Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{short description|Organism that breaks down dead or decaying organisms}}
{{For|The Matches album of the same name|Decomposer (album)}}'''Decomposers''' are [[Organism|organisms]] that break down dead organisms and release the nutrients from the dead matter into the environment around them'''.''' [[Decomposition]] relies on chemical processes similar to [[digestion]] in animals; in fact, many sources use the words digestion and decomposition interchangeably.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Clark |first1=Mary Ann |last2=Douglas |first2=Matthew |last3=Choi |first3=Jung |date=2018-03-28 |title=6.1 Energy and Metabolism - Biology 2e {{!}} OpenStax |url=https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/6-1-energy-and-metabolism |access-date=2024-10-30 |website=openstax.org |language=English}}</ref> In both processes, complex molecules are chemically broken down by [[Enzyme|enzymes]] into simpler, smaller ones. The term "digestion," however, is commonly used to refer to food breakdown that occurs within animal bodies, and results in the absorption of nutrients from the gut into the animal's bloodstream.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Patricia |first1=Justin J. |title=Physiology, Digestion |date=2024 |work=StatPearls |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544242/ |access-date=2024-10-30 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=31334962 |last2=Dhamoon |first2=Amit S.}}</ref> This is contrasted with external digestion, meaning that, rather than swallowing food and then digesting it using enzymes located within a GI tract, an organism instead releases enzymes directly onto the food source.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-05 |title=31.2: Fungal Forms, Nutrition, and Reproduction |url=https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Map:_Raven_Biology_12th_Edition/31:_Fungi/31.02:_Fungal_Forms_Nutrition_and_Reproduction |access-date=2024-10-30 |website=Biology LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> After allowing the enzymes time to digest the material, the decomposer then absorbs the nutrients from the environment into its cells.<ref name=":1">[http://www.eoearth.org/article/Trophic_level?topic=58074 ''Trophic level''. Eds. M. McGinley & C. J. Cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC]</ref> Decomposition is often erroneously conflated with this process of external digestion, probably because of the strong association between fungi, which are external digesters, and decomposition.
The term "decomposer" refers to a role in an ecosystem, not to a particular class or type of organism, or even to a specific capacity of those organisms.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Clark |first1=Mary Ann |last2=Douglas |first2=Matthew |last3=Choi |first3=Jung |date=2018-03-28 |title=46.1 Ecology of Ecosystems - Biology 2e {{!}} OpenStax |url=https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/46-1-ecology-of-ecosystems |access-date=2024-11-11 |website=openstax.org |language=English}}</ref> The definition of "decomposer" therefore centers on the ''outcome'' of the decomposition process, rather than the types of organisms performing it. At the center of this definition are the organisms that benefit most directly from the increase in nutrient availability that results from decomposition; plants and other non-mobile (sessile) [[Autotroph|autotrophs]] cannot travel to seek out nutrients, and most cannot digest other organisms themselves. They must therefore rely on decomposers to free up nutrients from dead matter that they can then absorb.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Griffiths |first1=Hannah M. |last2=Ashton |first2=Louise A. |last3=Parr |first3=Catherine L. |last4=Eggleton |first4=Paul |date=September 2021 |title=The impact of invertebrate decomposers on plants and soil |url=https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.17553 |journal=New Phytologist |language=en |volume=231 |issue=6 |pages=2142–2149 |doi=10.1111/nph.17553 |pmid=34128548 |bibcode=2021NewPh.231.2142G |issn=0028-646X |hdl-access=free |hdl=10072/406155}}</ref>
Note that this definition does not focus on where digestion takes place (i.e. inside or outside of an organism's body), but rather on where the products of that digestion end up. "Decomposer" as a category, therefore, would include not just fungi and bacteria, which perform external digestion, but also [[Invertebrate|invertebrates]] such as [[Earthworm|earthworms]], [[woodlice]], and [[sea cucumbers]] that digest dead matter internally and release nutrients locally via their feces.<ref name=":0" /> In some definitions of decomposition that center on the means and location of digestion, these invertebrates, which digest their food internally, are set apart from decomposers and placed in a separate category called [[Detritivore|detritivores.]]<ref name=":1" /> These categories are not, in fact, mutually exclusive. "Detritivore" describes behavior and physiology, while "decomposer" describes an ecosystem role. Therefore, an organism can be both a detritivore and a decomposer.
