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{{Use American English|date = February 2019}}
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{{Update|documentation|date=May 2020}}
[[File:Poverty in China.svg|thumb|Share of population in extreme poverty over time]]
In [[China]], [[poverty]] mainly refers to [[rural poverty]]. Decades of economic development has reduced urban [[extreme poverty]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/economics-blog/2015/aug/19/china-poverty-inequality-development-goals|title=China has almost wiped out urban poverty no. Now it must tackle inequality|first=Elizabeth|last=Stuart|date=August 19, 2020|access-date=28 December 2017|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.odi.org/comment/9803-china-urban-poverty-reduction-sdgs-inequality|title=China has almost ended urban poverty – a promising start for the SDGs|website=Odi.org|access-date=28 December 2017|archive-date=September 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910041141/https://www.odi.org/comment/9803-china-urban-poverty-reduction-sdgs-inequality|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/ICPSR/series/243|title=Series|website=Icpsr.umich.edu|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref> According to the [[World Bank]], more than 850 million Chinese people have been lifted out of extreme poverty; China's poverty rate fell from 88 percent in 1981 to 0.7 percent in 2015, as measured by the percentage of people living on the equivalent of US$1.90 or less per day in 2011 purchasing price parity terms,<ref name="worldbank.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview#3|title=Overview|website=Worldbank.org|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?locations=CN|title=Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) {{!}} Data|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=2019-06-01}}</ref> which still stands in 2022.<ref name=WBPL>{{cite web| url=https://povertydata.worldbank.org/poverty/home | title=World Bank 2022 poverty lines | accessdate=January 10, 2022}}</ref><ref name=PLWB>{{cite web| url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2020/10/07/covid-19-to-add-as-many-as-150-million-extreme-poor-by-2021 | title=2022 World Bank poverty lines | accessdate=January 10, 2022}}</ref><ref name=ChinaEradicateAbsolutePoverty>{{cite web| url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/11/27/asia/china-xi-jinping-poverty-alleviation-intl-hnk/index.html | title=China has reached a major milestone in ending absolute poverty. But the Communist Party isn't celebrating yet | website=[[CNN]] | date=November 27, 2020}}</ref>
The Chinese definition of extreme poverty is more stringent than that of the World Bank: earning less than $2.30 a day at [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP).<ref name=ChinaUmicPoverty>{{cite web| url=https://www.npr.org/2021/03/05/974173482/what-chinas-total-victory-over-extreme-poverty-looks-like-in-actuality | title=What China's 'Total Victory' Over Extreme Poverty Looks Like In Actuality | website=[[NPR]] | date=March 5, 2021}}</ref> Growth has fuelled a substantial increase in per-capita income lifting people out of extreme poverty. China's per capita income has increased fivefold between 1990 and 2000, from $200 to $1,000. Between 2000 and 2010, per capita income also rose at the same rate, from $1,000 to $5,000, moving China into the ranks of middle-income countries.
Between 1990 and 2005, China's progress accounted for more than three-quarters of global poverty reduction and was largely responsible for the world reaching the UN millennium development target of dividing extreme poverty in half. This can be attributed to a combination of a rapidly expanding labour market, driven by a protracted period of economic growth, and a series of government transfers such as an urban subsidy, and the introduction of a rural pension.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cn.undp.org/content/dam/china/docs/Publications/UNDP-CH_discussionpaper-MDGPost2015.pdf|title=China, The Millennium Development Goals, and the Post-2015 Development Agenda|website=Cn.undp.org|access-date=28 December 2017|archive-date=May 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510095443/http://www.cn.undp.org/content/dam/china/docs/Publications/UNDP-CH_discussionpaper-MDGPost2015.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The World Bank Group said that the percentage of the population living below the international poverty line of $1.9 (2011 PPP) fell to 0.7 percent in 2015, and poverty line of $3.2 (2011 PPP) fell to 7% in 2015.<ref name="worldbank.org"/>
At the end of 2018, the number of people living below China's national poverty line of [[Renminbi|¥]]2,300 ([[Renminbi|CNY]]) per year (in 2010 constant prices) was 16.6 million, equal to 1.7% of the population at the time. On November 23, 2020, China announced that it had eliminated absolute poverty nationwide by uplifting all of its citizens beyond its set ¥2,300 per year (in 2010 constant prices),<ref>{{Cite news|last=Areddy|first=James T.|date=2020-11-23|title=China Says It Has Met Its Deadline of Eliminating Poverty|language=en-US|work=Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-says-it-has-met-its-deadline-of-eliminating-poverty-11606164540|access-date=2020-11-24|issn=0099-9660}}</ref> or around ¥4,000 per year in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-11-24|title=China announces eradication of extreme poverty in last poor counties|language=en-US|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-poverty-idUSKBN284142|access-date=2020-08-08}}</ref> The World Bank has different [[poverty line]]s for countries with different [[gross national income]] (GNI). With an GNI per capita of $10,610 in 2020,<ref name=ChinaGNIperCapita>{{cite web| url=https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/CHN/china/gni-per-capita | title=China GNI Per Capita 1962-2022 | accessdate=January 10, 2022}}</ref> China is an upper middle-income country.<ref name=ChinaUmic>{{cite web| url=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups | title=World Bank Country and Lending Groups | accessdate=January 10, 2022}}</ref><ref name=CountriesByGNIperCapita>{{cite web| url=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups | title=Low, middle & high income countries 2022 by GNI per capita | accessdate=January 10, 2022}}</ref> The poverty line for an upper middle-income country is $5.5 per day at [[Purchasing power parity|PPP]].<ref name=WBPL/><ref name=PLWB/><ref name=ChinaEradicateAbsolutePoverty/><ref name=ChinaUmicPoverty/> As of 2020, China has succeeded in eradicating [[absolute poverty]],<ref name=ChinaEradicateAbsolutePoverty/><ref name=ChinaUmicPoverty/><ref name=ChinEradicateExtremePoverty>{{cite web| url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1086836/china-poverty-ratio/ | title=Ratio of residents living below the poverty line in China from 2000 to 2020 | accessdate=January 10, 2022}}</ref> but not the poverty defined for upper middle-income countries which China belongs to.<ref name=ChinaNoLicPoverty>{{cite web| url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-population-living-with-less-than-190-and-320-per-day | title=Chinese population living with less $ 1.90 and $ 3.20 per day | accessdate=January 10, 2022}}</ref><ref name=ChinEradicateExtremePoverty/> China still has around 13% of its population falling below this poverty line of $5.50 per day in 2020.<ref name=ChinaUmicPoverty/> In 2020, premier [[Li Keqiang]], citing the [[National Bureau of Statistics of China|National Bureau of Statistics]] (NBS) said that China still had 600 million people living with less than 1000 yuan ($140) a month, although an article from ''[[The Economist]]'' said that the methodology NBS used was flawed, stating that the figure took the combined income, which was then equally divided.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-03-20 |title=China's poverty line is not as stingy as commentators think {{!}} The Economist |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2020/06/18/chinas-poverty-line-is-not-as-stingy-as-commentators-think |access-date=2023-12-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320140957/https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2020/06/18/chinas-poverty-line-is-not-as-stingy-as-commentators-think |archive-date=March 20, 2023 }}</ref>
==Overview==
Since [[Deng Xiaoping]] began instituting market reforms in the late 1970s, China has been among the most rapidly growing economies in the world, regularly exceeding 10 percent GDP growth annually from 1978 through 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=CN|title=GDP growth (annual %) - China|access-date=8 March 2023}}</ref> This growth has led to a substantial increase in real [[standard of living|living standards]] and a marked decline in [[poverty]]. Between 1981 and 2008, the proportion of China's population living on less than $1.25/day is estimated to have fallen from 85% to 13.1%, meaning that roughly 600 million people were taken out of extreme poverty.<ref name=Anup>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalissues.org/article/4/poverty-around-the-world#WorldBanksPovertyEste|title=Poverty Around The World — Global Issues|website=Globalissues.org|date=November 12, 2011 |access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/indicators/103.html |title=Human Development Report 2009 - Population living below $2 a day |access-date=2009-10-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716071749/http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/indicators/103.html |archive-date=2011-07-16 }}</ref> At the same time, this rapid change has brought with it different kinds of stresses. China faces serious [[natural resource]] scarcity and [[environmental degradation]]. It has also seen growing disparities as people in different parts of the country and with different characteristics have benefited from the growth at different rates.
Starting from the pre-reform situation, some increase in [[income inequality]] was inevitable, as favored coastal [[urban area|urban]] locations benefited from the opening policy, and as the small stock of educated people found new opportunities. However, particular features of Chinese policy may have exacerbated rather than mitigated growing disparities. The [[Hukou system|household registration (hukou) system]] kept rural-urban migration below what it otherwise would have been, and contributed to the development of one of the largest rural-urban income divides in the world. Weak [[Land tenure|tenure]] over rural land also limited the ability of peasants to benefit from their primary asset.
Aside from income inequality, there has also been an increase in inequality of [[educational]] outcomes and [[health]] status, partly the result of China's decentralized fiscal system, in which local government has been primarily responsible for funding basic health and education. Poor localities have not been able to fund these services, and poor households have not been able to afford the high [[Private school|private]] cost of basic education and healthcare.
The large [[trade surplus]] that has emerged in China has exacerbated the inequalities, and makes them harder to address. The trade surplus stimulates the urban [[manufacturing]] sector, which is already relatively well off. It limits the government's scope to increase funding for [[public services]] such as rural health and education. The government has been trying to rebalance China's production away from investment and exports towards domestic consumption and services, to improve the country's long-term [[macroeconomic]] health and the situation of the relatively poor in China.
Recent government measures to reduce disparities include relaxation of the ''hukou'' system, abolition of the agricultural tax, and increased [[central government|central]] transfers to fund health and education in [[Rural society in China|rural areas]].
==Poverty reduction==
{{See also|Moderately prosperous society|Targeted Poverty Alleviation}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Poverty reduction in China by various measures
|-
!
! Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day<br>(2011 [[Int$]] [[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]) (% of population)<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day<br>(2011 PPP) (% of population) - China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?locations=CN |website=The World Bank {{!}} Data |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref>
! Poverty headcount ratio at $3.20 a day<br>(2011 Int$ PPP) (% of population)<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at $3.20 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) - China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.LMIC?locations=CN |website=The World Bank {{!}} Data |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref>
! Poverty headcount ratio at $5.50 a day<br>(2011 Int$ PPP) (% of population)<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at $5.50 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) - China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.UMIC?locations=CN |website=The World Bank {{!}} Data |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref>
|-
| '''1990''' || 66.2 || 90 || 98.3
|-
| '''2010''' || 11.2 || 28.5 || 53.4
|-
| '''2015''' || 0.7 || 7 || 27.2
|-
| '''2019''' || 0.1 || 1.7 || 15.8
|}
China's lifting of more than 800 million people out of extreme poverty since the late 1970s has been the largest global reduction in inequality in modern history.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Jin |first=Keyu |title=The New China Playbook: Beyond Socialism and Capitalism |date=2023 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-1-9848-7828-1 |location=New York |author-link=Keyu Jin}}</ref>{{Rp|page=23}}
China has maintained a high growth rate for [[China's Historical GDP|more than 30 years]] since the beginning of economic reform in 1978. This sustained growth has generated a huge increase in average living standards. 25 years ago, China had many characteristics in common with the rest of developing Asia: large population, low per capita income, and resource scarcity on a per capita basis. But in the 15 years from 1990 to 2005, China averaged per capita growth of 8.7%
The whole reform program is often referred to in brief as the "[[Open Door Policy#In modern China|open door policy]]". This highlights that a key component of Chinese reform has been trade liberalization and opening up to [[foreign direct investment]], but not opening the [[capital account]] more generally to portfolio flows. China improved its human capital, opened up to foreign trade and investment, and created a better investment climate for the [[private sector]].
After joining the WTO China's average [[tariff]]s dropped below 10%, and to around 5% for manufactured [[import]]s. It initially welcomed foreign investment into "[[Special Economic Zones of the People's Republic of China|special economic zones]]". Some of these zones were very large, amounting to urban areas of 20 million people or more. The positive impact of [[foreign direct investment|foreign investment]] in these locations led to a more general opening up of the economy to foreign investment, with the result that China became the largest recipient of direct investment flows in the 1990s.<ref>Lardy, Nicholas R., 2001. [http://www.asiasociety.org/speeches/lardy.html The Economic Future of China.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210205146/http://www.asiasociety.org/speeches/lardy.html |date=2007-12-10 }}</ref>
The opening up measures have been accompanied by improvements in the investment climate, particularly in cities in the coastal areas, where the private sector now accounts for 90% or more of manufacturing assets and production. In 2005, the average pretax rate of return for domestic private firms was the same as that for foreign-invested firms.<ref name="Das Wasted Kapital">{{cite journal |last1=Dollar |first1=David R. |last2=Wei |first2=Shang-Jin |date=May 2007 |title=Das (Wasted) Kapital: Firm Ownership and Investment Efficiency in China |journal=NBER Working Paper No. 13103 |doi=10.3386/w13103 |ssrn=959307 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Local governments in coastal cities have lowered loss of output due to unreliable power supply to 1.0% and [[customs]] clearance time for imports has been lowered in Chinese cities to 3.3 days.<ref name="Das Wasted Kapital"/>
China's sustained growth fueled historically unprecedented poverty reduction. The World Bank uses a [[poverty line]] based on household real consumption (including consumption of own-produced crops and other goods), set at $1 per day measured at [[Purchasing Power Parity]]. In most low-income countries this amount is sufficient to guarantee each person about 1000 [[calories]] of [[nutrition]] per day, plus other basic necessities. In 2007, this line corresponds to about 2,836 [[Renminbi|RMB]] per year. Based on household surveys, the poverty rate in China in 1981 was 63% of the population. This rate declined to 10% in 2004, indicating that about 500 million people have climbed out of poverty during this period.<ref name="China’s (Uneven) Progress Against Poverty">{{cite journal |last1=Ravallion |first1=Martin |first2=Shaohua |last2=Chen |year=2007 |title=China's (Uneven) Progress Against Poverty |journal=[[Journal of Development Economics]] |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=1–42 |doi=10.1016/j.jdeveco.2005.07.003 |citeseerx=10.1.1.495.4089 |s2cid=12730781 }}</ref>
This poverty reduction has occurred in waves. The shift to the [[household responsibility system]] propelled a large increase in agricultural output, and poverty was cut in half over the short period from 1981 to 1987. From 1987 to 1993 poverty reduction stagnated, then resumed again. From 1996 to 2001 there was once more relatively little poverty reduction. Since China joined the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] in 2001, however, poverty reduction resumed at a very rapid rate, and poverty was cut by a third in just three years.<ref name="Investment Climate and Firm Performance in Developing bullshit Economies">{{cite journal |last1=Dollar |first1=David R. |last2=Hallward-Driemeier |first2=Mary |last3=Mengistae |first3=Taye |year=2005 |title=Investment Climate and Firm Performance in Developing Economies |journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=1–31 |doi=10.1086/431262 |citeseerx=10.1.1.453.1394 |s2cid=2658987 }}</ref>
Taken from the [[Asian Development Bank]], there was an estimated average annual growth rate of 0.5% in China between 2010 and 2015. This brought the Chinese population to 1.37 billion in 2015. As per China's national poverty line, 8.5 percent of people were in poverty in 2013, which decreased to 1.7 percent in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population) - China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC?locations=CN |website=The World Bank {{!}} Data |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.adb.org/countries/prc/poverty|title=Poverty in the People's Republic of China|last=elmer|date=23 May 2017|website=Asian Development Bank|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
On 6 March 2020, Xi Jinping, the [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party]], announced that by 2020, China will achieve all poverty alleviation in rural areas.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/leaders/2020-03/06/c_1125674682.htm | title=（受权发布）习近平：在决战决胜脱贫攻坚座谈会上的讲话-新华网 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.atpresentworld.com/2020/12/how-did-china-succeed-in-alleviating.html?m=1|title=How did China succeed in alleviating poverty?|work=Present World}}</ref> On 28 May 2020, Li Keqiang, the Premier of China, said during the [[Press Conference of the Premier of the State Council]] at the end of the [[Two Sessions|two sessions]] that "China has over 600 million people whose monthly income is barely 1,000 yuan (USD 140) and their lives have further been affected by the coronavirus pandemic."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2020-06/22/c_1126144559.htm | title=怎么看"6亿人每月收入1000元"-新华网 }}</ref>
==Universal Healthcare==
[[Michelle Bachelet]] visited China in May 2022, the first time in 17 years that a [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|UN high commissioner for human rights]] had travelled to China. In a statement about her visit she wrote "The introduction of [[universal health care]] and almost universal [[Unemployment benefits|unemployment insurance]] scheme go a long way in ensuring protection of the right to health and broader social and economic rights".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bachelet |first1=Michelle |title=Statement by UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet after official visit to China |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2022/05/statement-un-high-commissioner-human-rights-michelle-bachelet-after-official |website=OHCHR |access-date=2 June 2022 |language=en |date=28 May 2022}}</ref>
==Increased inequality==
China's growth has been so rapid that virtually every household has benefited significantly, fueling the steep drop in poverty. However, different people have benefited to very different extents, so that inequality has risen during the [[Chinese economic reform|reform period]]. This is true for inequality in household income or consumption, as well as for inequality in important social outcomes such as health status or educational attainment. Concerning household consumption, the [[Gini coefficient|Gini measure of inequality]] increased from 0.31 at the beginning of reform to 0.45 in 2004. To some extent this rise in inequality is the natural result of the market forces that have generated the strong growth; but to some extent it is "artificial" in the sense that various government policies exacerbate the tendencies toward higher inequality, rather than mitigate them. Changes to some policies could halt or even reverse the increasing inequality.<ref name="Rural and Urban Income Inequality and Poverty">Eastman, R. and M. Lipton, 2004. Rural and Urban Income Inequality and Poverty: Does Convergence between Sectors Offset Divergence within Them? in G. A. Cornea, ed., Inequality, Growth and Poverty in an Era of Liberalization and Globalization, Oxford U. Press, 112-141.</ref> (See [[List of countries by income equality]].)
The [[Nobel Prize]]-winning economist Sir [[Arthur Lewis (economist)|Arthur Lewis]] noted that "development must be inegalitarian because it does not start in every part of the economy at the same time" in 1954. China classically manifests two of the characteristics of development that Lewis had in mind: rising return to education and rural-urban migration. As an underdeveloped country, China began its reform with relatively few highly educated people, and with a small minority of the population (20%) living in cities, where [[Labour (economics)|labor]] [[productivity]] was about twice the level as in the countryside.
In pre-reform China there was very little return to education manifested in salaries. Cab drivers and college professors had similar incomes. Economic reform has created a labor market in which people can search for higher pay, and one result of this is that salaries for educated people have gone up dramatically. In the short period between 1988 and 2003, the wage returns to one additional year of schooling increased from 4% to 11%. This development initially leads to higher overall inequality, because the initial stock of educated people is small and they are concentrated at the high end of the income distribution. But if there is reasonably good access to education, then over time a greater and greater share of the population will become educated, and that will ultimately tend to reduce inequality.
The large productivity and wage gap between cities and countryside also drives a high rate of rural-urban migration, which has left millions of children traumatized due to parents who have left them to be raised by other family members, as the Chinese government does not allow parents who move to urban areas to take their children with them.<ref>{{Citation|title=The Young Generation Left Behind In China {{!}} Foreign Correspondent|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yw4sODY_lWQ|language=en|access-date=2020-01-19}}</ref> Lewis pointed out that, starting from a situation of 80% rural, the initial shift of some from low-productivity agriculture to high productivity urban employment is disequalizing. If the flow continues until the population is more than 50% urban, however, further migration is equalizing. This pattern is very evident in the [[history of the U.S.]], with inequality rising during the rapid [[industrialization]] period from 1870 to 1920, and then declining thereafter. So, the same market forces that have produced the rapid growth in China predictably led to higher inequality. But it is important to note that in China there are a number of government policies that exacerbate this tendency toward higher inequality and restrict some of the potential mechanisms that would normally lead to an eventual decline in [[Income inequality metrics|inequality]].<ref name="Rural and Urban Income Inequality and Poverty"/>
===Rural-urban divide===
{{main|Income inequality in China}}
Much of the increase in inequality in China can be attributed to the widening rural-urban divide, particularly the differentials in rural-urban income. A household survey conducted in 1995 showed that the rural-urban income gap accounted for 35% of the overall inequality in China.<ref name=Knight />
In 2009, according to China's National Bureau of Statistics, the urban per capita annual income at US$2,525 was approximately three times that of the rural per capita annual income.<ref name="Fu jing"/> This was the widest income gap recorded in China since 1978.<ref name="Fu jing">{{cite news|last=Fu|first=Jing|title=Urban-rural income gap widest since reform|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-03/02/content_9521611.htm|access-date=14 September 2011|newspaper=China Daily|date=2 March 2010}}</ref> Urban-based economic policies adopted by the government contribute to the income disparities. This is also known as the ‘artificial’ result of the rural-urban divide. In terms of the share of investments allotted by the state, urban areas were given a larger proportion when compared with rural areas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Knight|first=J.|title=The rural-urban divide: economic disparities and interactions in China|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University|location=United States, New York|isbn=978-0-19-829330-9|pages=8}}</ref> In the period 1986–1992, investments to urban state-owned enterprises (SOE) accounted for more than 25% of the total government budget.<ref name="Dennis yang" /> On the other hand, less than 10% of the government budget was allocated to investments in the rural economy in the same period by the state despite the fact that about 73-76% of the total population lived in the rural areas.<ref name="Dennis yang" /> However, the burden of the inflation caused by the fiscal expansion, which at that time was at a level of approximately 8.5%, was shared by all including the rural population.<ref name="Dennis yang" /> Such biased allocation of government finances to the urban sector meant that the wages earned by urban workers also include these government fiscal transfers. This is in addition to the relatively higher proportions of credit loans the government also provided to the urban SOEs in the same period.<ref name="Dennis yang">{{cite journal|last=Yang|first=Dennis, T.|title=Urban-Biased Policies and Rising Income Inequality in China|journal=The American Economic Review|date=May 1999|volume=89|issue=2|pages=306–310|jstor=117126|doi=10.1257/aer.89.2.306}}</ref> Meanwhile, the wages earned by the rural workers came mainly from growth in output only.<ref name="Dennis yang" /> These urban-biased policies reflect the importance of the urban minority to the government relative to the rural majority.
In the period when reforms in urban areas were introduced, the real wages earned by urban workers rose inexorably. Restrictions to rural-urban migration protected the urban workers from competition from the rural workers,<ref name=Knight /> which therefore also contributed to rural-urban disparities. According to a report by the World Bank published in 2009, 99% of the poor in China come from rural areas if migrant workers in cities are included in the rural population figures.<ref name=crtr>{{cite news|last=Canaves|first=Sky|title=Facts About Poverty in China Challenge Conventional Wisdom|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2009/04/13/facts-about-poverty-in-china-challenge-conventional-wisdom/|access-date=14 September 2011|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=13 April 2009}}</ref> Excluding migrant workers from the rural population figures indicates that 90% of poverty in China is still rural.<ref name=crtr />
Inequality in China does not only occur between rural and urban areas. There exist inequalities within rural areas, and within urban areas themselves.<ref name=Knight>{{cite journal|last=Knight|first=J.|author2=Li, S. |author3=Song, L. |title=The Rural-Urban Divide and the Evolution of Political Economy in China|date=March 2004|url=http://www.peri.umass.edu/fileadmin/pdf/Knight_paper_griffin_conference.pdf|access-date=12 September 2011}}</ref> In some rural areas, incomes are comparable to that of urban incomes, while in others, income remains low as development is limited. Rural-urban inequalities do not only refer to income differentials but also include inequalities in areas such as education and health care.<ref name=Knight />
===Urban poverty in China===
The structural reforms of China's economy have brought about a widening of the income gap and rising unemployment in cities. The increasing challenge for the Chinese government and social organizations is to address and solve poverty issues in urban areas where people are increasingly being economically and socially marginalized. According to the official estimates, 12 million people were considered as urban poor in 1993, i.e. 3.6 per cent of the total urban population, but by 2006 the figure had jumped to more than 22 million, i.e. 4.1 per cent of the total urban population and these figures are estimated to grow if the government fails to institute any effective measures to circumvent this escalating problem.<ref name="Hussain2003">{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/ses/download/docs/china.pdf|title=Urban Poverty in China: Measurement, Patterns and policies|last=Hussain|first=Athar|date=January 2003|work=Socio-Economic Security Series|publisher=International Labour Office, Geneva|access-date=9 March 2011}}</ref>
China's “floating population” has since helped spur rapid development in the country because of the cheap and plentiful labor they can offer. On the flip side, many people who came from the rural areas are not able to find jobs in the cities. This surplus of rural laborers and mass internal migration will no doubt pose a major threat to the country's political stability and economic growth. Their inabilities to find jobs compounded by the rising costs of living in the cities have made many people fall below the poverty line.
There are also large numbers of unemployed and laid-off workers from state-owned enterprises (SOEs). These enterprises have since failed to compete efficiently with the private and foreign-funded companies when China's open-door policy was introduced. In the years 1995 to 2000, the state sector lost 31 million jobs, which amounted to 28 per cent of the jobs in the sector. The non-state sector has been creating new jobs but not in sufficient numbers to offset job losses from the state sector.
