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'''Republicanism''' is the [[ideology]] of governing a [[nation]] as a [[republic]], where the [[head of state]] is appointed by means other than [[heredity]], often elections. The exact meaning of republicanism varies depending on the cultural and historical context. Several definitions are covered in this article. It was used in Europe throughout the 20th Century.
Some political scientists{{Who|date=July 2011}} use the term 'republic' to indicate rule by many people and by law, while a monarchy is the arbitrary rule by one person. By this definition, [[dictatorial]] states are not republics while, according to some such as [[Kant]], [[constitutional monarchies]] can be. Kant also argues that a pure democracy is not a republic, as it is the unrestricted rule of the majority. For some, republicanism meant simply the lack of a monarchy, whilst for others monarchy was compatible with republicanism.
==Historical development of Republicanism==
===Antique antecedents===
{{Main|Classical republicanism}}
====Ancient Greece====
In [[Ancient Greece]] several philosophers and historians set themselves to analysing and describing forms of government of [[classical republicanism]]. There is no single written expression or definition from this era that exactly corresponds with a modern understanding of the term "republic". However, most of the essential features of the modern definition are present in the works of [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Polybius]], and other ancient Greeks. These elements include the ideas of [[mixed government]] and of [[civic virtue]]. It should be noted that the modern title of [[Plato]]'s dialogue on the ideal state (''The Republic'') is a misnomer when seen through the eyes of modern political science (see [[Republic (Plato)]]). Some scholars have translated the Greek concept of "[[politeia]]" as "republic", but most modern scholars reject this idea.
A number of Ancient Greek states such as [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]] have been classified as [[classical republic]]s, though this uses a definition of republic that was developed much later.
====Ancient Rome====
Both [[Livy]] (in Latin, living in [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]]' time) and [[Plutarch]] (in Greek, a century later) described how Rome had developed its legislation, notably the transition from ''kingdom'' to ''republic'', based on Greek examples. Probably some of this history, composed more than half a millennium after the events, with scant written sources to rely on, is fictitious reconstruction - nonetheless the influence of the Greek way of dealing with government is clear in the state organisation of the [[Roman Republic]].
The Greek historian Polybius, writing more than a century before Livy, was one of the first historians describing the emergence of the [[Roman Empire]], and he had a great influence on [[Cicero]] when this [[orator]] was writing his politico-philosophical works in the 1st century BC. One of these works was ''[[De re publica]]'', where Cicero links the Latin ''res publica'' concept to the Greek ''politeia." As explained in the [[res publica]] article, this concept only partly correlates with the modern term "republic," although the word "republic" is derived from ''res publica''.
Among the many meanings of the term ''res publica'', it is most often translated "Republic" where the Latin expression refers to the Roman state and its form of government between the era of the Kings and the era of the Emperors. This Roman Republic would by a modern understanding of the word still be defined as a true republic, even if not coinciding in all the features. [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] philosophers saw it as an ideal system; for example there was no systematic [[separation of powers]] in the Roman Republic.
Romans still called their state "Res Publica" in the era of the early emperors. The reason for this is that on the surface the state organisation of the Republic had been preserved by the first emperors without great alteration. Several offices from the era of the Republic held by individuals were combined under the control of a single person. These forms were accorded "permanent" status and thus gradually placed sovereignty in the person of the Emperor. Traditionally, such references to the early empire are not translated as "republic".
As for Cicero, his description of the ideal state in ''De re publica'' is more difficult to qualify as a "republic" in modern terms. It is rather something like [[enlightened absolutism]]--not to say [[benevolent dictator]]ship--and indeed Cicero's philosophical works, as available at that time, were very influential when Enlightenment philosophers like [[Voltaire]] developed these concepts. Cicero expressed however reservations concerning the republican form of government: in his ''theoretical'' works he defended monarchy (or a monarchy/oligarchy mixed government at best); in his own political life he generally opposed men trying to realise such ideals, like [[Julius Caesar]], [[Mark Antony]] and [[Augustus|Octavian]]. Eventually, that opposition led to his death. So, depending on how one reads history, Cicero could be seen as a victim of his own deep-rooted republican ideals, too.
[[Tacitus]], a contemporary of Plutarch, was not concerned with whether on an abstract level a form of government could be analysed as a "republic" or a "monarchy" (see for example ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Ann]]''. IV, 32-33). He analyzes how the powers accumulated by the early [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] were all given to the representants of this dynasty by a State that was and remained in an ever more "abstract" way a republic; nor was the Roman Republic "forced" to give away these powers to single persons in a consecutive dynasty: it did so out of free will, and ''reasonably'' in [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]]' case, because of his many services to the state, freeing it from [[civil war]]s and the like.