While there are also purely physical processes, like [[weathering]] and [[ultraviolet light]], that contribute to decomposition, "decomposer" refers only to living organisms that contribute to the process, whether by physical or chemical breakdown of dead matter.
== Terrestrial decomposers ==
In terrestrial environments, decomposition happens mainly in or on soil, and decomposers' activities lead to increased [[soil fertility]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Soil Carbon Storage {{!}} Learn Science at Scitable |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-carbon-storage-84223790/ |access-date=2024-11-30 |website=www.nature.com |language=en}}</ref> The main nutrients plants have to derive from soils are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, and all three have to be available in forms that are accessible to and absorbable by the plants. Decomposition is the process of breaking large molecules in dead matter down into smaller molecules that nearby plants are able to take up through their roots. Some steps of the process occur via mechanical grinding and churning by things like earthworms and plant roots in a process called [[bioturbation]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ruiz |first1=Siul |last2=Or |first2=Dani |last3=Schymanski |first3=Stanislaus J. |date=2015-06-18 |title=Soil Penetration by Earthworms and Plant Roots—Mechanical Energetics of Bioturbation of Compacted Soils |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=e0128914 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0128914 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4472233 |pmid=26087130|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1028914R }}</ref> Further breakdown, beyond those physical means, requires the presence of enzymes. The paired processes are akin to what occurs in mammal [[Gastrointestinal tract|digestive tracts]]: food is mechanically ground up by teeth, and then chemically broken down by enzymes.
A given organism's ability to contribute to decomposition is largely dependent on what enzymes that organism possesses. Enzymes for the digestion of molecules like fats, proteins, and starch are widespread and many organisms, from microbes to mammals, have them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Griffiths |first1=Hannah M. |last2=Ashton |first2=Louise A. |last3=Parr |first3=Catherine L. |last4=Eggleton |first4=Paul |date=2021 |title=The impact of invertebrate decomposers on plants and soil |url=https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.17553 |journal=New Phytologist |language=en |volume=231 |issue=6 |pages=2142–2149 |doi=10.1111/nph.17553 |pmid=34128548 |bibcode=2021NewPh.231.2142G |hdl=10072/406155 |issn=1469-8137|hdl-access=free }}</ref> As a result, those molecules are the first to decompose in the environment. [[Cellulose]] in dead plants is broken down by cellulase enzymes, which are present in far fewer organisms, and the enzymes needed to digest [[lignin]], a chemically complex molecule in woody trees and shrubs, in fewer still.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakazawa |first1=Takehito |last2=Yamaguchi |first2=Iori |last3=Zhang |first3=Yufan |last4=Saka |first4=Chinami |last5=Wu |first5=Hongli |last6=Kayama |first6=Keita |last7=Kawauchi |first7=Moriyuki |last8=Sakamoto |first8=Masahiro |last9=Honda |first9=Yoichi |date=October 2023 |title=Experimental evidence that lignin-modifying enzymes are essential for degrading plant cell wall lignin by Pleurotus ostreatus using CRISPR/Cas9 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37218079/ |journal=Environmental Microbiology |volume=25 |issue=10 |pages=1909–1924 |doi=10.1111/1462-2920.16427 |issn=1462-2920 |pmid=37218079|bibcode=2023EnvMi..25.1909N |doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Fungi_on_fallen_Birch_Branch_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239255.jpg|thumb|Fungi acting as decomposers of a fallen tree branch]]
=== Fungi ===
The primary decomposer of litter in many [[ecosystem]]s is [[fungi]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Godbold|first1=Douglas L.|last2=Hoosbeek|first2=Marcel R.|last3=Lukac|first3=Martin|last4=Cotrufo|first4=M. Francesca|author-link4=M. Francesca Cotrufo|last5=Janssens|first5=Ivan A.|last6=Ceulemans|first6=Reinhart|last7=Polle|first7=Andrea|last8=Velthorst|first8=Eef J.|last9=Scarascia-Mugnozza|first9=Giuseppe|last10=De Angelis|first10=Paolo|last11=Miglietta|first11=Franco|date=2006-03-01|title=Mycorrhizal Hyphal Turnover as a Dominant Process for Carbon Input into Soil Organic Matter|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-005-3701-6|journal=Plant and Soil|language=en|volume=281|issue=1|pages=15–24|doi=10.1007/s11104-005-3701-6|bibcode=2006PlSoi.281...15G |s2cid=24926892 |issn=1573-5036}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Talbot|first1=J. M.|last2=Allison|first2=S. D.|last3=Treseder|first3=K. K.