Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '[[File:Peter proclaims Jesus.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Stained glass]] window of the ''[[Confession of Peter]]'' in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#9:20|Luke 9:20]]: "But who do you say that I am?" Peter answered: "The Christ of God".<ref>''Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology'' by [[Jack Dean Kingsbury]], Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer 1999 ISBN 0-664-25752-6 page xvi</ref>]]
'''Christology''' (from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] Χριστός ''Khristós'' and {{lang|grc|[[wiktionary:-λογία|-λογία]]}}, ''[[wiktionary:-logia|-logia]]'') is the field of study within [[Christian theology]] which is primarily concerned with the nature and person of [[Jesus Christ]] as recorded in the [[canonical Gospels]] and the [[New Testament Epistles|epistles]] of the [[New Testament]].<ref name=Gerald3>''Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus'' by Gerald O'Collins 2009 ISBN 0-19-955787-X pages 1-3</ref> Primary considerations include the relationship of Jesus' nature and person with the nature and person of [[God the Father]]. As such, Christology is concerned with the details of [[Ministry of Jesus|Jesus' ministry, his acts and teachings]], to arrive at a clearer understanding of who he is in his person, and his role in [[Christian salvation|salvation]].<ref name=CathChristology>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14597a.htm Catholic encyclopedia: Christology]</ref> A major component of the Christology of the [[Apostolic Age]] was that of [[Paul the Apostle]]. His central themes were the notion of the [[pre-existence of Christ]] and the worship of Christ as ''[[Kyrios (Biblical term)|Kyrios]]'' ([[Koine Greek|Greek]]: ''Lord'').<ref name=Aloys >''Christ in Christian Tradition: From the Apostolic Age to Chalcedon' by Aloys Grillmeier, John Bowden 1975 ISBN 0-664-22301-X pages 15-19 [http://books.google.com/books?id=LH-cBwmmY2cC&pg=PA15&dq=Pauline+Christology&hl=en&ei=udXdTJ7NAYvHswa0lKCLDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Pauline%20Christology&f=false]</ref>
Following the [[Apostolic Age]], there was fierce and often politicized debate in the [[Early centers of Christianity|early church]] on many interrelated issues. Christology was a major focus of these debates, and was addressed at every one of the [[first seven ecumenical councils]]. The second through fourth of these councils are generally entitled "Christological councils," with the latter three mainly elucidating what was taught in them and condemning incorrect interpretations.<ref name="first seven">{{cite book|last=Davis, [[Society of Jesus|SJ]]|first=Leo Donald|title=The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787): Their History and Theology (Theology and Life Series 21)|year=1990|publisher=Michael Glazier/Liturgical Press|location=Collegeville, MN|isbn=978-0-8146-5616-7|pages=342}}</ref> The [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451 issued a formulation of the being of Christ — that of two natures, one human and one divine, "united with neither confusion nor division."<ref name="first seven"/> This is called the doctrine of the [[hypostatic union]],<ref name="first seven"/> which is still held today amongst all [[Protestant]], [[Catholic]], and [[Eastern Orthodox|Orthodox]] Christians, referred to as [[Chalcedonian Christianity]]. Due to politically charged differences in the [[Christianity in the 4th century|4th century]], [[Schism (religion)|schism]]s developed, and the first [[Christian denominations|denominations]] (from the Latin, "to take a new name") formed.<ref name="first seven"/>
In the [[Christianity in the 13th century|13th century]], Saint [[Thomas Aquinas]] provided the first systematic Christology that consistently resolved a number of the existing issues.<ref name="GilsonC">{{cite book|last=Gilson|first=Etienne|title=The Christian Philosophy of Saint Thomas Aquinas|year=1994|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press|location=Notre Dame, IN|isbn=978-0-268-00801-7|pages=502}}</ref> In his Christology from above, Aquinas also championed the principle of [[Principle of perfection of Christ|perfection of Christ]]'s human attributes.<ref name=mini76 >''Christology: Biblical And Historical'' by Mini S. Johnson, 2005 ISBN 81-8324-007-0 page 76-79 [http://books.google.com/books?id=Aa3yRbs0tisC&pg=PA75&dq=Christology+aquinas&hl=en&ei=EZDgTPP6K8HEswach6z4Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=Christology%20aquinas&f=false]</ref><ref name=Gerald208 >''Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus'' by Gerald O'Collins 2009 ISBN 0-19-955787-X pages 208-212 [http://books.google.com/books?id=pcTnZV0QVLYC&pg=PA208&dq=Christology+aquinas&hl=en&ei=EZDgTPP6K8HEswach6z4Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Christology%20aquinas&f=false]</ref><ref name=Geest >''Aquinas as authority'' by Paul van Geest, Harm J. M. J. Goris pages 25-35 [http://books.google.com/books?id=Svfrp2LSlkEC&pg=PA27&dq=Christology+aquinas&hl=en&ei=EZDgTPP6K8HEswach6z4Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Christology%20aquinas&f=false]</ref> The [[Middle Ages]] also witnessed the emergence of the "tender image of Jesus" as a friend and a living source of love and comfort, rather than just the ''Kyrios'' image.<ref name=Astley >''Christology: Key Readings in Christian Thought'' by Jeff Astley, David Brown, Ann Loades 2009 ISBN 0-664-23269-8 page 106</ref> According to [[Catholic]] [[theologian]] [[Karl Rahner]], the purpose of modern Christology is to formulate the Christian belief that "God became man and that God-made-man is the individual Jesus Christ" in a manner that this statement can be understood consistently, without the confusions of past debates and mythologies.<ref>''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 pages 755-767</ref>
==Terms and concepts==
{{see also|Christ|Incarnation|Resurrection}}
{{Christology}}
Over the centuries, a number of terms and concepts have been developed within the framework of Christology to address the seemingly simple questions: "who was Jesus and what did he do?" A good deal of theological debate has ensued and significant schisms within Christian denominations took place in the process of providing answers to these questions. After the [[Middle Ages]], systematic approaches to Christology were developed.