But at least Tacitus is one of the first to follow this line of thought: asking in what measure such powers were given to the head of state because the citizens ''wanted'' to give them, and in which measure they were given because of other principles (for example, because one had a [[imperial cult|deified ancestor]]) — such other principles leading more easily to abuse by the one in power. In this sense, that is in Tacitus' analysis, the trend away from the Republic was ''irreversible'' only when [[Tiberius]] established power shortly after Augustus' death (AD 14, much later than most historians place the start of the Imperial form of government in Rome): by this time too many principles defining some powers as "untouchable" had been implemented to keep Tiberius from exercising certain powers, and the age of "sockpuppetry in the external form of a republic", as Tacitus more or less describes this [[Emperor]]'s reign, began (''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Ann]]''. I-VI).
In classical meaning, republic was any established political community with government above it. Both [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]] saw three basic types of government, [[democracy]], [[aristocracy]], and [[monarchy]]. However an ideal type was considered [[mixed government]]. First Plato and Aristotle, and especially [[Polybius]] and [[Cicero]] developed the notion that the ideal republic is a mixture of these three forms of government and the writers of the Renaissance embraced this notion.
===Renaissance republicanism ===
In Europe, republicanism was revived in the late [[Middle Ages]] when a number of small states embraced a republican system of government. These were generally small, but wealthy, trading states in which the merchant class had risen to prominence. Haakonssen notes that by the Renaissance Europe was divided with those states controlled by a landed elite being monarchies and those controlled by a commercial elite being republics. These included Italian city states like [[Florence]] and [[Venice]] and the members of the [[Hanseatic League]].
Building upon political arrangements of medieval [[feudalism]], the [[Renaissance]] scholars built upon their conception of the ancient world to advance their view of the ideal government. The usage of the term ''[[res publica]]'' in classical texts should not be confused with current notions of republicanism. Despite its name [[Plato]]'s ''[[The Republic]]'' (Πολιτεία "Politeia") also has little to no connection to the Latin res publica from which derives the more recent historical phenomenon of ''republicanism''.
The republicanism developed in the Renaissance is known as ''classical republicanism'' because of its reliance on classical models. This terminology was developed by [[Zera Fink]] in the 1960s but some modern scholars such as Brugger consider the term confusing as it might lead some to believe that "classical republic" refers to the system of government used in the ancient world. "Early modern republicanism" has been advanced as an alternative term.
Also sometimes called [[civic humanism]], this ideology grew out of the Renaissance writers who developed the idea of the republic. More than being simply a non-monarchy the early modern thinkers developed a vision of the ideal republic. It is these notions that form the basis of the ideology of republicanism. One important notion was that of a [[mixed government]]. Also central the notion of [[virtue]] and the pursuit of the [[common good]] being central to good government. Republicanism also developed its own distinct view of [[liberty]], though what exactly that view is much disputed.
Those Renaissance authors that spoke highly of republics were rarely critical of monarchies. While [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]'s ''[[Discourses on Livy]]'' is the period's key work on republics he also wrote ''[[The Prince]]'' on how to best run a monarchy. One cause of this was that the early modern writers did not see the republican model as one that could be applied universally, most felt that it could be successful only in very small and highly urbanized city-states. [[Jean Bodin]] in ''[[Six Books of the Commonwealth]]'' identified monarchy with republic.
In antiquity writers like [[Tacitus]], and in the Renaissance writers like Machiavelli tried to avoid formulating an ''outspoken'' preference for one government system or another. Enlightenment philosophers, on the other hand, always had an outspoken opinion.
However, [[Thomas More]], still before the Age of Enlightenment, must have been a bit too outspoken to the reigning king's taste, even when coding his political preferences in a [[Utopia]]n tale.
In England a republicanism evolved that was not wholly opposed to monarchy, but rather thinkers such as [[Thomas More]] and [[Sir Thomas Smith]] saw a monarchy firmly constrained by law as compatible with republicanism.
====Dutch Republic====
Anti-monarchism became far more strident in the [[Dutch Republic]] during and after the [[Eighty Years' War]], which began in 1568. This anti-monarchism was less political philosophy and more propagandizing with most of the anti-monarchist works appearing in the form of widely distributed [[pamphlet]]s. Over time this evolved into a systematic critique of monarchies written by men such as [[Johan Uytenhage de Mist]], [[Radboud Herman Scheel]], [[Lieven de Beaufort]] and the brothers [[Johan de la Court|Johan]] and [[Peter de la Court]]. These writers saw all monarchies as illegitimate tyrannies that were inherently corrupt. Less an attack on their former overlords these works were more concerned with preventing the position of [[Stadholder]] from evolving into a monarchy. This Dutch republicanism also had an important influence on French [[Huguenots]] during the [[French Wars of Religion|Wars of Religion]]. In the other states of early modern Europe republicanism was more moderate.
====Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth====
In the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] republicanism became an important ideology. After establishment of the Commonwealth of Two Nations republicans were those who supported the status quo of having a very weak monarch and opposed those who felt a stronger monarchy was needed. These mostly Polish republicans such as [[Łukasz Górnicki]], [[Andrzej Wolan]], and [[Stanisław Konarski]] were well read in classical and Renaissance texts and firmly believed that their state was a Republic on the Roman model and started to call their state the [[Rzeczpospolita]]. Unlike in the other countries, Polish-Lithuanian republicanism was not the ideology of the commercial class, but rather of the landed aristocracy, who would be the ones to lose power if the monarchy was expanded - what led to oligarchisation by great [[magnates]].
===Enlightenment republicanism===
{{Main|Classical republicanism}}
From [[the Enlightenment]] on it becomes increasingly difficult to distinguish between the descriptions and definitions of the "republic" concept on the one side, and the ideologies based on such descriptions on the other.
{{Expand section|date=March 2010}}
====England====
[[Oliver Cromwell]] set up a republic called the [[Commonwealth of England]] (1649–1660) and ruled as a near dictator after the overthrow of King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]. A leading philosopher of republicanism was [[James Harrington]]. The collapse of the [[Commonwealth of England]] in 1660 and the [[English Restoration|restoration]] of the monarchy under [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] discredited republicanism among England's ruling circles. However they welcomed the liberalism and emphasis on rights of [[John Locke]], which played a major role in the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688. Nevertheless republicanism flourished in the "country" party of the early 18th century. That party denounced the corruption of the "court" party, producing a political theory that heavily influenced the American colonists. In general the ruling classes of the 18th century vehemently opposed republicanism, as typified by the attacks on [[John Wilkes]], and especially by the [[American Revolution]] and the [[French Revolution]].<ref name="Pocock 1975">Pocock, J.G.A. ''The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition'' (1975; new ed. 2003)</ref>
====French and Swiss thought====
French and Swiss Enlightenment thinkers such as [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]] and later [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] expanded upon and altered the ideas of what an ideal republic would be: some of their new ideas were scarcely retraceable to antiquity or the Renaissance thinkers. Among other things they contributed and/or heavily elaborated notions like [[social contract]], [[positive law]], and [[mixed government]]. They also borrowed from and distinguished it from the ideas of [[liberalism]] that were developing at the same time. Since both liberalism and republicanism were united in their opposition to the absolute monarchies they were frequently conflated during this period. Modern scholars see them as two distinct streams that both contributed to the democratic ideals of the modern world. An important distinction is that while republicanism continued to stress the importance of [[civic virtue]] and the [[common good]], liberalism was based on economics and [[individualism]]. It is most vivid in the issue of private property which, according to some, may be maintained only under protection of established [[positive law]]. On the other hand, liberalism is strongly committed to some institutions e.g. the Rule of Law. [[Jules Ferry]], the prime minister of France from 1880 to 1885, also followed these schools of thought and eventually enacted the [[Ferry Laws]] which intended to overturn the [[Falloux Laws]], by embracing the anti-clerical thinking of the philosophs. These laws ended the Catholic Church's involvement with many government institutions in late 19th-century France, including education.