|date=2008|title=Decomposers in disguise: mycorrhizal fungi as regulators of soil C dynamics in ecosystems under global change|journal=Functional Ecology|language=en|volume=22|issue=6|pages=955–963|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2435.2008.01402.x|issn=1365-2435|doi-access=free|bibcode=2008FuEco..22..955T }}</ref> Unlike [[bacteria]], which are unicellular organisms and are decomposers as well, most [[saprotroph]]ic fungi grow as a branching network of [[hypha]]e. Bacteria are restricted to growing and feeding on the exposed surfaces of organic matter, but fungi can use their hyphae to penetrate larger pieces of organic matter below the surface. Additionally, only [[wood-decay fungus|wood-decay fungi]] have evolved [[Lignin-modifying enzyme|lignin-modifying enzymes]] necessary to decompose [[lignin]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Blanchette|first1=Robert|title=Delignification by Wood-Decay Fungi|journal=Annual Review of Phytopathology|date=September 1991|volume=29|pages=281–403|doi=10.1146/annurev.py.29.090191.002121}}</ref> These two factors make fungi the primary decomposers in [[forest]]s, where litter has high concentrations of lignin and often occurs in [[coarse woody debris|large pieces]] like fallen trees and branches. Fungi decompose organic matter by releasing enzymes to break down the decaying material, after which they absorb the nutrients in the decaying material.<ref name="berkeley">{{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/fungilh.html |title=Fungi: Life History and Ecology |first1=Ben |last1=Waggoner |first2=Brian |last2=Speer |work=Introduction to the Funge=24 January 2014}}</ref> Hyphae are used to break down matter and absorb nutrients and are also used in reproduction.
== See also ==
* [[Chemotroph]]
* [[Micro-animals]]
* [[Microorganism]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Refbegin}}
== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal | last1 = Bear | first1 = MH | last2 = Hendrix | first2 = PF | last3 = Cheng | first3 = W | s2cid = 86031411 | year = 1992 | title = Microbial and faunal interactions and effects on litter nitrogen and decomposition in agroecosystems | journal = Ecological Monographs | volume = 62 | issue = 4| pages = 569–591 | doi=10.2307/2937317| jstor = 2937317 | bibcode = 1992EcoM...62..569B }}
* Hunt HW, Coleman DC, Ingham ER, Ingham RE, Elliot ET, Moore JC, Rose SL, Reid CPP, Morley CR (1987) "The detrital food web in a shortgrass prairie". ''Biology and Fertility of Soils 3'': 57-68
* Smith TM, Smith RL (2006) ''Elements of Ecology''. Sixth edition. Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco, CA.
{{Refend}}
{{Feeding}}
{{Modelling ecosystems}}
[[Category:Microbiology]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{short description|Organism that breaks down dead robots are cool or decaying organisms}}
{{For|The Matches album of the same name|Decomposer (album)}}'''Decomposers''' are [[Organism|organisms]] that break down dead organisms and release the nutrients from the dead matter into the environment around them'''.''' [[Decomposition]] relies on chemical processes similar to [[digestion]] in animals; in fact, many sources use the words digestion and decomposition interchangeably.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Clark |first1=Mary Ann |last2=Douglas |first2=Matthew |last3=Choi |first3=Jung |date=2018-03-28 |title=6.1 Energy and Metabolism - Biology 2e {{!}} OpenStax |url=https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/6-1-energy-and-metabolism |access-date=2024-10-30 |website=openstax.org |language=English}}</ref> In both processes, complex molecules are chemically broken down by [[Enzyme|enzymes]] into simpler, smaller ones. The term "digestion," however, is commonly used to refer to food breakdown that occurs within animal bodies, and results in the absorption of nutrients from the gut into the animal's bloodstream.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Patricia |first1=Justin J. |title=Physiology, Digestion |date=2024 |work=StatPearls |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544242/ |access-date=2024-10-30 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=31334962 |last2=Dhamoon |first2=Amit S.}}</ref> This is contrasted with external digestion, meaning that, rather than swallowing food and then digesting it using enzymes located within a GI tract, an organism instead releases enzymes directly onto the food source.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-05 |title=31.2: Fungal Forms, Nutrition, and Reproduction |url=https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Map:_Raven_Biology_12th_Edition/31:_Fungi/31.02:_Fungal_Forms_Nutrition_and_Reproduction |access-date=2024-10-30 |website=Biology LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> After allowing the enzymes time to digest the material, the decomposer then absorbs the nutrients from the environment into its cells.<ref name=":1">[http://www.eoearth.org/article/Trophic_level?topic=58074 ''Trophic level''. Eds. M. McGinley & C. J. Cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC]</ref> Decomposition is often erroneously conflated with this process of external digestion, probably because of the strong association between fungi, which are external digesters, and decomposition.