SOEs’ roles were more than employers, they are also responsible for the provision of welfare benefits, like retirement pensions, incentives for medical care, housing and direct subsidies and the like to its employees, as these burdens greatly increased production costs. In 1992, SOE expenses on insurance and welfare took up 35% of the total wages.<ref name="Zhao2000"/> Therefore, many people not only lost their jobs but also the social benefits and security that they were once so reliant on. The adverse consequences arising from the market reforms are evidently seen as a socially destabilizing factor.
Lastly, the government provided little or no social benefit for the urban poor who needed the most attention. Ministry of Labor and Social Security (MLSS) was the last line of defense against urban poverty in the provision of social insurance and the living allowance for laid-off employees. However, its effectiveness was limited in scope in which less than a quarter of the eligible urban poor actually receiving assistance.<ref name="Zhao2000">{{cite book|last=Zhao|first=J. G.|editor=Y. Wang and A. Chen|title=China's Labour Market and Problems of Employment|year=2000|publisher=Southwestern University of Finance and Economics Press|pages=615–625|chapter=Analysis of the Overemployment in SOEs}}</ref>
The Minimum Living Standard Scheme was first implemented in Shanghai in 1993 to help supplement the income of the urban poor. It is a last resort program that is meant to help those that don't qualify for other forms of government aid. The Minimum Living Standard Scheme set regional poverty lines and gave recipients a sum of money. The amount of money received by each recipient was the difference in their income and the poverty line. The Scheme has grown rapidly and has since been adopted by over 580 cities and 1120 counties.
=== Rural Poverty ===
While poverty has been reduced immensely in China over the past decade, it still remains a large problem in rural China.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ward|first=Patrick S.|date=2016-02-01|title=Transient poverty, poverty dynamics, and vulnerability to poverty: An empirical analysis using a balanced panel from rural China|journal=World Development|volume=78|pages=541–553|doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.10.022|issn=0305-750X|pmc=4740920|pmid=26855470}}</ref> Rural China has historically been disproportionately taxed and also has received fewer benefits from the recent economic development and success of China.<ref name=":8" /> Agriculture has been the main occupation for the inhabitants of rural China, and in villages the produce generated is used to feed the village and not for selling on the market. Even in the heartlands of China where agriculture is used for commercial purposes, the economic boom of China has actually led to a decrease in the price of produce which has resulted in a loss of income for these producers.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Unger|first=Jonathan|date=2016-09-16|title=The Transformation of Rural China|publisher=Taylor & Francis |doi=10.4324/9781315292052|isbn=9781315292052}}</ref>
Children growing up in poverty are more likely to be undernourished, have less educational opportunities, and have lower literacy levels.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Hannum|first1=Emily|last2=Liu|first2=Jihong|last3=Frongillo|first3=Edward|date=2014-01-01|title=Poverty, food insecurity and nutritional deprivation in rural China: Implications for children's literacy achievement|journal=International Journal of Educational Development|language=en|volume=34|pages=90–97 |doi=10.1016/j.ijedudev.2012.07.003|pmid=26609194|pmc=4655325|issn=0738-0593}}</ref> And those whose parents move to urban areas in an effort to give these children a better life—and are not allowed by the Chinese government to take their children with them—are unintentionally traumatizing and damaging these children. Studies show approximately 70% of the 'left-behind' kids—they are sometimes called the 'lost generation', or the 'damaged generation', suffer from emotional trauma, depression or anxiety. About a third of the left-behind children—20 million—will get involved in crime, while another third will need time in mental health institutions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-06/millions-of-chinas-children-left-behind/7816010|title='I'd be a burden': Meet some of China's 61 million abandoned kids|last=Carney|first=China correspondent Matthew|date=2016-09-06|website=ABC News|language=en-AU|access-date=2020-01-19}}</ref>
The disproportionate amount of inequality in China's rural sector along with correlation between poverty and education shows that children born in rural China are much more likely to score lower on literacy tests and not have the opportunity to pursue higher education.<ref name=":3" />
The implementation of Chinese policy has exacerbated the issue of rural poverty en lieu of increased urban poverty. Typically the urbanization of a country leads to mass migration from the rural areas to the urban. However, the Chinese government implemented a policy that restricts the migration of people born in rural China from coming to urban China.<ref name=":12">Wong, C., Qiao, M., & Zheng, W. (2018). ‘Dispersing, regulating and upgrading’urban villages in suburban Beijing. ''Town Planning Review'', ''89''(6), 597-621.</ref> This restriction is based on the citizen's registration under the hukou system, which states if the individual was born in an agricultural (rural) or non-agricultural (urban) area.<ref name=":11">Afridi, Farzana, Sherry Xin Li, and Yufei Ren. "Social identity and inequality: The impact of China's hukou system." ''Journal of Public Economics'' 123 (2015): 17-29.</ref> Additionally, Chinese officials have been cracking down on Chinese migrants from rural communities that have moved to Beijing. In 2017, thousands of migrant workers living in Beijing were evicted because they did not possess an urban hukou.<ref name=":12" /> This process of removing migrants from rural to urban China, relocates them back to rural China where they no longer have a job or source of income. This is a relocation of poverty from the urban sector to the rural sector.
The political response of China's government to the issue of rural poverty has been both lauded and criticized. China has been criticized for its high rate of rural poverty and the policies that the government has put in place to ameliorate the poverty. In ''Transformation of Rural China,'' Jonathan Unger points out that the lack of taxation at the village level restricts the villages from dealing with the problems they face.<ref name=":4" /> This means problems such as food instability and lack of education are not able to be addressed by local officials. Supporters of government policy point out that over the time period of 1978 to 2014, China has reduced rural poverty from 250 million people to just over 70 million people.<ref name=":13">Liu, Y., Liu, J., & Zhou, Y. (2017). Spatio-temporal patterns of rural poverty in China and targeted poverty alleviation strategies. ''Journal of Rural Studies'', ''52'', 66-75.</ref> China's Rural Poverty Alleviation and Development Outline from 2001 to 2010 led to certain government policy directly dealing with the issue of poverty with the removal of agriculture tax in 2006 and a program which the government paid rural families to plant trees on degraded land.<ref name=":13" /> More fundamental and radical measures such as directly redistributive taxation and social security systems or land tenure and agricultural produce price reforms are not mentioned here, however: presumably because they are not considered prudent.
===Unequal educational opportunity===
{{See also|Education in China}}
Education is a prerequisite for the development of human capital which in turn is an important factor in a country's overall development. Apart from the increasing income inequality, the education sector has long suffered from problems such as funding shortages and unequal allocation of education resources,<ref name="peerchina.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.peerchina.org/about/project-background |title=Project Background |access-date=2011-02-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727170543/http://www.peerchina.org/about/project-background |archive-date=2011-07-27 |publisher=Peer Experience Exchange Rostrum }}</ref> adding to the disparity between China's urban and rural life; this was exacerbated by the two track system of government's approach to education. The first track is government -supported primary education in urban areas and the second is family -supported primary education in the rural areas.<ref name="chinaperspectives.revues.org">{{cite journal|url=http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/500|title=Unequal Primary Education Opportunities in Rural and Urban China|first=Teng Margaret|last=Fu|date=1 August 2005|journal=China Perspectives|volume=2005|issue=4|doi=10.4000/chinaperspectives.500|access-date=28 December 2017|via=chinaperspectives.revues.org|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Rural education has been marginalized by the focus on immediate economic development and the fact that urban education enjoys more attention and investment by the central government.<ref name="chinaperspectives.revues.org"/> This lack of public funding meant that children of rural families were forced to drop out of school, thus losing the opportunity to further their studies and following the paths of their parents to become low skilled workers with few chances of advancements.<ref name="peerchina.org"/> This leads to a vicious cycle of poverty. Because of limited educational resources, urban schools were supported by the government while village schools were provided for by the local communities where educational opportunities were possibly constrained depending on local conditions.<ref name="chinaperspectives.revues.org"/> Thus, there still exist a huge gap in teacher preparation and quality of facilities between rural and urban areas.
The two track system was then abolished in 1986 & 1992, to be replaced by the Compulsory Education Law and the Rule for the Implementation of the Compulsory Education Law respectively.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/500?lang=en|title=Unequal Primary Education Opportunities in Rural and Urban China|first=Teng Margaret|last=Fu|date=1 August 2005|journal=China Perspectives|volume=2005|issue=4|doi=10.4000/chinaperspectives.500|access-date=28 December 2017|via=chinaperspectives.revues.org|doi-access=free}}</ref> Despite the emphasis of China's education reform on providing quality and holistic education, the rural schools still lack the capacity to implement such reforms vis-à-vis their urban counterparts.<ref name="peerchina.org"/> The rural areas lack the educational resources of the urban areas and the rural areas are considered to be falling below the educational benchmark set in the cities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90882/6755242.html|title=China vows to improve teacher quality in rural areas - People's Daily Online|website=English.peopledaily.com.cn|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref> Teachers are more attracted to urban sectors with higher pay and a slew of benefits. In addition, rural villages have a difficult time finding quality teachers because of the lower standard of living in villages. As a result, some rural teachers are not qualified as they received college degrees from continuing-education programs, which is not the best type of further education one could receive.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-11/05/content_11505717.htm|title=Rural students left behind|website=Chinadaily.com.cn|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
As a result, rural students often find themselves neither competitive enough to gain admissions to colleges nor employable for most occupations.<ref name="peerchina.org"/> Rural residents are increasingly being marginalised in higher education, closing off their best opportunities for advancement. This is especially prominent in Tsinghua and Peking University where the percentage of rural population studying in the two universities have shrunk to 17.6 percent in 2000 and 16.3 percent in 1999, down from 50 to 60 percent in the 1950s. These numbers are the most recent reliable data that has been published and experts agree that the number might be as low as 1 percent in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/2010/08/21/the-rural-poor-are-shut-out-of-china-s-top-schools.html|title=The Rural Poor Shunned by China's Top Schools|date=21 August 2010|website=Newsweek.com|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
==Restrictions on migration==
{{See also|Urbanization in China|Metropolitan Regions of China}}
Pre-reform China had a system that severely restricted people's mobility, and that system has only slowly been reformed over the past 25 years. Each person has a registration ([[hukou system|hukou]]) in either a rural area or an urban area, and cannot change the hukou without the permission of the receiving [[jurisdiction]]. In practice cities usually give registration to skilled people who have offers of employment, but have generally been reluctant to provide registration to migrants from the countryside. Nevertheless, these migrants are needed for [[economic development]], and large numbers have in fact migrated. Many of these fall into the category of "floating population". There are nearly 200 million rural residents who spend at least six months of the year working in urban areas. Many of these people have for all practical purposes moved to a city, but they do not have official registration. Beyond the floating population, there are tens of millions of people who have left rural areas and obtained urban hukous.<ref name="Investment Climate and Firm Performance in Developing bullshit Economies" />
So, there is significant rural-urban migration in China, but it seems likely that the hukou system has resulted in less migration than otherwise would have occurred. There are several pieces of evidence to support this view. First, the gap in per capita income between rural and urban areas widened during the reform period, reaching a ratio of three to one. Three to one is a very high gap by international standards. Second, manufacturing [[wage]]s have risen sharply in recent years, at double-digit rates, so that China now has considerably higher wages than much of the rest of developing Asia (India, Vietnam, Pakistan, Bangladesh). This rise is good for the incumbent workers, but they are relatively high up in China's income distribution, so that the wage increases raise inequality. It is hard to imagine that manufacturing wages would have risen so rapidly if there had not been such controls on labor migration. Third, recent studies focusing on migrants have shown that it is difficult for them to bring their families to the city, put their children in school, and obtain healthcare. So, the growth of the urban population must have been slowed down by these restrictions.<ref>Sicular, T., X. Yue, B. Gustafsson, and S. Li, 2007. The Urban-Rural Income Gap and Inequality in China, Review of Income and Wealth, 53(1): 93-126.</ref>
China's [[urbanization]] so far has been a relatively orderly process. One does not see in China the kinds of slums and extreme poverty that exist in cities throughout South Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Nevertheless, urbanization goes on: the urban share of China's population has risen from 20% to 40% during the course of economic reform. But at the same time the hukou system has slowed and distorted urbanization, without preventing it. The system has likely contributed to inequality by limiting the opportunities of the relatively poor rural population to move to better-paying [[employment]].<ref name="China’s (Uneven) Progress Against Poverty"/>
==Land policy==
{{Update|updated=21 November 2020|date=December 2020}}
Just as Chinese citizens are either registered as [[urban area|urban]] or [[rural]] under the Hukou system, land in China is zoned as either rural or urban. Under [[Property Law of the People's Republic of China|Chinese property law]], there is no privately held land. Urban land is owned by the state, which grants land rights for a set number of years. Reforms in the late 1980s and 1990s allowed for transactions in urban land, enabling citizens to sell their land and buildings, or [[Mortgage loan|mortgage]] them to borrow, while still retaining state ownership.<ref>Ding, Chengri and Gerrit Knaap, [http://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/793_Urban-Land-Policy-Reform-in-China 'Urban Land Policy Reform in China'], Land Lines: April 2003, Volume 15, Number 2.</ref> Rural, or “collectively owned land”, is leased by the state for periods of 30 years, and is theoretically reserved for agricultural purposes, housing and services for farmers.<ref name="CECCproperty">Congressional Executive Commission on China, [http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=111_cong_house_committee_prints&docid=f:61507.pdf 2010 Annual Report]. 10 Oct 2010, pp 41-42</ref> Peasants have long-term [[Land tenure|tenure]] as long as they sow the land, but they cannot mortgage or sell the use rights. The biggest distortion, however, concerns moving land from rural to urban use. China is a densely populated, water-scarce country whose [[comparative advantage]] lies more in manufacturing and services than in agriculture. The fact that many peasants cannot earn a decent living as farmers is a signal that their labor is more useful in urban employment, hence the hundreds of millions of people who have migrated. But, at the same time, it is efficient to allocate some of the land out of agriculture for urban use.
In China, that conversion is handled administratively, requiring central approval. Farmers are compensated based on the agricultural value of the land. But the reason to convert land – especially in the fringes around cities – is that the commercial value of the land for urban use is higher than its value for agriculture. So, even if China's laws on land are followed scrupulously, the conversion does not generate a high income for the peasants. There are cases in which the conversion is done transparently, the use of rights over the land [[auction]]ed, and the revenue collected put into the [[public budget]] to finance public goods. But still the peasants get relatively poor recompense. One government study found that 62% of displaced peasants were worse off after land conversion.<ref name="Intergovernmental Fiscal Reforms">Dollar, David and Bert Hofman, forthcoming. Intergovernmental Fiscal Reforms, Expenditure Assignment, and Governance. In, Jiwei Lou and Shuilin Wang, eds., China: Public Finance for a Harmonious Society</ref>
Secure land [[Land tenure|tenure]] is recognized as a powerful tool to reduce poverty, and the central government has begun guaranteeing all farmers 30-year land rights, strictly limiting expropriations, documenting and publicizing farmers’ rights, and requiring sufficient compensation when farmers’ lands are expropriated.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.landesa.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/landesa-factsheet-china.pdf |title=Landesa in China |access-date=2011-09-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404222516/http://www.landesa.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/landesa-factsheet-china.pdf |archive-date=2012-04-04 }}</ref> A 2010 survey of 17 provinces by [[Landesa]] found improved documentation of farmer's land rights, but much room for improvement: 63% of farming families have been issued land-rights certificates and 53% have land-rights contracts, but only 44% have been issued both documents (as is required by law) and 29% have no document at all; farmers who have been issued these documents are far more likely to make long-term investments in their land and are financially benefiting from those investments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.landesa.org/where-we-work/china/research-report-2010-findings-17-province-china-survey/|title=Research Report - 2010 Findings from 17-Province China Survey|website=Landesa.org|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
==Fiscal system and rural social services==
{{Update|updated=21 November 2020|date=December 2020}}
Market reform has dramatically increased the return to [[education]], as it indicates that there are good opportunities for skilled people and as it creates a powerful incentive for families to increase the education of their children. However, there needs to be strong public support for education and reasonably fair access to the education system. Otherwise, inequality can become self-perpetuating: if only high-income people can educate their children, then that group remains a privileged, high-income group permanently. China is at some risk of falling into this trap, because it has developed a highly decentralized fiscal system in which local governments rely primarily on local [[tax]] collection to provide basic services such as primary education and primary [[health care]]. China in fact has one of the most decentralized fiscal systems in the world.<ref name="International Data on Educational Attainment"/>
China is much more decentralized than [[OECD]] countries and middle-income countries, particularly on the spending side. More than half of all expenditure takes place at the [[Administrative divisions of China|sub-provincial level]]. In part, the sheer size of the country explains this degree of decentralization, but the structure of government and some unusual [[expenditure]] assignments also give rise to this pattern of spending. Functions such as [[social security]], [[justice]], and even the production of [[National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China|national statistics]] are largely decentralized in China, whereas they are central functions in most other countries.
Fiscal disparities among subnational governments are larger in China than in most OECD countries. These disparities have emerged alongside a growing disparity in economic strength among the [[Province (China)|provinces]]. From 1990 to 2003, the ratio of [[per capita GDP]] of the richest to poorest province grew from 7.3 to 13. In China, the richest province has more than 8 times the per capita public spending than the poorest province. In the [[United States|US]], the poorest state has about 65 percent of the revenues of the average state, and in [[Germany]], any state falling below 95 percent of the average level gets subsidized through the "[[Finanzausgleich]]" (and any receiving more than 110 percent gets taxed). In [[Brazil]], the richest state has 2.3 times the revenues per capita of the poorest state.<ref name="Intergovernmental Fiscal Reforms"/>
Inequalities in spending are even larger at the sub-provincial level. The richest county, the level that is most important for service delivery, has about 48 times the level of per capita spending of the poorest county.<ref name="Intergovernmental Fiscal Reforms"/> These disparities in aggregate spending levels also show up in functional categories such as health and education where variation among counties and among provinces is large.
These differences in public spending translate into differences in social outcomes. Up through 1990, there were only modest differences across provinces in [[infant survival rate]], but by 2000 there had emerged a very sharp difference, closely related to the province's per capita GDP. So too with the [[high-school]] [[education|enrollment]] rate: there used to be small differences across provinces. By 2003, high-school enrollment was nearing 100% in the wealthier provinces while still less than 40% in poor provinces.<ref name="International Data on Educational Attainment">{{cite journal |last1=Barro |first1=Robert J. |first2=Jong-Wha |last2=Lee |title=International Data On Educational Attainment: Updates And Implications |journal=Oxford Economic Papers |year=2001 |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=541–563 |doi=10.1093/oep/53.3.541 |s2cid=30819754 |url=https://www.hks.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/centers/cid/files/publications/faculty-working-papers/042.pdf }}</ref>
There is some redistribution within China's [[Chinese financial system|fiscal system]], but arguments abound whether it is enough. Poor areas have very little tax collection and hence cannot fund education and health care. Some of their population will relocate over time. But for reasons of both national [[economic efficiency|efficiency]] and [[Equality of opportunity|opportunity]], some theoretical economists argue for the communist state to ensure everyone has some basic education and basic health care.
China's highly decentralized fiscal system results in: [[local government]] in many locations not having adequate resources to fund basic social services. As a consequence, [[household]]s are left to pay for their own needs to a remarkable extent. The average hospital visit in China in 2018 is paid 35% [[out-of-pocket]] by the patient,<ref>{{cite web |title=Out-of-pocket expenditure (% of current health expenditure) - China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.OOPC.CH.ZS?locations=CN |publisher=World Bank |access-date=21 December 2020}}</ref> compared to 25% in [[Mexico]], 17% in [[Australia]], 10% in [[Turkey]] and the [[United States]], and lower amounts in most [[developed countries]]. Poor households either forego treatment, or travel to other cities for treatment, which can be expensive if the condition is severe. In the 2003 National Health Survey, 30% of poor households identified a large [[health care]] [[expenditure]] as the reason that they were having financial difficulties.<ref name="China’s (Uneven) Progress Against Poverty"/>
The situation in education is similar. In a survey of 3037 villages in 2004, average primary school fees were 260 [[Renminbi|yuan]] and average middle-school fees, 442 yuan. A family living right at the dollar-a-day poverty line would have about 900 yuan total resources for a child for a year; sending a child to middle-school would take half of that. Not surprisingly, then, enrollment rates are relatively low in poor areas and for poor families.<ref name="Economic Returns to Schooling in Urban China">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Junsen |first2=Yaohui |last2=Zhao |first3=Albert |last3=Park |first4=Xiaoqing |last4=Song |year=2005 |title=Economic Returns to Schooling in Urban China, 1988–2001 |journal=Journal of Comparative Economics |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=730–752 |doi=10.1016/j.jce.2005.05.008 }}</ref>
== Women In Poverty ==
In China, women are more vulnerable to suffer from severe poverty than men. More women experience multidimensional poverty (38.9% compared to 25.2%). Many individual and social characteristics shape women's experiences on poverty, such as age, education, employment, family structure, family size, urban or rural areas, etc.<ref name="Wu 66–88">{{Cite journal|last1=Wu|first1=Yichao|last2=Qi|first2=Di|date=2017-01-02|title=A gender-based analysis of multidimensional poverty in China|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/12259276.2017.1279886|journal=Asian Journal of Women's Studies|language=en|volume=23|issue=1|pages=66–88|doi=10.1080/12259276.2017.1279886|s2cid=218767427|issn=1225-9276}}</ref>
In terms of individual factors, women are less likely complete their primary education, have worse health and nutrition, and more likely to enduring chronic diseases, hospitalization and low income. As daughter, women's education is less valued by their parents. As mothers, women are expected to value their children's care work more than their own career. In addition, the gender inequalities in the labor market is pervasive.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Walker|first1=Robert|last2=Millar|first2=Jane|date=2020-04-28|title=Left Behind? The Status of Women in Contemporary China|url=https://www.cogitatiopress.com/socialinclusion/article/view/3038|journal=Social Inclusion|volume=8|issue=2|pages=1–9|doi=10.17645/si.v8i2.3038|s2cid=219033193|issn=2183-2803 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The labor force participation rate of women has declined since the economic reforms and financial hardship was severe among women. In terms of marital factors, research shows that single mothers are the suffer the most from poverty. On the one hand, social and public policies are usually inadequate for single-parent families, especially families headed by women.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Li|first=Qin|date=2020-04-28|title=Mothers Left without a Man: Poverty and Single Parenthood in China|url=https://www.cogitatiopress.com/socialinclusion/article/view/2678|journal=Social Inclusion|volume=8|issue=2|pages=114–122|doi=10.17645/si.v8i2.2678|s2cid=219006505|issn=2183-2803 |doi-access=free }}</ref> On the other hand, Chinese traditional belief on family see divorce as negative, and often push mothers to sacrifice themselves to fulfill their children. Age is also a factor that contribute to women's poverty. Research shows that women are in lower chance to receive less occupational pension and receive less benefit (women receive 595 yuan per month whereas men receive 1,105 yuan). Also, women in their 50s are more likely to take the responsibility of caring their elderly parents and grandchildren, therefore more likely to retire earlier and receive less money in pension.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhao|first1=Rui|last2=Zhao|first2=Yaohui|date=2018-04-03|title=The Gender Pension Gap in China|journal=Feminist Economics|language=en|volume=24|issue=2|pages=218–239|doi=10.1080/13545701.2017.1411601|issn=1354-5701|pmc=7451650|pmid=32863729}}</ref>
In terms of regional factors, women who live in remote and less developed western region are more likely to live in poverty than eastern area.<ref name="Wu 66–88"/> For example, women live in Guizhou and Gansu provinces have the highest multidimensional poverty rate. Many women in poverty immigrant from their hometown to another province for improving their living situation, and many use marriage as the approach. (Research shows much more women migrated from relatively less developed regions to more developed regions through marriage than men<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Qingbin|last2=Zou|first2=Yang|last3=Fan|first3=Dan|date=2019-12-01|title=Gender imbalance in China's marriage migration: Quantitative evidence and policy implications|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264999318317565|journal=Economic Modelling|language=en|volume=83|pages=406–414|doi=10.1016/j.econmod.2019.09.040|s2cid=204425441|issn=0264-9993}}</ref>). Some women did get out of absolute poverty through marriage, however, because of limited opportunities, they are likely to fall into relative poverty soon after relocation. Also, migrant wives often suffer from perpetuated poverty after marriage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Guanli|date=2020-04-28|title=Perceiving and Deflecting Everyday Poverty-Related Shame: Evidence from 35 Female Marriage Migrants in Rural China|url=https://www.cogitatiopress.com/socialinclusion/article/view/2671|journal=Social Inclusion|volume=8|issue=2|pages=123–131|doi=10.17645/si.v8i2.2671|s2cid=219027884|issn=2183-2803|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In the state level, it is hard to find official data on women in poverty and poverty reduction programs tend to focus more on men, which widen the gender inequality. A research focus on a poverty reduction program in the Inner Mongolia shows that women's empowerment program can make positive effects on poverty reduction.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gu|first1=Rui|last2=Nie|first2=Feng-ying|date=2021-04-01|title=Does empowering women benefit poverty reduction? Evidence from a multi-component program in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China|journal=Journal of Integrative Agriculture|language=en|volume=20|issue=4|pages=1092–1106|doi=10.1016/S2095-3119(20)63436-0|s2cid=233525509|issn=2095-3119|doi-access=free}}</ref> It suggest that if poverty program can be more gender-focus, women and their household in poverty can benefit more from intervention such as training, cooperatives, and credit.