===Republicanism in the United States ===
{{Main|Republicanism in the United States}}
In recent years a debate has developed over the role of republicanism in the [[American Revolution]] and in the British radicalism of the 18th century. For many decades the consensus was that liberalism, especially that of [[John Locke]], was paramount and that republicanism had a distinctly secondary role.<ref>See for example, Vernon L. Parrington, ''Main Currents in American Thought'' (1927) online at [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/Parrington/vol1/bk03_01_ch02.html]</ref>
The new interpretations were pioneered by [[J.G.A. Pocock]] who argued in ''[[The Machiavellian Moment]]'' (1975) that, at least in the early 18th century, republican ideas were just as important as liberal ones. Pocock's view is now widely accepted.<ref>Shalhope (1982)</ref> [[Bernard Bailyn]] and [[Gordon Wood]] pioneered the argument that the American founding fathers were more influenced by republicanism than they were by liberalism. Cornell University professor Isaac Kramnick, on the other hand, argues that Americans have always been highly individualistic and therefore Lockean.<ref>Isaac Kramnick, ''Ideological Background," in Jack. P. Greene and J. R. Pole, ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution'' (1994) ch 9; Robert E. Shallhope, "Republicanism," ibid ch 70.</ref>
In the decades before the American Revolution (1776), the intellectual and political leaders of the colonies studied history intently, looking for guides or models for good (and bad) government. They especially followed the development of republican ideas in England.<ref>Trevor Colbourn, ''The Lamp of Experience: Whig History and the Intellectual Origins of the American Revolution'' (1965) [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Book.php?recordID=0009 online version]</ref> Pocock explained the intellectual sources in America:<ref>Pocock, ''The Machiavellian Moment'' p 507</ref>
<blockquote>The Whig canon and the neo-Harringtonians, [[John Milton]], [[James Harrington]] and [[Algernon Sydney|Sidney]], [[John Trenchard (writer)|Trenchard]], [[Thomas Gordon (writer)|Gordon]] and [[Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke|Bolingbroke]], together with the Greek, Roman, and Renaissance masters of the tradition as far as [[Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]], formed the authoritative literature of this culture; and its values and concepts were those with which we have grown familiar: a civic and patriot ideal in which the personality was founded in property, perfected in citizenship but perpetually threatened by corruption; government figuring paradoxically as the principal source of corruption and operating through such means as patronage, faction, standing armies (opposed to the ideal of the militia), established churches (opposed to the Puritan and deist modes of American religion) and the promotion of a monied interest — though the formulation of this last concept was somewhat hindered by the keen desire for readily available paper credit common in colonies of settlement. A neoclassical politics provided both the ethos of the elites and the rhetoric of the upwardly mobile, and accounts for the singular cultural and intellectual homogeneity of the Founding Fathers and their generation.</blockquote>
The commitment of most Americans to these republican values made the [[American Revolution]] inevitable. Britain was increasingly seen as corrupt and hostile to republicanism, and as a threat to the established liberties the Americans enjoyed.<ref>Bailyn, Bernard.'' The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution'' (1967)</ref>
[[Leopold von Ranke]] in 1848 claims that American republicanism played a crucial role in the development of European liberalism:<ref>quoted in Becker 2002, p. 128</ref>
<blockquote>By abandoning English constitutionalism and creating a new republic based on the rights of the individual, the North Americans introduced a new force in the world. Ideas spread most rapidly when they have found adequate concrete expression. Thus republicanism entered our Romanic/Germanic world.... Up to this point, the conviction had prevailed in Europe that monarchy best served the interests of the nation. Now the idea spread that the nation should govern itself. But only after a state had actually been formed on the basis of the theory of representation did the full significance of this idea become clear. All later revolutionary movements have this same goal…. This was the complete reversal of a principle. Until then, a king who ruled by the grace of God had been the center around which everything turned. Now the idea emerged that power should come from below.... These two principles are like two opposite poles, and it is the conflict between them that determines the course of the modern world. In Europe the conflict between them had not yet taken on concrete form; with the French Revolution it did.</blockquote>
===''Républicanisme''===
It has long been agreed{{by whom|date=November 2010}} that republicanism, especially that of Rousseau, played a central role in the [[French Revolution]] as turning point to modern republicanism. The French Revolution, which overthrew the French monarchy in the 1790s, installed, at first, a republic; Napoleon turned it into an Empire with a new aristocracy. In the 1830s [[Belgium]] adopted some{{Which?|date=November 2010}} of the innovations of the progressive political philosophers of the Enlightenment too.
''Républicanisme'' is a [[France|French]] version of modern Republicanism. It is a [[social contract]] concept, deduced from [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]'s idea of a [[general will]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} Ideally, each [[citizen]] is engaged in a direct relationship with the [[State (polity)|state]], obviating the need for group [[identity politics]] based on local, religious, or racial identification.
The ideal of ''républicanisme'', in theory, renders anti-discrimination laws needless, but some critics argue that [[Color blindness (race)|colour-blind law]]s serve to perpetuate ongoing discrimination.<ref name="lnl">{{cite news |first1=Lamont |last2=Michèle |first2=Éloi |last2=Laurent |url=http://iht.com/articles/2006/06/05/opinion/edlamont.php |title=France shows its true colors |publisher=[[International Herald Tribune]] |date=June 5, 2006|accessdate=2006-06-05}}</ref>{{weasel-inline|date=November 2010}}
==Modern republicanism==
In the Enlightenment anti-monarchism stopped being coextensive with the civic humanism of the Renaissance. Classical republicanism, still supported by philosophers such as [[Rousseau]] and [[Montesquieu]], was just one of a number of theories not opposed directly to monarchy, however putting some limitations to it. The new forms of anti-monarchism such as [[liberalism]] and later [[socialism]] quickly overtook [[classical republicanism]] as the leading republican ideologies. Republicanism also became far more widespread and monarchies began to be challenged throughout Europe.