The term "Christology from above" refers to approaches that begin with the [[Divinity of Christ|divinity]] and [[pre-existence of Christ]] as the [[Logos (Christianity)|''Logos'']] (the Word), as expressed in the [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#1|prologue to the Gospel of John]] ({{bibleref|John|1:1-14|ESV}}). These approaches interpret the works of Christ in terms of his divinity. Christology from above was emphasized in the ancient Church, beginning with [[Ignatius of Antioch]] in the second century.<ref name=Gerald16/><ref name=Pannenberg33>''Jesus God and Man'' by Wolfhart Pannenberg 1968 ISBN 0-664-24468-8 page 33</ref> The term "Christology from below", on the other hand, refers to approaches that begin with the human aspects and the ministry of Jesus (including the miracles, parables, etc.) and move towards his divinity and the mystery of incarnation.<ref name=Gerald16>''Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus'' by Gerald O'Collins 2009 ISBN 0-19-955787-X pages 16-17</ref><ref name=Pannenberg33/>
The concept of "Cosmic Christology", first elaborated by [[Saint Paul]], focuses on how the arrival of Jesus as the [[Son of God]] forever changed the nature of the [[cosmos]].<ref name=Aloys /><ref name="Jesus page 282">''The Witness of Jesus, Paul and John: An Exploration in Biblical Theology'' by Larry R. Helyer 2008 ISBN 0-8308-2888-5 page 282</ref> The terms "functional", "[[Ontology|ontological]]" and "[[Christian soteriology|soteriological]]" have been used to refer to the perspectives that analyze the "works", the "being" and the "[[Christian soteriology|salvific]]" standpoints of Christology.<ref>''Christology from within and ahead'' by Mark L. Y. Chan 2001 ISBN 90-04-11844-6 pages 59-62 [http://books.google.com/books?id=9NQJ74t0aE4C&pg=PA59&dq=ontological+christology&hl=en&ei=n6rfTOTAJM2Kswbao6X8Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=ontological%20christology&f=false]</ref> Some essential sub-topics within the field of Christology include the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnation]], the [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]], and [[Christian salvation|salvation]].
The term "monastic Christology" has been used to describe spiritual approaches developed by [[Anselm of Canterbury]], [[Peter Abelard]] and [[Bernard of Clairvaux]]. The [[Franciscan]] piety of the 12th and 13th centuries led to "popular Christology". Systematic approaches by theologians, such as [[Thomas Aquinas]], are called "scholastic Christology".<ref name=mini7 />
==Beginnings==
[[File:V&A - Raphael, St Paul Preaching in Athens (1515).jpg|thumb|240px|[[Saint Paul]] delivering the ''[[Areopagus sermon]]'' in [[Athens]], by [[Raphael]], 1515]]
[[Early Christians]] found themselves confronted with a set of new concepts and ideas relating to the life, death and [[resurrection of Jesus]], as well the notions of [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] and [[Redeemer (Christianity)|redemption]], and had to use a new set of terms, images and ideas to deal with them.<ref name=McGrath >''Christianity: an introduction'' by Alister E. McGrath pages 2006 ISBN 1-4051-0901-7 137-141</ref> The existing terms and structures available to them were often insufficient to express these new set of religious concepts, and taken together, these new forms of discourse led to the beginnings of Christology as an attempt to understand, explain and discuss their understanding of the nature of Christ.<ref name=McGrath />
Furthermore, as early Christians (following the [[Great Commission]]) had to explain their concepts to a new audience which
had at times been influenced by Greek philosophy, they had to present arguments that at times
resonated with, and at times confronted, the beliefs of that audience. A key example is the [[Apostle Paul]]'s [[Areopagus sermon]] that appears in {{bibleverse||Acts|17:16-34|NIV|}}. Here, the apostle attempted to convey the underlying concepts about Christ to a Greek audience, and the sermon illustrates some key elements of future Christological discourses that were first brought forward by Paul.<ref name=McGrath /><ref>''Creation and redemption: a study in Pauline theology'' by John G. Gibbs 1971 Brill Publishers pages 151-153</ref><ref name=Watson >''Mercer Commentary on the New Testament'' by Watson E. Mills 2003 ISBN 0-86554-864-1 pages 1109-1110</ref>
The [[Kyrios|''Kyrios'' title]] for Jesus is central to the development of [[New Testament]] Christology, for the [[Early Christianity|early Christians]] placed it at the center of their understanding, and from that center attempted to understand the other issues related to the Christian mysteries.<ref name=MiniJohnson >''Christology: Biblical And Historical'' by Mini S. Johnson, 2005 ISBN 81-8324-007-0 pages 229-235 [http://books.google.com/books?id=Aa3yRbs0tisC&pg=PA231&dq=Kyrios+christology&hl=en&ei=hTbeTIlPzfiyBoT30fUL&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Kyrios%20christology&f=false]</ref> The question of the deity of Christ in the New Testament is inherently related to the ''Kyrios'' title of Jesus used in the early Christian writings and its implications for the absolute lordship of Jesus. In early Christian belief, the concept of ''Kyrios'' included the [[pre-existence of Christ]], for they believed if Christ is one with God, he must have been united with God from the very beginning.<ref name=MiniJohnson /><ref name=Cullmann >''The Christology of the New Testament'' by Oscar Cullmann 1959 ISBN 0-664-24351-7 pages 234-237 [http://books.google.com/books?id=79Zovlpi8uQC&pg=PA234&dq=Kyrios&hl=en&ei=WtjdTIyAHcfzsgb_qbCTDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Kyrios&f=false]</ref>
In everyday [[Aramaic]], ''Mari'' was a very respectful form of polite address, which means more than just "Teacher" and was somewhat similar to [[Rabbi]]. In Greek, this has at times been translated as ''Kyrios''. While the term ''Mari'' expressed the relationship between Jesus and his disciples during his life, the Greek ''Kyrios'' came to represent his lordship over the world.<ref name=Cullmann2 >''The Christology of the New Testament'' by Oscar Cullmann 1959 ISBN 0-664-24351-7 page 202 [http://books.google.com/books?id=79Zovlpi8uQC&pg=PA202&dq=mari+aramaic+jesus&hl=en&ei=DUDeTMDXGoT2sgbW5tmEDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEYQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=mari%20aramaic%20jesus&f=false]</ref>
===Apostolic Christology===
[[File:The Four Evangelists.jpg|thumb|240px|left|The [[Four Evangelists]], by [[Pieter Soutman]], 17th century]]
{{cquote2|<center>And he asked them, "But who do you say that I am?"