==See also==
=== China articles ===
* [[Demographics of China]]
* [[Digital divide in the People's Republic of China|Digital divide in China]]
* [[List of minimum wages in China (PRC)]]
=== General articles ===
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Cycle of poverty]]
* [[Diseases of poverty]]
* [[Deprivation index]]
* [[Economic inequality]]
* [[Feminization of poverty]]
* [[Food security]]
* [[Food vs fuel]]
* [[Fuel poverty]]
* [[Green Revolution]]
* [[Hunger]]
* [[Income disparity]]
* [[Life expectancy]]
* [[List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty]]
* [[List of famines]]
* [[Literacy]]
* [[Minimum wage]]
* [[New Rural Reconstruction Movement]]
* [[Pauperism]]
* [[Poverty threshold]]
* [[Poverty trap]]
* [[Street children]]
* [[The Hunger Site]]
* [[Working poor]]
}}
===Organizations and campaigns===
* [[ActionAid efforts in dealing with income inequality in China]]
* [[List of charities in China]]
* [[List of NGOs in China]]
* [[Wokai]] - Organization that allows people to contribute directly to microfinance institutions in China
* ''[[Young China Scholars Poverty Research Network]]''
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
*[http://www.adb.org/publications/poverty-profile-peoples-republic-china Poverty Profile of People's Republic of China] - [[Asian Development Bank]] (ADB)
*Azizur Rahman Khan, Carl Riskin. (2001) "Inequality and Poverty in China in the Age of Globalization." Oxford University Press {{ISBN|0-19-513649-7}}
*[http://www.worldbank.org/research/2009/03/10427760/china-poor-areas-poor-people-chinas-evolving-poverty-reduction-agenda-assessment-poverty-inequality China - From poor areas to poor people : China's evolving poverty reduction agenda - an assessment of poverty and inequality], World Bank, 2009
*{{cite journal |last1=Sullivan|first1=Dylan |last2=Moatsos |first2= Michail |last3=Hickel |first3=Jason|author-link3=Jason Hickel|date=2023 |title=Capitalist reforms and extreme poverty in China: unprecedented progress or income deflation?|url= |journal=[[New Political Economy (journal)|New Political Economy]] |volume= 29|issue= |pages= 1–21|doi=10.1080/13563467.2023.2217087|access-date=|doi-access=free}}
==External links==
===Organizations===
*[http://www.cpad.gov.cn/ State Council Leading Group Office of Poverty Alleviation and Reduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731054629/http://www.cpad.gov.cn/ |date=July 31, 2017 }} (Chinese & English)
*[http://www.fcpmc.org/ Foreign-funded projects of the State Council Poverty Alleviation Office Management Center]
*[http://www.casted.org.cn/ Chinese Academy of Science and Technology for Development (CASTED)]
*[http://www.cdrf.org.cn/ China Development Research Foundation]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090911155421/http://www.help-poverty.org.cn/ China Poverty Alleviation Information Network]
*[http://www.cnfpzz.com/ China Poverty Alleviation Network]
*[http://www.zhfp.net/ China Poverty Network]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090221102751/http://www.cspgp.org.cn/13_English/index.htm China Society For Promotion Of The Guangcai Program]
*[http://www.undp.org.cn/ United Nations Development Programme in China]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070922004245/http://www.fupin.org.cn/en/index.asp China Poverty Alleviation Foundation]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080517001051/http://www.iprcc.org.cn/index.php/en/ International Poverty Reduction Center in China]
*[http://unescap.org/stat/meet/povstat/pov7_chn.pdf Poverty Statistics in China] United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
===Articles===
*[http://www.gwu.edu/~econ270/Taejoon.html Income disparity in China] China: a shared poverty to uneven wealth?
*[http://www.econ.ucdavis.edu/faculty/woo/1%20Oct%2004.Woo.China%20Poverty.pdf The Poverty Challenge for China in the New Millennium]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081120164457/http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20050513_402249491.htm Communiqué on 2004 Rural Poverty Monitoring of China] - [[National Bureau of Statistics of China]]
*[http://www.eeo.com.cn/ens/Politics/2008/04/17/97126.html China To Raise Poverty Line]
*[http://www.waronwant.org/overseas-work/sweatshops-and-plantations/china-sweatshops Sweatshops in China]
{{Economy of China}}
{{Poverty}}
{{Asia topic|Poverty in}}
{{Health in the People's Republic of China}}
[[Category:Poverty in China| ]]' |
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{{Use American English|date = February 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = February 2019}}
{{Update|documentation|date=May 2020}}
[[File:Poverty in China.svg|thumb|Share of population in extreme poverty over time]]
In [[China]], [[poverty]] mainly refers to [[rural poverty]]. Decades of economic development has reduced urban [[extreme poverty]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/economics-blog/2015/aug/19/china-poverty-inequality-development-goals|title=China has almost wiped out urban poverty no. Now it must tackle inequality|first=Elizabeth|last=Stuart|date=August 19, 2020|access-date=28 December 2017|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.odi.org/comment/9803-china-urban-poverty-reduction-sdgs-inequality|title=China has almost ended urban poverty – a promising start for the SDGs|website=Odi.org|access-date=28 December 2017|archive-date=September 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910041141/https://www.odi.org/comment/9803-china-urban-poverty-reduction-sdgs-inequality|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/ICPSR/series/243|title=Series|website=Icpsr.umich.edu|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref> According to the [[World Bank]], more than 850 million Chinese people have been lifted out of extreme poverty; China's poverty rate fell from 88 percent in 1981 to 0.7 percent in 2015, as measured by the percentage of people living on the equivalent of US$1.90 or less per day in 2011 purchasing price parity terms,<ref name="worldbank.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview#3|title=Overview|website=Worldbank.org|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?locations=CN|title=Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) {{!}} Data|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=2019-06-01}}</ref> which still stands in 2022.<ref name=WBPL>{{cite web| url=https://povertydata.worldbank.org/poverty/home | title=World Bank 2022 poverty lines | accessdate=January 10, 2022}}</ref><ref name=PLWB>{{cite web| url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2020/10/07/covid-19-to-add-as-many-as-150-million-extreme-poor-by-2021 | title=2022 World Bank poverty lines | accessdate=January 10, 2022}}</ref><ref name=ChinaEradicateAbsolutePoverty>{{cite web| url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/11/27/asia/china-xi-jinping-poverty-alleviation-intl-hnk/index.html | title=China has reached a major milestone in ending absolute poverty. But the Communist Party isn't celebrating yet | website=[[CNN]] | date=November 27, 2020}}</ref>
The Chinese definition of extreme poverty is more stringent than that of the World Bank: earning less than $2.30 a day at [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP).<ref name=ChinaUmicPoverty>{{cite web| url=https://www.npr.org/2021/03/05/974173482/what-chinas-total-victory-over-extreme-poverty-looks-like-in-actuality | title=What China's 'Total Victory' Over Extreme Poverty Looks Like In Actuality | website=[[NPR]] | date=March 5, 2021}}</ref> Growth has fuelled a substantial increase in per-capita income lifting people out of extreme poverty. China's per capita income has increased fivefold between 1990 and 2000, from $200 to $1,000. Between 2000 and 2010, per capita income also rose at the same rate, from $1,000 to $5,000, moving China into the ranks of middle-income countries.
Between 1990 and 2005, China's progress accounted for more than three-quarters of global poverty reduction and was largely responsible for the world reaching the UN millennium development target of dividing extreme poverty in half. This can be attributed to a combination of a rapidly expanding labour market, driven by a protracted period of economic growth, and a series of government transfers such as an urban subsidy, and the introduction of a rural pension.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cn.undp.org/content/dam/china/docs/Publications/UNDP-CH_discussionpaper-MDGPost2015.pdf|title=China, The Millennium Development Goals, and the Post-2015 Development Agenda|website=Cn.undp.org|access-date=28 December 2017|archive-date=May 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510095443/http://www.cn.undp.org/content/dam/china/docs/Publications/UNDP-CH_discussionpaper-MDGPost2015.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The World Bank Group said that the percentage of the population living below the international poverty line of $1.9 (2011 PPP) fell to 0.7 percent in 2015, and poverty line of $3.2 (2011 PPP) fell to 7% in 2015.<ref name="worldbank.org"/>
At the end of 2018, the number of people living below China's national poverty line of [[Renminbi|¥]]2,300 ([[Renminbi|CNY]]) per year (in 2010 constant prices) was 16.6 million, equal to 1.7% of the population at the time. On November 23, 2020, China announced that it had eliminated absolute poverty nationwide by uplifting all of its citizens beyond its set ¥2,300 per year (in 2010 constant prices),<ref>{{Cite news|last=Areddy|first=James T.|date=2020-11-23|title=China Says It Has Met Its Deadline of Eliminating Poverty|language=en-US|work=Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-says-it-has-met-its-deadline-of-eliminating-poverty-11606164540|access-date=2020-11-24|issn=0099-9660}}</ref> or around ¥4,000 per year in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-11-24|title=China announces eradication of extreme poverty in last poor counties|language=en-US|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-poverty-idUSKBN284142|access-date=2020-08-08}}</ref> The World Bank has different [[poverty line]]s for countries with different [[gross national income]] (GNI). With an GNI per capita of $10,610 in 2020,<ref name=ChinaGNIperCapita>{{cite web| url=https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/CHN/china/gni-per-capita | title=China GNI Per Capita 1962-2022 | accessdate=January 10, 2022}}</ref> China is an upper middle-income country.<ref name=ChinaUmic>{{cite web| url=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups | title=World Bank Country and Lending Groups | accessdate=January 10, 2022}}</ref><ref name=CountriesByGNIperCapita>{{cite web| url=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups | title=Low, middle & high income countries 2022 by GNI per capita | accessdate=January 10, 2022}}</ref> The poverty line for an upper middle-income country is $5.5 per day at [[Purchasing power parity|PPP]].<ref name=WBPL/><ref name=PLWB/><ref name=ChinaEradicateAbsolutePoverty/><ref name=ChinaUmicPoverty/> As of 2020, China has succeeded in eradicating [[absolute poverty]],<ref name=ChinaEradicateAbsolutePoverty/><ref name=ChinaUmicPoverty/><ref name=ChinEradicateExtremePoverty>{{cite web| url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1086836/china-poverty-ratio/ | title=Ratio of residents living below the poverty line in China from 2000 to 2020 | accessdate=January 10, 2022}}</ref> but not the poverty defined for upper middle-income countries which China belongs to.<ref name=ChinaNoLicPoverty>{{cite web| url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-population-living-with-less-than-190-and-320-per-day | title=Chinese population living with less $ 1.90 and $ 3.20 per day | accessdate=January 10, 2022}}</ref><ref name=ChinEradicateExtremePoverty/> China still has around 13% of its population falling below this poverty line of $5.50 per day in 2020.<ref name=ChinaUmicPoverty/> In 2020, premier [[Li Keqiang]], citing the [[National Bureau of Statistics of China|National Bureau of Statistics]] (NBS) said that China still had 600 million people living with less than 1000 yuan ($140) a month, although an article from ''[[The Economist]]'' said that the methodology NBS used was flawed, stating that the figure took the combined income, which was then equally divided.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-03-20 |title=China's poverty line is not as stingy as commentators think {{!}} The Economist |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2020/06/18/chinas-poverty-line-is-not-as-stingy-as-commentators-think |access-date=2023-12-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320140957/https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2020/06/18/chinas-poverty-line-is-not-as-stingy-as-commentators-think |archive-date=March 20, 2023 }}</ref>
==Overview==
Since [[Deng Xiaoping]] began instituting market reforms in the late 1970s, China has been among the most rapidly growing economies in the world, regularly exceeding 10 percent GDP growth annually from 1978 through 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=CN|title=GDP growth (annual %) - China|access-date=8 March 2023}}</ref> This growth has led to a substantial increase in real [[standard of living|living standards]] and a marked decline in [[poverty]]. Between 1981 and 2008, the proportion of China's population living on less than $1.25/day is estimated to have fallen from 85% to 13.1%, meaning that roughly 600 million people were taken out of extreme poverty.<ref name=Anup>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalissues.org/article/4/poverty-around-the-world#WorldBanksPovertyEste|title=Poverty Around The World — Global Issues|website=Globalissues.org|date=November 12, 2011 |access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/indicators/103.html |title=Human Development Report 2009 - Population living below $2 a day |access-date=2009-10-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716071749/http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/indicators/103.html |archive-date=2011-07-16 }}</ref> At the same time, this rapid change has brought with it different kinds of stresses. China faces serious [[natural resource]] scarcity and [[environmental degradation]]. It has also seen growing disparities as people in different parts of the country and with different characteristics have benefited from the growth at different rates.
Starting from the pre-reform situation, some increase in [[income inequality]] was inevitable, as favored coastal [[urban area|urban]] locations benefited from the opening policy, and as the small stock of educated people found new opportunities. However, particular features of Chinese policy may have exacerbated rather than mitigated growing disparities. The [[Hukou system|household registration (hukou) system]] kept rural-urban migration below what it otherwise would have been, and contributed to the development of one of the largest rural-urban income divides in the world. Weak [[Land tenure|tenure]] over rural land also limited the ability of peasants to benefit from their primary asset.
Aside from income inequality, there has also been an increase in inequality of [[educational]] outcomes and [[health]] status, partly the result of China's decentralized fiscal system, in which local government has been primarily responsible for funding basic health and education. Poor localities have not been able to fund these services, and poor households have not been able to afford the high [[Private school|private]] cost of basic education and healthcare.
The large [[trade surplus]] that has emerged in China has exacerbated the inequalities, and makes them harder to address. The trade surplus stimulates the urban [[manufacturing]] sector, which is already relatively well off. It limits the government's scope to increase funding for [[public services]] such as rural health and education. The government has been trying to rebalance China's production away from investment and exports towards domestic consumption and services, to improve the country's long-term [[macroeconomic]] health and the situation of the relatively poor in China.
Recent government measures to reduce disparities include relaxation of the ''hukou'' system, abolition of the agricultural tax, and increased [[central government|central]] transfers to fund health and education in [[Rural society in China|rural areas]].
==Poverty reduction==
{{See also|Moderately prosperous society|Targeted Poverty Alleviation}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Poverty reduction in China by various measures
|-
!
! Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day<br>(2011 [[Int$]] [[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]) (% of population)<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day<br>(2011 PPP) (% of population) - China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?locations=CN |website=The World Bank {{!}} Data |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref>
! Poverty headcount ratio at $3.20 a day<br>(2011 Int$ PPP) (% of population)<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at $3.20 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) - China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.LMIC?locations=CN |website=The World Bank {{!}} Data |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref>
! Poverty headcount ratio at $5.50 a day<br>(2011 Int$ PPP) (% of population)<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at $5.50 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) - China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.UMIC?locations=CN |website=The World Bank {{!}} Data |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref>
|-
| '''1990''' || 66.2 || 90 || 98.3
|-
| '''2010''' || 11.2 || 28.5 || 53.4
|-
| '''2015''' || 0.7 || 7 || 27.2
|-
| '''2019''' || 0.1 || 1.7 || 15.8
|}
China's lifting of more than 800 million people out of extreme poverty since the late 1970s has been the largest global reduction in inequality in modern history.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Jin |first=Keyu |title=The New China Playbook: Beyond Socialism and Capitalism |date=2023 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-1-9848-7828-1 |location=New York |author-link=Keyu Jin}}</ref>{{Rp|page=23}}
China has maintained a high growth rate for [[China's Historical GDP|more than 30 years]] since the beginning of economic reform in 1978. This sustained growth has generated a huge increase in average living standards. 25 years ago, China had many characteristics in common with the rest of developing Asia: large population, low per capita income, and resource scarcity on a per capita basis. But in the 15 years from 1990 to 2005, China averaged per capita growth of 8.7%
The whole reform program is often referred to in brief as the "[[Open Door Policy#In modern China|open door policy]]". This highlights that a key component of Chinese reform has been trade liberalization and opening up to [[foreign direct investment]], but not opening the [[capital account]] more generally to portfolio flows. China improved its human capital, opened up to foreign trade and investment, and created a better investment climate for the [[private sector]].
After joining the WTO China's average [[tariff]]s dropped below 10%, and to around 5% for manufactured [[import]]s. It initially welcomed foreign investment into "[[Special Economic Zones of the People's Republic of China|special economic zones]]". Some of these zones were very large, amounting to urban areas of 20 million people or more. The positive impact of [[foreign direct investment|foreign investment]] in these locations led to a more general opening up of the economy to foreign investment, with the result that China became the largest recipient of direct investment flows in the 1990s.<ref>Lardy, Nicholas R., 2001. [http://www.asiasociety.org/speeches/lardy.html The Economic Future of China.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210205146/http://www.asiasociety.org/speeches/lardy.html |date=2007-12-10 }}</ref>
The opening up measures have been accompanied by improvements in the investment climate, particularly in cities in the coastal areas, where the private sector now accounts for 90% or more of manufacturing assets and production. In 2005, the average pretax rate of return for domestic private firms was the same as that for foreign-invested firms.<ref name="Das Wasted Kapital">{{cite journal |last1=Dollar |first1=David R. |last2=Wei |first2=Shang-Jin |date=May 2007 |title=Das (Wasted) Kapital: Firm Ownership and Investment Efficiency in China |journal=NBER Working Paper No. 13103 |doi=10.3386/w13103 |ssrn=959307 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Local governments in coastal cities have lowered loss of output due to unreliable power supply to 1.0% and [[customs]] clearance time for imports has been lowered in Chinese cities to 3.3 days.<ref name="Das Wasted Kapital"/>
China's sustained growth fueled historically unprecedented poverty reduction. The World Bank uses a [[poverty line]] based on household real consumption (including consumption of own-produced crops and other goods), set at $1 per day measured at [[Purchasing Power Parity]]. In most low-income countries this amount is sufficient to guarantee each person about 1000 [[calories]] of [[nutrition]] per day, plus other basic necessities. In 2007, this line corresponds to about 2,836 [[Renminbi|RMB]] per year. Based on household surveys, the poverty rate in China in 1981 was 63% of the population. This rate declined to 10% in 2004, indicating that about 500 million people have climbed out of poverty during this period.<ref name="China’s (Uneven) Progress Against Poverty">{{cite journal |last1=Ravallion |first1=Martin |first2=Shaohua |last2=Chen |year=2007 |title=China's (Uneven) Progress Against Poverty |journal=[[Journal of Development Economics]] |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=1–42 |doi=10.1016/j.jdeveco.2005.07.003 |citeseerx=10.1.1.495.4089 |s2cid=12730781 }}</ref>
This poverty reduction has occurred in waves. The shift to the [[household responsibility system]] propelled a large increase in agricultural output, and poverty was cut in half over the short period from 1981 to 1987. From 1987 to 1993 poverty reduction stagnated, then resumed again. From 1996 to 2001 there was once more relatively little poverty reduction. Since China joined the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] in 2001, however, poverty reduction resumed at a very rapid rate, and poverty was cut by a third in just three years.<ref name="Investment Climate and Firm Performance in Developing bullshit Economies">{{cite journal |last1=Dollar |first1=David R. |last2=Hallward-Driemeier |first2=Mary |last3=Mengistae |first3=Taye |year=2005 |title=Investment Climate and Firm Performance in Developing Economies |journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=1–31 |doi=10.1086/431262 |citeseerx=10.1.1.453.1394 |s2cid=2658987 }}</ref>
Taken from the [[Asian Development Bank]], there was an estimated average annual growth rate of 0.5% in China between 2010 and 2015. This brought the Chinese population to 1.37 billion in 2015. As per China's national poverty line, 8.5 percent of people were in poverty in 2013, which decreased to 1.7 percent in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population) - China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC?locations=CN |website=The World Bank {{!}} Data |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.adb.org/countries/prc/poverty|title=Poverty in the People's Republic of China|last=elmer|date=23 May 2017|website=Asian Development Bank|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
On 6 March 2020, Xi Jinping, the [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party]], announced that by 2020, China will achieve all poverty alleviation in rural areas.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/leaders/2020-03/06/c_1125674682.htm | title=（受权发布）习近平：在决战决胜脱贫攻坚座谈会上的讲话-新华网 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.atpresentworld.com/2020/12/how-did-china-succeed-in-alleviating.html?m=1|title=How did China succeed in alleviating poverty?|work=Present World}}</ref> On 28 May 2020, Li Keqiang, the Premier of China, said during the [[Press Conference of the Premier of the State Council]] at the end of the [[Two Sessions|two sessions]] that "China has over 600 million people whose monthly income is barely 1,000 yuan (USD 140) and their lives have further been affected by the coronavirus pandemic."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2020-06/22/c_1126144559.htm | title=怎么看"6亿人每月收入1000元"-新华网 }}</ref>
==Universal Healthcare==
[[Michelle Bachelet]] visited China in May 2022, the first time in 17 years that a [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|UN high commissioner for human rights]] had travelled to China. In a statement about her visit she wrote "The introduction of [[universal health care]] and almost universal [[Unemployment benefits|unemployment insurance]] scheme go a long way in ensuring protection of the right to health and broader social and economic rights".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bachelet |first1=Michelle |title=Statement by UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet after official visit to China |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2022/05/statement-un-high-commissioner-human-rights-michelle-bachelet-after-official |website=OHCHR |access-date=2 June 2022 |language=en |date=28 May 2022}}</ref>
==Increased inequality==
China's growth has been so rapid that virtually every household has benefited significantly, fueling the steep drop in poverty. However, different people have benefited to very different extents, so that inequality has risen during the [[Chinese economic reform|reform period]]. This is true for inequality in household income or consumption, as well as for inequality in important social outcomes such as health status or educational attainment. Concerning household consumption, the [[Gini coefficient|Gini measure of inequality]] increased from 0.31 at the beginning of reform to 0.45 in 2004. To some extent this rise in inequality is the natural result of the market forces that have generated the strong growth; but to some extent it is "artificial" in the sense that various government policies exacerbate the tendencies toward higher inequality, rather than mitigate them. Changes to some policies could halt or even reverse the increasing inequality.<ref name="Rural and Urban Income Inequality and Poverty">Eastman, R. and M. Lipton, 2004. Rural and Urban Income Inequality and Poverty: Does Convergence between Sectors Offset Divergence within Them? in G. A. Cornea, ed., Inequality, Growth and Poverty in an Era of Liberalization and Globalization, Oxford U. Press, 112-141.</ref> (See [[List of countries by income equality]].)
The [[Nobel Prize]]-winning economist Sir [[Arthur Lewis (economist)|Arthur Lewis]] noted that "development must be inegalitarian because it does not start in every part of the economy at the same time" in 1954. China classically manifests two of the characteristics of development that Lewis had in mind: rising return to education and rural-urban migration. As an underdeveloped country, China began its reform with relatively few highly educated people, and with a small minority of the population (20%) living in cities, where [[Labour (economics)|labor]] [[productivity]] was about twice the level as in the countryside.
In pre-reform China there was very little return to education manifested in salaries. Cab drivers and college professors had similar incomes. Economic reform has created a labor market in which people can search for higher pay, and one result of this is that salaries for educated people have gone up dramatically. In the short period between 1988 and 2003, the wage returns to one additional year of schooling increased from 4% to 11%. This development initially leads to higher overall inequality, because the initial stock of educated people is small and they are concentrated at the high end of the income distribution. But if there is reasonably good access to education, then over time a greater and greater share of the population will become educated, and that will ultimately tend to reduce inequality.
The large productivity and wage gap between cities and countryside also drives a high rate of rural-urban migration, which has left millions of children traumatized due to parents who have left them to be raised by other family members, as the Chinese government does not allow parents who move to urban areas to take their children with them.<ref>{{Citation|title=The Young Generation Left Behind In China {{!}} Foreign Correspondent|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yw4sODY_lWQ|language=en|access-date=2020-01-19}}</ref> Lewis pointed out that, starting from a situation of 80% rural, the initial shift of some from low-productivity agriculture to high productivity urban employment is disequalizing. If the flow continues until the population is more than 50% urban, however, further migration is equalizing. This pattern is very evident in the [[history of the U.S.]], with inequality rising during the rapid [[industrialization]] period from 1870 to 1920, and then declining thereafter. So, the same market forces that have produced the rapid growth in China predictably led to higher inequality. But it is important to note that in China there are a number of government policies that exacerbate this tendency toward higher inequality and restrict some of the potential mechanisms that would normally lead to an eventual decline in [[Income inequality metrics|inequality]].<ref name="Rural and Urban Income Inequality and Poverty"/>
===Rural-urban divide===
{{main|Income inequality in China}}
Much of the increase in inequality in China can be attributed to the widening rural-urban divide, particularly the differentials in rural-urban income. A household survey conducted in 1995 showed that the rural-urban income gap accounted for 35% of the overall inequality in China.<ref name=Knight />
In 2009, according to China's National Bureau of Statistics, the urban per capita annual income at US$2,525 was approximately three times that of the rural per capita annual income.<ref name="Fu jing"/> This was the widest income gap recorded in China since 1978.<ref name="Fu jing">{{cite news|last=Fu|first=Jing|title=Urban-rural income gap widest since reform|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-03/02/content_9521611.htm|access-date=14 September 2011|newspaper=China Daily|date=2 March 2010}}</ref> Urban-based economic policies adopted by the government contribute to the income disparities. This is also known as the ‘artificial’ result of the rural-urban divide. In terms of the share of investments allotted by the state, urban areas were given a larger proportion when compared with rural areas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Knight|first=J.|title=The rural-urban divide: economic disparities and interactions in China|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University|location=United States, New York|isbn=978-0-19-829330-9|pages=8}}</ref> In the period 1986–1992, investments to urban state-owned enterprises (SOE) accounted for more than 25% of the total government budget.<ref name="Dennis yang" /> On the other hand, less than 10% of the government budget was allocated to investments in the rural economy in the same period by the state despite the fact that about 73-76% of the total population lived in the rural areas.<ref name="Dennis yang" /> However, the burden of the inflation caused by the fiscal expansion, which at that time was at a level of approximately 8.5%, was shared by all including the rural population.<ref name="Dennis yang" /> Such biased allocation of government finances to the urban sector meant that the wages earned by urban workers also include these government fiscal transfers. This is in addition to the relatively higher proportions of credit loans the government also provided to the urban SOEs in the same period.<ref name="Dennis yang">{{cite journal|last=Yang|first=Dennis, T.|title=Urban-Biased Policies and Rising Income Inequality in China|journal=The American Economic Review|date=May 1999|volume=89|issue=2|pages=306–310|jstor=117126|doi=10.1257/aer.89.2.306}}</ref> Meanwhile, the wages earned by the rural workers came mainly from growth in output only.<ref name="Dennis yang" /> These urban-biased policies reflect the importance of the urban minority to the government relative to the rural majority.