===Radicalism===
{{Main|Radicalism (historical)}}
Radicalism emerged in European states in the 19th century. Although most radical parties later came to be in favor of [[economic liberalism]] ([[capitalism]]), thus justifying the absorption of radicalism into the [[Liberalism|liberal]] tradition, all 19th century radicals were in favor of a [[constitutional republic]] and [[universal suffrage]], while European liberals were at the time in favor of [[constitutional monarchy]] and [[census suffrage]]. Thus, radicals were as much Republicans as liberals, if not more. This distinction between Radicalism and Liberalism hasn't totally disappeared in the 20th century, although many radicals simply joined liberal parties or became virtually identical to them. For example, the [[Radical Party of the Left]] in France or the (originally Italian) [[Transnational Radical Party]] which exist today have a lot more to do with Republicanism than with simple liberalism.
Thus, [[Chartism]] in Britain and the early [[Radical Party (France)|Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party]] in France were closer to Republicanism (and the [[left-wing]]) than to liberalism, represented in France by the [[Orleanist]]s who rallied to the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] only in the late 19th century, after the [[comte de Chambord]]'s 1883 death and the 1891 papal encyclical ''[[Rerum Novarum]]''. Radicalism remained close to Republicanism in the 20th century, at least in France where they governed several times with the other left-wing parties (participating in both the [[Cartel des gauches]] coalitions as well as the [[Popular Front (France)|Popular Front]]).
Discredited after the [[Second World War]], French Radicals split into a left-wing party – the [[Radical Party of the Left]], an associate of the [[Socialist Party (France)|Socialist Party]] – and the [[Radical Party (France)|Radical Party "valoisien"]], an associate party of the conservative [[Union for a Popular Movement]] (UMP) and its [[Gaullist Party|Gaullist]] predecessors. [[Italian Radicals (disambiguation)|Italian Radicals]] also maintained close links with Republicanism as well as [[socialism]], with the ''Partito radicale'' founded in 1955 which became the [[Transnational Radical Party]] in 1989.
===United States===
{{Main|Republicanism in the United States}}
Republicanism became the dominant political value of Americans during and after the [[American Revolution]]. The "[[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Fathers]]" were strong advocates of republican values, especially [[Samuel Adams]], [[Patrick Henry]], [[Thomas Paine]], [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[John Adams]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[James Madison]] and [[Alexander Hamilton]].<ref>Robert E. Shalhope, "Toward a Republican Synthesis," ''William and Mary Quarterly'', 29 (Jan. 1972), pp 49-80</ref>
Since the 20th century, the term Republicanism is more likely to refer to the policies of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], the nation's [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] political party, than to republican values generally. Party names notwithstanding, the Republican Party and its [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] counterpart, the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], both support the current [[constitutional republic]] form of government.<ref>http://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/state-a-local-politics/153305-breaking-news-summer-shocker-for-gop-in-wisconsin-recall-battle</ref><ref>http://www.dailyastorian.com/opinion/columns/guest-column-why-i-changed-from-republican-to-democrat/article_9a948ef0-5b05-11e0-8a58-001cc4c03286.html</ref><ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-fix/post/is-the-house-in-play-in-2012/2011/03/22/AB5hB1FB_blog.html</ref>
===British Empire and Commonwealth of Nations===
In some countries forming parts of the [[British Empire]], and later the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], republicanism has had very different significance in various countries at various times, depending on the context.
In [[South Africa]], republicanism in the 1960s was identified with the staunch supporters of [[apartheid]], who resented what they considered British interference in the way they treated the country's black majority population, despite the fact that the country was by that point an independent state with its own legally distinct monarchy.
In [[Australia]], [[Republicanism in Australia|the debate]] between republicans and monarchists is still a controversial issue of political life. Republican groups are also active in Great Britain, [[New Zealand]], and [[Canada]].
===Neo-republicanism===
This new school of historical revisionism has accompanied a general revival of republican thinking. In recent years a great number of thinkers have argued that republican ideas should be adopted. This new thinking is sometimes referred to as ''neo-republicanism''. Engeman referred to ''republicanism'' as "an intellectual buzzword" that has been applied to a wide range of theories and postulates that have little in common in order to give them a certain cachet.