The term "decomposer" refers to a role in an ecosystem, not to a particular class or type of organism, or even to a specific capacity of those organisms.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Clark |first1=Mary Ann |last2=Douglas |first2=Matthew |last3=Choi |first3=Jung |date=2018-03-28 |title=46.1 Ecology of Ecosystems - Biology 2e {{!}} OpenStax |url=https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/46-1-ecology-of-ecosystems |access-date=2024-11-11 |website=openstax.org |language=English}}</ref> The definition of "decomposer" therefore centers on the ''outcome'' of the decomposition process, rather than the types of organisms performing it. At the center of this definition are the organisms that benefit most directly from the increase in nutrient availability that results from decomposition; plants and other non-mobile (sessile) [[Autotroph|autotrophs]] cannot travel to seek out nutrients, and most cannot digest other organisms themselves. They must therefore rely on decomposers to free up nutrients from dead matter that they can then absorb.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Griffiths |first1=Hannah M. |last2=Ashton |first2=Louise A. |last3=Parr |first3=Catherine L. |last4=Eggleton |first4=Paul |date=September 2021 |title=The impact of invertebrate decomposers on plants and soil |url=https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.17553 |journal=New Phytologist |language=en |volume=231 |issue=6 |pages=2142–2149 |doi=10.1111/nph.17553 |pmid=34128548 |bibcode=2021NewPh.231.2142G |issn=0028-646X |hdl-access=free |hdl=10072/406155}}</ref>
Note that this definition does not focus on where digestion takes place (i.e. inside or outside of an organism's body), but rather on where the products of that digestion end up. "Decomposer" as a category, therefore, would include not just fungi and bacteria, which perform external digestion, but also [[Invertebrate|invertebrates]] such as [[Earthworm|earthworms]], [[woodlice]], and [[sea cucumbers]] that digest dead matter internally and release nutrients locally via their feces.<ref name=":0" /> In some definitions of decomposition that center on the means and location of digestion, these invertebrates, which digest their food internally, are set apart from decomposers and placed in a separate category called [[Detritivore|detritivores.]]<ref name=":1" /> These categories are not, in fact, mutually exclusive. "Detritivore" describes behavior and physiology, while "decomposer" describes an ecosystem role. Therefore, an organism can be both a detritivore and a decomposer.
While there are also purely physical processes, like [[weathering]] and [[ultraviolet light]], that contribute to decomposition, "decomposer" refers only to living organisms that contribute to the process, whether by physical or chemical breakdown of dead matter.
== Terrestrial decomposers ==
In terrestrial environments, decomposition happens mainly in or on soil, and decomposers' activities lead to increased [[soil fertility]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Soil Carbon Storage {{!}} Learn Science at Scitable |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-carbon-storage-84223790/ |access-date=2024-11-30 |website=www.nature.com |language=en}}</ref> The main nutrients plants have to derive from soils are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, and all three have to be available in forms that are accessible to and absorbable by the plants. Decomposition is the process of breaking large molecules in dead matter down into smaller molecules that nearby plants are able to take up through their roots. Some steps of the process occur via mechanical grinding and churning by things like earthworms and plant roots in a process called [[bioturbation]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ruiz |first1=Siul |last2=Or |first2=Dani |last3=Schymanski |first3=Stanislaus J. |date=2015-06-18 |title=Soil Penetration by Earthworms and Plant Roots—Mechanical Energetics of Bioturbation of Compacted Soils |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=e0128914 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0128914 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4472233 |pmid=26087130|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1028914R }}</ref> Further breakdown, beyond those physical means, requires the presence of enzymes. The paired processes are akin to what occurs in mammal [[Gastrointestinal tract|digestive tracts]]: food is mechanically ground up by teeth, and then chemically broken down by enzymes.
