nuclear Explosions|url=http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~richards/my_papers/WW_nuclear_tests_IASPEI_HB.pdf|access-date=2013-12-31}}</ref> In 1963, the United States, [[Soviet Union]], and [[United Kingdom]] signed the [[Limited Test Ban Treaty]], pledging to refrain from testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space. The treaty permitted underground tests. Many other non-nuclear nations acceded to the Treaty following its entry into force; however, [[France]] and [[China]] (both nuclear weapons states) have not.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
The primary application to date has been military (i.e. nuclear weapons), and the remainder of explosions include the following:
* [[Nuclear pulse propulsion]], including using a nuclear explosion as asteroid deflection strategy.
* Power generation; see [[PACER (fusion)|PACER]]
* [[Peaceful nuclear explosions]]
==Nuclear weapons==
{{Main article|Nuclear weapons|History of nuclear weapons}}
[[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|Two nuclear weapons have been deployed]] in combat—both by the United States against [[Japan]] in World War II. The first event occurred on the morning of 6 August 1945, when the [[United States Army Air Forces]] dropped a [[uranium]] gun-type device, code-named "Little Boy", on the city of [[Hiroshima]], killing 70,000 people, including 20,000 Japanese combatants and 20,000 Korean [[Unfree labour|slave laborers]]. The second event occurred three days later when the United States Army Air Forces dropped a [[plutonium]] implosion-type device, code-named "Fat Man", on the city of [[Nagasaki]]. It killed 39,000 people, including 27,778 Japanese munitions employees, 2,000 Korean slave laborers, and 150 Japanese combatants. In total, around 109,000 people were killed in these bombings. Nuclear weapons are largely seen as a 'deterrent' by most governments; the sheer scale of the destruction caused by nuclear weapons has discouraged their use in warfare. {{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
===Nuclear testing===
{{Main article|Nuclear testing|List of nuclear weapons tests}}
Since the [[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity test]] and excluding combat use, countries with nuclear weapons have detonated roughly 1,700 nuclear explosions, all but six as tests. Of these, six were [[peaceful nuclear explosion]]s. Nuclear tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness, yield and explosive capability of nuclear weapons. Throughout the 20th century, most nations that have developed nuclear weapons had a staged test of them. Testing nuclear weapons can yield information about how the weapons work, as well as how the weapons behave under various conditions and how structures behave when subjected to a nuclear explosion. Additionally, nuclear testing has often been used as an indicator of scientific and military strength, and many tests have been overtly political in their intention; most [[list of countries with nuclear weapons|nuclear weapons states]] publicly declared their nuclear status by means of a nuclear test. Nuclear tests have taken place at more than 60 locations across the world; some in secluded areas and others more densely populated.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The legacy of nuclear testing|url=https://www.icanw.org/the_legacy_of_nuclear_testing|access-date=2021-04-29|website=ICAN|language=en}}</ref> Detonation of nuclear weapons (in a test or during war) releases radioactive fallout that concerned the public in the 1950s. This led to the Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963 signed by the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union. This treaty banned nuclear weapons testing in the atmosphere, outer space, and under water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our Documents - Test Ban Treaty (1963)|url=https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=95#:~:text=On%20August%205,%201963,%20the%20Limited%20Test%20Ban,the%20atmosphere,%20in%20outer%20space,%20and%20under%20water.|access-date=2021-04-29|website=www.ourdocuments.gov| date=9 April 2021 }}</ref>
==Effects of nuclear explosions==
{{Main article |Effects of nuclear explosions}}
=== Shockwaves and radiation ===
The dominant effect of a nuclear weapon (the blast and thermal radiation) are the same physical damage mechanisms as conventional [[Explosive material|explosive]]s, but the energy produced by a nuclear explosive is millions of times more per gram and the temperatures reached are in the tens of [[megakelvin]]. Nuclear weapons are quite different from conventional weapons because of the huge amount of explosive energy that they can put out and the different kinds of effects they make, like high temperatures and ionizing radiation.