In the period when reforms in urban areas were introduced, the real wages earned by urban workers rose inexorably. Restrictions to rural-urban migration protected the urban workers from competition from the rural workers,<ref name=Knight /> which therefore also contributed to rural-urban disparities. According to a report by the World Bank published in 2009, 99% of the poor in China come from rural areas if migrant workers in cities are included in the rural population figures.<ref name=crtr>{{cite news|last=Canaves|first=Sky|title=Facts About Poverty in China Challenge Conventional Wisdom|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2009/04/13/facts-about-poverty-in-china-challenge-conventional-wisdom/|access-date=14 September 2011|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=13 April 2009}}</ref> Excluding migrant workers from the rural population figures indicates that 90% of poverty in China is still rural.<ref name=crtr />
Inequality in China does not only occur between rural and urban areas. There exist inequalities within rural areas, and within urban areas themselves.<ref name=Knight>{{cite journal|last=Knight|first=J.|author2=Li, S. |author3=Song, L. |title=The Rural-Urban Divide and the Evolution of Political Economy in China|date=March 2004|url=http://www.peri.umass.edu/fileadmin/pdf/Knight_paper_griffin_conference.pdf|access-date=12 September 2011}}</ref> In some rural areas, incomes are comparable to that of urban incomes, while in others, income remains low as development is limited. Rural-urban inequalities do not only refer to income differentials but also include inequalities in areas such as education and health care.<ref name=Knight />
===Urban poverty in China===
The structural reforms of China's economy have brought about a widening of the income gap and rising unemployment in cities. The increasing challenge for the Chinese government and social organizations is to address and solve poverty issues in urban areas where people are increasingly being economically and socially marginalized. According to the official estimates, 12 million people were considered as urban poor in 1993, i.e. 3.6 per cent of the total urban population, but by 2006 the figure had jumped to more than 22 million, i.e. 4.1 per cent of the total urban population and these figures are estimated to grow if the government fails to institute any effective measures to circumvent this escalating problem.<ref name="Hussain2003">{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/ses/download/docs/china.pdf|title=Urban Poverty in China: Measurement, Patterns and policies|last=Hussain|first=Athar|date=January 2003|work=Socio-Economic Security Series|publisher=International Labour Office, Geneva|access-date=9 March 2011}}</ref>
China's “floating population” has since helped spur rapid development in the country because of the cheap and plentiful labor they can offer. On the flip side, many people who came from the rural areas are not able to find jobs in the cities. This surplus of rural laborers and mass internal migration will no doubt pose a major threat to the country's political stability and economic growth. Their inabilities to find jobs compounded by the rising costs of living in the cities have made many people fall below the poverty line.
There are also large numbers of unemployed and laid-off workers from state-owned enterprises (SOEs). These enterprises have since failed to compete efficiently with the private and foreign-funded companies when China's open-door policy was introduced. In the years 1995 to 2000, the state sector lost 31 million jobs, which amounted to 28 per cent of the jobs in the sector. The non-state sector has been creating new jobs but not in sufficient numbers to offset job losses from the state sector.
SOEs’ roles were more than employers, they are also responsible for the provision of welfare benefits, like retirement pensions, incentives for medical care, housing and direct subsidies and the like to its employees, as these burdens greatly increased production costs. In 1992, SOE expenses on insurance and welfare took up 35% of the total wages.<ref name="Zhao2000"/> Therefore, many people not only lost their jobs but also the social benefits and security that they were once so reliant on. The adverse consequences arising from the market reforms are evidently seen as a socially destabilizing factor.
Lastly, the government provided little or no social benefit for the urban poor who needed the most attention. Ministry of Labor and Social Security (MLSS) was the last line of defense against urban poverty in the provision of social insurance and the living allowance for laid-off employees. However, its effectiveness was limited in scope in which less than a quarter of the eligible urban poor actually receiving assistance.<ref name="Zhao2000">{{cite book|last=Zhao|first=J. G.|editor=Y. Wang and A. Chen|title=China's Labour Market and Problems of Employment|year=2000|publisher=Southwestern University of Finance and Economics Press|pages=615–625|chapter=Analysis of the Overemployment in SOEs}}</ref>
The Minimum Living Standard Scheme was first implemented in Shanghai in 1993 to help supplement the income of the urban poor. It is a last resort program that is meant to help those that don't qualify for other forms of government aid. The Minimum Living Standard Scheme set regional poverty lines and gave recipients a sum of money. The amount of money received by each recipient was the difference in their income and the poverty line. The Scheme has grown rapidly and has since been adopted by over 580 cities and 1120 counties.
=== Rural Poverty ===
While poverty has been reduced immensely in China over the past decade, it still remains a large problem in rural China.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ward|first=Patrick S.|date=2016-02-01|title=Transient poverty, poverty dynamics, and vulnerability to poverty: An empirical analysis using a balanced panel from rural China|journal=World Development|volume=78|pages=541–553|doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.10.022|issn=0305-750X|pmc=4740920|pmid=26855470}}</ref> Rural China has historically been disproportionately taxed and also has received fewer benefits from the recent economic development and success of China.<ref name=":8" /> Agriculture has been the main occupation for the inhabitants of rural China, and in villages the produce generated is used to feed the village and not for selling on the market. Even in the heartlands of China where agriculture is used for commercial purposes, the economic boom of China has actually led to a decrease in the price of produce which has resulted in a loss of income for these producers.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Unger|first=Jonathan|date=2016-09-16|title=The Transformation of Rural China|publisher=Taylor & Francis |doi=10.4324/9781315292052|isbn=9781315292052}}</ref>
Children growing up in poverty are more likely to be undernourished, have less educational opportunities, and have lower literacy levels.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Hannum|first1=Emily|last2=Liu|first2=Jihong|last3=Frongillo|first3=Edward|date=2014-01-01|title=Poverty, food insecurity and nutritional deprivation in rural China: Implications for children's literacy achievement|journal=International Journal of Educational Development|language=en|volume=34|pages=90–97 |doi=10.1016/j.ijedudev.2012.07.003|pmid=26609194|pmc=4655325|issn=0738-0593}}</ref> And those whose parents move to urban areas in an effort to give these children a better life—and are not allowed by the Chinese government to take their children with them—are unintentionally traumatizing and damaging these children. Studies show approximately 70% of the 'left-behind' kids—they are sometimes called the 'lost generation', or the 'damaged generation', suffer from emotional trauma, depression or anxiety. About a third of the left-behind children—20 million—will get involved in crime, while another third will need time in mental health institutions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-06/millions-of-chinas-children-left-behind/7816010|title='I'd be a burden': Meet some of China's 61 million abandoned kids|last=Carney|first=China correspondent Matthew|date=2016-09-06|website=ABC News|language=en-AU|access-date=2020-01-19}}</ref>
The disproportionate amount of inequality in China's rural sector along with correlation between poverty and education shows that children born in rural China are much more likely to score lower on literacy tests and not have the opportunity to pursue higher education.<ref name=":3" />
The implementation of Chinese policy has exacerbated the issue of rural poverty en lieu of increased urban poverty. Typically the urbanization of a country leads to mass migration from the rural areas to the urban. However, the Chinese government implemented a policy that restricts the migration of people born in rural China from coming to urban China.<ref name=":12">Wong, C., Qiao, M., & Zheng, W. (2018). ‘Dispersing, regulating and upgrading’urban villages in suburban Beijing. ''Town Planning Review'', ''89''(6), 597-621.</ref> This restriction is based on the citizen's registration under the hukou system, which states if the individual was born in an agricultural (rural) or non-agricultural (urban) area.<ref name=":11">Afridi, Farzana, Sherry Xin Li, and Yufei Ren. "Social identity and inequality: The impact of China's hukou system." ''Journal of Public Economics'' 123 (2015): 17-29.</ref> Additionally, Chinese officials have been cracking down on Chinese migrants from rural communities that have moved to Beijing. In 2017, thousands of migrant workers living in Beijing were evicted because they did not possess an urban hukou.<ref name=":12" /> This process of removing migrants from rural to urban China, relocates them back to rural China where they no longer have a job or source of income. This is a relocation of poverty from the urban sector to the rural sector.
The political response of China's government to the issue of rural poverty has been both lauded and criticized. China has been criticized for its high rate of rural poverty and the policies that the government has put in place to ameliorate the poverty. In ''Transformation of Rural China,'' Jonathan Unger points out that the lack of taxation at the village level restricts the villages from dealing with the problems they face.<ref name=":4" /> This means problems such as food instability and lack of education are not able to be addressed by local officials. Supporters of government policy point out that over the time period of 1978 to 2014, China has reduced rural poverty from 250 million people to just over 70 million people.<ref name=":13">Liu, Y., Liu, J., & Zhou, Y. (2017). Spatio-temporal patterns of rural poverty in China and targeted poverty alleviation strategies. ''Journal of Rural Studies'', ''52'', 66-75.</ref> China's Rural Poverty Alleviation and Development Outline from 2001 to 2010 led to certain government policy directly dealing with the issue of poverty with the removal of agriculture tax in 2006 and a program which the government paid rural families to plant trees on degraded land.<ref name=":13" /> More fundamental and radical measures such as directly redistributive taxation and social security systems or land tenure and agricultural produce price reforms are not mentioned here, however: presumably because they are not considered prudent.
===Unequal educational opportunity===
{{See also|Education in China}}
Education is a prerequisite for the development of human capital which in turn is an important factor in a country's overall development. Apart from the increasing income inequality, the education sector has long suffered from problems such as funding shortages and unequal allocation of education resources,<ref name="peerchina.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.peerchina.org/about/project-background |title=Project Background |access-date=2011-02-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727170543/http://www.peerchina.org/about/project-background |archive-date=2011-07-27 |publisher=Peer Experience Exchange Rostrum }}</ref> adding to the disparity between China's urban and rural life; this was exacerbated by the two track system of government's approach to education. The first track is government -supported primary education in urban areas and the second is family -supported primary education in the rural areas.<ref name="chinaperspectives.revues.org">{{cite journal|url=http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/500|title=Unequal Primary Education Opportunities in Rural and Urban China|first=Teng Margaret|last=Fu|date=1 August 2005|journal=China Perspectives|volume=2005|issue=4|doi=10.4000/chinaperspectives.500|access-date=28 December 2017|via=chinaperspectives.revues.org|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Rural education has been marginalized by the focus on immediate economic development and the fact that urban education enjoys more attention and investment by the central government.<ref name="chinaperspectives.revues.org"/> This lack of public funding meant that children of rural families were forced to drop out of school, thus losing the opportunity to further their studies and following the paths of their parents to become low skilled workers with few chances of advancements.<ref name="peerchina.org"/> This leads to a vicious cycle of poverty. Because of limited educational resources, urban schools were supported by the government while village schools were provided for by the local communities where educational opportunities were possibly constrained depending on local conditions.<ref name="chinaperspectives.revues.org"/> Thus, there still exist a huge gap in teacher preparation and quality of facilities between rural and urban areas.
The two track system was then abolished in 1986 & 1992, to be replaced by the Compulsory Education Law and the Rule for the Implementation of the Compulsory Education Law respectively.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/500?lang=en|title=Unequal Primary Education Opportunities in Rural and Urban China|first=Teng Margaret|last=Fu|date=1 August 2005|journal=China Perspectives|volume=2005|issue=4|doi=10.4000/chinaperspectives.500|access-date=28 December 2017|via=chinaperspectives.revues.org|doi-access=free}}</ref> Despite the emphasis of China's education reform on providing quality and holistic education, the rural schools still lack the capacity to implement such reforms vis-à-vis their urban counterparts.<ref name="peerchina.org"/> The rural areas lack the educational resources of the urban areas and the rural areas are considered to be falling below the educational benchmark set in the cities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90882/6755242.html|title=China vows to improve teacher quality in rural areas - People's Daily Online|website=English.peopledaily.com.cn|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref> Teachers are more attracted to urban sectors with higher pay and a slew of benefits. In addition, rural villages have a difficult time finding quality teachers because of the lower standard of living and then there was dallas he is really cool in villages. As a result, some rural teachers are not qualified as they received college degrees from continuing-education programs, which is not the best type of further education one could receive.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-11/05/content_11505717.htm|title=Rural students left behind|website=Chinadaily.com.cn|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
As a result, rural students often find themselves neither competitive enough to gain admissions to colleges nor employable for most occupations.<ref name="peerchina.org"/> Rural residents are increasingly being marginalised in higher education, closing off their best opportunities for advancement. This is especially prominent in Tsinghua and Peking University where the percentage of rural population studying in the two universities have shrunk to 17.6 percent in 2000 and 16.3 percent in 1999, down from 50 to 60 percent in the 1950s. These numbers are the most recent reliable data that has been published and experts agree that the number might be as low as 1 percent in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/2010/08/21/the-rural-poor-are-shut-out-of-china-s-top-schools.html|title=The Rural Poor Shunned by China's Top Schools|date=21 August 2010|website=Newsweek.com|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
==Restrictions on migration==
{{See also|Urbanization in China|Metropolitan Regions of China}}
Pre-reform China had a system that severely restricted people's mobility, and that system has only slowly been reformed over the past 25 years. Each person has a registration ([[hukou system|hukou]]) in either a rural area or an urban area, and cannot change the hukou without the permission of the receiving [[jurisdiction]]. In practice cities usually give registration to skilled people who have offers of employment, but have generally been reluctant to provide registration to migrants from the countryside. Nevertheless, these migrants are needed for [[economic development]], and large numbers have in fact migrated. Many of these fall into the category of "floating population". There are nearly 200 million rural residents who spend at least six months of the year working in urban areas. Many of these people have for all practical purposes moved to a city, but they do not have official registration. Beyond the floating population, there are tens of millions of people who have left rural areas and obtained urban hukous.<ref name="Investment Climate and Firm Performance in Developing bullshit Economies" />
So, there is significant rural-urban migration in China, but it seems likely that the hukou system has resulted in less migration than otherwise would have occurred. There are several pieces of evidence to support this view. First, the gap in per capita income between rural and urban areas widened during the reform period, reaching a ratio of three to one. Three to one is a very high gap by international standards. Second, manufacturing [[wage]]s have risen sharply in recent years, at double-digit rates, so that China now has considerably higher wages than much of the rest of developing Asia (India, Vietnam, Pakistan, Bangladesh). This rise is good for the incumbent workers, but they are relatively high up in China's income distribution, so that the wage increases raise inequality. It is hard to imagine that manufacturing wages would have risen so rapidly if there had not been such controls on labor migration. Third, recent studies focusing on migrants have shown that it is difficult for them to bring their families to the city, put their children in school, and obtain healthcare. So, the growth of the urban population must have been slowed down by these restrictions.<ref>Sicular, T., X. Yue, B. Gustafsson, and S. Li, 2007. The Urban-Rural Income Gap and Inequality in China, Review of Income and Wealth, 53(1): 93-126.</ref>
China's [[urbanization]] so far has been a relatively orderly process. One does not see in China the kinds of slums and extreme poverty that exist in cities throughout South Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Nevertheless, urbanization goes on: the urban share of China's population has risen from 20% to 40% during the course of economic reform. But at the same time the hukou system has slowed and distorted urbanization, without preventing it. The system has likely contributed to inequality by limiting the opportunities of the relatively poor rural population to move to better-paying [[employment]].<ref name="China’s (Uneven) Progress Against Poverty"/>
==Land policy==
{{Update|updated=21 November 2020|date=December 2020}}
Just as Chinese citizens are either registered as [[urban area|urban]] or [[rural]] under the Hukou system, land in China is zoned as either rural or urban. Under [[Property Law of the People's Republic of China|Chinese property law]], there is no privately held land. Urban land is owned by the state, which grants land rights for a set number of years. Reforms in the late 1980s and 1990s allowed for transactions in urban land, enabling citizens to sell their land and buildings, or [[Mortgage loan|mortgage]] them to borrow, while still retaining state ownership.<ref>Ding, Chengri and Gerrit Knaap, [http://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/793_Urban-Land-Policy-Reform-in-China 'Urban Land Policy Reform in China'], Land Lines: April 2003, Volume 15, Number 2.</ref> Rural, or “collectively owned land”, is leased by the state for periods of 30 years, and is theoretically reserved for agricultural purposes, housing and services for farmers.<ref name="CECCproperty">Congressional Executive Commission on China, [http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=111_cong_house_committee_prints&docid=f:61507.pdf 2010 Annual Report]. 10 Oct 2010, pp 41-42</ref> Peasants have long-term [[Land tenure|tenure]] as long as they sow the land, but they cannot mortgage or sell the use rights. The biggest distortion, however, concerns moving land from rural to urban use. China is a densely populated, water-scarce country whose [[comparative advantage]] lies more in manufacturing and services than in agriculture. The fact that many peasants cannot earn a decent living as farmers is a signal that their labor is more useful in urban employment, hence the hundreds of millions of people who have migrated. But, at the same time, it is efficient to allocate some of the land out of agriculture for urban use.
In China, that conversion is handled administratively, requiring central approval. Farmers are compensated based on the agricultural value of the land. But the reason to convert land – especially in the fringes around cities – is that the commercial value of the land for urban use is higher than its value for agriculture. So, even if China's laws on land are followed scrupulously, the conversion does not generate a high income for the peasants. There are cases in which the conversion is done transparently, the use of rights over the land [[auction]]ed, and the revenue collected put into the [[public budget]] to finance public goods. But still the peasants get relatively poor recompense. One government study found that 62% of displaced peasants were worse off after land conversion.<ref name="Intergovernmental Fiscal Reforms">Dollar, David and Bert Hofman, forthcoming. Intergovernmental Fiscal Reforms, Expenditure Assignment, and Governance. In, Jiwei Lou and Shuilin Wang, eds., China: Public Finance for a Harmonious Society</ref>
Secure land [[Land tenure|tenure]] is recognized as a powerful tool to reduce poverty, and the central government has begun guaranteeing all farmers 30-year land rights, strictly limiting expropriations, documenting and publicizing farmers’ rights, and requiring sufficient compensation when farmers’ lands are expropriated.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.landesa.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/landesa-factsheet-china.pdf |title=Landesa in China |access-date=2011-09-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404222516/http://www.landesa.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/landesa-factsheet-china.pdf |archive-date=2012-04-04 }}</ref> A 2010 survey of 17 provinces by [[Landesa]] found improved documentation of farmer's land rights, but much room for improvement: 63% of farming families have been issued land-rights certificates and 53% have land-rights contracts, but only 44% have been issued both documents (as is required by law) and 29% have no document at all; farmers who have been issued these documents are far more likely to make long-term investments in their land and are financially benefiting from those investments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.landesa.org/where-we-work/china/research-report-2010-findings-17-province-china-survey/|title=Research Report - 2010 Findings from 17-Province China Survey|website=Landesa.org|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
==Fiscal system and rural social services==
{{Update|updated=21 November 2020|date=December 2020}}
Market reform has dramatically increased the return to [[education]], as it indicates that there are good opportunities for skilled people and as it creates a powerful incentive for families to increase the education of their children. However, there needs to be strong public support for education and reasonably fair access to the education system. Otherwise, inequality can become self-perpetuating: if only high-income people can educate their children, then that group remains a privileged, high-income group permanently. China is at some risk of falling into this trap, because it has developed a highly decentralized fiscal system in which local governments rely primarily on local [[tax]] collection to provide basic services such as primary education and primary [[health care]]. China in fact has one of the most decentralized fiscal systems in the world.<ref name="International Data on Educational Attainment"/>
China is much more decentralized than [[OECD]] countries and middle-income countries, particularly on the spending side. More than half of all expenditure takes place at the [[Administrative divisions of China|sub-provincial level]]. In part, the sheer size of the country explains this degree of decentralization, but the structure of government and some unusual [[expenditure]] assignments also give rise to this pattern of spending. Functions such as [[social security]], [[justice]], and even the production of [[National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China|national statistics]] are largely decentralized in China, whereas they are central functions in most other countries.
Fiscal disparities among subnational governments are larger in China than in most OECD countries. These disparities have emerged alongside a growing disparity in economic strength among the [[Province (China)|provinces]]. From 1990 to 2003, the ratio of [[per capita GDP]] of the richest to poorest province grew from 7.3 to 13. In China, the richest province has more than 8 times the per capita public spending than the poorest province. In the [[United States|US]], the poorest state has about 65 percent of the revenues of the average state, and in [[Germany]], any state falling below 95 percent of the average level gets subsidized through the "[[Finanzausgleich]]" (and any receiving more than 110 percent gets taxed). In [[Brazil]], the richest state has 2.3 times the revenues per capita of the poorest state.<ref name="Intergovernmental Fiscal Reforms"/>
Inequalities in spending are even larger at the sub-provincial level. The richest county, the level that is most important for service delivery, has about 48 times the level of per capita spending of the poorest county.<ref name="Intergovernmental Fiscal Reforms"/> These disparities in aggregate spending levels also show up in functional categories such as health and education where variation among counties and among provinces is large.
These differences in public spending translate into differences in social outcomes. Up through 1990, there were only modest differences across provinces in [[infant survival rate]], but by 2000 there had emerged a very sharp difference, closely related to the province's per capita GDP. So too with the [[high-school]] [[education|enrollment]] rate: there used to be small differences across provinces. By 2003, high-school enrollment was nearing 100% in the wealthier provinces while still less than 40% in poor provinces.<ref name="International Data on Educational Attainment">{{cite journal |last1=Barro |first1=Robert J. |first2=Jong-Wha |last2=Lee |title=International Data On Educational Attainment: Updates And Implications |journal=Oxford Economic Papers |year=2001 |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=541–563 |doi=10.1093/oep/53.3.541 |s2cid=30819754 |url=https://www.hks.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/centers/cid/files/publications/faculty-working-papers/042.pdf }}</ref>
There is some redistribution within China's [[Chinese financial system|fiscal system]], but arguments abound whether it is enough. Poor areas have very little tax collection and hence cannot fund education and health care. Some of their population will relocate over time. But for reasons of both national [[economic efficiency|efficiency]] and [[Equality of opportunity|opportunity]], some theoretical economists argue for the communist state to ensure everyone has some basic education and basic health care.