Simon Peter replied, "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God." — {{bibleref|Matthew|16:15-16|ESV}}, [[English Standard Version|ESV]]</center>}}
No writings were left by Jesus, and the study of the various Christologies of the [[Apostolic Age]] is based on early Christian documents.<ref name=Gerald3 /> The Gospels provide episodes from the life of Jesus and some of his works, but the authors of the New Testament show little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life,<ref name=Rahner731 >''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by [[Karl Rahner]] 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 page 731</ref> and as in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#21:25|John 21:25]], the Gospels do not claim to be an exhaustive list of his works.<ref name=Gerald3 />
Christologies that can be gleaned from the three [[Synoptic Gospels]] generally emphasize the humanity of Jesus, his sayings, his [[Parables of Jesus|parables]], and his [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]]. The [[Gospel of John]] provides a different perspective that focuses on his divinity.<ref name=CathChristology /> The first 14 verses of the Gospel of John are devoted to the divinity of Jesus as the [[Logos (Christianity)|''Logos'']], usually translated as "Word", along with his pre-existence, and they emphasize the cosmic significance of Christ, e.g. {{bibleverse||John|1:3|ESV}}: "All things were made through him, and without him was not any thing made that was made." In the context of these verses, the Word made flesh is identical with the Word who was in the beginning with God, being exegetically equated with Jesus.<ref name=CathChristology />
A foremost contribution to the Christology of the Apostolic Age is that of [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]]. The central Christology of Paul conveys the notion of Christ's pre-existence and the identification of Christ as [[Kyrios (Biblical term)|''Kyrios'']].<ref name=Aloys >''Christ in Christian Tradition: From the Apostolic Age to Chalcedon' by Aloys Grillmeier, John Bowden 1975 ISBN 0-664-22301-X pages 15-19 [http://books.google.com/books?id=LH-cBwmmY2cC&pg=PA15]</ref> The [[Pauline epistles]] use ''Kyrios'' to identify Jesus almost 230 times, and express the theme that the true mark of a Christian is the confession of Jesus as the true Lord.<ref name=Gerald142 >''Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus'' by Gerald O'Collins 2009 ISBN 0-19-955787-X page 142</ref> Paul viewed the superiority of the Christian revelation over all other divine manifestations as a consequence of the fact that Christ is the [[Son of God]].<ref name=CathChristology />
The Pauline epistles also advanced the "cosmic Christology" of the fourth gospel, elaborating the cosmic implications of Jesus' existence as the Son of God, as in {{bibleref|2 Corinthians|5:17|ESV}}: "Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation. The old has passed away; behold, the new has come." Also, in {{bibleref|Colossians|1:15|ESV}}: "He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation."<ref name=Aloys /><ref name="Jesus page 282"/>
===Post-Apostolic controversies===<!-- [[Christological controversies]] redirects here -->
{{Main|First Council of Nicaea|First Council of Ephesus|Council of Chalcedon}}
[[Image:Christological spectrum.svg|thumb|right|500px|Christological spectrum during the 5th-7th centuries showing the views of The Church of the East (light blue), Miaphysite (light red) and the western churches i.e. Eastern Orthodox and Catholic (light purple).]]
Following the [[Apostolic Age]], from the second century onwards, a number of controversies developed about how the human and divine are related within the person of Jesus.<ref name=Editors1999>{{Citation| last = Editors | first = Erwin Fahlbusch| year = 1999| title = The encyclopedia of Christianity| pages = 463| url = http://books.google.com/?id=z47zgZ75dqgC&pg=PA463&dq=Logos+as+God+in+the+early+church| isbn = 0-8028-2413-7| publisher = Brill| location = Leiden, Netherland}}</ref><ref name=Rausch2003>{{Citation| last = Rausch | first = Thomas P.| year = 2003| title = Who is Jesus? : an introduction to Christology| pages = 149| url = http://books.google.com/?id=8OJCa6euw5gC&pg=PA148&dq=Justin+Martyr+christology| isbn = 0-8146-5078-3| publisher = Liturgical Press| location = Collegeville, Minn.}}</ref> As of the second century, a number of different and opposing approaches developed among various groups. For example, [[Arianism]] did not endorse divinity, [[Ebionism]] argued Jesus was an ordinary mortal, while [[Gnosticism]] held [[docetism|docetic]] views which argued Christ was a spiritual being who only appeared to have a physical body.<ref name="the_orthodox_corruption_of_scripture_a01">{{Citation | last1 = Ehrman | first1 = Bart D. | title = The Orthodox corruption of scripture: the effect of early Christological controversies on the text of the New Testament | url = http://books.google.com/?id=NHIBM3p83UcC&pg=PA181 | year = 1993 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-19-510279-6 | pages = }}</ref><ref name=McGrath2007>{{Citation| last = McGrath | first = Alister E.| year = 2007| title = Christian theology : an introduction| pages = 282| url = http://books.google.com/?id=tHlY94UWi3UC&pg=PA282&dq=Justin+Martyr+christology| isbn = 1-4051-5360-1| publisher = Blackwell| location = Malden, Mass. }}</ref> The resulting tensions lead to [[schism (religion)|schism]]s within the church in the second and third centuries, and [[ecumenical councils]] were convened in the fourth and fifth centuries to deal with the issues. Eventually, by the [[Ecumenical Council]] of [[Council of Chalcedon|Chalcedon in 451]], the ''[[Hypostatic union]]'' was decreed—the proposition that Christ has one human nature ''<nowiki>[</nowiki>[[physis]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>'' and one divine nature ''[physis]'', united with neither confusion nor division—making this part of the creed of [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] [[Christianity]].<ref name=Editors1999/><ref name=Rausch2003/> Although some of the debates seemed to be over a theological [[iota]], they took place in controversial political circumstances and resulted in a schism that formed the [[Church of the East]].<ref>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd series, Vol XIV p207, translated edition by H.R. Percival. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/ephesus.html</ref><ref>The Seven Ecumenical Councils of the Undivided Church, trans H. R. Percival, in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd Series, ed. P. Schaff and H. Wace, (repr. Grand Rapids MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1955), XIV, pp. 192-242</ref>