The devastating impact of the explosion does not stop after the initial blast, as with conventional explosives. A cloud of nuclear radiation travels from the [[hypocenter]] of the explosion, causing an impact to life forms even after the heat waves have ceased. The health effects on humans from nuclear explosions comes from the initial shockwave, the radiation exposure, and the fallout. The initial shockwave and radiation exposure come from the immediate blast which has different effects on the health of humans depending on the distance from the center of the blast. The shockwave can rupture eardrums and lungs, can also throw people back, and cause buildings to collapse.<ref>{{Cite book|date=2005-09-06|title=Effects of Nuclear Earth-Penetrator and Other Weapons|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.17226/11282|doi=10.17226/11282|isbn=978-0-309-09673-7}}</ref> Radiation exposure is delivered at the initial blast and can continue for an extended amount of time in the form of nuclear fallout. The main health effect of nuclear fallout is cancer and birth defects because radiation causes changes in cells that can either kill or make them abnormal.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Effects to the Human Body From Nuclear Fallout|url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/shimp1/|access-date=2021-04-29|website=large.stanford.edu}}</ref> Any nuclear explosion (or [[nuclear war]]) would have wide-ranging, long-term, catastrophic effects. [[Radioactive contamination]] would cause [[genetic mutation]]s and cancer across many generations.<ref>[[Malcolm Fraser]] and [[Tilman Ruff]]. [http://www.theage.com.au/comment/2015-is-the-year-to-ban-nuclear-weapons-20150219-13jali.html#ixzz4BTMwrzJ2 2015 is the year to ban nuclear weapons],
''[[The Age]]'', February 19, 2015.</ref>
=== Nuclear winter ===
Another potential devastating effect of nuclear war is termed [[nuclear winter]]. The idea became popularized in mainstream culture during the 1980s, when [[Richard P. Turco]], [[Owen Toon]], Thomas P. Ackerman, [[James B. Pollack]] and [[Carl Sagan]] collaborated and produced a scientific study which suggested the Earth's weather and climate can be severely impacted by nuclear war.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Turco|first1=R. P.|last2=Toon|first2=O. B.|last3=Ackerman|first3=T. P.|last4=Pollack|first4=J. B.|last5=Sagan|first5= Carl |date= 1983-12-23|title=Nuclear Winter: Global Consequences of Multiple Nuclear Explosions|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.222.4630.1283|journal=Science|language= en |volume= 222|issue=4630|pages=1283–1292|doi=10.1126/science.222.4630.1283|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17773320|bibcode=1983Sci...222.1283T|s2cid=45515251}}</ref> The main idea is that once a conflict begins and the aggressors start detonating nuclear weapons, the explosions will eject small particles from the Earth's surface into the atmosphere as well as nuclear particles. It's also assumed that fires will break out and become widespread, similar to what happened at Hiroshima and Nagasaki during the end of WWII, which will cause soot and other harmful particles to also be introduced into the atmosphere.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2006-06-24|url=http://www.dtra.mil/toolbox/directorates/td/programs/nuclear_personnel/docs/DNATR805512F.pdf|access-date=2021-04-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060624185903/http://www.dtra.mil/toolbox/directorates/td/programs/nuclear_personnel/docs/DNATR805512F.pdf|archive-date=2006-06-24|title = Radiation Dose Reconstruction: U.S. Occupation Forces In Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, 1945-1946}}</ref> Once these harmful particles are lofted, strong upper-level winds in the troposphere can transport them thousands of kilometers and can end up transporting nuclear fallout and also alter the Earth's radiation budget. Once enough small particles are in the atmosphere, they can act as cloud condensation nuclei which will cause global cloud coverage to increase which in turn blocks incoming solar insolation and starts a global cooling period. This is not unlike one of the leading theories about the extinction of most dinosaur species, in that a large explosion ejected small particulate matter into the atmosphere and resulted in a global catastrophe characterized by cooler temperatures, acid rain, and the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary|KT Layer]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The KT extinction|url=https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/events/cowen1b.html|access-date=2021-04-30|website=ucmp.berkeley.edu}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Nuclear technology}}
* [[Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents]]
* [[Soviet nuclear well collapses]]
* [[Nuclear weapons in popular culture#List of visual depictions|Visual depictions of nuclear explosions in fiction]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* Video – [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JFiBXFFzT5c Nuclear Explosion Power Comparison]
* [https://nuclearsecrecy.com/nukemap/ NUKEMAP2.7 (modelling effects of nuclear explosion of various yield in various cities)]
{{Nuclear Technology}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Nuclear Explosion}}
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]
[[Category:Nuclear chemistry]]
[[Category:Nuclear weapon design]]
[[Category:Nuclear accidents and incidents]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]' |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Nuclear blast" redirects here. For the record label, see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_Blast" title="Nuclear Blast">Nuclear Blast</a>.</div>
<div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Explosion from fission or fusion reaction</div>
<figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Operation_Upshot-Knothole_-_Badger_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Operation_Upshot-Knothole_-_Badger_001.jpg/250px-Operation_Upshot-Knothole_-_Badger_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Operation_Upshot-Knothole_-_Badger_001.jpg/375px-Operation_Upshot-Knothole_-_Badger_001.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Operation_Upshot-Knothole_-_Badger_001.jpg/500px-Operation_Upshot-Knothole_-_Badger_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption>A 23 kiloton tower shot called <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Upshot%E2%80%93Knothole" title="Operation Upshot–Knothole">BADGER</a>, fired on April 18, 1953, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nevada_Test_Site" title="Nevada Test Site">Nevada Test Site</a>, ur momas part of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Upshot%E2%80%93Knothole" title="Operation Upshot–Knothole">Operation Upshot–Knothole</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">nuclear test series</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Greenhouse_George_Early_Fireball.ogv/250px--Greenhouse_George_Early_Fireball.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="250" height="167" data-durationhint="10" data-mwtitle="Greenhouse_George_Early_Fireball.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Greenhouse_George_Early_Fireball.ogv"><source src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d5/Greenhouse_George_Early_Fireball.ogv/Greenhouse_George_Early_Fireball.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="720" data-height="480" /><source src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Greenhouse_George_Early_Fireball.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="720" data-height="480" /><source src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d5/Greenhouse_George_Early_Fireball.ogv/Greenhouse_George_Early_Fireball.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="216" data-height="144" /><source src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d5/Greenhouse_George_Early_Fireball.ogv/Greenhouse_George_Early_Fireball.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="360" data-height="240" /><source src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d5/Greenhouse_George_Early_Fireball.ogv/Greenhouse_George_Early_Fireball.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="540" data-height="360" /><source src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d5/Greenhouse_George_Early_Fireball.ogv/Greenhouse_George_Early_Fireball.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="540" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Operation_Greenhouse" title="Operation Greenhouse">Greenhouse</a> George test early fireball.</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Operation_Upshot_test.ogv/220px--Operation_Upshot_test.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="13" data-mwtitle="Operation_Upshot_test.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Operation_Upshot_test.ogv"><source src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a0/Operation_Upshot_test.ogv/Operation_Upshot_test.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a0/Operation_Upshot_test.ogv/Operation_Upshot_test.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a0/Operation_Upshot_test.ogv/Operation_Upshot_test.ogv.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Operation_Upshot_test.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a0/Operation_Upshot_test.ogv/Operation_Upshot_test.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a0/Operation_Upshot_test.ogv/Operation_Upshot_test.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a0/Operation_Upshot_test.ogv/Operation_Upshot_test.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/enwiki/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AOperation_Upshot_test.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English (en)" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption>Upshot–Knothole Grable test (film)</figcaption></figure>