China's highly decentralized fiscal system results in: [[local government]] in many locations not having adequate resources to fund basic social services. As a consequence, [[household]]s are left to pay for their own needs to a remarkable extent. The average hospital visit in China in 2018 is paid 35% [[out-of-pocket]] by the patient,<ref>{{cite web |title=Out-of-pocket expenditure (% of current health expenditure) - China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.OOPC.CH.ZS?locations=CN |publisher=World Bank |access-date=21 December 2020}}</ref> compared to 25% in [[Mexico]], 17% in [[Australia]], 10% in [[Turkey]] and the [[United States]], and lower amounts in most [[developed countries]]. Poor households either forego treatment, or travel to other cities for treatment, which can be expensive if the condition is severe. In the 2003 National Health Survey, 30% of poor households identified a large [[health care]] [[expenditure]] as the reason that they were having financial difficulties.<ref name="China’s (Uneven) Progress Against Poverty"/>
The situation in education is similar. In a survey of 3037 villages in 2004, average primary school fees were 260 [[Renminbi|yuan]] and average middle-school fees, 442 yuan. A family living right at the dollar-a-day poverty line would have about 900 yuan total resources for a child for a year; sending a child to middle-school would take half of that. Not surprisingly, then, enrollment rates are relatively low in poor areas and for poor families.<ref name="Economic Returns to Schooling in Urban China">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Junsen |first2=Yaohui |last2=Zhao |first3=Albert |last3=Park |first4=Xiaoqing |last4=Song |year=2005 |title=Economic Returns to Schooling in Urban China, 1988–2001 |journal=Journal of Comparative Economics |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=730–752 |doi=10.1016/j.jce.2005.05.008 }}</ref>
== Women In Poverty ==
In China, women are more vulnerable to suffer from severe poverty than men. More women experience multidimensional poverty (38.9% compared to 25.2%). Many individual and social characteristics shape women's experiences on poverty, such as age, education, employment, family structure, family size, urban or rural areas, etc.<ref name="Wu 66–88">{{Cite journal|last1=Wu|first1=Yichao|last2=Qi|first2=Di|date=2017-01-02|title=A gender-based analysis of multidimensional poverty in China|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/12259276.2017.1279886|journal=Asian Journal of Women's Studies|language=en|volume=23|issue=1|pages=66–88|doi=10.1080/12259276.2017.1279886|s2cid=218767427|issn=1225-9276}}</ref>
In terms of individual factors, women are less likely complete their primary education, have worse health and nutrition, and more likely to enduring chronic diseases, hospitalization and low income. As daughter, women's education is less valued by their parents. As mothers, women are expected to value their children's care work more than their own career. In addition, the gender inequalities in the labor market is pervasive.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Walker|first1=Robert|last2=Millar|first2=Jane|date=2020-04-28|title=Left Behind? The Status of Women in Contemporary China|url=https://www.cogitatiopress.com/socialinclusion/article/view/3038|journal=Social Inclusion|volume=8|issue=2|pages=1–9|doi=10.17645/si.v8i2.3038|s2cid=219033193|issn=2183-2803 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The labor force participation rate of women has declined since the economic reforms and financial hardship was severe among women. In terms of marital factors, research shows that single mothers are the suffer the most from poverty. On the one hand, social and public policies are usually inadequate for single-parent families, especially families headed by women.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Li|first=Qin|date=2020-04-28|title=Mothers Left without a Man: Poverty and Single Parenthood in China|url=https://www.cogitatiopress.com/socialinclusion/article/view/2678|journal=Social Inclusion|volume=8|issue=2|pages=114–122|doi=10.17645/si.v8i2.2678|s2cid=219006505|issn=2183-2803 |doi-access=free }}</ref> On the other hand, Chinese traditional belief on family see divorce as negative, and often push mothers to sacrifice themselves to fulfill their children. Age is also a factor that contribute to women's poverty. Research shows that women are in lower chance to receive less occupational pension and receive less benefit (women receive 595 yuan per month whereas men receive 1,105 yuan). Also, women in their 50s are more likely to take the responsibility of caring their elderly parents and grandchildren, therefore more likely to retire earlier and receive less money in pension.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhao|first1=Rui|last2=Zhao|first2=Yaohui|date=2018-04-03|title=The Gender Pension Gap in China|journal=Feminist Economics|language=en|volume=24|issue=2|pages=218–239|doi=10.1080/13545701.2017.1411601|issn=1354-5701|pmc=7451650|pmid=32863729}}</ref>
In terms of regional factors, women who live in remote and less developed western region are more likely to live in poverty than eastern area.<ref name="Wu 66–88"/> For example, women live in Guizhou and Gansu provinces have the highest multidimensional poverty rate. Many women in poverty immigrant from their hometown to another province for improving their living situation, and many use marriage as the approach. (Research shows much more women migrated from relatively less developed regions to more developed regions through marriage than men<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Qingbin|last2=Zou|first2=Yang|last3=Fan|first3=Dan|date=2019-12-01|title=Gender imbalance in China's marriage migration: Quantitative evidence and policy implications|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264999318317565|journal=Economic Modelling|language=en|volume=83|pages=406–414|doi=10.1016/j.econmod.2019.09.040|s2cid=204425441|issn=0264-9993}}</ref>). Some women did get out of absolute poverty through marriage, however, because of limited opportunities, they are likely to fall into relative poverty soon after relocation. Also, migrant wives often suffer from perpetuated poverty after marriage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Guanli|date=2020-04-28|title=Perceiving and Deflecting Everyday Poverty-Related Shame: Evidence from 35 Female Marriage Migrants in Rural China|url=https://www.cogitatiopress.com/socialinclusion/article/view/2671|journal=Social Inclusion|volume=8|issue=2|pages=123–131|doi=10.17645/si.v8i2.2671|s2cid=219027884|issn=2183-2803|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In the state level, it is hard to find official data on women in poverty and poverty reduction programs tend to focus more on men, which widen the gender inequality. A research focus on a poverty reduction program in the Inner Mongolia shows that women's empowerment program can make positive effects on poverty reduction.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gu|first1=Rui|last2=Nie|first2=Feng-ying|date=2021-04-01|title=Does empowering women benefit poverty reduction? Evidence from a multi-component program in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China|journal=Journal of Integrative Agriculture|language=en|volume=20|issue=4|pages=1092–1106|doi=10.1016/S2095-3119(20)63436-0|s2cid=233525509|issn=2095-3119|doi-access=free}}</ref> It suggest that if poverty program can be more gender-focus, women and their household in poverty can benefit more from intervention such as training, cooperatives, and credit.
==See also==
=== China articles ===
* [[Demographics of China]]
* [[Digital divide in the People's Republic of China|Digital divide in China]]
* [[List of minimum wages in China (PRC)]]
=== General articles ===
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Cycle of poverty]]
* [[Diseases of poverty]]
* [[Deprivation index]]
* [[Economic inequality]]
* [[Feminization of poverty]]
* [[Food security]]
* [[Food vs fuel]]
* [[Fuel poverty]]
* [[Green Revolution]]
* [[Hunger]]
* [[Income disparity]]
* [[Life expectancy]]
* [[List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty]]
* [[List of famines]]
* [[Literacy]]
* [[Minimum wage]]
* [[New Rural Reconstruction Movement]]
* [[Pauperism]]
* [[Poverty threshold]]
* [[Poverty trap]]
* [[Street children]]
* [[The Hunger Site]]
* [[Working poor]]
}}
===Organizations and campaigns===
* [[ActionAid efforts in dealing with income inequality in China]]
* [[List of charities in China]]
* [[List of NGOs in China]]
* [[Wokai]] - Organization that allows people to contribute directly to microfinance institutions in China
* ''[[Young China Scholars Poverty Research Network]]''
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
*[http://www.adb.org/publications/poverty-profile-peoples-republic-china Poverty Profile of People's Republic of China] - [[Asian Development Bank]] (ADB)
*Azizur Rahman Khan, Carl Riskin. (2001) "Inequality and Poverty in China in the Age of Globalization." Oxford University Press {{ISBN|0-19-513649-7}}
*[http://www.worldbank.org/research/2009/03/10427760/china-poor-areas-poor-people-chinas-evolving-poverty-reduction-agenda-assessment-poverty-inequality China - From poor areas to poor people : China's evolving poverty reduction agenda - an assessment of poverty and inequality], World Bank, 2009
*{{cite journal |last1=Sullivan|first1=Dylan |last2=Moatsos |first2= Michail |last3=Hickel |first3=Jason|author-link3=Jason Hickel|date=2023 |title=Capitalist reforms and extreme poverty in China: unprecedented progress or income deflation?|url= |journal=[[New Political Economy (journal)|New Political Economy]] |volume= 29|issue= |pages= 1–21|doi=10.1080/13563467.2023.2217087|access-date=|doi-access=free}}
==External links==
===Organizations===
*[http://www.cpad.gov.cn/ State Council Leading Group Office of Poverty Alleviation and Reduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731054629/http://www.cpad.gov.cn/ |date=July 31, 2017 }} (Chinese & English)
*[http://www.fcpmc.org/ Foreign-funded projects of the State Council Poverty Alleviation Office Management Center]
*[http://www.casted.org.cn/ Chinese Academy of Science and Technology for Development (CASTED)]
*[http://www.cdrf.org.cn/ China Development Research Foundation]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090911155421/http://www.help-poverty.org.cn/ China Poverty Alleviation Information Network]
*[http://www.cnfpzz.com/ China Poverty Alleviation Network]
*[http://www.zhfp.net/ China Poverty Network]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090221102751/http://www.cspgp.org.cn/13_English/index.htm China Society For Promotion Of The Guangcai Program]
*[http://www.undp.org.cn/ United Nations Development Programme in China]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070922004245/http://www.fupin.org.cn/en/index.asp China Poverty Alleviation Foundation]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080517001051/http://www.iprcc.org.cn/index.php/en/ International Poverty Reduction Center in China]
*[http://unescap.org/stat/meet/povstat/pov7_chn.pdf Poverty Statistics in China] United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
===Articles===
*[http://www.gwu.edu/~econ270/Taejoon.html Income disparity in China] China: a shared poverty to uneven wealth?
*[http://www.econ.ucdavis.edu/faculty/woo/1%20Oct%2004.Woo.China%20Poverty.pdf The Poverty Challenge for China in the New Millennium]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081120164457/http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20050513_402249491.htm Communiqué on 2004 Rural Poverty Monitoring of China] - [[National Bureau of Statistics of China]]
*[http://www.eeo.com.cn/ens/Politics/2008/04/17/97126.html China To Raise Poverty Line]
*[http://www.waronwant.org/overseas-work/sweatshops-and-plantations/china-sweatshops Sweatshops in China]
{{Economy of China}}
{{Poverty}}
{{Asia topic|Poverty in}}
{{Health in the People's Republic of China}}
[[Category:Poverty in China| ]]' |
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Poverty_in_China.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Poverty_in_China.svg/220px-Poverty_in_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Poverty_in_China.svg/330px-Poverty_in_China.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Poverty_in_China.svg/440px-Poverty_in_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1103" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Share of population in extreme poverty over time</figcaption></figure>
<p>In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a> mainly refers to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rural_poverty" title="Rural poverty">rural poverty</a>. Decades of economic development has reduced urban <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extreme_poverty" title="Extreme poverty">extreme poverty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, more than 850 million Chinese people have been lifted out of extreme poverty; China's poverty rate fell from 88 percent in 1981 to 0.7 percent in 2015, as measured by the percentage of people living on the equivalent of US$1.90 or less per day in 2011 purchasing price parity terms,<sup id="cite_ref-worldbank.org_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldbank.org-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which still stands in 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-WBPL_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WBPL-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PLWB_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PLWB-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ChinaEradicateAbsolutePoverty_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChinaEradicateAbsolutePoverty-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The Chinese definition of extreme poverty is more stringent than that of the World Bank: earning less than $2.30 a day at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">purchasing power parity</a> (PPP).<sup id="cite_ref-ChinaUmicPoverty_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChinaUmicPoverty-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Growth has fuelled a substantial increase in per-capita income lifting people out of extreme poverty. China's per capita income has increased fivefold between 1990 and 2000, from $200 to $1,000. Between 2000 and 2010, per capita income also rose at the same rate, from $1,000 to $5,000, moving China into the ranks of middle-income countries.
</p><p>Between 1990 and 2005, China's progress accounted for more than three-quarters of global poverty reduction and was largely responsible for the world reaching the UN millennium development target of dividing extreme poverty in half. This can be attributed to a combination of a rapidly expanding labour market, driven by a protracted period of economic growth, and a series of government transfers such as an urban subsidy, and the introduction of a rural pension.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The World Bank Group said that the percentage of the population living below the international poverty line of $1.9 (2011 PPP) fell to 0.7 percent in 2015, and poverty line of $3.2 (2011 PPP) fell to 7% in 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-worldbank.org_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldbank.org-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>At the end of 2018, the number of people living below China's national poverty line of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">¥</a>2,300 (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">CNY</a>) per year (in 2010 constant prices) was 16.6 million, equal to 1.7% of the population at the time. On November 23, 2020, China announced that it had eliminated absolute poverty nationwide by uplifting all of its citizens beyond its set ¥2,300 per year (in 2010 constant prices),<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or around ¥4,000 per year in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The World Bank has different <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty line">poverty lines</a> for countries with different <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gross_national_income" title="Gross national income">gross national income</a> (GNI). With an GNI per capita of $10,610 in 2020,<sup id="cite_ref-ChinaGNIperCapita_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChinaGNIperCapita-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> China is an upper middle-income country.<sup id="cite_ref-ChinaUmic_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChinaUmic-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CountriesByGNIperCapita_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CountriesByGNIperCapita-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The poverty line for an upper middle-income country is $5.5 per day at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">PPP</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WBPL_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WBPL-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PLWB_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PLWB-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ChinaEradicateAbsolutePoverty_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChinaEradicateAbsolutePoverty-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ChinaUmicPoverty_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChinaUmicPoverty-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2020, China has succeeded in eradicating <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Absolute_poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="Absolute poverty">absolute poverty</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ChinaEradicateAbsolutePoverty_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChinaEradicateAbsolutePoverty-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ChinaUmicPoverty_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChinaUmicPoverty-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ChinEradicateExtremePoverty_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChinEradicateExtremePoverty-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but not the poverty defined for upper middle-income countries which China belongs to.<sup id="cite_ref-ChinaNoLicPoverty_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChinaNoLicPoverty-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ChinEradicateExtremePoverty_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChinEradicateExtremePoverty-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> China still has around 13% of its population falling below this poverty line of $5.50 per day in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-ChinaUmicPoverty_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChinaUmicPoverty-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2020, premier <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Li_Keqiang" title="Li Keqiang">Li Keqiang</a>, citing the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">National Bureau of Statistics</a> (NBS) said that China still had 600 million people living with less than 1000 yuan ($140) a month, although an article from <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a></i> said that the methodology NBS used was flawed, stating that the figure took the combined income, which was then equally divided.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Overview"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Overview</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Poverty_reduction"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Poverty reduction</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Universal_Healthcare"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Universal Healthcare</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Increased_inequality"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Increased inequality</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Rural-urban_divide"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Rural-urban divide</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Urban_poverty_in_China"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Urban poverty in China</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Rural_Poverty"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Rural Poverty</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Unequal_educational_opportunity"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Unequal educational opportunity</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Restrictions_on_migration"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Restrictions on migration</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Land_policy"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Land policy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Fiscal_system_and_rural_social_services"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Fiscal system and rural social services</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Women_In_Poverty"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Women In Poverty</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#China_articles"><span class="tocnumber">9.1</span> <span class="toctext">China articles</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#General_articles"><span class="tocnumber">9.2</span> <span class="toctext">General articles</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Organizations_and_campaigns"><span class="tocnumber">9.3</span> <span class="toctext">Organizations and campaigns</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Organizations"><span class="tocnumber">12.1</span> <span class="toctext">Organizations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Articles"><span class="tocnumber">12.2</span> <span class="toctext">Articles</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Since <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> began instituting market reforms in the late 1970s, China has been among the most rapidly growing economies in the world, regularly exceeding 10 percent GDP growth annually from 1978 through 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This growth has led to a substantial increase in real <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">living standards</a> and a marked decline in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>. Between 1981 and 2008, the proportion of China's population living on less than $1.25/day is estimated to have fallen from 85% to 13.1%, meaning that roughly 600 million people were taken out of extreme poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-Anup_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anup-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, this rapid change has brought with it different kinds of stresses. China faces serious <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">natural resource</a> scarcity and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a>. It has also seen growing disparities as people in different parts of the country and with different characteristics have benefited from the growth at different rates.
</p><p>Starting from the pre-reform situation, some increase in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Income_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Income inequality">income inequality</a> was inevitable, as favored coastal <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban</a> locations benefited from the opening policy, and as the small stock of educated people found new opportunities. However, particular features of Chinese policy may have exacerbated rather than mitigated growing disparities. The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hukou_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Hukou system">household registration (hukou) system</a> kept rural-urban migration below what it otherwise would have been, and contributed to the development of one of the largest rural-urban income divides in the world. Weak <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">tenure</a> over rural land also limited the ability of peasants to benefit from their primary asset.
</p><p>Aside from income inequality, there has also been an increase in inequality of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Educational" class="mw-redirect" title="Educational">educational</a> outcomes and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> status, partly the result of China's decentralized fiscal system, in which local government has been primarily responsible for funding basic health and education. Poor localities have not been able to fund these services, and poor households have not been able to afford the high <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Private_school" title="Private school">private</a> cost of basic education and healthcare.
</p><p>The large <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trade_surplus" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade surplus">trade surplus</a> that has emerged in China has exacerbated the inequalities, and makes them harder to address. The trade surplus stimulates the urban <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a> sector, which is already relatively well off. It limits the government's scope to increase funding for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Public_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Public services">public services</a> such as rural health and education. The government has been trying to rebalance China's production away from investment and exports towards domestic consumption and services, to improve the country's long-term <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Macroeconomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroeconomic">macroeconomic</a> health and the situation of the relatively poor in China.
</p><p>Recent government measures to reduce disparities include relaxation of the <i>hukou</i> system, abolition of the agricultural tax, and increased <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Central_government" title="Central government">central</a> transfers to fund health and education in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rural_society_in_China" title="Rural society in China">rural areas</a>.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Poverty_reduction">Poverty reduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Poverty reduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Moderately_prosperous_society" title="Moderately prosperous society">Moderately prosperous society</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Targeted_Poverty_Alleviation" title="Targeted Poverty Alleviation">Targeted Poverty Alleviation</a></div>
<table class="wikitable">
<caption>Poverty reduction in China by various measures
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>
</th>
<th>Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day<br />(2011 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Int$" class="mw-redirect" title="Int$">Int$</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">PPP</a>) (% of population)<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</th>
<th>Poverty headcount ratio at $3.20 a day<br />(2011 Int$ PPP) (% of population)<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</th>
<th>Poverty headcount ratio at $5.50 a day<br />(2011 Int$ PPP) (% of population)<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>1990</b></td>
<td>66.2</td>
<td>90</td>
<td>98.3
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>2010</b></td>
<td>11.2</td>
<td>28.5</td>
<td>53.4
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>2015</b></td>
<td>0.7</td>
<td>7</td>
<td>27.2
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>2019</b></td>
<td>0.1</td>
<td>1.7</td>
<td>15.8
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>China's lifting of more than 800 million people out of extreme poverty since the late 1970s has been the largest global reduction in inequality in modern history.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 23">: 23 </span></sup>
</p><p>China has maintained a high growth rate for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/China%27s_Historical_GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="China's Historical GDP">more than 30 years</a> since the beginning of economic reform in 1978. This sustained growth has generated a huge increase in average living standards. 25 years ago, China had many characteristics in common with the rest of developing Asia: large population, low per capita income, and resource scarcity on a per capita basis. But in the 15 years from 1990 to 2005, China averaged per capita growth of 8.7%
</p><p>The whole reform program is often referred to in brief as the "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Open_Door_Policy#In_modern_China" title="Open Door Policy">open door policy</a>". This highlights that a key component of Chinese reform has been trade liberalization and opening up to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment" title="Foreign direct investment">foreign direct investment</a>, but not opening the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Capital_account" title="Capital account">capital account</a> more generally to portfolio flows. China improved its human capital, opened up to foreign trade and investment, and created a better investment climate for the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">private sector</a>.
</p><p>After joining the WTO China's average <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a> dropped below 10%, and to around 5% for manufactured <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Import" title="Import">imports</a>. It initially welcomed foreign investment into "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special_Economic_Zones_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Special Economic Zones of the People's Republic of China">special economic zones</a>". Some of these zones were very large, amounting to urban areas of 20 million people or more. The positive impact of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment" title="Foreign direct investment">foreign investment</a> in these locations led to a more general opening up of the economy to foreign investment, with the result that China became the largest recipient of direct investment flows in the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The opening up measures have been accompanied by improvements in the investment climate, particularly in cities in the coastal areas, where the private sector now accounts for 90% or more of manufacturing assets and production. In 2005, the average pretax rate of return for domestic private firms was the same as that for foreign-invested firms.<sup id="cite_ref-Das_Wasted_Kapital_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Das_Wasted_Kapital-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Local governments in coastal cities have lowered loss of output due to unreliable power supply to 1.0% and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Customs" title="Customs">customs</a> clearance time for imports has been lowered in Chinese cities to 3.3 days.<sup id="cite_ref-Das_Wasted_Kapital_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Das_Wasted_Kapital-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>China's sustained growth fueled historically unprecedented poverty reduction. The World Bank uses a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty line">poverty line</a> based on household real consumption (including consumption of own-produced crops and other goods), set at $1 per day measured at <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Purchasing_Power_Parity" class="mw-redirect" title="Purchasing Power Parity">Purchasing Power Parity</a>. In most low-income countries this amount is sufficient to guarantee each person about 1000 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Calories" class="mw-redirect" title="Calories">calories</a> of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nutrition" title="Nutrition">nutrition</a> per day, plus other basic necessities. In 2007, this line corresponds to about 2,836 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">RMB</a> per year. Based on household surveys, the poverty rate in China in 1981 was 63% of the population. This rate declined to 10% in 2004, indicating that about 500 million people have climbed out of poverty during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-China’s_(Uneven)_Progress_Against_Poverty_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-China’s_(Uneven)_Progress_Against_Poverty-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>This poverty reduction has occurred in waves. The shift to the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Household_responsibility_system" title="Household responsibility system">household responsibility system</a> propelled a large increase in agricultural output, and poverty was cut in half over the short period from 1981 to 1987. From 1987 to 1993 poverty reduction stagnated, then resumed again. From 1996 to 2001 there was once more relatively little poverty reduction. Since China joined the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">WTO</a> in 2001, however, poverty reduction resumed at a very rapid rate, and poverty was cut by a third in just three years.<sup id="cite_ref-Investment_Climate_and_Firm_Performance_in_Developing_bullshit_Economies_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Investment_Climate_and_Firm_Performance_in_Developing_bullshit_Economies-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Taken from the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asian_Development_Bank" title="Asian Development Bank">Asian Development Bank</a>, there was an estimated average annual growth rate of 0.5% in China between 2010 and 2015. This brought the Chinese population to 1.37 billion in 2015. As per China's national poverty line, 8.5 percent of people were in poverty in 2013, which decreased to 1.7 percent in 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>On 6 March 2020, Xi Jinping, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party">General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party</a>, announced that by 2020, China will achieve all poverty alleviation in rural areas.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 28 May 2020, Li Keqiang, the Premier of China, said during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Press_Conference_of_the_Premier_of_the_State_Council" title="Press Conference of the Premier of the State Council">Press Conference of the Premier of the State Council</a> at the end of the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Two_Sessions" title="Two Sessions">two sessions</a> that "China has over 600 million people whose monthly income is barely 1,000 yuan (USD 140) and their lives have further been affected by the coronavirus pandemic."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Universal_Healthcare">Universal Healthcare</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Universal Healthcare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Michelle_Bachelet" title="Michelle Bachelet">Michelle Bachelet</a> visited China in May 2022, the first time in 17 years that a <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights" title="Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights">UN high commissioner for human rights</a> had travelled to China. In a statement about her visit she wrote "The introduction of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Universal_health_care" title="Universal health care">universal health care</a> and almost universal <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unemployment_benefits" title="Unemployment benefits">unemployment insurance</a> scheme go a long way in ensuring protection of the right to health and broader social and economic rights".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Increased_inequality">Increased inequality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Increased inequality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>China's growth has been so rapid that virtually every household has benefited significantly, fueling the steep drop in poverty. However, different people have benefited to very different extents, so that inequality has risen during the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">reform period</a>. This is true for inequality in household income or consumption, as well as for inequality in important social outcomes such as health status or educational attainment. Concerning household consumption, the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini measure of inequality</a> increased from 0.31 at the beginning of reform to 0.45 in 2004. To some extent this rise in inequality is the natural result of the market forces that have generated the strong growth; but to some extent it is "artificial" in the sense that various government policies exacerbate the tendencies toward higher inequality, rather than mitigate them. Changes to some policies could halt or even reverse the increasing inequality.<sup id="cite_ref-Rural_and_Urban_Income_Inequality_and_Poverty_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rural_and_Urban_Income_Inequality_and_Poverty-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See <a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_countries_by_income_equality" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by income equality">List of countries by income equality</a>.)
</p><p>The <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a>-winning economist Sir <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Arthur_Lewis_(economist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Lewis (economist)">Arthur Lewis</a> noted that "development must be inegalitarian because it does not start in every part of the economy at the same time" in 1954. China classically manifests two of the characteristics of development that Lewis had in mind: rising return to education and rural-urban migration. As an underdeveloped country, China began its reform with relatively few highly educated people, and with a small minority of the population (20%) living in cities, where <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Labour_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour (economics)">labor</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> was about twice the level as in the countryside.
</p><p>In pre-reform China there was very little return to education manifested in salaries. Cab drivers and college professors had similar incomes. Economic reform has created a labor market in which people can search for higher pay, and one result of this is that salaries for educated people have gone up dramatically. In the short period between 1988 and 2003, the wage returns to one additional year of schooling increased from 4% to 11%. This development initially leads to higher overall inequality, because the initial stock of educated people is small and they are concentrated at the high end of the income distribution. But if there is reasonably good access to education, then over time a greater and greater share of the population will become educated, and that will ultimately tend to reduce inequality.
</p><p>The large productivity and wage gap between cities and countryside also drives a high rate of rural-urban migration, which has left millions of children traumatized due to parents who have left them to be raised by other family members, as the Chinese government does not allow parents who move to urban areas to take their children with them.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lewis pointed out that, starting from a situation of 80% rural, the initial shift of some from low-productivity agriculture to high productivity urban employment is disequalizing. If the flow continues until the population is more than 50% urban, however, further migration is equalizing. This pattern is very evident in the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_the_U.S." class="mw-redirect" title="History of the U.S.">history of the U.S.</a>, with inequality rising during the rapid <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a> period from 1870 to 1920, and then declining thereafter. So, the same market forces that have produced the rapid growth in China predictably led to higher inequality. But it is important to note that in China there are a number of government policies that exacerbate this tendency toward higher inequality and restrict some of the potential mechanisms that would normally lead to an eventual decline in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Income_inequality_metrics" title="Income inequality metrics">inequality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rural_and_Urban_Income_Inequality_and_Poverty_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rural_and_Urban_Income_Inequality_and_Poverty-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rural-urban_divide">Rural-urban divide</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Rural-urban divide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Income_inequality_in_China" title="Income inequality in China">Income inequality in China</a></div>
<p>Much of the increase in inequality in China can be attributed to the widening rural-urban divide, particularly the differentials in rural-urban income. A household survey conducted in 1995 showed that the rural-urban income gap accounted for 35% of the overall inequality in China.<sup id="cite_ref-Knight_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In 2009, according to China's National Bureau of Statistics, the urban per capita annual income at US$2,525 was approximately three times that of the rural per capita annual income.<sup id="cite_ref-Fu_jing_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fu_jing-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the widest income gap recorded in China since 1978.<sup id="cite_ref-Fu_jing_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fu_jing-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Urban-based economic policies adopted by the government contribute to the income disparities. This is also known as the ‘artificial’ result of the rural-urban divide. In terms of the share of investments allotted by the state, urban areas were given a larger proportion when compared with rural areas.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the period 1986–1992, investments to urban state-owned enterprises (SOE) accounted for more than 25% of the total government budget.<sup id="cite_ref-Dennis_yang_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dennis_yang-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, less than 10% of the government budget was allocated to investments in the rural economy in the same period by the state despite the fact that about 73-76% of the total population lived in the rural areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Dennis_yang_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dennis_yang-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the burden of the inflation caused by the fiscal expansion, which at that time was at a level of approximately 8.5%, was shared by all including the rural population.<sup id="cite_ref-Dennis_yang_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dennis_yang-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such biased allocation of government finances to the urban sector meant that the wages earned by urban workers also include these government fiscal transfers. This is in addition to the relatively higher proportions of credit loans the government also provided to the urban SOEs in the same period.<sup id="cite_ref-Dennis_yang_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dennis_yang-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, the wages earned by the rural workers came mainly from growth in output only.<sup id="cite_ref-Dennis_yang_41-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dennis_yang-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These urban-biased policies reflect the importance of the urban minority to the government relative to the rural majority.