A given organism's ability to contribute to decomposition is largely dependent on what enzymes that organism possesses. Enzymes for the digestion of molecules like fats, proteins, and starch are widespread and many organisms, from microbes to mammals, have them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Griffiths |first1=Hannah M. |last2=Ashton |first2=Louise A. |last3=Parr |first3=Catherine L. |last4=Eggleton |first4=Paul |date=2021 |title=The impact of invertebrate decomposers on plants and soil |url=https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.17553 |journal=New Phytologist |language=en |volume=231 |issue=6 |pages=2142–2149 |doi=10.1111/nph.17553 |pmid=34128548 |bibcode=2021NewPh.231.2142G |hdl=10072/406155 |issn=1469-8137|hdl-access=free }}</ref> As a result, those molecules are the first to decompose in the environment. [[Cellulose]] in dead plants is broken down by cellulase enzymes, which are present in far fewer organisms, and the enzymes needed to digest [[lignin]], a chemically complex molecule in woody trees and shrubs, in fewer still.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakazawa |first1=Takehito |last2=Yamaguchi |first2=Iori |last3=Zhang |first3=Yufan |last4=Saka |first4=Chinami |last5=Wu |first5=Hongli |last6=Kayama |first6=Keita |last7=Kawauchi |first7=Moriyuki |last8=Sakamoto |first8=Masahiro |last9=Honda |first9=Yoichi |date=October 2023 |title=Experimental evidence that lignin-modifying enzymes are essential for degrading plant cell wall lignin by Pleurotus ostreatus using CRISPR/Cas9 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37218079/ |journal=Environmental Microbiology |volume=25 |issue=10 |pages=1909–1924 |doi=10.1111/1462-2920.16427 |issn=1462-2920 |pmid=37218079|bibcode=2023EnvMi..25.1909N |doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Fungi_on_fallen_Birch_Branch_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239255.jpg|thumb|Fungi acting as decomposers of a fallen tree branch]]
=== Fungi ===
The primary decomposer of litter in many [[ecosystem]]s is [[fungi]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Godbold|first1=Douglas L.|last2=Hoosbeek|first2=Marcel R.|last3=Lukac|first3=Martin|last4=Cotrufo|first4=M. Francesca|author-link4=M. Francesca Cotrufo|last5=Janssens|first5=Ivan A.|last6=Ceulemans|first6=Reinhart|last7=Polle|first7=Andrea|last8=Velthorst|first8=Eef J.|last9=Scarascia-Mugnozza|first9=Giuseppe|last10=De Angelis|first10=Paolo|last11=Miglietta|first11=Franco|date=2006-03-01|title=Mycorrhizal Hyphal Turnover as a Dominant Process for Carbon Input into Soil Organic Matter|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-005-3701-6|journal=Plant and Soil|language=en|volume=281|issue=1|pages=15–24|doi=10.1007/s11104-005-3701-6|bibcode=2006PlSoi.281...15G |s2cid=24926892 |issn=1573-5036}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Talbot|first1=J. M.|last2=Allison|first2=S. D.|last3=Treseder|first3=K. K.|date=2008|title=Decomposers in disguise: mycorrhizal fungi as regulators of soil C dynamics in ecosystems under global change|journal=Functional Ecology|language=en|volume=22|issue=6|pages=955–963|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2435.2008.01402.x|issn=1365-2435|doi-access=free|bibcode=2008FuEco..22..955T }}</ref> Unlike [[bacteria]], which are unicellular organisms and are decomposers as well, most [[saprotroph]]ic fungi grow as a branching network of [[hypha]]e. Bacteria are restricted to growing and feeding on the exposed surfaces of organic matter, but fungi can use their hyphae to penetrate larger pieces of organic matter below the surface. Additionally, only [[wood-decay fungus|wood-decay fungi]] have evolved [[Lignin-modifying enzyme|lignin-modifying enzymes]] necessary to decompose [[lignin]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Blanchette|first1=Robert|title=Delignification by Wood-Decay Fungi|journal=Annual Review of Phytopathology|date=September 1991|volume=29|pages=281–403|doi=10.1146/annurev.py.29.090191.002121}}</ref> These two factors make fungi the primary decomposers in [[forest]]s, where litter has high concentrations of lignin and often occurs in [[coarse woody debris|large pieces]] like fallen trees and branches. Fungi decompose organic matter by releasing enzymes to break down the decaying material, after which they absorb the nutrients in the decaying material.<ref name="berkeley">{{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/fungilh.html |title=Fungi: Life History and Ecology |first1=Ben |last1=Waggoner |first2=Brian |last2=Speer |work=Introduction to the Funge=24 January 2014}}</ref> Hyphae are used to break down matter and absorb nutrients and are also used in reproduction.