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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapons</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Little_boy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of a mock-up of the Little Boy nuclear weapon dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, in August 1945." src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/170px-Little_boy.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/255px-Little_boy.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/340px-Little_boy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2860" data-file-height="1812" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee;">
Background</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear explosion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Testing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Delivery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">Yield</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" title="Effects of nuclear explosions">Effects</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_labor_issues" title="Nuclear labor issues">Workers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Ethics</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons" title="List of nuclear weapons">Arsenals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_utilization_target_selection" title="Nuclear utilization target selection">Target selection</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Arms race</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_blackmail" title="Nuclear blackmail">Blackmail</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_espionage" title="Nuclear espionage">Espionage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Proliferation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Disarmament</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_terrorism" title="Nuclear terrorism">Terrorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_umbrella" title="Nuclear umbrella">Umbrella</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Opposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Winter</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee;">
<a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">Nuclear-armed states</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<dl><dd><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">NPT</a> recognized</i><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United States and weapons of mass destruction">United States</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Russia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Russia and weapons of mass destruction">Russia</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/enwiki/wiki/France_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="France and weapons of mass destruction">France</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="China and weapons of mass destruction">China</a></dd></dl>
<dl><dd><i>Others</i><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/India_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="India and weapons of mass destruction">India</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_and_Israel" title="Nuclear weapons and Israel">Israel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(undeclared)</span></dd>
<dd><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction">Pakistan</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Korea_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="North Korea and weapons of mass destruction">North Korea</a></dd></dl>
<dl><dd><i>Former</i><br /><a href="/enwiki/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">South Africa</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons#Former_Soviet_Republics" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">Belarus </a></dd>
<dd><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kazakhstan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Kazakhstan and weapons of mass destruction">Kazakhstan</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_and_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons and Ukraine">Ukraine</a></dd></dl></td>
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<p>A <b>nuclear explosion</b> is an <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Explosion" title="Explosion">explosion</a> that occurs as a result of the rapid release of energy from a high-speed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reaction</a>. The driving reaction may be <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> or a multi-stage cascading combination of the two, though to date all fusion-based weapons have used a fission device to initiate fusion, and a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pure_fusion_weapon" title="Pure fusion weapon">pure fusion weapon</a> remains a hypothetical device. Nuclear explosions are used in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">nuclear testing</a>.
</p><p>Nuclear explosions are extremely destructive compared to conventional (chemical) explosives, because of the vastly greater energy density of nuclear fuel compared to chemical explosives. They are often associated with <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mushroom_cloud" title="Mushroom cloud">mushroom clouds</a>, since any large atmospheric explosion can create such a cloud. Nuclear explosions produce high levels of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">radioactive debris</a> that is harmful to humans and can cause moderate to severe skin burns, eye damage, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radiation_sickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation sickness">radiation sickness</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radiation-induced_cancer" title="Radiation-induced cancer">radiation-induced cancer</a> and possible death depending on how far a person is from the blast radius.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nuclear explosions can also have detrimental effects on the climate, lasting from months to years. A small-scale nuclear war could release enough particles into the atmosphere to cause the planet to cool and cause crops, animals, and agriculture to disappear across the globe—an effect named <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">nuclear winter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#The_beginning_(fission_explosions)"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">The beginning (fission explosions)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Thermonuclear_Era_(fusion_explosions)"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Thermonuclear Era (fusion explosions)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Proliferation_Era"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Proliferation Era</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Nuclear_weapons"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Nuclear weapons</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Nuclear_testing"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Nuclear testing</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Effects_of_nuclear_explosions"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Effects of nuclear explosions</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Shockwaves_and_radiation"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Shockwaves and radiation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Nuclear_winter"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Nuclear winter</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_explosion&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Nuclear weapons testing</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">List of nuclear weapons tests</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History of nuclear weapons</a></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_beginning_(fission_explosions)"><span id="The_beginning_.28fission_explosions.29"></span>The beginning (fission explosions)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_explosion&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The beginning (fission explosions)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The first manmade nuclear explosion occurred on July 16, 1945, at 5:50 am on the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a> test site near <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alamogordo,_New_Mexico" title="Alamogordo, New Mexico">Alamogordo, New Mexico</a>, in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, an area now known as the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/White_Sands_Missile_Range" title="White Sands Missile Range">White Sands Missile Range</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The event involved the full-scale testing of an implosion-type fission <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a>. In a memorandum to the U.S. Secretary of War, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">General Leslie Groves</a> describes the yield as equivalent to 15,000 to 20,000 tons of TNT.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following this test, a uranium-gun type nuclear bomb (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a>) was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, with a blast yield of 15 kilotons; and a plutonium implosion-type bomb (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a>) on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, with a blast yield of 21 kilotons. Fat Man and Little Boy are the only instances in history of nuclear weapons being used as an act of war.