In 325, the [[First Council of Nicaea]] defined the persons of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Godhead]] and their relationship with one another - decisions which were reratified at the [[First Council of Constantinople]] in 381. The language used was that the one God exists in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); in particular, it was affirmed that the Son was ''[[homoousios]]'' (of same substance) as the Father. The [[Nicene Creed]] declared the full divinity and full humanity of Jesus.<ref>Jonathan Kirsch, ''God Against the Gods: The History of the War Between Monotheism and Polytheism'' (2004)</ref><ref>Charles Freeman, ''The Closing of the Western Mind: The Rise of Faith and the Fall of Reason'' (2002)</ref><ref>Edward Gibbons, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' (1776-88), 21</ref>
In 431, the [[First Council of Ephesus]] was initially called to address the views of [[Nestorius]] on [[Mariology]], but the problems soon extended to Christology, and schisms followed. The 431 council was called because in defense of his loyal priest Anastasius, Nestorius had denied the ''[[Theotokos]]'' title for [[Virgin Mary|Mary]] and later contradicted [[Proclus]] during a sermon in [[Constantinople]]. Pope [[Celestine I]] (who was already upset with Nestorius due to other matters) wrote about this to [[Cyril of Alexandria]], who orchestrated the council. During the council, Nestorius defended his position by arguing there must be two persons of Christ, one human, the other divine, and Mary had given birth only to a human, hence could not be called the ''Theotokos'', i.e. "the one who gives birth to God". The debate about the single or dual nature of Christ ensued in Ephesus.<ref>''The creed: the apostolic faith in contemporary theology'' by Berard L. Marthaler 2007 ISBN 0-89622-537-2 page 114 [http://books.google.com/books?id=TY3-aZIo9HEC&pg=PA114&dq=council+ephesus+nestorius+theotokos&hl=en&ei=L5fhTP7zAcn3sgaIsPTxCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEcQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=council%20ephesus%20nestorius%20theotokos&f=false]</ref><ref>''Mary and the Saints'' by James P. Campbell 2005 0829417257 pages 17-20 [http://books.google.com/books?id=uDZaZJkkWgQC&pg=PA18&dq=council+ephesus+nestorius+theotokos&hl=en&ei=L5fhTP7zAcn3sgaIsPTxCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFUQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=council%20ephesus%20nestorius%20theotokos&f=false]</ref><ref>''Essential theological terms'' by Justo L. González 2005 ISBN 0-664-22810-0 page 120 [http://books.google.com/books?id=DU6RNDrfd-0C&pg=PA120&dq=council+ephesus+nestorius+theotokos&hl=en&ei=ZZfhTKzIIdCSswaWztz5Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=council%20ephesus%20nestorius%20theotokos&f=false]</ref><ref>''Doctrine and practice in the early church'' by Stuart George Hall 1992 ISBN 0-8028-0629-5 pages 211-218 [http://books.google.com/books?id=TLyjrU3LPlUC&pg=PP7&dq=council+ephesus+nestorius+theotokos&hl=en&ei=ZZfhTKzIIdCSswaWztz5Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFMQ6AEwCTgK#v=onepage&q=council%20ephesus%20nestorius%20theotokos&f=false]</ref>
The [[First Council of Ephesus|Council of Ephesus]] debated [[Hypostatic union|hypostasis]] (coexisting natures) versus [[monophysitism]] (only one nature) versus [[miaphysitism]] (two natures united as one) versus [[Nestorianism]] (disunion of two natures). From the Christological viewpoint, the council adopted ''hypostasis'', i.e. coexisting natures, but its language was less definitive than the 451 Council of Chalcedon. The [[Oriental Orthodox]] rejected this and subsequent councils and to date consider themselves to be ''miaphysite''.<ref>''Systematic Theology'' by Lewis Sperry Chafer 1993 ISBN 0-8254-2340-6 pages 382-384 [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZFCoSSKTffcC&pg=PA382&dq=Hypostatic+union&hl=en&ei=AVPgTMvlGImU4Abtqvj6Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Hypostatic%20union&f=false]</ref><ref name=parry >''The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity'' by Ken Parry 2009 ISBN 1-4443-3361-5 page 88 [http://books.google.com/books?id=fWp9JA3aBvcC&pg=PA88&dq=Miaphysitism&hl=en&ei=sVDgTKqDKpDOswbundTyCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Miaphysitism&f=false]</ref> By contrast, Roman Catholics to date believe in the [[hypostatic union]] and the [[Trinity]]. The council also confirmed the ''Theotokos'' title and excommunicated Nestorius.<ref name=KBaker >''Fundamentals of Catholicism: God, Trinity, Creation, Christ, Mary'' by Kenneth Baker 1983 ISBN 0-89870-019-1 pages 228-231 [http://books.google.com/books?id=yBW8l1opH-oC&pg=PA228&dq=Hypostatic+union&hl=en&ei=AVPgTMvlGImU4Abtqvj6Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Hypostatic%20union&f=false]</ref><ref name=Ephesus >''Mary, Mother of God'' by Carl E. Braaten and Robert W. Jenson 2004 ISBN 0802822665 page 84</ref>
The 451 [[Council of Chalcedon]] was highly influential and marked a key turning point in the Christological debates that broke apart the church of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] in the fifth century.<ref>''The acts of the Council of Chalcedon'' by Council of Chalcedon, Richard Price, Michael Gaddis 2006 ISBN 0-85323-039-0 pages 1-5 [http://books.google.com/books?id=6IUaOOT1G3UC&pg=PA94&dq=Chalcedon+catholic+anglican+eastern&hl=en&ei=ql_gTMj_Lon5sgafnez6Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFUQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q&f=false]</ref> It is the last council which many [[Anglican]]s and most [[Protestants]] consider ecumenical.<ref name=Armentrout >''An Episcopal dictionary of the church'' by Donald S. Armentrout, Robert Boak Slocum 2005 ISBN 0-89869-211-3 page 81 [http://books.google.com/books?id=y_RpbmWNfHcC&pg=PA81&dq=Chalcedon+catholic+anglican+eastern&hl=en&ei=ql_gTMj_Lon5sgafnez6Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Chalcedon%20catholic%20anglican%20eastern&f=false]</ref> It fully promulgated the hypostatic union, stating the human and divine natures of Christ coexist, yet each is distinct and complete. Although, the [[Chalcedonian Creed]] did not put an end to all Christological debate, it did clarify the terms used and became a point of reference for many future Christologies. Most of the major branches of Christianity — [[Roman Catholicism]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Anglicanism]], [[Lutheranism]], and [[Calvinism|Reformed]] — subscribe to the Chalcedonian Christological formulation, while many branches of Eastern Christianity - [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syrian Orthodoxy]], [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian Church]], [[Coptic Orthodoxy]], [[Ethiopian Orthodox]]y, and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Apostolicism]] - reject it.<ref name=Armentrout /><ref>''An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies'' by Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff 2007 ISBN 0-8146-5856-3 page 217</ref><ref>''Sourcebook of the world's religions'' by Joel Diederik Beversluis 2000 ISBN 1-57731-121-3 pages 21-22 [http://books.google.com/books?id=dbSPOoQfu0IC&pg=PA21&dq=Chalcedon+catholic+anglican+eastern&hl=en&ei=ql_gTMj_Lon5sgafnez6Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=chelcedon&f=false]</ref>