The most important theorists in this movement are [[Philip Pettit]] and [[Cass Sunstein]] who have each written a number of works defining republicanism and how it differs from liberalism. While a late convert to republicanism from [[communitarianism]], [[Michael Sandel]] is perhaps the most prominent advocate in the United States for replacing or supplementing liberalism with republicanism as outlined in his ''Democracy's Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy.'' As of yet these theorists have had little impact on government. John W. Maynor, argues that [[Bill Clinton]] was interested in these notions and that he integrated some of them into his 1995 "new social compact" [[State of the Union Address]].
This revival also has its critics. David Wootton, for instance, argues that throughout history the meanings of the term ''republicanism'' have been so diverse, and at times contradictory, that the term is all but meaningless and any attempt to build a cogent ideology based on it will fail.
==Democracy==
[[Image:Thomas Paine.jpg|right|thumbnail|200px|Thomas Paine]]
[[File:Upprop för republik 1848.jpg|thumb|200px|A revolutionary Republican hand-written bill from the Stockholm riots during the [[Revolutions of 1848]], reading: "Dethrone [[Oscar I of Sweden|Oscar]] he is not fit to be a king rather the Republic! The Reform! down with the Royal house, long live [[Aftonbladet]]! death to the king / Republic Republic the people. [[Brunkeberg]] this evening". The writer's identity is unknown.]]
Republicanism is a system that replaces or accompanies inherited rule.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} The keys are a positive emphasis on liberty, and a negative rejection of corruption.<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/republicanism/ Republicanism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In the late 20th century there has been so much convergence between democracy and republicanism that confusion results.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} As a distinct political theory, republicanism originated in classical history and became important in early modern Europe,{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} as typfied by Machiavelli.{{Clarify|date=October 2010}} It became especially important as a cause of the [[American Revolution]] and the [[French Revolution]] in the 1770s and 1790s, respectively.<ref name="Pocock 1975"/> Republicans in these particular instances tended to reject inherited elites and aristocracies, but the question was open amongst them whether the republic, in order to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an unelected [[upper chamber]], the members perhaps appointed meritorious experts, or should have a [[constitutional monarch]].<ref>Gordon S. Wood, ''The Creation of the American Republic 1776-1787'' (1969)</ref>
Although conceptually separate from democracy, republicanism included the key principles of rule by the [[consent of the governed]] and sovereignty of the people.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} In effect republicanism meant that the kings and aristocracies were not the real rulers, but rather the people as a whole were.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}{{Clarify|date=October 2010}} Exactly how the people were to rule was an issue of democracy – republicanism itself did not specify how.<ref>[[R. R. Palmer]], ''The Age of the Democratic Revolution: Political History of Europe and America, 1760-1800'' (1959)</ref> In the United States, the solution was the creation of [[First Party System|political parties]] that were popularly based on the votes of the people, and which controlled the government (see [[Republicanism in the United States]]).{{Clarify|date=October 2010}}{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} Many exponents{{Clarify|date=October 2010}} of republicanism, such as [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[Thomas Paine]], and [[Thomas Jefferson]] were strong promoters of representative democracy.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} However, other supporters of republicanism, such as [[John Adams]] and [[Alexander Hamilton]], were more distrustful of majority rule and sought a government with more power for elites.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} There were similar debates in many other [[Democratization|democratizing]] nations.<ref>Robert E. Shalhope, "Republicanism and Early American Historiography," ''William and Mary Quarterly'', 39 (Apr. 1982), 334-356</ref>
===Democracy and republic===
In contemporary usage, the term ''democracy'' refers to a government chosen by the people, whether it is direct or representative.<ref>[http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/democracy democracy - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The term ''[[republic]]'' has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected [[head of state]], such as a [[president]], serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary [[monarch]] as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed [[head of government]] such as a [[Prime Minister|prime minister]].<ref>[http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/republic republic - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
The [[Founding Fathers of the United States]] rarely praised and often criticized democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean [[direct democracy]]; [[James Madison]] argued, especially in [[Federalist No. 10|''The Federalist'' No. 10]], that what distinguished a ''democracy'' from a ''republic'' was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}<!-- Wiki does not promote citing primary sources --> What was critical to American values, [[John Adams]] insisted,<ref>Novanglus, no. 7, 6 Mar. 1775</ref> was that the government be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend."