</p><p>In the period when reforms in urban areas were introduced, the real wages earned by urban workers rose inexorably. Restrictions to rural-urban migration protected the urban workers from competition from the rural workers,<sup id="cite_ref-Knight_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which therefore also contributed to rural-urban disparities. According to a report by the World Bank published in 2009, 99% of the poor in China come from rural areas if migrant workers in cities are included in the rural population figures.<sup id="cite_ref-crtr_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crtr-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excluding migrant workers from the rural population figures indicates that 90% of poverty in China is still rural.<sup id="cite_ref-crtr_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crtr-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Inequality in China does not only occur between rural and urban areas. There exist inequalities within rural areas, and within urban areas themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-Knight_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some rural areas, incomes are comparable to that of urban incomes, while in others, income remains low as development is limited. Rural-urban inequalities do not only refer to income differentials but also include inequalities in areas such as education and health care.<sup id="cite_ref-Knight_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_poverty_in_China">Urban poverty in China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Urban poverty in China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The structural reforms of China's economy have brought about a widening of the income gap and rising unemployment in cities. The increasing challenge for the Chinese government and social organizations is to address and solve poverty issues in urban areas where people are increasingly being economically and socially marginalized. According to the official estimates, 12 million people were considered as urban poor in 1993, i.e. 3.6 per cent of the total urban population, but by 2006 the figure had jumped to more than 22 million, i.e. 4.1 per cent of the total urban population and these figures are estimated to grow if the government fails to institute any effective measures to circumvent this escalating problem.<sup id="cite_ref-Hussain2003_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hussain2003-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>China's “floating population” has since helped spur rapid development in the country because of the cheap and plentiful labor they can offer. On the flip side, many people who came from the rural areas are not able to find jobs in the cities. This surplus of rural laborers and mass internal migration will no doubt pose a major threat to the country's political stability and economic growth. Their inabilities to find jobs compounded by the rising costs of living in the cities have made many people fall below the poverty line.
</p><p>There are also large numbers of unemployed and laid-off workers from state-owned enterprises (SOEs). These enterprises have since failed to compete efficiently with the private and foreign-funded companies when China's open-door policy was introduced. In the years 1995 to 2000, the state sector lost 31 million jobs, which amounted to 28 per cent of the jobs in the sector. The non-state sector has been creating new jobs but not in sufficient numbers to offset job losses from the state sector.
</p><p>SOEs’ roles were more than employers, they are also responsible for the provision of welfare benefits, like retirement pensions, incentives for medical care, housing and direct subsidies and the like to its employees, as these burdens greatly increased production costs. In 1992, SOE expenses on insurance and welfare took up 35% of the total wages.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhao2000_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhao2000-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, many people not only lost their jobs but also the social benefits and security that they were once so reliant on. The adverse consequences arising from the market reforms are evidently seen as a socially destabilizing factor.
</p><p>Lastly, the government provided little or no social benefit for the urban poor who needed the most attention. Ministry of Labor and Social Security (MLSS) was the last line of defense against urban poverty in the provision of social insurance and the living allowance for laid-off employees. However, its effectiveness was limited in scope in which less than a quarter of the eligible urban poor actually receiving assistance.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhao2000_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhao2000-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The Minimum Living Standard Scheme was first implemented in Shanghai in 1993 to help supplement the income of the urban poor. It is a last resort program that is meant to help those that don't qualify for other forms of government aid. The Minimum Living Standard Scheme set regional poverty lines and gave recipients a sum of money. The amount of money received by each recipient was the difference in their income and the poverty line. The Scheme has grown rapidly and has since been adopted by over 580 cities and 1120 counties.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rural_Poverty">Rural Poverty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Rural Poverty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>While poverty has been reduced immensely in China over the past decade, it still remains a large problem in rural China.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rural China has historically been disproportionately taxed and also has received fewer benefits from the recent economic development and success of China.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Agriculture has been the main occupation for the inhabitants of rural China, and in villages the produce generated is used to feed the village and not for selling on the market. Even in the heartlands of China where agriculture is used for commercial purposes, the economic boom of China has actually led to a decrease in the price of produce which has resulted in a loss of income for these producers.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Children growing up in poverty are more likely to be undernourished, have less educational opportunities, and have lower literacy levels.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And those whose parents move to urban areas in an effort to give these children a better life—and are not allowed by the Chinese government to take their children with them—are unintentionally traumatizing and damaging these children. Studies show approximately 70% of the 'left-behind' kids—they are sometimes called the 'lost generation', or the 'damaged generation', suffer from emotional trauma, depression or anxiety. About a third of the left-behind children—20 million—will get involved in crime, while another third will need time in mental health institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The disproportionate amount of inequality in China's rural sector along with correlation between poverty and education shows that children born in rural China are much more likely to score lower on literacy tests and not have the opportunity to pursue higher education.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The implementation of Chinese policy has exacerbated the issue of rural poverty en lieu of increased urban poverty. Typically the urbanization of a country leads to mass migration from the rural areas to the urban. However, the Chinese government implemented a policy that restricts the migration of people born in rural China from coming to urban China.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This restriction is based on the citizen's registration under the hukou system, which states if the individual was born in an agricultural (rural) or non-agricultural (urban) area.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, Chinese officials have been cracking down on Chinese migrants from rural communities that have moved to Beijing. In 2017, thousands of migrant workers living in Beijing were evicted because they did not possess an urban hukou.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process of removing migrants from rural to urban China, relocates them back to rural China where they no longer have a job or source of income. This is a relocation of poverty from the urban sector to the rural sector.
</p><p>The political response of China's government to the issue of rural poverty has been both lauded and criticized. China has been criticized for its high rate of rural poverty and the policies that the government has put in place to ameliorate the poverty. In <i>Transformation of Rural China,</i> Jonathan Unger points out that the lack of taxation at the village level restricts the villages from dealing with the problems they face.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means problems such as food instability and lack of education are not able to be addressed by local officials. Supporters of government policy point out that over the time period of 1978 to 2014, China has reduced rural poverty from 250 million people to just over 70 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> China's Rural Poverty Alleviation and Development Outline from 2001 to 2010 led to certain government policy directly dealing with the issue of poverty with the removal of agriculture tax in 2006 and a program which the government paid rural families to plant trees on degraded land.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More fundamental and radical measures such as directly redistributive taxation and social security systems or land tenure and agricultural produce price reforms are not mentioned here, however: presumably because they are not considered prudent.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unequal_educational_opportunity">Unequal educational opportunity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Unequal educational opportunity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">Education in China</a></div>
<p>Education is a prerequisite for the development of human capital which in turn is an important factor in a country's overall development. Apart from the increasing income inequality, the education sector has long suffered from problems such as funding shortages and unequal allocation of education resources,<sup id="cite_ref-peerchina.org_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peerchina.org-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> adding to the disparity between China's urban and rural life; this was exacerbated by the two track system of government's approach to education. The first track is government -supported primary education in urban areas and the second is family -supported primary education in the rural areas.<sup id="cite_ref-chinaperspectives.revues.org_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chinaperspectives.revues.org-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Rural education has been marginalized by the focus on immediate economic development and the fact that urban education enjoys more attention and investment by the central government.<sup id="cite_ref-chinaperspectives.revues.org_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chinaperspectives.revues.org-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This lack of public funding meant that children of rural families were forced to drop out of school, thus losing the opportunity to further their studies and following the paths of their parents to become low skilled workers with few chances of advancements.<sup id="cite_ref-peerchina.org_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peerchina.org-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This leads to a vicious cycle of poverty. Because of limited educational resources, urban schools were supported by the government while village schools were provided for by the local communities where educational opportunities were possibly constrained depending on local conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-chinaperspectives.revues.org_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chinaperspectives.revues.org-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, there still exist a huge gap in teacher preparation and quality of facilities between rural and urban areas.
</p><p>The two track system was then abolished in 1986 & 1992, to be replaced by the Compulsory Education Law and the Rule for the Implementation of the Compulsory Education Law respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the emphasis of China's education reform on providing quality and holistic education, the rural schools still lack the capacity to implement such reforms vis-à-vis their urban counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-peerchina.org_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peerchina.org-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rural areas lack the educational resources of the urban areas and the rural areas are considered to be falling below the educational benchmark set in the cities.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Teachers are more attracted to urban sectors with higher pay and a slew of benefits. In addition, rural villages have a difficult time finding quality teachers because of the lower standard of living and then there was dallas he is really cool in villages. As a result, some rural teachers are not qualified as they received college degrees from continuing-education programs, which is not the best type of further education one could receive.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>As a result, rural students often find themselves neither competitive enough to gain admissions to colleges nor employable for most occupations.<sup id="cite_ref-peerchina.org_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peerchina.org-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rural residents are increasingly being marginalised in higher education, closing off their best opportunities for advancement. This is especially prominent in Tsinghua and Peking University where the percentage of rural population studying in the two universities have shrunk to 17.6 percent in 2000 and 16.3 percent in 1999, down from 50 to 60 percent in the 1950s. These numbers are the most recent reliable data that has been published and experts agree that the number might be as low as 1 percent in 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Restrictions_on_migration">Restrictions on migration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Restrictions on migration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urbanization_in_China" title="Urbanization in China">Urbanization in China</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Metropolitan_Regions_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Metropolitan Regions of China">Metropolitan Regions of China</a></div>
<p>Pre-reform China had a system that severely restricted people's mobility, and that system has only slowly been reformed over the past 25 years. Each person has a registration (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hukou_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Hukou system">hukou</a>) in either a rural area or an urban area, and cannot change the hukou without the permission of the receiving <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdiction</a>. In practice cities usually give registration to skilled people who have offers of employment, but have generally been reluctant to provide registration to migrants from the countryside. Nevertheless, these migrants are needed for <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a>, and large numbers have in fact migrated. Many of these fall into the category of "floating population". There are nearly 200 million rural residents who spend at least six months of the year working in urban areas. Many of these people have for all practical purposes moved to a city, but they do not have official registration. Beyond the floating population, there are tens of millions of people who have left rural areas and obtained urban hukous.<sup id="cite_ref-Investment_Climate_and_Firm_Performance_in_Developing_bullshit_Economies_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Investment_Climate_and_Firm_Performance_in_Developing_bullshit_Economies-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>So, there is significant rural-urban migration in China, but it seems likely that the hukou system has resulted in less migration than otherwise would have occurred. There are several pieces of evidence to support this view. First, the gap in per capita income between rural and urban areas widened during the reform period, reaching a ratio of three to one. Three to one is a very high gap by international standards. Second, manufacturing <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wage" title="Wage">wages</a> have risen sharply in recent years, at double-digit rates, so that China now has considerably higher wages than much of the rest of developing Asia (India, Vietnam, Pakistan, Bangladesh). This rise is good for the incumbent workers, but they are relatively high up in China's income distribution, so that the wage increases raise inequality. It is hard to imagine that manufacturing wages would have risen so rapidly if there had not been such controls on labor migration. Third, recent studies focusing on migrants have shown that it is difficult for them to bring their families to the city, put their children in school, and obtain healthcare. So, the growth of the urban population must have been slowed down by these restrictions.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>China's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> so far has been a relatively orderly process. One does not see in China the kinds of slums and extreme poverty that exist in cities throughout South Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Nevertheless, urbanization goes on: the urban share of China's population has risen from 20% to 40% during the course of economic reform. But at the same time the hukou system has slowed and distorted urbanization, without preventing it. The system has likely contributed to inequality by limiting the opportunities of the relatively poor rural population to move to better-paying <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">employment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-China’s_(Uneven)_Progress_Against_Poverty_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-China’s_(Uneven)_Progress_Against_Poverty-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Land_policy">Land policy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Land policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs to be <b>updated</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. <br /><small>Last update: 21 November 2020</small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Just as Chinese citizens are either registered as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban</a> or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rural" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural">rural</a> under the Hukou system, land in China is zoned as either rural or urban. Under <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Property_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Property Law of the People's Republic of China">Chinese property law</a>, there is no privately held land. Urban land is owned by the state, which grants land rights for a set number of years. Reforms in the late 1980s and 1990s allowed for transactions in urban land, enabling citizens to sell their land and buildings, or <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mortgage_loan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortgage loan">mortgage</a> them to borrow, while still retaining state ownership.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rural, or “collectively owned land”, is leased by the state for periods of 30 years, and is theoretically reserved for agricultural purposes, housing and services for farmers.<sup id="cite_ref-CECCproperty_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CECCproperty-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peasants have long-term <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">tenure</a> as long as they sow the land, but they cannot mortgage or sell the use rights. The biggest distortion, however, concerns moving land from rural to urban use. China is a densely populated, water-scarce country whose <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Comparative_advantage" title="Comparative advantage">comparative advantage</a> lies more in manufacturing and services than in agriculture. The fact that many peasants cannot earn a decent living as farmers is a signal that their labor is more useful in urban employment, hence the hundreds of millions of people who have migrated. But, at the same time, it is efficient to allocate some of the land out of agriculture for urban use.
</p><p>In China, that conversion is handled administratively, requiring central approval. Farmers are compensated based on the agricultural value of the land. But the reason to convert land – especially in the fringes around cities – is that the commercial value of the land for urban use is higher than its value for agriculture. So, even if China's laws on land are followed scrupulously, the conversion does not generate a high income for the peasants. There are cases in which the conversion is done transparently, the use of rights over the land <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Auction" title="Auction">auctioned</a>, and the revenue collected put into the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Public_budget" class="mw-redirect" title="Public budget">public budget</a> to finance public goods. But still the peasants get relatively poor recompense. One government study found that 62% of displaced peasants were worse off after land conversion.<sup id="cite_ref-Intergovernmental_Fiscal_Reforms_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intergovernmental_Fiscal_Reforms-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Secure land <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">tenure</a> is recognized as a powerful tool to reduce poverty, and the central government has begun guaranteeing all farmers 30-year land rights, strictly limiting expropriations, documenting and publicizing farmers’ rights, and requiring sufficient compensation when farmers’ lands are expropriated.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2010 survey of 17 provinces by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Landesa" title="Landesa">Landesa</a> found improved documentation of farmer's land rights, but much room for improvement: 63% of farming families have been issued land-rights certificates and 53% have land-rights contracts, but only 44% have been issued both documents (as is required by law) and 29% have no document at all; farmers who have been issued these documents are far more likely to make long-term investments in their land and are financially benefiting from those investments.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fiscal_system_and_rural_social_services">Fiscal system and rural social services</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Fiscal system and rural social services"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs to be <b>updated</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. <br /><small>Last update: 21 November 2020</small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Market reform has dramatically increased the return to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, as it indicates that there are good opportunities for skilled people and as it creates a powerful incentive for families to increase the education of their children. However, there needs to be strong public support for education and reasonably fair access to the education system. Otherwise, inequality can become self-perpetuating: if only high-income people can educate their children, then that group remains a privileged, high-income group permanently. China is at some risk of falling into this trap, because it has developed a highly decentralized fiscal system in which local governments rely primarily on local <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">tax</a> collection to provide basic services such as primary education and primary <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">health care</a>. China in fact has one of the most decentralized fiscal systems in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-International_Data_on_Educational_Attainment_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-International_Data_on_Educational_Attainment-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>China is much more decentralized than <a href="/enwiki/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> countries and middle-income countries, particularly on the spending side. More than half of all expenditure takes place at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">sub-provincial level</a>. In part, the sheer size of the country explains this degree of decentralization, but the structure of government and some unusual <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Expenditure" class="mw-redirect" title="Expenditure">expenditure</a> assignments also give rise to this pattern of spending. Functions such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Social security">social security</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>, and even the production of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China">national statistics</a> are largely decentralized in China, whereas they are central functions in most other countries.
</p><p>Fiscal disparities among subnational governments are larger in China than in most OECD countries. These disparities have emerged alongside a growing disparity in economic strength among the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Province_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Province (China)">provinces</a>. From 1990 to 2003, the ratio of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Per_capita_GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="Per capita GDP">per capita GDP</a> of the richest to poorest province grew from 7.3 to 13. In China, the richest province has more than 8 times the per capita public spending than the poorest province. In the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States">US</a>, the poorest state has about 65 percent of the revenues of the average state, and in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, any state falling below 95 percent of the average level gets subsidized through the "<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Finanzausgleich" class="mw-redirect" title="Finanzausgleich">Finanzausgleich</a>" (and any receiving more than 110 percent gets taxed). In <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, the richest state has 2.3 times the revenues per capita of the poorest state.<sup id="cite_ref-Intergovernmental_Fiscal_Reforms_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intergovernmental_Fiscal_Reforms-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Inequalities in spending are even larger at the sub-provincial level. The richest county, the level that is most important for service delivery, has about 48 times the level of per capita spending of the poorest county.<sup id="cite_ref-Intergovernmental_Fiscal_Reforms_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intergovernmental_Fiscal_Reforms-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These disparities in aggregate spending levels also show up in functional categories such as health and education where variation among counties and among provinces is large.
</p><p>These differences in public spending translate into differences in social outcomes. Up through 1990, there were only modest differences across provinces in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Infant_survival_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Infant survival rate">infant survival rate</a>, but by 2000 there had emerged a very sharp difference, closely related to the province's per capita GDP. So too with the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/High-school" class="mw-redirect" title="High-school">high-school</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Education" title="Education">enrollment</a> rate: there used to be small differences across provinces. By 2003, high-school enrollment was nearing 100% in the wealthier provinces while still less than 40% in poor provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-International_Data_on_Educational_Attainment_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-International_Data_on_Educational_Attainment-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>There is some redistribution within China's <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_financial_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese financial system">fiscal system</a>, but arguments abound whether it is enough. Poor areas have very little tax collection and hence cannot fund education and health care. Some of their population will relocate over time. But for reasons of both national <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">efficiency</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Equality_of_opportunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Equality of opportunity">opportunity</a>, some theoretical economists argue for the communist state to ensure everyone has some basic education and basic health care.