==Middle Ages to the Reformation==
[[File:Anselm-CanterburyVit.jpg|thumb|left|171px|The spiritual Christology of [[Anselm of Canterbury|St. Anselm]] and his monastic contemporaries led to a view of Jesus as a "helping friend", as well as the Lord.<ref name=Astley />]]
While the concept of ''Kyrios'' dominated the Christology of the [[Apostolic Age]], an important supplementary element emerged in the Middle Ages. Based on the influences of [[Anselm of Canterbury]], [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] and women mystics, the "tender image of Jesus" as a friend and a source of love and comfort was developed. This contrasted with the images of Jesus as the Lord and as the key to eventual salvation based on his sacrifice at Calvary. The [[Franciscan]] approach to popular piety strengthened this friendly image. According to Archbishop [[Rowan Williams]], this made an important impact within the Christian ministry by allowing Christians to feel the living presence of Jesus as a loving figure "who is always there to harbor and nurture those who turn to him for help and take delight in his presence".<ref name=Astley /><ref name=mini7 >''Christology: Biblical And Historical'' by Mini S. Johnson, 2005 ISBN 81-8324-007-0 pages 74-76 [http://books.google.com/books?id=Aa3yRbs0tisC&pg=PA74&dq=christology+franciscan&hl=en&ei=px3jTNHFJc3BswaKu7XnCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCQQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=christology%20franciscan&f=false]</ref>
The [[Middle Ages]], between the fifth and 15th centuries, ushered in three new aspects of Christology: monastic, popular and academic. The spiritual and monastic perspectives were due to Anselm of Canterbury, Peter Abelard and Bernard of Clairvaux, each focusing on a different variation of that theme. The [[popular piety]] championed by the Franciscans led to a more widespread appreciation of Christology from the Middle Ages onwards. At the same time, European universities embarked on a systematic and scholarly approach to Christology, with [[Thomas Aquinas]] being the key figure in that arena.<ref name=mini7 />
Some key theological figures in this period, such as [[Saint Augustine]] or [[John Calvin]], never wrote specific works on Christology, yet modern scholars have attempted to extract Christological insights from their works, e.g. the study of [[Theocentricism]] in the writings of Augustine and the analysis of Christ as "king, priest and prophet" in the writings of Calvin.<ref>''Orthodox readings of Augustine'' by George E. Demacopoulos, Aristotle Papanikolaou 2008 ISBN 0-88141-327-5 page 271</ref><ref>''Calvin's Christology'' by Stephen Edmondson 2004 ISBN 0-521-54154-9 page x</ref>
During the Middle Ages, many of the conflicts between Scripture and tradition were resolved through the construction of theological arguments, and were presented in terms of ''summae'', which summed up complete presentations of discussions that led to knowledge.<ref>''Christological foundation'' by Joseph D. Ban 1989 ISBN 0-86554-313-5 page</ref> The apex of these in the 13th century was provided by Saint Thomas Aquinas. His ''[[Summa Theologica|Summa Theologiae]]'' presented the first systematic Christology that consistently resolved a number of the existing issues. In his Christology from above, Aquinas also championed the [[principle of perfection of Christ]], namely that in every human sense, Jesus was the best that could ever be.<ref name="mini76"/><ref name="Gerald208"/><ref name="Geest"/>
The question of "grace" was at the heart of the Reformation, which [[Martin Luther]] initiated. This amounted to the question of where do I find a gracious God? Luther believed the saving work of Christ is imputed for the remission of sins via the words of the gospels. This led to his fourfold formula of ''solo Christo'', ''sola gratia'', ''sola fide'', ''sola scriptura'', i.e. only Christ, grace, faith and scripture.<ref>''Christology: Biblical And Historica''l by Mini S. Johnson, 2005 ISBN 81-8324-007-0 pages 80-83</ref> Martin Luther believed in the Creed of Chalcedon and that Jesus was both God and man. He viewed incarnation as the union of God and man.<ref>''Jesus the Christ'' by Thomas Gerard Weinandy 2003 ISBN 1-931709-68-8 page 97</ref>
==Christological issues==
===Person of Christ===
[[File:Christ Pantocrator niche Holy Trinity Meteora.jpg|thumb|[[Christ Pantocrator]], Holy Trinity's monastery, [[Meteora]], Greece]]
{{Main|Person of Christ}}
{{See also|Trinity|Hypostatic union}}
The '''Person of Christ''' refers to the study of the human and divine natures of [[Christ|Jesus Christ]] as they coexist within one person.<ref name=Erickson >''Introducing Christian Doctrine'' by Millard J. Erickson, L. Arnold Hustad 2001 ISBN page 234</ref> There are no direct discussions in the [[New Testament]] regarding the [[Hypostatic union|dual nature]] of the Person of Christ as both divine and human.<ref name=Erickson /> Hence, since the early days of Christianity, theologians have debated various approaches to the understanding of these natures, at times resulting in schisms.<ref name=Erickson />
Historically in the Alexandrian school of thought (fashioned on the [[Gospel of John]]), Jesus Christ is the [[Logos (Christianity)|eternal ''Logos'']] who already possesses unity with the Father before the act of [[Incarnation]].<ref name=Waldrop >''Karl Barth's christology'' by Charles T. Waldrop 1985 ISBN 90-279-3109-7 pages 19-23</ref> In contrast, the Antiochian school views Christ as a single, unified human person apart from his relationship to the divine.<ref name=Waldrop />