</p><p>On August 29, 1949, the USSR became the second country to successfully test a nuclear weapon. RDS-1, dubbed "First Lightning" by the Soviets and "Joe-1" by the US, produced a 20 kiloton explosion and was essentially a copy of the American Fat Man plutonium implosion design.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermonuclear_Era_(fusion_explosions)"><span id="Thermonuclear_Era_.28fusion_explosions.29"></span>Thermonuclear Era (fusion explosions)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_explosion&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Thermonuclear Era (fusion explosions)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The United States' first thermonuclear weapon, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a>, was detonated on 1 November 1952 at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Enewetak_Atoll" title="Enewetak Atoll">Enewetak Atoll</a> and yielded 10 Megatons of explosive force. The first thermonuclear weapon tested by the USSR, RDS-6s (Joe-4), was detonated on August 12, 1953, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Semipalatinsk_Test_Site" title="Semipalatinsk Test Site">Semipalatinsk Test Site</a> in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> and yielded about 400 kilotons.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RDS-6s' design, nicknamed the Sloika, was remarkably similar to a version designed for the U.S. by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> nicknamed the "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alarm_Clock_(nuclear_device)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alarm Clock (nuclear device)">Alarm Clock</a>", in that the nuclear device was a two-stage weapon: the first explosion was triggered by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> and the second more powerful explosion by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">fusion</a>. The Sloika core consisted of a series of concentric spheres with alternating materials to help boost the explosive yield.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proliferation_Era">Proliferation Era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_explosion&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Proliferation Era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>In the years following <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, eight countries have conducted nuclear tests with 2475 devices fired in 2120 tests.<sup id="cite_ref-Yang_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1963, the United States, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> signed the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Limited_Test_Ban_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Limited Test Ban Treaty">Limited Test Ban Treaty</a>, pledging to refrain from testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space. The treaty permitted underground tests. Many other non-nuclear nations acceded to the Treaty following its entry into force; however, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> (both nuclear weapons states) have not.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>The primary application to date has been military (i.e. nuclear weapons), and the remainder of explosions include the following:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_pulse_propulsion" title="Nuclear pulse propulsion">Nuclear pulse propulsion</a>, including using a nuclear explosion as asteroid deflection strategy.</li>
<li>Power generation; see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PACER_(fusion)" class="mw-redirect" title="PACER (fusion)">PACER</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peaceful_nuclear_explosions" class="mw-redirect" title="Peaceful nuclear explosions">Peaceful nuclear explosions</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_weapons">Nuclear weapons</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_explosion&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Nuclear weapons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">Nuclear weapons</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History of nuclear weapons</a></div>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Two nuclear weapons have been deployed</a> in combat—both by the United States against <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> in World War II. The first event occurred on the morning of 6 August 1945, when the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Forces</a> dropped a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> gun-type device, code-named "Little Boy", on the city of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hiroshima" title="Hiroshima">Hiroshima</a>, killing 70,000 people, including 20,000 Japanese combatants and 20,000 Korean <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unfree_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfree labour">slave laborers</a>. The second event occurred three days later when the United States Army Air Forces dropped a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> implosion-type device, code-named "Fat Man", on the city of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>. It killed 39,000 people, including 27,778 Japanese munitions employees, 2,000 Korean slave laborers, and 150 Japanese combatants. In total, around 109,000 people were killed in these bombings. Nuclear weapons are largely seen as a 'deterrent' by most governments; the sheer scale of the destruction caused by nuclear weapons has discouraged their use in warfare. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_testing">Nuclear testing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_explosion&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Nuclear testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">Nuclear testing</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">List of nuclear weapons tests</a></div>
<p>Since the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity test</a> and excluding combat use, countries with nuclear weapons have detonated roughly 1,700 nuclear explosions, all but six as tests. Of these, six were <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peaceful_nuclear_explosion" title="Peaceful nuclear explosion">peaceful nuclear explosions</a>. Nuclear tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness, yield and explosive capability of nuclear weapons. Throughout the 20th century, most nations that have developed nuclear weapons had a staged test of them. Testing nuclear weapons can yield information about how the weapons work, as well as how the weapons behave under various conditions and how structures behave when subjected to a nuclear explosion. Additionally, nuclear testing has often been used as an indicator of scientific and military strength, and many tests have been overtly political in their intention; most <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_countries_with_nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries with nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons states</a> publicly declared their nuclear status by means of a nuclear test. Nuclear tests have taken place at more than 60 locations across the world; some in secluded areas and others more densely populated.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Detonation of nuclear weapons (in a test or during war) releases radioactive fallout that concerned the public in the 1950s. This led to the Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963 signed by the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union. This treaty banned nuclear weapons testing in the atmosphere, outer space, and under water.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_nuclear_explosions">Effects of nuclear explosions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_explosion&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Effects of nuclear explosions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" title="Effects of nuclear explosions">Effects of nuclear explosions</a></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shockwaves_and_radiation">Shockwaves and radiation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_explosion&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Shockwaves and radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The dominant effect of a nuclear weapon (the blast and thermal radiation) are the same physical damage mechanisms as conventional <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Explosive_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Explosive material">explosives</a>, but the energy produced by a nuclear explosive is millions of times more per gram and the temperatures reached are in the tens of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Megakelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="Megakelvin">megakelvin</a>. Nuclear weapons are quite different from conventional weapons because of the huge amount of explosive energy that they can put out and the different kinds of effects they make, like high temperatures and ionizing radiation.