</p><p>China's highly decentralized fiscal system results in: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Local_government" title="Local government">local government</a> in many locations not having adequate resources to fund basic social services. As a consequence, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Household" title="Household">households</a> are left to pay for their own needs to a remarkable extent. The average hospital visit in China in 2018 is paid 35% <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Out-of-pocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Out-of-pocket">out-of-pocket</a> by the patient,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> compared to 25% in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, 17% in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, 10% in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> and the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, and lower amounts in most <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Developed_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed countries">developed countries</a>. Poor households either forego treatment, or travel to other cities for treatment, which can be expensive if the condition is severe. In the 2003 National Health Survey, 30% of poor households identified a large <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">health care</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Expenditure" class="mw-redirect" title="Expenditure">expenditure</a> as the reason that they were having financial difficulties.<sup id="cite_ref-China’s_(Uneven)_Progress_Against_Poverty_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-China’s_(Uneven)_Progress_Against_Poverty-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The situation in education is similar. In a survey of 3037 villages in 2004, average primary school fees were 260 <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">yuan</a> and average middle-school fees, 442 yuan. A family living right at the dollar-a-day poverty line would have about 900 yuan total resources for a child for a year; sending a child to middle-school would take half of that. Not surprisingly, then, enrollment rates are relatively low in poor areas and for poor families.<sup id="cite_ref-Economic_Returns_to_Schooling_in_Urban_China_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economic_Returns_to_Schooling_in_Urban_China-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Women_In_Poverty">Women In Poverty</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Women In Poverty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>In China, women are more vulnerable to suffer from severe poverty than men. More women experience multidimensional poverty (38.9% compared to 25.2%). Many individual and social characteristics shape women's experiences on poverty, such as age, education, employment, family structure, family size, urban or rural areas, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-Wu_66–88_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wu_66–88-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In terms of individual factors, women are less likely complete their primary education, have worse health and nutrition, and more likely to enduring chronic diseases, hospitalization and low income. As daughter, women's education is less valued by their parents. As mothers, women are expected to value their children's care work more than their own career. In addition, the gender inequalities in the labor market is pervasive.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The labor force participation rate of women has declined since the economic reforms and financial hardship was severe among women. In terms of marital factors, research shows that single mothers are the suffer the most from poverty. On the one hand, social and public policies are usually inadequate for single-parent families, especially families headed by women.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, Chinese traditional belief on family see divorce as negative, and often push mothers to sacrifice themselves to fulfill their children. Age is also a factor that contribute to women's poverty. Research shows that women are in lower chance to receive less occupational pension and receive less benefit (women receive 595 yuan per month whereas men receive 1,105 yuan). Also, women in their 50s are more likely to take the responsibility of caring their elderly parents and grandchildren, therefore more likely to retire earlier and receive less money in pension.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In terms of regional factors, women who live in remote and less developed western region are more likely to live in poverty than eastern area.<sup id="cite_ref-Wu_66–88_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wu_66–88-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, women live in Guizhou and Gansu provinces have the highest multidimensional poverty rate. Many women in poverty immigrant from their hometown to another province for improving their living situation, and many use marriage as the approach. (Research shows much more women migrated from relatively less developed regions to more developed regions through marriage than men<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). Some women did get out of absolute poverty through marriage, however, because of limited opportunities, they are likely to fall into relative poverty soon after relocation. Also, migrant wives often suffer from perpetuated poverty after marriage.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In the state level, it is hard to find official data on women in poverty and poverty reduction programs tend to focus more on men, which widen the gender inequality. A research focus on a poverty reduction program in the Inner Mongolia shows that women's empowerment program can make positive effects on poverty reduction.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It suggest that if poverty program can be more gender-focus, women and their household in poverty can benefit more from intervention such as training, cooperatives, and credit.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China_articles">China articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: China articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demographics_of_China" title="Demographics of China">Demographics of China</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digital_divide_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital divide in the People's Republic of China">Digital divide in China</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_minimum_wages_in_China_(PRC)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of minimum wages in China (PRC)">List of minimum wages in China (PRC)</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_articles">General articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: General articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
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<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cycle_of_poverty" title="Cycle of poverty">Cycle of poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Diseases of poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deprivation_index" title="Deprivation index">Deprivation index</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feminization_of_poverty" title="Feminization of poverty">Feminization of poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">Food security</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_vs_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Food vs fuel">Food vs fuel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fuel_poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuel poverty">Fuel poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hunger" title="Hunger">Hunger</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Income_disparity" class="mw-redirect" title="Income disparity">Income disparity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_countries_by_percentage_of_population_living_in_poverty" title="List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty">List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_famines" title="List of famines">List of famines</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Minimum_wage" title="Minimum wage">Minimum wage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Rural_Reconstruction_Movement" title="New Rural Reconstruction Movement">New Rural Reconstruction Movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pauperism" title="Pauperism">Pauperism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_threshold" title="Poverty threshold">Poverty threshold</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_trap" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty trap">Poverty trap</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Street_children" title="Street children">Street children</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Hunger_Site" title="The Hunger Site">The Hunger Site</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Working_poor" title="Working poor">Working poor</a></li></ul></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organizations_and_campaigns">Organizations and campaigns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Organizations and campaigns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ActionAid_efforts_in_dealing_with_income_inequality_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="ActionAid efforts in dealing with income inequality in China">ActionAid efforts in dealing with income inequality in China</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_charities_in_China" title="List of charities in China">List of charities in China</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_NGOs_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of NGOs in China">List of NGOs in China</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wokai" title="Wokai">Wokai</a> - Organization that allows people to contribute directly to microfinance institutions in China</li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Young_China_Scholars_Poverty_Research_Network" title="Young China Scholars Poverty Research Network">Young China Scholars Poverty Research Network</a></i></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.LMIC?locations=CN">"Poverty headcount ratio at $3.20 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) - China"</a>. <i>The World Bank | Data</i>. The World Bank.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Bank+%7C+Data&rft.atitle=Poverty+headcount+ratio+at+%243.20+a+day+%282011+PPP%29+%28%25+of+population%29+-+China&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdata.worldbank.org%2Findicator%2FSI.POV.LMIC%3Flocations%3DCN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.UMIC?locations=CN">"Poverty headcount ratio at $5.50 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) - China"</a>. <i>The World Bank | Data</i>. The World Bank.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Bank+%7C+Data&rft.atitle=Poverty+headcount+ratio+at+%245.50+a+day+%282011+PPP%29+%28%25+of+population%29+-+China&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdata.worldbank.org%2Findicator%2FSI.POV.UMIC%3Flocations%3DCN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:0-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJin2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Keyu_Jin" title="Keyu Jin">Jin, Keyu</a> (2023). <i>The New China Playbook: Beyond Socialism and Capitalism</i>. New York: Viking. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9848-7828-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-9848-7828-1"><bdi>978-1-9848-7828-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+China+Playbook%3A+Beyond+Socialism+and+Capitalism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-9848-7828-1&rft.aulast=Jin&rft.aufirst=Keyu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lardy, Nicholas R., 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asiasociety.org/speeches/lardy.html">The Economic Future of China.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071210205146/http://www.asiasociety.org/speeches/lardy.html">Archived</a> 2007-12-10 at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Das_Wasted_Kapital-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Das_Wasted_Kapital_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Das_Wasted_Kapital_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDollarWei2007" class="citation journal cs1">Dollar, David R.; Wei, Shang-Jin (May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3386%2Fw13103">"Das (Wasted) Kapital: Firm Ownership and Investment Efficiency in China"</a>. <i>NBER Working Paper No. 13103</i>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3386%2Fw13103">10.3386/w13103</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=959307">959307</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NBER+Working+Paper+No.+13103&rft.atitle=Das+%28Wasted%29+Kapital%3A+Firm+Ownership+and+Investment+Efficiency+in+China&rft.date=2007-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D959307%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3386%2Fw13103&rft.aulast=Dollar&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft.au=Wei%2C+Shang-Jin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3386%252Fw13103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-China’s_(Uneven)_Progress_Against_Poverty-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-China’s_(Uneven)_Progress_Against_Poverty_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-China’s_(Uneven)_Progress_Against_Poverty_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-China’s_(Uneven)_Progress_Against_Poverty_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRavallionChen2007" class="citation journal cs1">Ravallion, Martin; Chen, Shaohua (2007). "China's (Uneven) Progress Against Poverty". <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Journal_of_Development_Economics" title="Journal of Development Economics">Journal of Development Economics</a></i>. <b>82</b> (1): 1–42. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.495.4089">10.1.1.495.4089</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jdeveco.2005.07.003">10.1016/j.jdeveco.2005.07.003</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12730781">12730781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Development+Economics&rft.atitle=China%27s+%28Uneven%29+Progress+Against+Poverty&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-42&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.495.4089%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12730781%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jdeveco.2005.07.003&rft.aulast=Ravallion&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Chen%2C+Shaohua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Investment_Climate_and_Firm_Performance_in_Developing_bullshit_Economies-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Investment_Climate_and_Firm_Performance_in_Developing_bullshit_Economies_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Investment_Climate_and_Firm_Performance_in_Developing_bullshit_Economies_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDollarHallward-DriemeierMengistae2005" class="citation journal cs1">Dollar, David R.; Hallward-Driemeier, Mary; Mengistae, Taye (2005). "Investment Climate and Firm Performance in Developing Economies". <i>Economic Development and Cultural Change</i>. <b>54</b> (1): 1–31. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.453.1394">10.1.1.453.1394</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F431262">10.1086/431262</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2658987">2658987</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+Development+and+Cultural+Change&rft.atitle=Investment+Climate+and+Firm+Performance+in+Developing+Economies&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-31&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.453.1394%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2658987%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F431262&rft.aulast=Dollar&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft.au=Hallward-Driemeier%2C+Mary&rft.au=Mengistae%2C+Taye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC?locations=CN">"Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population) - China"</a>. <i>The World Bank | Data</i>. The World Bank.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Bank+%7C+Data&rft.atitle=Poverty+headcount+ratio+at+national+poverty+lines+%28%25+of+population%29+-+China&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdata.worldbank.org%2Findicator%2FSI.POV.NAHC%3Flocations%3DCN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFelmer2017" class="citation web cs1">elmer (May 23, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.adb.org/countries/prc/poverty">"Poverty in the People's Republic of China"</a>. <i>Asian Development Bank</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 28,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Asian+Development+Bank&rft.atitle=Poverty+in+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China&rft.date=2017-05-23&rft.au=elmer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.adb.org%2Fcountries%2Fprc%2Fpoverty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/leaders/2020-03/06/c_1125674682.htm">"（受权发布）习近平：在决战决胜脱贫攻坚座谈会上的讲话-新华网"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%EF%BC%88%E5%8F%97%E6%9D%83%E5%8F%91%E5%B8%83%EF%BC%89%E4%B9%A0%E8%BF%91%E5%B9%B3%EF%BC%9A%E5%9C%A8%E5%86%B3%E6%88%98%E5%86%B3%E8%83%9C%E8%84%B1%E8%B4%AB%E6%94%BB%E5%9D%9A%E5%BA%A7%E8%B0%88%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%8A%E7%9A%84%E8%AE%B2%E8%AF%9D-%E6%96%B0%E5%8D%8E%E7%BD%91&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.xinhuanet.com%2Fpolitics%2Fleaders%2F2020-03%2F06%2Fc_1125674682.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.atpresentworld.com/2020/12/how-did-china-succeed-in-alleviating.html?m=1">"How did China succeed in alleviating poverty?"</a>. <i>Present World</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Present+World&rft.atitle=How+did+China+succeed+in+alleviating+poverty%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atpresentworld.com%2F2020%2F12%2Fhow-did-china-succeed-in-alleviating.html%3Fm%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2020-06/22/c_1126144559.htm">"怎么看"6亿人每月收入1000元"-新华网"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%80%8E%E4%B9%88%E7%9C%8B%226%E4%BA%BF%E4%BA%BA%E6%AF%8F%E6%9C%88%E6%94%B6%E5%85%A51000%E5%85%83%22-%E6%96%B0%E5%8D%8E%E7%BD%91&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.xinhuanet.com%2Fpolitics%2F2020-06%2F22%2Fc_1126144559.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBachelet2022" class="citation web cs1">Bachelet, Michelle (May 28, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2022/05/statement-un-high-commissioner-human-rights-michelle-bachelet-after-official">"Statement by UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet after official visit to China"</a>. <i>OHCHR</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 2,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OHCHR&rft.atitle=Statement+by+UN+High+Commissioner+for+Human+Rights+Michelle+Bachelet+after+official+visit+to+China&rft.date=2022-05-28&rft.aulast=Bachelet&rft.aufirst=Michelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2Fen%2Fstatements%2F2022%2F05%2Fstatement-un-high-commissioner-human-rights-michelle-bachelet-after-official&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Rural_and_Urban_Income_Inequality_and_Poverty-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rural_and_Urban_Income_Inequality_and_Poverty_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rural_and_Urban_Income_Inequality_and_Poverty_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eastman, R. and M. Lipton, 2004. Rural and Urban Income Inequality and Poverty: Does Convergence between Sectors Offset Divergence within Them? in G. A. Cornea, ed., Inequality, Growth and Poverty in an Era of Liberalization and Globalization, Oxford U. Press, 112-141.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yw4sODY_lWQ"><i>The Young Generation Left Behind In China | Foreign Correspondent</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Young+Generation+Left+Behind+In+China+%7C+Foreign+Correspondent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DYw4sODY_lWQ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Knight-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Knight_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knight_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knight_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knight_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnightLi,_S.Song,_L.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Knight, J.; Li, S.; Song, L. (March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peri.umass.edu/fileadmin/pdf/Knight_paper_griffin_conference.pdf">"The Rural-Urban Divide and the Evolution of Political Economy in China"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 12,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Rural-Urban+Divide+and+the+Evolution+of+Political+Economy+in+China&rft.date=2004-03&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Li%2C+S.&rft.au=Song%2C+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.peri.umass.edu%2Ffileadmin%2Fpdf%2FKnight_paper_griffin_conference.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Fu_jing-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fu_jing_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fu_jing_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFu2010" class="citation news cs1">Fu, Jing (March 2, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-03/02/content_9521611.htm">"Urban-rural income gap widest since reform"</a>. <i>China Daily</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 14,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+Daily&rft.atitle=Urban-rural+income+gap+widest+since+reform&rft.date=2010-03-02&rft.aulast=Fu&rft.aufirst=Jing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinadaily.com.cn%2Fchina%2F2010-03%2F02%2Fcontent_9521611.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight1999" class="citation book cs1">Knight, J. (1999). <i>The rural-urban divide: economic disparities and interactions in China</i>. United States, New York: Oxford University. p. 8. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829330-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829330-9"><bdi>978-0-19-829330-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+rural-urban+divide%3A+economic+disparities+and+interactions+in+China&rft.place=United+States%2C+New+York&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-829330-9&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Dennis_yang-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dennis_yang_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dennis_yang_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dennis_yang_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dennis_yang_41-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dennis_yang_41-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang1999" class="citation journal cs1">Yang, Dennis, T. (May 1999). "Urban-Biased Policies and Rising Income Inequality in China". <i>The American Economic Review</i>. <b>89</b> (2): 306–310. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Faer.89.2.306">10.1257/aer.89.2.306</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/117126">117126</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=Urban-Biased+Policies+and+Rising+Income+Inequality+in+China&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=306-310&rft.date=1999-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Faer.89.2.306&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F117126%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Dennis%2C+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-crtr-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-crtr_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crtr_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCanaves2009" class="citation news cs1">Canaves, Sky (April 13, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2009/04/13/facts-about-poverty-in-china-challenge-conventional-wisdom/">"Facts About Poverty in China Challenge Conventional Wisdom"</a>. <i>The Wall Street Journal</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 14,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Facts+About+Poverty+in+China+Challenge+Conventional+Wisdom&rft.date=2009-04-13&rft.aulast=Canaves&rft.aufirst=Sky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.wsj.com%2Fchinarealtime%2F2009%2F04%2F13%2Ffacts-about-poverty-in-china-challenge-conventional-wisdom%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Hussain2003-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hussain2003_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHussain2003" class="citation web cs1">Hussain, Athar (January 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/ses/download/docs/china.pdf">"Urban Poverty in China: Measurement, Patterns and policies"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Socio-Economic Security Series</i>. International Labour Office, Geneva<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Socio-Economic+Security+Series&rft.atitle=Urban+Poverty+in+China%3A+Measurement%2C+Patterns+and+policies&rft.date=2003-01&rft.aulast=Hussain&rft.aufirst=Athar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ilo.org%2Fpublic%2Fenglish%2Fprotection%2Fses%2Fdownload%2Fdocs%2Fchina.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Zhao2000-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zhao2000_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhao2000_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhao2000" class="citation book cs1">Zhao, J. G. (2000). "Analysis of the Overemployment in SOEs". In Y. Wang and A. Chen (ed.). <i>China's Labour Market and Problems of Employment</i>. Southwestern University of Finance and Economics Press. pp. 615–625.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+the+Overemployment+in+SOEs&rft.btitle=China%27s+Labour+Market+and+Problems+of+Employment&rft.pages=615-625&rft.pub=Southwestern+University+of+Finance+and+Economics+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=J.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:8-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard2016" class="citation journal cs1">Ward, Patrick S. (February 1, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4740920">"Transient poverty, poverty dynamics, and vulnerability to poverty: An empirical analysis using a balanced panel from rural China"</a>. <i>World Development</i>. <b>78</b>: 541–553. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.worlddev.2015.10.022">10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.10.022</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-750X">0305-750X</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4740920">4740920</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26855470">26855470</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Development&rft.atitle=Transient+poverty%2C+poverty+dynamics%2C+and+vulnerability+to+poverty%3A+An+empirical+analysis+using+a+balanced+panel+from+rural+China&rft.volume=78&rft.pages=541-553&rft.date=2016-02-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4740920%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0305-750X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26855470&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.worlddev.2015.10.022&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Patrick+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4740920&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:4-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnger2016" class="citation book cs1">Unger, Jonathan (September 16, 2016). <i>The Transformation of Rural China</i>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315292052">10.4324/9781315292052</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315292052" title="Special:BookSources/9781315292052"><bdi>9781315292052</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Transformation+of+Rural+China&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2016-09-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315292052&rft.isbn=9781315292052&rft.aulast=Unger&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:3-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannumLiuFrongillo2014" class="citation journal cs1">Hannum, Emily; Liu, Jihong; Frongillo, Edward (January 1, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4655325">"Poverty, food insecurity and nutritional deprivation in rural China: Implications for children's literacy achievement"</a>. <i>International Journal of Educational Development</i>. <b>34</b>: 90–97. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijedudev.2012.07.003">10.1016/j.ijedudev.2012.07.003</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0738-0593">0738-0593</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4655325">4655325</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26609194">26609194</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Educational+Development&rft.atitle=Poverty%2C+food+insecurity+and+nutritional+deprivation+in+rural+China%3A+Implications+for+children%27s+literacy+achievement&rft.volume=34&rft.pages=90-97&rft.date=2014-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4655325%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0738-0593&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26609194&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijedudev.2012.07.003&rft.aulast=Hannum&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft.au=Liu%2C+Jihong&rft.au=Frongillo%2C+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4655325&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarney2016" class="citation web cs1">Carney, China correspondent Matthew (September 6, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-06/millions-of-chinas-children-left-behind/7816010">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'I'd be a burden': Meet some of China's 61 million abandoned kids"</a>. <i>ABC News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=%27I%27d+be+a+burden%27%3A+Meet+some+of+China%27s+61+million+abandoned+kids&rft.date=2016-09-06&rft.aulast=Carney&rft.aufirst=China+correspondent+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2016-09-06%2Fmillions-of-chinas-children-left-behind%2F7816010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|first=</code> has generic name (<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:12-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wong, C., Qiao, M., & Zheng, W. (2018). ‘Dispersing, regulating and upgrading’urban villages in suburban Beijing. <i>Town Planning Review</i>, <i>89</i>(6), 597-621.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-:11-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:11_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Afridi, Farzana, Sherry Xin Li, and Yufei Ren. "Social identity and inequality: The impact of China's hukou system." <i>Journal of Public Economics</i> 123 (2015): 17-29.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-:13-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Liu, Y., Liu, J., & Zhou, Y. (2017). Spatio-temporal patterns of rural poverty in China and targeted poverty alleviation strategies. <i>Journal of Rural Studies</i>, <i>52</i>, 66-75.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2020" class="citation journal cs1">Li, Qin (April 28, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cogitatiopress.com/socialinclusion/article/view/2678">"Mothers Left without a Man: Poverty and Single Parenthood in China"</a>. <i>Social Inclusion</i>. <b>8</b> (2): 114–122. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17645%2Fsi.v8i2.2678">10.17645/si.v8i2.2678</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2183-2803">2183-2803</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219006505">219006505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Inclusion&rft.atitle=Mothers+Left+without+a+Man%3A+Poverty+and+Single+Parenthood+in+China&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=114-122&rft.date=2020-04-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219006505%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2183-2803&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17645%2Fsi.v8i2.2678&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Qin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cogitatiopress.com%2Fsocialinclusion%2Farticle%2Fview%2F2678&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhaoZhao2018" class="citation journal cs1">Zhao, Rui; Zhao, Yaohui (April 3, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7451650">"The Gender Pension Gap in China"</a>. <i>Feminist Economics</i>. <b>24</b> (2): 218–239. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13545701.2017.1411601">10.1080/13545701.2017.1411601</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1354-5701">1354-5701</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7451650">7451650</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32863729">32863729</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Feminist+Economics&rft.atitle=The+Gender+Pension+Gap+in+China&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=218-239&rft.date=2018-04-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7451650%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1354-5701&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32863729&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13545701.2017.1411601&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Rui&rft.au=Zhao%2C+Yaohui&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7451650&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangZouFan2019" class="citation journal cs1">Wang, Qingbin; Zou, Yang; Fan, Dan (December 1, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264999318317565">"Gender imbalance in China's marriage migration: Quantitative evidence and policy implications"</a>. <i>Economic Modelling</i>. <b>83</b>: 406–414. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.econmod.2019.09.040">10.1016/j.econmod.2019.09.040</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0264-9993">0264-9993</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:204425441">204425441</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+Modelling&rft.atitle=Gender+imbalance+in+China%27s+marriage+migration%3A+Quantitative+evidence+and+policy+implications&rft.volume=83&rft.pages=406-414&rft.date=2019-12-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A204425441%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0264-9993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.econmod.2019.09.040&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Qingbin&rft.au=Zou%2C+Yang&rft.au=Fan%2C+Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0264999318317565&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2020" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Guanli (April 28, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cogitatiopress.com/socialinclusion/article/view/2671">"Perceiving and Deflecting Everyday Poverty-Related Shame: Evidence from 35 Female Marriage Migrants in Rural China"</a>. <i>Social Inclusion</i>. <b>8</b> (2): 123–131. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17645%2Fsi.v8i2.2671">10.17645/si.v8i2.2671</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2183-2803">2183-2803</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219027884">219027884</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Inclusion&rft.atitle=Perceiving+and+Deflecting+Everyday+Poverty-Related+Shame%3A+Evidence+from+35+Female+Marriage+Migrants+in+Rural+China&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=123-131&rft.date=2020-04-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219027884%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2183-2803&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17645%2Fsi.v8i2.2671&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Guanli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cogitatiopress.com%2Fsocialinclusion%2Farticle%2Fview%2F2671&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuNie2021" class="citation journal cs1">Gu, Rui; Nie, Feng-ying (April 1, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS2095-3119%2820%2963436-0">"Does empowering women benefit poverty reduction? Evidence from a multi-component program in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China"</a>. <i>Journal of Integrative Agriculture</i>. <b>20</b> (4): 1092–1106. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS2095-3119%2820%2963436-0">10.1016/S2095-3119(20)63436-0</a></span>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2095-3119">2095-3119</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233525509">233525509</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Integrative+Agriculture&rft.atitle=Does+empowering+women+benefit+poverty+reduction%3F+Evidence+from+a+multi-component+program+in+the+Inner+Mongolia+Autonomous+Region+of+China&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1092-1106&rft.date=2021-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A233525509%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2095-3119&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS2095-3119%2820%2963436-0&rft.aulast=Gu&rft.aufirst=Rui&rft.au=Nie%2C+Feng-ying&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252FS2095-3119%252820%252963436-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adb.org/publications/poverty-profile-peoples-republic-china">Poverty Profile of People's Republic of China</a> - <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asian_Development_Bank" title="Asian Development Bank">Asian Development Bank</a> (ADB)</li>
<li>Azizur Rahman Khan, Carl Riskin. (2001) "Inequality and Poverty in China in the Age of Globalization." Oxford University Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-513649-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-513649-7">0-19-513649-7</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldbank.org/research/2009/03/10427760/china-poor-areas-poor-people-chinas-evolving-poverty-reduction-agenda-assessment-poverty-inequality">China - From poor areas to poor people : China's evolving poverty reduction agenda - an assessment of poverty and inequality</a>, World Bank, 2009</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivanMoatsosHickel2023" class="citation journal cs1">Sullivan, Dylan; Moatsos, Michail; <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Jason_Hickel" title="Jason Hickel">Hickel, Jason</a> (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13563467.2023.2217087">"Capitalist reforms and extreme poverty in China: unprecedented progress or income deflation?"</a>. <i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/New_Political_Economy_(journal)" title="New Political Economy (journal)">New Political Economy</a></i>. <b>29</b>: 1–21. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13563467.2023.2217087">10.1080/13563467.2023.2217087</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=Capitalist+reforms+and+extreme+poverty+in+China%3A+unprecedented+progress+or+income+deflation%3F&rft.volume=29&rft.pages=1-21&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13563467.2023.2217087&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Dylan&rft.au=Moatsos%2C+Michail&rft.au=Hickel%2C+Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F13563467.2023.2217087&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoverty+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organizations">Organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cpad.gov.cn/">State Council Leading Group Office of Poverty Alleviation and Reduction</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170731054629/http://www.cpad.gov.cn/">Archived</a> July 31, 2017, at the <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Chinese & English)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fcpmc.org/">Foreign-funded projects of the State Council Poverty Alleviation Office Management Center</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.casted.org.cn/">Chinese Academy of Science and Technology for Development (CASTED)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cdrf.org.cn/">China Development Research Foundation</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090911155421/http://www.help-poverty.org.cn/">China Poverty Alleviation Information Network</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnfpzz.com/">China Poverty Alleviation Network</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zhfp.net/">China Poverty Network</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090221102751/http://www.cspgp.org.cn/13_English/index.htm">China Society For Promotion Of The Guangcai Program</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.undp.org.cn/">United Nations Development Programme in China</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070922004245/http://www.fupin.org.cn/en/index.asp">China Poverty Alleviation Foundation</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080517001051/http://www.iprcc.org.cn/index.php/en/">International Poverty Reduction Center in China</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unescap.org/stat/meet/povstat/pov7_chn.pdf">Poverty Statistics in China</a> United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles">Articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_China&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~econ270/Taejoon.html">Income disparity in China</a> China: a shared poverty to uneven wealth?</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econ.ucdavis.edu/faculty/woo/1%20Oct%2004.Woo.China%20Poverty.pdf">The Poverty Challenge for China in the New Millennium</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081120164457/http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20050513_402249491.htm">Communiqué on 2004 Rural Poverty Monitoring of China</a> - <a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">National Bureau of Statistics of China</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eeo.com.cn/ens/Politics/2008/04/17/97126.html">China To Raise Poverty Line</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.waronwant.org/overseas-work/sweatshops-and-plantations/china-sweatshops">Sweatshops in China</a></li></ul>
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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Economy_of_China" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Economy_of_China" title="Template:Economy of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Economy_of_China" title="Template talk:Economy of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economy_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economy of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Economy_of_China" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">Economy of China</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Companies_of_China" title="Category:Companies of China">Companies of China</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Economic_history_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Category:Economic history of the People's Republic of China">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Reform</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_China" title="Five-year plans of China">Five-year plans</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrialization_of_China" title="Industrialization of China">Industrial Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iron_rice_bowl" title="Iron rice bowl">Iron rice bowl</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Three-anti_and_Five-anti_Campaigns" title="Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns">Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Four_Modernizations" title="Four Modernizations">Four Modernizations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Socialist_market_economy" title="Socialist market economy">Socialist market economy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping%27s_southern_tour" title="Deng Xiaoping's southern tour">Deng Xiaoping's southern tour</a></li>
<li>"<a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grasping_the_large,_letting_go_of_the_small" title="Grasping the large, letting go of the small">Grasping the large, letting go of the small</a>"</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scientific_Outlook_on_Development" title="Scientific Outlook on Development">Scientific Outlook on Development</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Historical_GDP_of_China" title="Historical GDP of China">Historical GDP</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">Population history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wage_reform_in_China,_1949%E2%80%931976" title="Wage reform in China, 1949–1976">1949–1976 wage reform</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Industry_in_China" title="Category:Industry in China">Industries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industry_of_China" title="Industry of China">Industry</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_China" title="Technological and industrial history of China">history</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Advanced_materials_industry_in_China" title="Advanced materials industry in China">Advanced materials</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aquaculture_in_China" title="Aquaculture in China">Aquaculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_China" title="Automotive industry in China">Automotive</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_China" title="Civil aviation in China">Aviation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aviation_Industry_Corporation_of_China" title="Aviation Industry Corporation of China">Aircraft</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Aerospace_Science_and_Technology_Corporation" title="China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation">Aerospace</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beer_in_China" title="Beer in China">Beer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biotechnology_industry_in_China" title="Biotechnology industry in China">Biotechnology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Business_process_outsourcing_in_China" title="Business process outsourcing in China">Business process outsourcing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cement_industry_in_China" title="Cement industry in China">Cement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coffee_production_in_China" title="Coffee production in China">Coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Container_industry_in_China" title="Container industry in China">Container</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Cotton_Association" title="China Cotton Association">Cotton</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electric_motor_manufacturing_industry_in_China" title="Electric motor manufacturing industry in China">Electric motor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_China" title="Electricity sector in China">Electric power</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Electronics_industry_in_China" title="Electronics industry in China">Electronics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">Film</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_China" title="Fishing industry in China">Fishing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gambling_in_China" title="Gambling in China">Gambling</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hedge_fund_industry_in_China" title="Hedge fund industry in China">Hedge fund</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Internet_in_China" title="Internet in China">Internet</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mass_media_in_China" title="Mass media in China">Media</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Mining_in_China" title="Category:Mining in China">Mining</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gold_mining_in_China" title="Gold mining in China">gold mining</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mobile_phone_industry_in_China" title="Mobile phone industry in China">Mobile phone</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Online_gaming_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Online gaming in China">Online gaming</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pearl_farming_industry_in_China" title="Pearl farming industry in China">Pearl farming</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_China" title="Pharmaceutical industry in China">Pharmaceuticals</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharmacy_in_China" title="Pharmacy in China">pharmacy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Publishing_industry_in_China" title="Publishing industry in China">Publishing</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Academic_publishing_in_China" title="Academic publishing in China">academic publishing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Radio_in_China" title="Radio in China">Radio</a></li>
<li>Railway