== See also ==
* [[Chemotroph]]
* [[Micro-animals]]
* [[Microorganism]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Refbegin}}
== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal | last1 = Bear | first1 = MH | last2 = Hendrix | first2 = PF | last3 = Cheng | first3 = W | s2cid = 86031411 | year = 1992 | title = Microbial and faunal interactions and effects on litter nitrogen and decomposition in agroecosystems | journal = Ecological Monographs | volume = 62 | issue = 4| pages = 569–591 | doi=10.2307/2937317| jstor = 2937317 | bibcode = 1992EcoM...62..569B }}
* Hunt HW, Coleman DC, Ingham ER, Ingham RE, Elliot ET, Moore JC, Rose SL, Reid CPP, Morley CR (1987) "The detrital food web in a shortgrass prairie". ''Biology and Fertility of Soils 3'': 57-68
* Smith TM, Smith RL (2006) ''Elements of Ecology''. Sixth edition. Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco, CA.
{{Refend}}
{{Feeding}}
{{Modelling ecosystems}}
[[Category:Microbiology]]' |
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Organism that breaks down dead robots are cool or decaying organisms</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For The Matches album of the same name, see <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decomposer_(album)" title="Decomposer (album)">Decomposer (album)</a>.</div><p><b>Decomposers</b> are <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> that break down dead organisms and release the nutrients from the dead matter into the environment around them<b>.</b> <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a> relies on chemical processes similar to <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">digestion</a> in animals; in fact, many sources use the words digestion and decomposition interchangeably.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In both processes, complex molecules are chemically broken down by <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> into simpler, smaller ones. The term "digestion," however, is commonly used to refer to food breakdown that occurs within animal bodies, and results in the absorption of nutrients from the gut into the animal's bloodstream.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is contrasted with external digestion, meaning that, rather than swallowing food and then digesting it using enzymes located within a GI tract, an organism instead releases enzymes directly onto the food source.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After allowing the enzymes time to digest the material, the decomposer then absorbs the nutrients from the environment into its cells.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Decomposition is often erroneously conflated with this process of external digestion, probably because of the strong association between fungi, which are external digesters, and decomposition.
</p><p>The term "decomposer" refers to a role in an ecosystem, not to a particular class or type of organism, or even to a specific capacity of those organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The definition of "decomposer" therefore centers on the <i>outcome</i> of the decomposition process, rather than the types of organisms performing it. At the center of this definition are the organisms that benefit most directly from the increase in nutrient availability that results from decomposition; plants and other non-mobile (sessile) <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotrophs</a> cannot travel to seek out nutrients, and most cannot digest other organisms themselves. They must therefore rely on decomposers to free up nutrients from dead matter that they can then absorb.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Note that this definition does not focus on where digestion takes place (i.e. inside or outside of an organism's body), but rather on where the products of that digestion end up. "Decomposer" as a category, therefore, would include not just fungi and bacteria, which perform external digestion, but also <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> such as <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm">earthworms</a>, <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Woodlice" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodlice">woodlice</a>, and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sea_cucumbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea cucumbers">sea cucumbers</a> that digest dead matter internally and release nutrients locally via their feces.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some definitions of decomposition that center on the means and location of digestion, these invertebrates, which digest their food internally, are set apart from decomposers and placed in a separate category called <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">detritivores.</a><sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These categories are not, in fact, mutually exclusive. "Detritivore" describes behavior and physiology, while "decomposer" describes an ecosystem role. Therefore, an organism can be both a detritivore and a decomposer.
</p><p>While there are also purely physical processes, like <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> and <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ultraviolet_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet light">ultraviolet light</a>, that contribute to decomposition, "decomposer" refers only to living organisms that contribute to the process, whether by physical or chemical breakdown of dead matter.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Terrestrial_decomposers"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Terrestrial decomposers</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Fungi"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Fungi</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terrestrial_decomposers">Terrestrial decomposers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Decomposer&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terrestrial decomposers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>In terrestrial environments, decomposition happens mainly in or on soil, and decomposers' activities lead to increased <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">soil fertility</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main nutrients plants have to derive from soils are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, and all three have to be available in forms that are accessible to and absorbable by the plants. Decomposition is the process of breaking large molecules in dead matter down into smaller molecules that nearby plants are able to take up through their roots. Some steps of the process occur via mechanical grinding and churning by things like earthworms and plant roots in a process called <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bioturbation" title="Bioturbation">bioturbation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further breakdown, beyond those physical means, requires the presence of enzymes. The paired processes are akin to what occurs in mammal <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">digestive tracts</a>: food is mechanically ground up by teeth, and then chemically broken down by enzymes.