[[John Calvin]] maintained there was no human element in the Person of Christ which could be separated from the Person of [[Logos (Christianity)|The Word]].<ref>''Calvin's Christology'' by Stephen Edmondson 2004 ISBN 0-521-54154-9 page 217</ref> Calvin also emphasized the importance of the "Work of Christ" in any attempt at understanding the Person of Christ and cautioned against ignoring the Works of Jesus during his ministry.<ref>''Calvin's First Catechism'' by I. John Hesselink 1997 ISBN 0-664-22725-2 page 217</ref>
The study of the Person of Christ continued into the 20th century, with modern theologians such as [[Karl Rahner]] and [[Hans Urs von Balthasar|Hans von Balthasar]]. Rahner pointed out the coincidence between the Person of Christ and the Word of God, referring to [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#8:38|Mark 8:38]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#9:26|Luke 9:26]] which state whoever is ashamed of the words of Jesus is ashamed of the Lord himself.<ref>''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 page 1822</ref> Balthasar argued the union of the human and divine natures of Christ was achieved not by the "absorption" of human attributes, but by their "assumption". Thus, in his view, the divine nature of Christ was not affected by the human attributes and remained forever divine.<ref>''The eschatology of Hans Urs von Balthasar'' by Nicholas J. Healy 2005 ISBN 0-19-927836-9 pages 22-23</ref>
===Nativity and the Holy Name===
{{see also|Nativity of Jesus|Holy Name of Jesus}}
The [[Nativity of Jesus]] impacted the Christological issues about his Person from the earliest days of Christianity. Luke's Christology centers on the dialectics of the dual natures of the earthly and heavenly manifestations of existence of the Christ, while Matthew's Christology focuses on the mission of Jesus and his role as the savior.<ref>''Theology of the New Testament'' by Georg Strecker 2000 ISBN 0-664-22336-2 pages 401-403</ref><ref>''Matthew'' by [[Grant R. Osborne]] 2010 ISBN 0-310-32370-3 lxxix</ref> The [[Christian soteriology|salvific]] emphasis of [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#1:21|Matthew 1:21]] later impacted the theological issues and the devotions to [[Holy Name of Jesus]].<ref>''Matthew 1-13'' by Manlio Simonetti 2001 ISBN 0-8308-1486-8 page 17</ref><ref>Matthew 1-2/ Luke 1-2'' by Louise Perrotta 2004 ISBN 0-8294-1541-6 page 19</ref><ref>''All the Doctrines of the Bible'' by Herbert Lockyer 1988 ISBN 0-310-28051-6 page 159</ref>
[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#1:23|Matthew 1:23]] provides a key to the "Emmanuel Christology" of Matthew. Beginning with 1:23, Matthew shows a clear interest in identifying Jesus as "God with us" and in later developing the Emmanuel characterization of Jesus at key points throughout the rest of his Gospel.<ref name=Kupp >''Matthew's Emmanuel'' by David D. Kupp 1997 ISBN 0-521-57007-7 pages 220-224</ref> The name Emmanuel does not appear elsewhere in the New Testament, but Matthew builds on it in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#28:20|Matthew 28:20]] ("I am with you always, even unto the end of the world") to indicate Jesus will be with the faithful to the end of the age.<ref name=Kupp /><ref name=Kingsbury17 >''Who do you say that I am?: essays on Christology'' by Jack Dean Kingsbury, Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer 1999 ISBN 0-664-25752-6 page 17</ref> According to [[Ulrich Luz]], the Emmanuel motif brackets the entire Gospel of Matthew between 1:23 and 28:20, appearing explicitly and implicitly in several other passages.<ref>''The theology of the Gospel of Matthew'' by Ulrich Luz 1995 ISBN 0-521-43576-5 page 31</ref>
===Crucifixion and Resurrection===
{{Main|Crucifixion of Jesus|Resurrection of Jesus|}}
The accounts of the crucifixion and subsequent [[resurrection of Jesus]] provides a rich background for Christological analysis, from the canonical Gospels to the [[Pauline Epistles]].<ref>''Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology'' by Jack Dean Kingsbury, Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer 1999 ISBN 0-664-25752-6 page 106</ref>
A central element in the Christology presented in the [[Acts of the Apostles]] is the affirmation of the belief that the death of Jesus by crucifixion happened "with the foreknowledge of God, according to a definite plan".<ref name=Matera67 >''New Testament christology'' by Frank J. Matera 1999 ISBN 0-664-25694-5 page 67</ref> In this view, as in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#2:23|Acts 2:23]], the cross is not viewed as a scandal, for the crucifixion of Jesus "at the hands of the lawless" is viewed as the fulfilment of the plan of God.<ref name=Matera67 /><ref>''The speeches in Acts: their content, context, and concerns'' by Marion L. Soards 1994 ISBN 0-664-25221-4 page 34</ref>
Paul's Christology has a specific focus on the death and resurrection of Jesus. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his resurrection and the term "the cross of Christ" used in Galatians 6:12 may be viewed as his abbreviation of the message of the gospels.<ref name=Schwarz132 >''Christology'' by Hans Schwarz 1998 ISBN 0-8028-4463-4 pages 132-134</ref> For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated event in history, but a cosmic event with significant [[eschatological]] consequences, as in Cor 2:8.<ref name=Schwarz132 /> In the Pauline view, Jesus, obedient to the point of death (Phil 2:8), died "at the right time" (Rom 4:25) based on the plan of God.<ref name=Schwarz132 /> For Paul, the "power of the cross" is not separable from the resurrection of Jesus.<ref name=Schwarz132 />
===Threefold office===
{{Main|threefold office}}
The [[threefold office]] (Latin ''munus triplex'') of [[Jesus]] [[Christ]] is a [[Christian]] doctrine based upon the teachings of the Old Testament. It was described by [[Eusebius]] and more fully developed by [[John Calvin]]. It states that Jesus [[Christ]] performed three functions (or "offices") in his earthly ministry - those of [[prophet]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy%2018:14-22;&version=31; Deuteronomy 18:14-22]), [[priest]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Psalm%20110:1-4;&version=31; Psalm 110:1-4]), and [[kingly office of Christ|king]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Psalm%202;&version=31; Psalm 2]). In the Old Testament, the appointment of someone to any of these three positions could be indicated by anointing him or her by pouring oil over the head. Thus, the term messiah, meaning "anointed one", is associated with the concept of the threefold office. While the office of king is that most frequently associated with the Messiah, the role of Jesus as priest is also prominent in the New Testament, being most fully explained in chapters 7 to 10 of the [[Book of Hebrews]].