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Railway_equipment_industry_in_China" title="Railway equipment industry in China">equipment industry</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rare_earth_industry_in_China" title="Rare earth industry in China">Rare earth</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Real_estate_in_China" title="Real estate in China">Real estate</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">Renewable energy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Securities_industry_in_China" title="Securities industry in China">Securities</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sex_toy_industry_in_China" title="Sex toy industry in China">Sex toys</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shipping_industry_of_China" title="Shipping industry of China">Shipping</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Silk_industry_in_China" title="Silk industry in China">Silk</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Software_industry_in_China" title="Software industry in China">Software</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">Steel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Telecommunications_industry_in_China" title="Telecommunications industry in China">Telecommunications</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Television_in_China" title="Television in China">Television</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Television_in_China" title="Television in China">digital</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tourism_in_China" title="Tourism in China">Tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Textile_industry_in_China" title="Textile industry in China">Textiles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Video_gaming_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Video gaming in China">Video gaming</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wine_in_China" title="Wine in China">Wine</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Economic_and_Technological_Development_Zones" title="National Economic and Technological Development Zones">Development Zones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dalian_Software_Park" title="Dalian Software Park">Dalian Software Park</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Megalopolises_in_China" title="Megalopolises in China">Megalopolises in China </a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">Special Economic Zones</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Suzhou_Industrial_Park" title="Suzhou Industrial Park">Suzhou Industrial Park</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhangjiang_Hi-Tech_Park" title="Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park">Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Energy_in_China" title="Category:Energy in China">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_policy_of_China" title="Energy policy of China">Energy policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coal_in_China" title="Coal in China">Coal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_China" title="Petroleum industry in China">Oil</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oil_shale_in_China" title="Oil shale in China">Oil shale</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oil_refineries_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil refineries in China">Oil refineries</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_China" title="Nuclear power in China">Nuclear</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">Renewable</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wind_power_in_China" title="Wind power in China">Wind</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Solar_power_in_China" title="Solar power in China">Solar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_China" title="Geothermal power in China">Geothermal</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Trade_in_China" title="Category:Trade in China">Trade</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Infrastructure_in_China" title="Category:Infrastructure in China">infrastructure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_trade_for_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of trade for the People's Republic of China">Trade history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_China_World_Trade_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="The China World Trade Center">World Trade Center</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Transport_in_China" title="Transport in China">Transport</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">Communications</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_China" title="Postage stamps and postal history of China">Postal history</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tourism_in_China" title="Tourism in China">Tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese shipping">Shipping</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_China" title="Illegal drug trade in China">Illegal drug trade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hong_Kong_Trade_Development_Council" title="Hong Kong Trade Development Council">Hong Kong Trade Development Council</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ports_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ports of China">Ports</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">Water supply and sanitation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_exports_of_China" title="List of exports of China">Exports</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_the_largest_trading_partners_of_China" title="List of the largest trading partners of China">Trading partners</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;">Law and regulations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Taxation_in_China" title="Taxation in China">Tax system</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Labour_Contract_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Labour Contract Law of the People's Republic of China">Labor contract law</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Labor_relations_in_China" title="Labor relations in China">Labor relations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_safety_in_China" title="Food safety in China">Food safety</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intellectual_property_in_China" title="Intellectual property in China">Intellectual property</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Finance_in_China" title="Category:Finance in China">Finance</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Banking_in_China" title="Category:Banking in China">banking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Accounting_in_China" title="Category:Accounting in China">Accounting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Banking_in_China" title="Banking in China">Banking</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_banking_in_China" title="History of banking in China">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China" title="People's Bank of China">Central bank</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_banks_in_China" title="List of banks in China">Other banks</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beijing_Financial_Street" title="Beijing Financial Street">Beijing Financial Street</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_financial_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese financial system">Financial system</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Banknote_Printing_and_Minting_Corporation" title="China Banknote Printing and Minting Corporation">China Banknote Printing and Minting Corporation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Chengtong_Holdings_Group" title="China Chengtong Holdings Group">China Chengtong Holdings Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Government_Guidance_Fund" title="China Government Guidance Fund">China Government Guidance Fund</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China-Africa_Development_Fund" title="China-Africa Development Fund">China-Africa Development Fund</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Integrated_Circuit_Industry_Investment_Fund" title="China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund">China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Internet_Investment_Fund" title="China Internet Investment Fund">China Internet Investment Fund</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Reform_Holdings_Corporation" title="China Reform Holdings Corporation">China Reform Holdings Corporation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Fund_for_Technology_Transfer_and_Commercialisation" title="National Fund for Technology Transfer and Commercialisation">National Fund for Technology Transfer and Commercialisation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Investment_Corporation" title="China Investment Corporation">China Investment Corporation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/CITIC_Group" title="CITIC Group">CITIC Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Financial_services_in_China" title="Financial services in China">Financial services</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">Renminbi</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_exchange_reserves_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign exchange reserves of China">Foreign exchange reserve</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hedge_fund_industry_in_China" title="Hedge fund industry in China">Hedge fund industry</a></li>
<li>Stock Exchanges
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dalian_Commodity_Exchange" title="Dalian Commodity Exchange">Dalian Commodity Exchange</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Equities_Exchange_and_Quotations" title="National Equities Exchange and Quotations">National Equities Exchange and Quotations</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beijing_Stock_Exchange" title="Beijing Stock Exchange">Beijing Stock Exchange</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanghai_Stock_Exchange" title="Shanghai Stock Exchange">Shanghai Stock Exchange</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/SSE_Composite_Index" title="SSE Composite Index">SSE Composite Index</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shanghai_Metal_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanghai Metal Exchange">Shanghai Metal Exchange</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stock_Exchange_Executive_Council" title="Stock Exchange Executive Council">Stock Exchange Executive Council</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shenzhen_Stock_Exchange" title="Shenzhen Stock Exchange">Shenzhen Stock Exchange</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/SZSE_Component_Index" title="SZSE Component Index">SZSE Component Index</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhengzhou_Commodity_Exchange" title="Zhengzhou Commodity Exchange">Zhengzhou Commodity Exchange</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Economy_of_China" title="Category:Economy of China">Government institutions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/All-China_Federation_of_Industry_and_Commerce" title="All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce">All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/All-China_Federation_of_Trade_Unions" title="All-China Federation of Trade Unions">All-China Federation of Trade Unions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Council_for_the_Promotion_of_International_Trade" title="China Council for the Promotion of International Trade">China Council for the Promotion of International Trade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Securities_Regulatory_Commission" title="China Securities Regulatory Commission">China Securities Regulatory Commission</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_Administration_of_Customs" title="General Administration of Customs">General Administration of Customs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ministry_of_Commerce_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic of China">Ministry of Commerce</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Finance of the People's Republic of China">Ministry of Finance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ministry_of_Industry_and_Information_Technology" title="Ministry of Industry and Information Technology">Ministry of Industry and Information Technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Financial_Regulatory_Administration_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Financial Regulatory Administration (China)">National Financial Regulatory Administration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">National Bureau of Statistics of China</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Development_and_Reform_Commission" title="National Development and Reform Commission">National Development and Reform Commission</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Energy_Commission" title="National Energy Commission">National Energy Commission</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State-owned_Assets_Supervision_and_Administration_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission">State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_Administration_for_Market_Regulation" title="State Administration for Market Regulation">State Administration for Market Regulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_Administration_of_Foreign_Exchange" title="State Administration of Foreign Exchange">State Administration of Foreign Exchange</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/State_Administration_of_Taxation" class="mw-redirect" title="State Administration of Taxation">State Administration of Taxation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Economic_development_in_China" title="Category:Economic development in China">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/International_rankings_of_China" title="International rankings of China">International rankings</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Social_welfare_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Social welfare in China">Social welfare</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">Corruption</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Income_inequality_in_China" title="Income inequality in China">Income inequality</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_China" title="Standard of living in China">Standard of living</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_China" title="Foreign aid to China">Foreign aid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urbanization_in_China" title="Urbanization in China">Urbanization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Migration_in_China" title="Migration in China">Internal migration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Emigration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rural_credit_cooperative" title="Rural credit cooperative">Rural credit cooperative</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;">National economic initiatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beijing_Consensus" title="Beijing Consensus">Beijing Consensus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Belt_and_Road_Initiative" title="Belt and Road Initiative">Belt and Road Initiative</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Common_prosperity" title="Common prosperity">Common prosperity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dual_circulation" title="Dual circulation">Dual circulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Go_Out_policy" title="Go Out policy">Go Out policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Made_in_China_2025" title="Made in China 2025">Made in China 2025</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Youth_Business_China" title="Youth Business China">Youth Business China</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_regions_of_China" title="List of regions of China">Regional economic initiatives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asian_Infrastructure_Investment_Bank" title="Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank">Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Beibu_Gulf_Economic_Rim" title="Beibu Gulf Economic Rim">Beibu Gulf Economic Rim</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bohai_Economic_Rim" title="Bohai Economic Rim">Bohai Economic Rim</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Western_Development" title="China Western Development">China Western Development</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guangdong%E2%80%93Hong_Kong%E2%80%93Macau_Greater_Bay_Area" class="mw-redirect" title="Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macau Greater Bay Area">Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macau Greater Bay Area</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mainland_and_Hong_Kong_Closer_Economic_Partnership_Arrangement" title="Mainland and Hong Kong Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement">Mainland and Hong Kong Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mainland_and_Macau_Closer_Economic_Partnership_Arrangement" title="Mainland and Macau Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement">Mainland and Macau Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Northeast_China_Revitalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast China Revitalization">Northeast China Revitalization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pearl_River_Delta_Economic_Zone" title="Pearl River Delta Economic Zone">Pearl River Delta Economic Zone</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Regional_Comprehensive_Economic_Partnership" title="Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership">Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rise_of_Central_China_Plan" title="Rise of Central China Plan">Rise of Central China Plan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Western_Taiwan_Straits_Economic_Zone" title="Western Taiwan Straits Economic Zone">Western Taiwan Straits Economic Zone</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Yangtze_River_Delta_Economic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone">Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Zhongyuan_Economic_Zone" title="Zhongyuan Economic Zone">Zhongyuan Economic Zone</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Economic_history_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Category:Economic history of the People's Republic of China">Events</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_property_bubble_(2005%E2%80%932011)" title="Chinese property bubble (2005–2011)">2005–2011 property bubble</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2007_Chinese_export_recalls" title="2007 Chinese export recalls">2007 export</a> / <a href="/enwiki/wiki/2007_pet_food_recalls" title="2007 pet food recalls">pet food recalls</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_stock_bubble_of_2007" title="Chinese stock bubble of 2007">2007 stock bubble</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2007_Chinese_slave_scandal" title="2007 Chinese slave scandal">2007 slave scandal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_economic_stimulus_program" title="Chinese economic stimulus program">2008–2009 economic stimulus plan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Expo_2010" title="Expo 2010">2010 Expo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Chinese_stock_market_turbulence" class="mw-redirect" title="2015–16 Chinese stock market turbulence">2015–16 stock market turbulence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_protein_export_contamination" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese protein export contamination">Protein export contamination</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war" title="China–United States trade war">China–United States trade war</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Xi_Jinping_Administration_reform_spree" title="2020–2021 Xi Jinping Administration reform spree">2020–2021 reform spree</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:China" title="Category:China">Related topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Agriculture_in_China" title="Agriculture in China">Agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bankruptcy_in_China" title="Bankruptcy in China">Bankruptcy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_companies_of_China" title="List of companies of China">Companies</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_largest_Chinese_companies" title="List of largest Chinese companies">Largest</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Top_500_Enterprises_of_China" title="Top 500 Enterprises of China">Top 500</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_State-owned_enterprises_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of State-owned enterprises in China">Largest SOEs</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_Hongs" class="mw-redirect" title="The Hongs">The Hongs</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demographics_of_China" title="Demographics of China">Demographics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Globalization_in_China" title="Globalization in China">Globalization</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Globalization_and_women_in_China" title="Globalization and women in China">Globalization and women</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Standards_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="National Standards of the People's Republic of China">National Standards</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Compulsory_Certificate" title="China Compulsory Certificate">China Compulsory Certificate</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Made_in_China" title="Made in China">Made in China</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mingong" title="Mingong">Mingong</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_Chinese_by_net_worth" title="List of Chinese by net worth">List of Chinese by net worth</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Chinese_economists" title="Category:Chinese economists">Chinese economists</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_China" title="Science and technology in China">Science and technology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><i><b>See also:</b></i> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Economy_of_China" title="Category:Economy of China">Category</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Outline of China</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Economy_of_East_Asia" title="Economy of East Asia">Economy of East Asia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Poverty" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Poverty" title="Template:Poverty"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Poverty" title="Template talk:Poverty"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Poverty" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Poverty"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Poverty" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Measuring_poverty" title="Measuring poverty">Measuring poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Concentrated_poverty" title="Concentrated poverty">Concentrated poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cost_of_poverty" title="Cost of poverty">Cost of poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disability_and_poverty" title="Disability and poverty">Disability and poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Diseases of poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Climate change and poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Child_poverty" title="Child poverty">Child poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chronic_poverty" title="Chronic poverty">Chronic poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cycle_of_poverty" title="Cycle of poverty">Cycle of poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Precarity" title="Precarity">Precarity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guaranteed_minimum_income" title="Guaranteed minimum income">Guaranteed minimum income</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Universal_basic_income" title="Universal basic income">Universal basic income</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_basic_income_models" title="List of basic income models">List of basic income models</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_reduction" title="Poverty reduction">Poverty reduction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Metrics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deprivation_index" title="Deprivation index">Deprivation index</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Homeless_Vulnerability_Index" title="Homeless Vulnerability Index">Homeless Vulnerability Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Misery_index_(economics)" title="Misery index (economics)">Misery index (economics)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini coefficient</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Genuine_progress_indicator" title="Genuine progress indicator">Genuine progress indicator</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Legatum_Prosperity_Index" title="Legatum Prosperity Index">Legatum Prosperity Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_gap_index" title="Poverty gap index">Poverty gap index</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_Poverty_Index" title="Human Poverty Index">Human Poverty Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Multidimensional_Poverty_Index" title="Multidimensional Poverty Index">Multidimensional Poverty Index</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Working_poor" title="Working poor">Working poor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Precariat" title="Precariat">Precariat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Freeter" title="Freeter">Freeter</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Underemployment" title="Underemployment">Underemployment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/McJob" title="McJob">McJob</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pea-pickers" title="Pea-pickers">Pea-picker</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Menial_job" title="Menial job">Menial job</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Domestic_worker" title="Domestic worker">Domestic worker</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gig_worker" title="Gig worker">Gig worker</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wage_theft" title="Wage theft">Wage theft</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sweatshop" title="Sweatshop">Sweatshop</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Precarious_work" title="Precarious work">Precarious work</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Workfare" title="Workfare">Workfare</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfdom</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt bondage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Algeria" title="Poverty in Algeria">Algeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Poverty in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Egypt">Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Ethiopia" title="Poverty in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Kenya" title="Poverty in Kenya">Kenya</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Namibia" title="Poverty in Namibia">Namibia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Niger" title="Poverty in Niger">Niger</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Nigeria" title="Poverty in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in South Africa">South Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Tanzania" title="Poverty in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Uganda" title="Poverty in Uganda">Uganda</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Zimbabwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Afghanistan" title="Poverty in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Armenia">Armenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Bangladesh" title="Poverty in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Cambodia" title="Poverty in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">China</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Cyprus" title="Poverty in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_East_Timor" title="Poverty in East Timor">East Timor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_India" title="Poverty in India">India</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Indonesia" title="Poverty in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Israel">Israel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Japan" title="Poverty in Japan">Japan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Lebanon" title="Poverty in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_North_Korea" title="Poverty in North Korea">North Korea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_South_Korea" title="Poverty in South Korea">South Korea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Malaysia" title="Poverty in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Nepal" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Nepal">Nepal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Pakistan" title="Poverty in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Philippines">Philippines</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Singapore">Singapore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Poverty in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Vietnam" title="Poverty in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Yemen" title="Poverty in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Cyprus" title="Poverty in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_France" title="Poverty in France">France</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Germany" title="Poverty in Germany">Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Greece">Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Italy" title="Poverty in Italy">Italy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Moldova" title="Poverty in Moldova">Moldova</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Norway" title="Poverty in Norway">Norway</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Poland" title="Poverty in Poland">Poland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Romania" title="Poverty in Romania">Romania</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Switzerland" title="Poverty in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Turkey" title="Poverty in Turkey">Turkey</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Ukraine" title="Poverty in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Poverty in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Australia" title="Poverty in Australia">Australia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_New_Zealand" title="Poverty in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Argentina">Argentina</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Bolivia" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Brazil">Brazil</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Canada" title="Poverty in Canada">Canada</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Colombia" title="Poverty in Colombia">Colombia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Cuba">Cuba</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Haiti" title="Poverty in Haiti">Haiti</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Honduras">Honduras</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Jamaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Mexico" title="Poverty in Mexico">Mexico</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Paraguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Peru" title="Poverty in Peru">Peru</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Uruguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Venezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theories_of_poverty" title="Theories of poverty">Theories of poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">Well-being</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">Welfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Welfare_culture" title="Welfare culture">Welfare culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Welfare_trap" title="Welfare trap">Welfare trap</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Welfare%27s_effect_on_poverty" title="Welfare's effect on poverty">Welfare's effect on poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Criticism_of_welfare" title="Criticism of welfare">Criticism of welfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wellness_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wellness (medicine)">Wellness</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">Quality of life</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Self-perceived_quality-of-life_scale" title="Self-perceived quality-of-life scale">Self-perceived quality-of-life scale</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Subjective_well-being" title="Subjective well-being">Subjective well-being</a> (SWB)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stress_(psychological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (psychological)">Stress</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rural_poverty" title="Rural poverty">Rural access issues</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Providing_Urban_Amenities_to_Rural_Areas" title="Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas">Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Post-materialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-materialism">Post-materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pen%27s_parade" title="Pen's parade">Pen's parade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Culture_of_poverty" title="Culture of poverty">Culture of poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Causes_of_poverty" title="Causes of poverty">Causes of poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Diseases_of_poverty" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Diseases_of_poverty" title="Template:Diseases of poverty"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Diseases_of_poverty" title="Template talk:Diseases of poverty"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Diseases_of_poverty" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Diseases of poverty"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Diseases_of_poverty" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Diseases of poverty</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Diseases of poverty</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">AIDS</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">Malaria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">Measles</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">Pneumonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Diarrheal diseases</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">Plague</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">Neglected diseases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">Cholera</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chagas_disease" title="Chagas disease">Chagas disease</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">African sleeping sickness</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">Schistosomiasis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dracunculiasis" title="Dracunculiasis">Dracunculiasis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">River blindness</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Visceral_leishmaniasis" title="Visceral leishmaniasis">Leishmaniasis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trachoma" title="Trachoma">Trachoma</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">Malnutrition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Priority_review" title="Priority review">Priority review voucher</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<dl><dt>See also</dt>
<dd><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_countries_by_percentage_of_population_living_in_poverty" title="List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty">List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty</a> · <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Deprivation_Indicators" title="Template:Deprivation Indicators">Deprivation and poverty indicators</a></dd></dl>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Poverty_in_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Asia_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Poverty_in_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Poverty in Asia</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Afghanistan" title="Poverty in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Armenia">Armenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Azerbaijan" title="Poverty in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Bahrain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Bahrain (page does not exist)">Bahrain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Bangladesh" title="Poverty in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Bhutan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Bhutan (page does not exist)">Bhutan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Brunei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Brunei (page does not exist)">Brunei</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Cambodia" title="Poverty in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">China</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Cyprus" title="Poverty in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_East_Timor" title="Poverty in East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Egypt">Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Georgia_(country)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Georgia (country) (page does not exist)">Georgia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_India" title="Poverty in India">India</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Indonesia" title="Poverty in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Iran">Iran</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Iraq&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Iraq (page does not exist)">Iraq</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Israel">Israel</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Japan" title="Poverty in Japan">Japan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Jordan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Jordan (page does not exist)">Jordan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Kazakhstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Kazakhstan (page does not exist)">Kazakhstan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_North_Korea" title="Poverty in North Korea">North Korea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_South_Korea" title="Poverty in South Korea">South Korea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Kuwait&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Kuwait (page does not exist)">Kuwait</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Kyrgyzstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Kyrgyzstan (page does not exist)">Kyrgyzstan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Laos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Laos (page does not exist)">Laos</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Lebanon" title="Poverty in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Malaysia" title="Poverty in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Mongolia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Mongolia (page does not exist)">Mongolia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Myanmar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Myanmar (page does not exist)">Myanmar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Nepal" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Nepal">Nepal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Oman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Oman (page does not exist)">Oman</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Pakistan" title="Poverty in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_the_Philippines" title="Poverty in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Qatar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Qatar (page does not exist)">Qatar</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Russia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Russia (page does not exist)">Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Singapore">Singapore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Poverty in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Syria (page does not exist)">Syria</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Tajikistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Thailand">Thailand</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Turkey" title="Poverty in Turkey">Turkey</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Turkmenistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Turkmenistan (page does not exist)">Turkmenistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in the United Arab Emirates (page does not exist)">United Arab Emirates</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Uzbekistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Uzbekistan (page does not exist)">Uzbekistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Vietnam" title="Poverty in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Yemen" title="Poverty in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Northern_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Northern Cyprus (page does not exist)">Northern Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_the_State_of_Palestine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in the State of Palestine (page does not exist)">Palestine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Taiwan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Taiwan (page does not exist)">Taiwan</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Poverty_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Poverty_in_Macau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poverty in Macau (page does not exist)">Macau</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Health_in_China" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Health_in_China" title="Template:Health in China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Health_in_China" title="Template talk:Health in China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Health_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Health in China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Health_in_China" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Health_in_China" title="Health in China">Health in China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">Healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Health_in_China" title="Health in China">Health</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disease_surveillance_in_China" title="Disease surveillance in China">Disease surveillance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Healthcare_reform_in_China" title="Healthcare reform in China">Healthcare system reform</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_China" title="Women's health in China">Women's health</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Health_informatics_in_China" title="Health informatics in China">Health informatics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Barefoot_doctor" title="Barefoot doctor">Barefoot doctor</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patriotic_Health_Campaign" title="Patriotic Health Campaign">Patriotic Health Campaign</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Welfare_Institute" title="China Welfare Institute">China Welfare Institute</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_China" title="List of hospitals in China">Hospitals in China</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Classification_of_Chinese_hospitals" title="Classification of Chinese hospitals">Classification</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Medical_schools_in_China" title="Category:Medical schools in China">Medical schools</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organ_transplantation_in_China" title="Organ transplantation in China">Organ transplantation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Medicine_in_China" title="Medicine in China">Medicine in China</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Traditional Chinese medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharmacy_in_China" title="Pharmacy in China">Pharmacy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_China" title="Pharmaceutical industry in China">Pharmaceutical industry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biotechnology_industry_in_China" title="Biotechnology industry in China">Biotechnology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">Diseases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">Avian influenza</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Betaarterivirus_suid_1" title="Betaarterivirus suid 1">Blue-ear disease</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease_in_China" title="Cardiovascular disease in China">Cardiovascular disease</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chronic_disease_in_China" title="Chronic disease in China">Chronic diseases</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Enterovirus" title="Enterovirus">Enterovirus 71 (EV71)</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fujian_flu" title="Fujian flu">Fujian flu</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hepatitis_B_in_China" title="Hepatitis B in China">Hepatitis B</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_China" title="HIV/AIDS in China">HIV/AIDS</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plasma_Economy" title="Plasma Economy">Plasma Economy</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Iodine_deficiency_in_China" title="Iodine deficiency in China">Iodine deficiency</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2009_Chinese_lead_poisoning_scandal" title="2009 Chinese lead poisoning scandal">lead poisoning scandal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Leprosy_in_China" title="Leprosy in China">Leprosy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mental_health_in_China" title="Mental health in China">Mental health</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Obesity_in_China" title="Obesity in China">Obesity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/History_of_opium_in_China" title="History of opium in China">Opium</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pneumonic_plague#China" title="Pneumonic plague">Pneumonic plague</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Stroke_in_China" title="Stroke in China">Stroke</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tuberculosis_in_China" title="Tuberculosis in China">Tuberculosis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Disease-related_deaths_in_China" title="Category:Disease-related deaths in China">Disease-related deaths</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2009_flu_pandemic_in_Asia#China_.28People.27s_Republic_of_China.29" class="mw-redirect" title="2009 flu pandemic in Asia">Swine influenza outbreak</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/2002%E2%80%932004_SARS_outbreak" title="2002–2004 SARS outbreak">SARS pandemic</a> (2003)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/SARS-CoV-2" title="SARS-CoV-2">SARS-CoV-2</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China" title="COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China">COVID-19 pandemic</a> (2020)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Delta_variant" title="SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant">Delta variant</a> (2021)</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant" title="SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant">Omicron variant</a> (2022)</li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ministry_(government_department)" title="Ministry (government department)">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Health_Commission" title="National Health Commission">National Health Commission</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Administration_of_Traditional_Chinese_Medicine" title="National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine">National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Administration_of_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="National Administration of Disease Control and Prevention">National Administration of Disease Control and Prevention</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Medical_Products_Administration" title="National Medical Products Administration">National Medical Products Administration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Department_of_Health_(Hong_Kong)" title="Department of Health (Hong Kong)"><i>Hong Kong Department of Health</i></a> *</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Secretariat_for_Social_Affairs_and_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretariat for Social Affairs and Culture"><i>Macau Secretariat for Social Affairs and Culture</i></a> *</li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/General_Administration_of_Customs" title="General Administration of Customs">General Administration of Customs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/National_Healthcare_Security_Administration" title="National Healthcare Security Administration">National Healthcare Security Administration</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Demographics_of_China" title="Demographics of China">Demographics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Asian_Dust" title="Asian Dust">Dust storms</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environment_of_China" title="Environment of China">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_safety_in_China" title="Food safety in China">Food safety</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_China" title="Illegal drug trade in China">Illegal drug trade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pollution_in_China" title="Pollution in China">Pollution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">Population history</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Poverty</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prostitution_in_China" title="Prostitution in China">Prostitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Smoking_in_China" title="Smoking in China">Smoking</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vegetarianism_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegetarianism in China">Vegetarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Violence_against_doctors_in_China" title="Violence against doctors in China">Violence against doctors in China</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Studies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China%E2%80%93Cornell%E2%80%93Oxford_Project" title="China–Cornell–Oxford Project">China–Cornell–Oxford Project</a> <i>(<a href="/enwiki/wiki/The_China_Study" title="The China Study">The China Study</a>)</i></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Family_Panel_Studies" title="China Family Panel Studies">China Family Panel Studies</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/China_Health_and_Retirement_Longitudinal_Study" title="China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study">China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> * only in special administrative regions</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