</p><p>The devastating impact of the explosion does not stop after the initial blast, as with conventional explosives. A cloud of nuclear radiation travels from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hypocenter" title="Hypocenter">hypocenter</a> of the explosion, causing an impact to life forms even after the heat waves have ceased. The health effects on humans from nuclear explosions comes from the initial shockwave, the radiation exposure, and the fallout. The initial shockwave and radiation exposure come from the immediate blast which has different effects on the health of humans depending on the distance from the center of the blast. The shockwave can rupture eardrums and lungs, can also throw people back, and cause buildings to collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Radiation exposure is delivered at the initial blast and can continue for an extended amount of time in the form of nuclear fallout. The main health effect of nuclear fallout is cancer and birth defects because radiation causes changes in cells that can either kill or make them abnormal.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Any nuclear explosion (or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear war">nuclear war</a>) would have wide-ranging, long-term, catastrophic effects. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radioactive contamination</a> would cause <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genetic_mutation" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic mutation">genetic mutations</a> and cancer across many generations.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_winter">Nuclear winter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_explosion&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nuclear winter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Another potential devastating effect of nuclear war is termed <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">nuclear winter</a>. The idea became popularized in mainstream culture during the 1980s, when <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Richard_P._Turco" title="Richard P. Turco">Richard P. Turco</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Owen_Toon" title="Owen Toon">Owen Toon</a>, Thomas P. Ackerman, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/James_B._Pollack" title="James B. Pollack">James B. Pollack</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a> collaborated and produced a scientific study which suggested the Earth's weather and climate can be severely impacted by nuclear war.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main idea is that once a conflict begins and the aggressors start detonating nuclear weapons, the explosions will eject small particles from the Earth's surface into the atmosphere as well as nuclear particles. It's also assumed that fires will break out and become widespread, similar to what happened at Hiroshima and Nagasaki during the end of WWII, which will cause soot and other harmful particles to also be introduced into the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once these harmful particles are lofted, strong upper-level winds in the troposphere can transport them thousands of kilometers and can end up transporting nuclear fallout and also alter the Earth's radiation budget. Once enough small particles are in the atmosphere, they can act as cloud condensation nuclei which will cause global cloud coverage to increase which in turn blocks incoming solar insolation and starts a global cooling period. This is not unlike one of the leading theories about the extinction of most dinosaur species, in that a large explosion ejected small particulate matter into the atmosphere and resulted in a global catastrophe characterized by cooler temperatures, acid rain, and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_boundary" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary">KT Layer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_explosion&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
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<li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/48px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/64px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology portal</a></span></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soviet_nuclear_well_collapses" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet nuclear well collapses">Soviet nuclear well collapses</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_in_popular_culture#List_of_visual_depictions" title="Nuclear weapons in popular culture">Visual depictions of nuclear explosions in fiction</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_explosion&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2015" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, Alan (July 16, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2015/07/70-years-since-trinity-when-we-tested-nuclear-bombs/398735/">"70 Years Since Trinity: The Day the Nuclear Age Began"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=70+Years+Since+Trinity%3A+The+Day+the+Nuclear+Age+Began&rft.date=2015-07-16&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fphoto%2F2015%2F07%2F70-years-since-trinity-when-we-tested-nuclear-bombs%2F398735%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+explosion" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroves1945" class="citation news cs1">Groves, General Leslie (July 18, 1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/truman-bombtest/">"The First Nuclear Test in New Mexico: Memorandum for the Secretary of War, Subject: The Test"</a>. United States War Department. PBS.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+First+Nuclear+Test+in+New+Mexico%3A+Memorandum+for+the+Secretary+of+War%2C+Subject%3A+The+Test&rft.date=1945-07-18&rft.aulast=Groves&rft.aufirst=General+Leslie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Famericanexperience%2Ffeatures%2Fprimary-resources%2Ftruman-bombtest%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+explosion" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsa.gov/news-features/declassified-documents/venona/dated/">"VENONA Dated Documents"</a>. <i>www.nsa.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nsa.gov&rft.atitle=VENONA+Dated+Documents&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsa.gov%2Fnews-features%2Fdeclassified-documents%2Fvenona%2Fdated%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+explosion" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/Sovwpnprog.html">"The Soviet Nuclear Weapons Program"</a>. <i>nuclearweaponarchive.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nuclearweaponarchive.org&rft.atitle=The+Soviet+Nuclear+Weapons+Program&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnuclearweaponarchive.org%2FRussia%2FSovwpnprog.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+explosion" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Yang-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yang_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYangNorthRomneyRichards2000" class="citation cs2">Yang, Xiaoping; North, Robert; Romney, Carl; Richards, Paul G. (August 2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~richards/my_papers/WW_nuclear_tests_IASPEI_HB.pdf"><i>Worldwide Nuclear Explosions</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-12-31</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Worldwide+Nuclear+Explosions&rft.date=2000-08&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Xiaoping&rft.au=North%2C+Robert&rft.au=Romney%2C+Carl&rft.au=Richards%2C+Paul+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ldeo.columbia.edu%2F~richards%2Fmy_papers%2FWW_nuclear_tests_IASPEI_HB.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+explosion" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=95#:~:text=On%20August%205,%201963,%20the%20Limited%20Test%20Ban,the%20atmosphere,%20in%20outer%20space,%20and%20under%20water.">"Our Documents - Test Ban Treaty (1963)"</a>. <i>www.ourdocuments.gov</i>. 9 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ourdocuments.gov&rft.atitle=Our+Documents+-+Test+Ban+Treaty+%281963%29&rft.date=2021-04-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ourdocuments.gov%2Fdoc.php%3Fflash%3Dfalse%26doc%3D95%23%3A~%3Atext%3DOn%2520August%25205%2C%25201963%2C%2520the%2520Limited%2520Test%2520Ban%2Cthe%2520atmosphere%2C%2520in%2520outer%2520space%2C%2520and%2520under%2520water.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+explosion" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.17226/11282"><i>Effects of Nuclear Earth-Penetrator and Other Weapons</i></a>. 2005-09-06. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F11282">10.17226/11282</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-09673-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-09673-7"><bdi>978-0-309-09673-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Effects+of+Nuclear+Earth-Penetrator+and+Other+Weapons&rft.date=2005-09-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F11282&rft.isbn=978-0-309-09673-7&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.17226%2F11282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+explosion" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph241/shimp1/">"Effects to the Human Body From Nuclear Fallout"</a>. <i>large.stanford.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=large.stanford.edu&rft.atitle=Effects+to+the+Human+Body+From+Nuclear+Fallout&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flarge.stanford.edu%2Fcourses%2F2017%2Fph241%2Fshimp1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+explosion" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malcolm_Fraser" title="Malcolm Fraser">Malcolm Fraser</a> and <a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Tilman_Ruff&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tilman Ruff (page does not exist)">Tilman Ruff</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theage.com.au/comment/2015-is-the-year-to-ban-nuclear-weapons-20150219-13jali.html#ixzz4BTMwrzJ2">2015 is the year to ban nuclear weapons</a>,