===Constitutional monarchs and upper chambers===
Initially, after the American and French revolutions, the question was open whether a democracy, in order to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an [[upper chamber]] – the members perhaps appointed meritorious experts or having lifetime tenures – or should have a [[Constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarch]] with limited but real powers. Some countries (such as the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Scandinavian countries, and Japan) turned powerful monarchs into constitutional ones with limited or, often gradually, merely symbolic roles. Often the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system, whether or not they were replaced with democratic institutions (such as in the US, France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt). In Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Papua New Guinea, and some other countries, the monarch is given supreme executive power, but by convention acts only on the advice of his or her ministers. Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures, the members of which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these houses lost power (as in Britain's [[House of Lords]]), or else became elective and remained powerful (as in the [[United States Senate]]).<ref>Mark McKenna, ''The Traditions of Australian Republicanism'' (1996) [http://www.aph.gov.au/Library/Pubs/rp/1995-96/96rp31.htm online version]; John W. Maynor, ''Republicanism in the Modern World.'' (2003).</ref>
==See also==
*[[Christian republic]]
*[[Republican Party (disambiguation)]]
*[[Republican democracy]]
*[[Democratic republic]]
*[[Kemalist ideology]]
*[[Radicalism (historical)|Radicalism]]
*[[Tacitean studies]] - differing interpretations whether Tacitus defended ''republicanism'' ("red Tacitists") or the contrary ("black Tacitists").
;Republicanism by country
*[[Republicanism in Australia]]
*[[Republicanism in Canada]]
*[[Irish republicanism]]
*[[Republicanism in New Zealand]]
*[[Republicanism in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Republicanism in the United States]]
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
==Further reading==
===General===
*Becker, Peter, Jürgen Heideking and James A. Henretta, eds. ''Republicanism and Liberalism in America and the German States, 1750-1850.'' Cambridge University Press. 2002.
* Pocock, J. G. A. ''The Machiavellian Moment'' (1975), highly influential study
* Pocock, J. G. A. "The Machiavellian Moment Revisited: a Study in History and Ideology.: ''Journal of Modern History'' 1981 53(1): 49-72. ISSN 0022-2801 Fulltext: in Jstor. Summary of Pocock's influential ideas that traces the Machiavellian belief in and emphasis upon Greco-Roman ideals of unspecialized civic virtue and liberty from 15th century Florence through 17th century England and Scotland to 18th century America. Pocock argues that thinkers who shared these ideals tended to believe that the function of property was to maintain an individual's independence as a precondition of his virtue. Therefore they were disposed to attack the new commercial and financial regime that was beginning to develop
* Pettit, Philip. ''Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government'' Oxford U.P., 1997, ISBN 0-19-829083-7
* Snyder, R. Claire. ''Citizen-Soldiers and Manly Warriors: Military Service and Gender in the Civic Republican Tradition'' (1999) ISBN 978-0-8476-9444-0 [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=4604 online review]
* Plato, ''The Republic''
===Europe ===
* Bock, Gisela; Skinner, Quentin; and Viroli, Maurizio, ed. ''Machiavelli and Republicanism.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1990. 316 pp.
*Brugger, Bill. ''Republican Theory in Political Thought: Virtuous or Virtual?'' St. Martin's Press, 1999.
* Castiglione, Dario. "Republicanism and its Legacy," ''European Journal of Political Theory'' (2005) v 4 #4 pp 453–65.[http://www.huss.ex.ac.uk/politics/research/readingroom/CastiglioneRepublicanism.pdf#search=%22republicanism%20historiography%22 online version]
*Fink, Zera. ''The Classical Republicans: An Essay in the Recovery of a Pattern of Thought in Seventeenth-Century England.'' Northwestern University Press, 1962.
*Foote, Geoffrey. ''The Republican Transformation of Modern British Politics'' Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
*Martin van Gelderen & [[Quentin Skinner]], eds., ''Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage, v 1: Republicanism and Constitutionalism in Early Modern Europe; vol 2: The Value of Republicanism in Early Modern Europe'' Cambridge U.P., 2002
*Haakonssen, Knud. "Republicanism." ''A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy.'' Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit. eds. Blackwell, 1995.
*Kramnick, Isaac. ''Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism: Political Ideology in Late Eighteenth-Century England and America.'' Cornell University Press, 1990.
* Mark McKenna, ''The Traditions of Australian Republicanism'' (1996) [http://www.aph.gov.au/Library/Pubs/rp/1995-96/96rp31.htm online version]
*Maynor, John W. ''Republicanism in the Modern World.'' Cambridge: Polity, 2003.