===Mariology===
{{main|Roman Catholic Mariology}}
Some Christians, notably [[RCTerm|Roman Catholics]], view [[Mariology]] as a key component of Christology.<ref>"Mariology Is Christology", in [[Vittorio Messori]], ''The Mary Hypothesis'', Rome: 2005. [http://www.zenit.org/article-14658?l=english]</ref> In this view, not only is Mariology a logical and necessary consequence of Christology, but without it, Christology is incomplete, since the figure of Mary contributes to a fuller understanding of who Christ is and what he did.<ref>Paul Haffner, 2004 ''The mystery of Mary'' Gracewing Press ISBN 0-85244-650-0 page 17</ref> Certain Christian traditions of Protestant heritage tend not to hold this view.
[[Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger]] (later [[Pope Benedict XVI]]) expressed this sentiment about [[Roman Catholic Mariology]] when in two separate occasions he stated, "The appearance of a truly Marian awareness serves as the touchstone indicating whether or not the Christological substance is fully present"<ref>[[Communio]], 1996, Volume 23, page 175</ref> and "It is necessary to go back to Mary, if we want to return to the truth about Jesus Christ."<ref>Raymond Burke, 2008 ''Mariology: A Guide for Priests, Deacons, seminarians, and Consecrated Persons'' ISBN 1-57918-355-7 page xxi</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Arianism]]
* [[Christian views of Jesus]]
* [[Jesusism]]
* [[Mariology]]
* [[Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament]]
* [[New Testament view on Jesus' life]]
* [[Religious perspectives on Jesus]]
* [[Scholastic Lutheran Christology]]
==Notes==
<!--<nowiki>
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the<ref> and </ref> tags, and the template below.
</nowiki>-->
{{reflist|2}}
==References==
<div class="references-small">
*Chilton, Bruce. “The Son of Man: Who Was He?” ''Bible Review.'' August 1996, 35+.
*[[Oscar Cullmann|Cullmann, Oscar]]. ''The Christology of the New Testament''. trans. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1980. ISBN 0-664-24351-7
*Fuller, Reginald H. [[Reginald H. Fuller#The Foundations of New Testament Christology (1965)|''The Foundations of New Testament Christology'']]. New York: Scribners, 1965. ISBN 0-684-15532-X
*Greene, Colin J.D. ''Christology in Cultural Perspective: Marking Out the Horizons''. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing, 2004. ISBN 0-8028-2792-6
*Kingsbury, Jack Dean. ''The Christology of Mark's Gospel.'' Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1989.
*Letham, Robert. ''The Work of Christ. Contours of Christian Theology''. Downer Grove: IVP, 1993, ISBN 0-8308-1532-5
*Hodgson, Peter C. ''Winds of the Spirit: A Constructive Christian Theology''. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1994.
*MacLeod, Donald. ''The Person Of Christ: Contours of Christian Theology''. Downer Grove: IVP. 1998, ISBN 0-8308-1537-6
* [[Wolfhart Pannenberg]], ''Systematic Theology'', Vol.2.