<i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Age" title="The Age">The Age</a></i>, February 19, 2015.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurcoToonAckermanPollack1983" class="citation journal cs1">Turco, R. P.; Toon, O. B.; Ackerman, T. P.; Pollack, J. B.; Sagan, Carl (1983-12-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.222.4630.1283">"Nuclear Winter: Global Consequences of Multiple Nuclear Explosions"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>222</b> (4630): 1283–1292. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983Sci...222.1283T">1983Sci...222.1283T</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.222.4630.1283">10.1126/science.222.4630.1283</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17773320">17773320</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:45515251">45515251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Nuclear+Winter%3A+Global+Consequences+of+Multiple+Nuclear+Explosions&rft.volume=222&rft.issue=4630&rft.pages=1283-1292&rft.date=1983-12-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A45515251%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983Sci...222.1283T&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.222.4630.1283&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17773320&rft.aulast=Turco&rft.aufirst=R.+P.&rft.au=Toon%2C+O.+B.&rft.au=Ackerman%2C+T.+P.&rft.au=Pollack%2C+J.+B.&rft.au=Sagan%2C+Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.222.4630.1283&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+explosion" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060624185903/http://www.dtra.mil/toolbox/directorates/td/programs/nuclear_personnel/docs/DNATR805512F.pdf">"Radiation Dose Reconstruction: U.S. Occupation Forces In Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, 1945-1946"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 2006-06-24. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dtra.mil/toolbox/directorates/td/programs/nuclear_personnel/docs/DNATR805512F.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2006-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Radiation+Dose+Reconstruction%3A+U.S.+Occupation+Forces+In+Hiroshima+and+Nagasaki%2C+Japan%2C+1945-1946&rft.date=2006-06-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dtra.mil%2Ftoolbox%2Fdirectorates%2Ftd%2Fprograms%2Fnuclear_personnel%2Fdocs%2FDNATR805512F.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+explosion" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/events/cowen1b.html">"The KT extinction"</a>. <i>ucmp.berkeley.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ucmp.berkeley.edu&rft.atitle=The+KT+extinction&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fucmp.berkeley.edu%2Feducation%2Fevents%2Fcowen1b.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+explosion" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_explosion&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li>Video – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JFiBXFFzT5c">Nuclear Explosion Power Comparison</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nuclearsecrecy.com/nukemap/">NUKEMAP2.7 (modelling effects of nuclear explosion of various yield in various cities)</a></li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist ｜ above = * [[Outline of nuclear technology|Outline]] mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_technology" title="Template talk:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nucleus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Fission</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">braking</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Fuel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">Tritium</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">Deuterium</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">Helium-3</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">Fertile material</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fissile_material" title="Fissile material">Fissile material</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">Isotope separation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_material" title="Nuclear material">Nuclear material</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">depleted</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">Activation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">Capture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">Poison</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">Cross section</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Generator</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Radiation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutron_reflector" title="Neutron reflector">Reflector</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">Temperature</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">Thermal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">Fast</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutron#Fusion_neutrons" title="Neutron">Fusion</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">by country</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Power plant</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economics_of_nuclear_power_plants" title="Economics of nuclear power plants">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Accidents and incidents</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy" title="Nuclear energy policy">Policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Multi-mission_radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator">MMRTG</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_propulsion" title="Nuclear propulsion">Propulsion</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket" title="Nuclear thermal rocket">rocket</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_safety_and_security" title="Nuclear safety and security">Safety and security</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">Nuclear meltdown</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Imaging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autoradiograph" title="Autoradiograph">Autoradiograph</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/RadBall" title="RadBall">RadBall</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scintigraphy" title="Scintigraphy">Scintigraphy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography" title="Single-photon emission computed tomography">Single-photon emission (SPECT)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">Positron-emission tomography (PET)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Therapy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fast_neutron_therapy" title="Fast neutron therapy">Fast-neutron</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutron_capture_therapy_of_cancer" title="Neutron capture therapy of cancer">Neutron capture therapy of cancer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Targeted_alpha-particle_therapy" title="Targeted alpha-particle therapy">Targeted alpha-particle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Proton_therapy" title="Proton therapy">Proton-beam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tomotherapy" title="Tomotherapy">Tomotherapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brachytherapy" title="Brachytherapy">Brachytherapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radiosurgery" title="Radiosurgery">Radiosurgery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radiopharmacology" title="Radiopharmacology">Radiopharmacology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Irradiation" title="Irradiation">Processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Atomic_gardening" title="Atomic gardening">Atomic gardening</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electron-beam_processing" title="Electron-beam processing">Electron-beam processing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">Food irradiation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gemstone_irradiation" title="Gemstone irradiation">Gemstone irradiation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Weapons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Arms