</p><p>A given organism's ability to contribute to decomposition is largely dependent on what enzymes that organism possesses. Enzymes for the digestion of molecules like fats, proteins, and starch are widespread and many organisms, from microbes to mammals, have them.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, those molecules are the first to decompose in the environment. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a> in dead plants is broken down by cellulase enzymes, which are present in far fewer organisms, and the enzymes needed to digest <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a>, a chemically complex molecule in woody trees and shrubs, in fewer still.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Fungi_on_fallen_Birch_Branch_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239255.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Fungi_on_fallen_Birch_Branch_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239255.jpg/220px-Fungi_on_fallen_Birch_Branch_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239255.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Fungi_on_fallen_Birch_Branch_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239255.jpg/330px-Fungi_on_fallen_Birch_Branch_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239255.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Fungi_on_fallen_Birch_Branch_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239255.jpg/440px-Fungi_on_fallen_Birch_Branch_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239255.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Fungi acting as decomposers of a fallen tree branch</figcaption></figure>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fungi">Fungi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Decomposer&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Fungi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The primary decomposer of litter in many <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> is <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, which are unicellular organisms and are decomposers as well, most <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saprotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprotroph">saprotrophic</a> fungi grow as a branching network of <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">hyphae</a>. Bacteria are restricted to growing and feeding on the exposed surfaces of organic matter, but fungi can use their hyphae to penetrate larger pieces of organic matter below the surface. Additionally, only <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Wood-decay_fungus" title="Wood-decay fungus">wood-decay fungi</a> have evolved <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lignin-modifying_enzyme" title="Lignin-modifying enzyme">lignin-modifying enzymes</a> necessary to decompose <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These two factors make fungi the primary decomposers in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forests</a>, where litter has high concentrations of lignin and often occurs in <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coarse_woody_debris" title="Coarse woody debris">large pieces</a> like fallen trees and branches. Fungi decompose organic matter by releasing enzymes to break down the decaying material, after which they absorb the nutrients in the decaying material.<sup id="cite_ref-berkeley_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berkeley-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hyphae are used to break down matter and absorb nutrients and are also used in reproduction.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Decomposer&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotroph</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Micro-animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-animals">Micro-animals</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Microorganism</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Decomposer&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlanchette1991" class="citation journal cs1">Blanchette, Robert (September 1991). "Delignification by Wood-Decay Fungi". <i>Annual Review of Phytopathology</i>. <b>29</b>: 281–403. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.py.29.090191.002121">10.1146/annurev.py.29.090191.002121</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Phytopathology&rft.atitle=Delignification+by+Wood-Decay+Fungi&rft.volume=29&rft.pages=281-403&rft.date=1991-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.py.29.090191.002121&rft.aulast=Blanchette&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecomposer" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-berkeley-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-berkeley_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaggonerSpeer" class="citation web cs1">Waggoner, Ben; Speer, Brian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/fungilh.html">"Fungi: Life History and Ecology"</a>. <i>Introduction to the Funge=24 January 2014</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Introduction+to+the+Funge%3D24+January+2014&rft.atitle=Fungi%3A+Life+History+and+Ecology&rft.aulast=Waggoner&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft.au=Speer%2C+Brian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Ffungi%2Ffungilh.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecomposer" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Decomposer&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBearHendrixCheng1992" class="citation journal cs1">Bear, MH; Hendrix, PF; Cheng, W (1992). "Microbial and faunal interactions and effects on litter nitrogen and decomposition in agroecosystems". <i>Ecological Monographs</i>. <b>62</b> (4): 569–591. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992EcoM...62..569B">1992EcoM...62..569B</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2937317">10.2307/2937317</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2937317">2937317</a>. <a href="/enwiki/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86031411">86031411</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Monographs&rft.atitle=Microbial+and+faunal+interactions+and+effects+on+litter+nitrogen+and+decomposition+in+agroecosystems&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=569-591&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2937317&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A86031411%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2937317%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992EcoM...62..569B&rft.aulast=Bear&rft.aufirst=MH&rft.au=Hendrix%2C+PF&rft.au=Cheng%2C+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADecomposer" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Hunt HW, Coleman DC, Ingham ER, Ingham RE, Elliot ET, Moore JC, Rose SL, Reid CPP, Morley CR (1987) "The detrital food web in a shortgrass prairie". <i>Biology and Fertility of Soils 3</i>: 57-68</li>
<li>Smith TM, Smith RL (2006) <i>Elements of Ecology</i>. Sixth edition. Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco, CA.</li></ul>
</div>