*[[Thomas Rausch|Rausch, Thomas P.]] ''Who is Jesus?: An Introduction to Christology (Michael Glazier Books)]''. Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 2003 ISBN 0-8146-5078-3
*Schwarz, Hans. ''Christology''. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing, 1998. ISBN 0-8028-4463-4
</div>
==Further reading==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-1-of-2}}
<div class="references-small">
*Berkhof, Louis. ''The History of Christian Doctrine''. Carlisle: Banner of Truth, 1996. ISBN 0-85151-005-1
*Bonino, Jose Miquez. ''Faces of Jesus: Latin American Christologies''. Eugene: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2002. ISBN 1-59244-097-5
*Brana, Fernando Ocariz. ''The Mystery of Jesus Christ: A Christology and SoteriologyTextbook''. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 1994. ISBN 1-85182-127-9
*[[Raymond E. Brown|Brown, Raymond E.]] ''An Introduction to New Testament Christology''. Mahwah: Paulist Press, 1994. ISBN 0-8091-3516-7
*Brummer, Vincent. ''Atonement, Christology and the Trinity: Making Sense of Christian Doctrine.'' Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2005. ISBN 0-7546-5230-0
*Casey, Michael. ''Fully Human, Fully Divine: And Interactive Christology''. Liquori: Liguori Publications, 2004. ISBN 0-7648-1149-5
*Chemnitz, Martin. ''The Two Natures in Christ''. trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1970. ISBN 0-570-03210-5
*Dunn, James D.G. ''Christology in the Making: A New Testament Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine of the Incarnation''. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing, 1996. ISBN 0-8028-4257-7
*Dupuis, Jacques. ''Who Do You Say I Am?: Introduction to Christology''. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1994. ISBN 0-88344-940-4
*Fruchtenbaum, Arnold. ''Messianic Christology''. San Antonio: Ariel Ministries, 1998. ISBN 0-914863-07-X
*Fuller, Reginald Horace. ''The Foundations of New Testament Christology''. Cambridge: James Clarke, 2003. ISBN 978-0-227-17075-5
*[[Simon J. Gathercole|Gathercole, Simon J.]] ''The Pre-existent Son: Recovering the Christologies of Matthew, Mark, and Luke''. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing, 2006. ISBN 0-8028-2901-5
* {{citation | last = Grillmeier | first = Aloys | title = Christ in Christian Tradition: from the Apostolic Age to Chalcedon (451) | publisher = Westminster John Knox Press | location = Louisville | year = 1975 | isbn = 0-664-22301-X|url=http://books.google.com/?id=LH-cBwmmY2cC|authorlink=Aloys Grillmeier}}
*[[Roger Haight|Haight, Roger]]. ''The Future of Christology''. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005. ISBN 0-8264-1764-7
*Hick, John. [[John Hick#The Metaphor of God Incarnate.2C 1993|''The Metaphor of God Incarnate: Christology in a Pluralistic Age'']]. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2006. ISBN 0-664-23037-7
*Johnson, Elizabeth. ''Consider Jesus: Waves of Renewal in Christology''. New York: Herder & Herder, 1992. ISBN 0-8245-1161-1
*Karkkainen, Veli-Matti. ''Christology: A Global Introduction''. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003. ISBN 0-8010-2621-0
*Kraus, C. Norman. ''Jesus Christ Our Lord: Christology from a Disciple’s Perspective''. Eugene: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2004. ISBN 1-59244-789-9
</div>
{{col-2-of-2}}
<div class="references-small">
*Marchesi S.J., Giovanni. ''Gesu di Nazaret:Chi Sei? Lineamenti di cristologia''. San Paolo Edizioni. 2004. ISBN 88-215-5218-7
*Matera, Frank J. ''New Testament Christology''. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1999. ISBN 0-664-25694-5
* Meier, John P. [[John P. Meier#A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus|''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus'']], New York: [[Anchor Bible Series|Anchor Doubleday]],
:v. 1, ''The Roots of the Problem and the Person'', 1991. ISBN 0-385-26425-9
:v. 2, ''Mentor, Message, and Miracles'', 1994. ISBN 0-385-46992-6
*[[C. F. D. Moule|Moule, C.F.D.]] ''The Origin of Christology''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-521-29363-4
*[[John McIntyre (theologian)|McIntyre, John]]. ''The shape of christology: studies in the doctrine of the person of Christ'' 2nd edn, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998; 1st edn, London: SCM, 1966.
*Neuman, Matthias and Thomas P. Walters. ''Christology: True God, True Man (Catholic Basics''). Chicago: Loyola Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8294-1719-2
*Neville, Robert Cummings. ''Symbols of Jesus: A Christology of Symbolic Engagement''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-521-00353-9
*[[George Newlands|Newlands, George M.]] ''God in Christian Perspective.'' Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994. ISBN 0-567-29259-2
*Norris, Richard A. and William G. Rusch. ''The Christological Controversy. Sources of Early Christian Thought Series''. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1980. ISBN 0-8006-1411-9
*[[Gerald O'Collins|O'Collins, Gerald]]. ''Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus Christ''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-19-875502-3
*Outler, Albert C. ''Christology''. Bristol House, 1996. ISBN 1-885224-08-7
*[[Pope Benedict XVI|Ratzinger, Cardinal Joseph]]. ''Introduction to Christianity''. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1969. ISBN I586170295
*Scaer, David P. ''Christology Confessional Lutheran Dogmatics Vol. VI''. Northville: The Luther Academy, 1989. ISBN 0-9622791-6-1
*Skurja, Katie. ''Living in the Intersection.'' Imago Dei Ministries, Portland, OR. (1/06), pp. 82.
*[[Jon Sobrino|Sobrino, Jon]]. ''Christology at the Crossroads''. Eugene: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2002. ISBN 1-59244-095-9
*Torrance, Iain R. ''Christology After Chalcedon''. Eugene: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 1998. ISBN 1-57910-110-0
*Witherington, Ben. ''The Christology of Jesus''. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishers, 1997. ISBN 0-8006-3108-0
*Battle, Donald E. "Jesus Christ Study Bible" JCSB Bible: Pleasant Word Publishers, 2009. ISBN 1-4141-1372-2
</div>
{{col-end}}
==External links==
*[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9399699/Christology Encyclopaedia Britannica, Christology - full access article]
{{Christian theology|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Christianityfooter}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2010}}
[[Category:Christian philosophy]]
[[Category:Catholic theology and doctrine]]
[[Category:Christology| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Christian controversies]]
[[Category:Christian terms]]
[[ar:كرستولوجيا]]
[[az:Xristologiya]]
[[bg:Христология]]
[[ca:Cristologia]]
[[cs:Christologie]]
[[da:Kristologi]]
[[de:Christologie]]
[[es:Cristología]]
[[eo:Kristologio]]
[[eu:Kristologia]]
[[fr:Christologie]]
[[ko:그리스도론]]
[[hr:Kristologija]]
[[id:Kristologi]]
[[ia:Christologia]]
[[is:Kristsfræði]]
[[it:Cristologia]]
[[he:כריסטולוגיה]]
[[la:Christologia]]
[[lt:Kristologija]]
[[ml:ക്രിസ്തു വിജ്ഞാനീയം]]
[[nl:Christologie]]
[[ja:キリスト論]]
[[no:Kristologi]]
[[pl:Chrystologia]]
[[pt:Cristologia]]
[[rm:Cristologia]]
[[ru:Христология]]
[[sq:Kristologjia]]
[[simple:Christology]]
[[sk:Christológia]]
[[sr:Христологија]]
[[sh:Hristologija]]
[[fi:Kristologia]]
[[sv:Kristologi]]
[[tl:Kristolohiya]]
[[ta:கிறிஸ்தியல்]]
[[tr:Kristoloji]]
[[vec:Cristologia]]
[[zh:基督论]]' |