race</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Delivery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Disarmament</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Explosion</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" title="Effects of nuclear explosions">effects</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Proliferation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Testing</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion" title="High-altitude nuclear explosion">high-altitude</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Underground_nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Underground nuclear weapons testing">underground</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">Yield</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">TNTe</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">States with nuclear weapons</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historical_nuclear_weapons_stockpiles_and_nuclear_tests_by_country" title="Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country">Historical stockpiles and tests</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">Tests</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States">Tests in the United States</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of weapons of mass destruction treaties">WMD treaties</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear-weapon-free_zone" title="Nuclear-weapon-free zone">Weapon-free zones</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons" title="List of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Waste</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">Actinide</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reprocessed_uranium" title="Reprocessed uranium">Reprocessed uranium</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">Reactor-grade plutonium</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Minor_actinide" title="Minor actinide">Minor actinide</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Activation_product" title="Activation product">Activation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Fission</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">LLFP</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Disposal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">Fuel cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/High-level_waste" title="High-level waste">High-level (HLW)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Low-level_waste" title="Low-level waste">Low-level (LLW)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_decommissioning" title="Nuclear decommissioning">Nuclear decommissioning</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deep_geological_repository" title="Deep geological repository">Repository</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">Reprocessing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">Spent fuel</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">pool</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">cask</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">Transmutation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Debate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Blue_Ribbon_Commission_on_America%27s_Nuclear_Future" title="Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future">Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Uranium_mining_debate" title="Uranium mining debate">Uranium mining</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Nuclear_reactors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fission" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fission" title="Nuclear reactor">Fission</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="float: left;"><b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">Moderator</a></b></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">Light water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aqueous_homogeneous_reactor" title="Aqueous homogeneous reactor">Aqueous homogeneous</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">Boiling</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/GE_BWR" title="GE BWR">BWR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Advanced_boiling_water_reactor" title="Advanced boiling water reactor">ABWR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_Simplified_Boiling_Water_Reactor" title="Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor">ESBWR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kerena_boiling_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerena boiling water reactor">Kerena</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">Natural fission</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">Pressurized</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/AP1000" title="AP1000">AP1000</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/APR-1400" title="APR-1400">APR-1400</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/APR%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="APR+">APR+</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/APWR" class="mw-redirect" title="APWR">APWR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ATMEA1" class="mw-redirect" title="ATMEA1">ATMEA1</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/CAP1400" title="CAP1400">CAP1400</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/CPR-1000" title="CPR-1000">CPR-1000</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/EPR_(nuclear_reactor)" title="EPR (nuclear reactor)">EPR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hualong_One" title="Hualong One">HPR-1000</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ACPR1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACPR1000">ACPR1000</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ACP1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACP1000">ACP1000</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/VVER" title="VVER">VVER</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/IPWR-900" title="IPWR-900">IPWR-900</a></li>
<li>many others</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Supercritical_water_reactor" title="Supercritical water reactor">Supercritical (SCWR)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy-water reactor">Heavy water</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;;background:whitesmoke;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deuterium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterium oxide">D<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor" title="Pressurized heavy-water reactor">Pressurized</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/CANDU_reactor" title="CANDU reactor">CANDU</a>
<ul><li>CANDU 6</li>
<li>CANDU 9</li>
<li>EC6</li>
<li>AFCR</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ACR-1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACR-1000">ACR-1000</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carolinas%E2%80%93Virginia_Tube_Reactor" title="Carolinas–Virginia Tube Reactor">CVTR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/IPHWR" title="IPHWR">IPHWR</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/IPHWR-220" title="IPHWR-220">IPHWR-220</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/IPHWR#IPHWR-540" title="IPHWR">IPHWR-540</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/IPHWR-700" title="IPHWR-700">IPHWR-700</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Argentina">PHWR KWU</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=MZFR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MZFR (page does not exist)">MZFR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/%C3%85gestaverket" class="mw-redirect" title="Ågestaverket">R3</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/R4_nuclear_reactor" title="R4 nuclear reactor">R4 Marviken</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=HWLWR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWLWR (page does not exist)">HWLWR</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fugen_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fugen Nuclear Power Plant">ATR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gentilly_Nuclear_Generating_Station#Gentilly-1" title="Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station">HW BLWR 250</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Steam-generating_heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam-generating heavy water reactor">Steam-generating (SGHWR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Advanced_heavy-water_reactor" title="Advanced heavy-water reactor">AHWR</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/WR-1" title="WR-1">WR-1</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=HWGCR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWGCR (page does not exist)">HWGCR</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brennilis_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant">EL-4</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Kernkraftwerk_Niederaichbach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kernkraftwerk Niederaichbach (page does not exist)">KKN</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/KS_150" title="KS 150">KS 150</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Graphite-moderated_reactor" title="Graphite-moderated