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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Feeding_behaviours" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Feeding" title="Template:Feeding"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Feeding" title="Template talk:Feeding"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Feeding" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Feeding"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Feeding_behaviours" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">Feeding behaviours</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">adult</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Avivore" title="Avivore">Avivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egg_predation" title="Egg predation">Egg predation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hematophagy" title="Hematophagy">Hematophagy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lepidophagy" title="Lepidophagy">Lepidophagy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Man-eating_animal" title="Man-eating animal">Man-eating animal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Molluscivore" title="Molluscivore">Molluscivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mucophagy" title="Mucophagy">Mucophagy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Myrmecophagy" title="Myrmecophagy">Myrmecophagy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ophiophagy" title="Ophiophagy">Ophiophagy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Piscivore" title="Piscivore">Piscivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spongivore" title="Spongivore">Spongivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Vermivore" title="Vermivore">Vermivore</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">reproductive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oophagy" title="Oophagy">Oophagy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paedophagy" title="Paedophagy">Paedophagy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Placentophagy" title="Placentophagy">Placentophagy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">Breastfeeding</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Weaning" title="Weaning">Weaning</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cannibalism" title="Cannibalism">cannibalistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">Human cannibalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autocannibalism" title="Autocannibalism">Autocannibalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sexual_cannibalism" title="Sexual cannibalism">Sexual cannibalism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/File:Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg/160px-Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="/upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg/240px-Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg 1.5x, /upwiki/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg/320px-Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1300" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Folivore" title="Folivore">Folivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Florivore" title="Florivore">Florivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Frugivore" title="Frugivore">Frugivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Graminivore" title="Graminivore">Graminivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Seed_predation" title="Seed predation">Seed predation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nectarivore" title="Nectarivore">Nectarivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mellivory" title="Mellivory">Mellivory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Palynivore" title="Palynivore">Palynivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xylophagy" title="Xylophagy">Xylophagy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Osteophagy" title="Osteophagy">Osteophagy</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cellular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">Phagocytosis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Myzocytosis" title="Myzocytosis">Myzocytosis</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Microbivory" title="Microbivory">Microbivory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fungivore" title="Fungivore">Fungivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Coprophagia" title="Coprophagia">Coprophagia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Geophagia" title="Geophagia">Geophagia</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Saprophagy" title="Saprophagy">Saprophagy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xenophagy" title="Xenophagy">Xenophagy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotroph</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plastivore" title="Plastivore">Plastivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pica_(disorder)" title="Pica (disorder)">Pica</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ambush_predator" title="Ambush predator">Ambush predator</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Egg_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg predator">Egg predator</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intraguild_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Intraguild predator">Intraguild predator</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Pursuit_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Pursuit predator">Pursuit predator</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Aquatic predation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Lunge_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Lunge feeder</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Pivot_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Pivot feeder</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Ram_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Ram feeder</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Suction_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Suction feeder</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bait_ball" title="Bait ball">Bait balls</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bottom_feeder" title="Bottom feeder">Bottom feeder</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">Filter feeder</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Browsing_(herbivory)" title="Browsing (herbivory)">Browsing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cattle_feeding" title="Cattle feeding">Cattle feeding</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Fodder" title="Fodder">Fodder</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">Grazing</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Forage" title="Forage">Forage</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hypercarnivore" title="Hypercarnivore">Hypercarnivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hypocarnivore" title="Hypocarnivore">Hypocarnivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mesocarnivore" title="Mesocarnivore">Mesocarnivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Scavenger" title="Scavenger">Scavenger</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Surplus_killing" title="Surplus killing">Surplus killing</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trophallaxis" title="Trophallaxis">Trophallaxis</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antipredator_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipredator adaptation">Antipredator adaptation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carnivorous_plant" title="Carnivorous plant">Carnivorous plant</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carnivorous_fungus" title="Carnivorous fungus">Carnivorous fungus</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carnivorous_protist" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnivorous protist">Carnivorous protist</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Category:Eating_behaviors" title="Category:Eating behaviors">Category:Eating behaviors</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/enwiki/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a>
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/enwiki/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