* Moggach, Douglas. "Republican Rigorism and Emancipation in Bruno Bauer", ''The New Hegelians'', edited by [[Douglas Moggach]], Cambridge University Press, 2006. Looks at German Republicanism w/ contrasts/Criticisms of Quentin Skinner and Philip Pettit
* Robbins, Caroline. ''The Eighteenth-Century Commonwealthman: Studies in the Transmission, Development, and Circumstance of English Liberal Thought from the Restoration of Charles II until the War with the Thirteen Colonies'' (1959, 2004). [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Book.php?recordID=0451 table of contents online]
===United States===
{{main|Republicanism in the United States#References}}
* Appleby, Joyce ''Liberalism and Republicanism in the Historical Imagination'' (1992)
*Bailyn, Bernard. ''The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution''. Harvard University Press, 1967.
* Banning, Lance. ''The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology'' (1980)
*Peter Becker, Jürgen Heideking and James A. Henretta, eds. ''Republicanism and Liberalism in America and the German States, 1750-1850.'' Cambridge University Press, 2002.
* Colbourn, Trevor. ''The Lamp of Experience: Whig History and the Intellectual Origins of the American Revolution'' (1965) [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Book.php?recordID=0009 online version]
* Kerber, Linda K. ''Intellectual History of Women: Essays by Linda K. Kerber'' (1997)
* Kerber, Linda K. '' Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America'' (1997)
* Klein, Milton, et al., eds., ''The Republican Synthesis Revisited Essays in Honor of George A. Billias (1992).
* Kloopenberg, James T. ''The Virtues of Liberalism'' (1998)
* Norton, Mary Beth. ''Liberty's Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women, 1750-1800'' (1996)
* Greene, Jack, and J. R. Pole, eds. ''Companion to the American Revolution'' (2004); many articles look at republicanism, esp. Shalhope, Robert E. ''Republicanism" pp 668–673
* Rodgers, Daniel T. "Republicanism: the Career of a Concept," ''Journal of American History,'' 1992 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2078466 in JSTOR]
* Shalhope, Robert E. "Toward a Republican Synthesis: The Emergence of an Understanding of Republicanism in American Historiography," ''William and Mary Quarterly'', 29 (Jan. 1972), 49-80 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1921327 in JSTOR], influential article
* Shalhope, Robert E. "Republicanism and Early American Historiography", ''William and Mary Quarterly'', 39 (Apr. 1982), 334-356 in JSTOR
* Wood, Gordon S. ''The Creation of the American Republic 1776-1787'' (1969)
* Wood, Gordon S. '' The Radicalism of the American Revolution'' (1993)
==External links==
* {{In Our Time|Republicanism|p00546mp|Republicanism}}
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/republicanism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://makepeace.ca/respublica/en/ Res Publica: an international anti-monarchy Web directory]
*Emergence of the Roman Republic:
**''[[Parallel Lives]]'' by [[Plutarch]], particularly:
***(From the translation in 4 volumes, available at [[Project Gutenberg]]:) [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14033 Plutarch's Lives, Volume I (of 4)]
***More particularly following ''Lives'' and ''Comparisons'' ('''D''' is [[John Dryden|Dryden]] translation; '''G''' is [[Project Gutenberg|Gutenberg]]; '''P''' is [[Perseus Project]]; '''L''' is [[LacusCurtius]]):
:::{|-
|''Greeks''
|
|''Romans''
|
|''Comparisons''
|-
|[[Lycurgus of Sparta|Lycurgus]] [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_LYKURGUS '''G'''] [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Lycurgus*.html '''L''']
|
|[[Numa Pompilius]] [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/numa_pom.html '''D'''] [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_NUMA '''G'''] [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Numa*.html '''L''']
|
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/n_l_comp.html '''D'''] [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#COMPARISON_OF_NUMA_WITH_LYKURGUS '''G'''] [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Lycurgus+Numa*.html '''L''']
|-
|[[Solon]] [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/solon.html '''D'''] [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_SOLON '''G'''] [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Solon*.html '''L'''] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Sol.+1.1 '''P''']
|
|[[Poplicola]] [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/poplicol.html '''D'''] [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#LIFE_OF_POPLICOLA '''G'''] [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Publicola*.html '''L''']
|
|[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/p_s_comp.html '''D'''] [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/3/14033/14033-h/14033-h.htm#COMPARISON_OF_SOLON_AND_POPLICOLA '''G'''] [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Solon+Publicola*.html '''L''']
|}
[[Category:Republicanism| ]]
[[Category:Political ideologies]]
[[br:Republikanouriezh]]
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[[eo:Respublikismo]]
[[fr:Républicanisme]]
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