reactor">Graphite</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="H2O" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant">AM-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station#Early_reactors" title="Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station">AMB-X</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/EGP-6" title="EGP-6">EGP-6</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gas-cooled_reactor" title="Gas-cooled reactor">Gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/UNGG_reactor" title="UNGG reactor"><i>Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz</i> (UNGG)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Magnox" title="Magnox">Magnox</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Advanced_Gas-cooled_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor">Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gas_turbine_modular_helium_reactor" title="Gas turbine modular helium reactor">GTMHR</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=MHR-T&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MHR-T (page does not exist)">MHR-T</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/UHTREX" title="UHTREX">UHTREX</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Very-high-temperature_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Very-high-temperature reactor">VHTR (HTGR)</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pebble-bed_reactor" title="Pebble-bed reactor">PBR (PBMR)</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/AVR_reactor" title="AVR reactor">AVR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/HTR-10" title="HTR-10">HTR-10</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/HTR-PM" title="HTR-PM">HTR-PM</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/THTR-300" title="THTR-300">THTR-300</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Prismatic_block_reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prismatic block reactor (page does not exist)">PMR</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">Molten-salt</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fluorides" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/FLiBe" title="FLiBe">Fluorides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fuji_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Fuji Molten Salt Reactor">Fuji MSR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor" title="Liquid fluoride thorium reactor">Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment" title="Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment">Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Integral_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Integral Molten Salt Reactor">Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/TMSR-500" class="mw-redirect" title="TMSR-500">TMSR-500</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/TMSR-LF1" title="TMSR-LF1">TMSR-LF1</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">None<br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">fast-neutron</a>)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">Breeder (FBR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Integral_fast_reactor" title="Integral fast reactor">Integral (IFR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Small,_sealed,_transportable,_autonomous_reactor" title="Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor">Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Traveling_wave_reactor" title="Traveling wave reactor">Traveling-wave (TWR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_Multiplier_Module" title="Energy Multiplier Module">Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reduced_moderation_water_reactor" title="Reduced moderation water reactor">Reduced-moderation (RMWR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fast_Breeder_Test_Reactor" title="Fast Breeder Test Reactor">Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dual_fluid_reactor" title="Dual fluid reactor">Dual fluid reactor (DFR)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">Sodium (SFR)</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/BN-350_reactor" title="BN-350 reactor">BN-350</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/BN-600_reactor" title="BN-600 reactor">BN-600</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/BN-1200_reactor" title="BN-1200 reactor">BN-1200</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/CFR-600" title="CFR-600">CFR-600</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nix" title="Phénix">Phénix</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix" title="Superphénix">Superphénix</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prototype_Fast_Breeder_Reactor" title="Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor">PFBR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/FBR-600" title="FBR-600">FBR-600</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Experimental_Fast_Reactor" title="China Experimental Fast Reactor">CEFR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dounreay#Prototype_Fast_Reactor_(PFR)" title="Dounreay">PFR</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/PRISM_(reactor)" title="PRISM (reactor)">PRISM</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">Lead</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gas-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Gas-cooled fast reactor">Helium gas (GFR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stable_salt_reactor" title="Stable salt reactor">Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organic_nuclear_reactor" title="Organic nuclear reactor">Organic nuclear reactor</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Arbus-reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbus-reactor (page does not exist)">Arbus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Piqua_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Piqua Nuclear Generating Station">Piqua</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion">Aircraft Reactor Experiment</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fusion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fusion_reactors" title="Nuclear reactor">Fusion</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thermonuclear_fusion#Confinement" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermonuclear fusion">confinement</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">Magnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Field-reversed_configuration" title="Field-reversed configuration">Field-reversed configuration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Levitated_dipole" title="Levitated dipole">Levitated dipole</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Reversed_field_pinch" title="Reversed field pinch">Reversed field pinch</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spheromak" title="Spheromak">Spheromak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stellarator" title="Stellarator">Stellarator</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">Tokamak</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Inertial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bubble_fusion" title="Bubble fusion">Bubble <span style="font-size:85%;">(acoustic)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fusor" title="Fusor">Fusor</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inertial_electrostatic_confinement" title="Inertial electrostatic confinement">electrostatic</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Laser-driven</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Magnetized_target_fusion" title="Magnetized target fusion">Magnetized-target</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Z-pinch" title="Z-pinch">Z-pinch</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dense_plasma_focus" title="Dense plasma focus">Dense plasma focus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Migma" title="Migma">Migma</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">Muon-catalyzed</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Polywell" title="Polywell">Polywell</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pyroelectric_fusion" title="Pyroelectric fusion">Pyroelectric</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/48px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/64px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /></span></span> </span><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology portal</a></b></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" title="Category:Nuclear technology">Category</a></b></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nuclear technology">Commons</a></b></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2656967#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2656967#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2656967#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Kernwaffenexplosion"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/7509741-2">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562377">Japan</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10646377">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
