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'{{History of Nova Scotia}} it is also known as the Rechal of Cathedral [[Nova Scotia]] (also known as Mi'kma'ki and [[Acadia]]) is a Canadian [[Provinces of Canada|province]] located in [[Canada]]'s [[Maritimes]]. The region was initially occupied by Mi'kmaq. During the first 150 years of [[Old Acadian Villages of Nova Scotia|European settlement]], the colony was primarily made up of Catholic Acadians and Mi'kmaq. This time period involved the [[French and Indian Wars]] between New England (former [[Thirteen Colonies|British territory]]) and [[New France]] (former French territory) as well as two local wars - [[Father Rale's War]] and [[Father Le Loutre's War]] before Britain defeated France in North America. Throughout these wars, Nova Scotia was the site of numerous battles, raids and skirmishes. The [[Siege of Port Royal (1710)|Conquest of Acadia]] happened in 1710. Juh and Indian War]]. The capital was moved from [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia]] to the newly founded [[City of Halifax|Halifax, Nova Scotia]]. After the colonial wars, [[New England Planters]] and [[Foreign Protestants]] settled Nova Scotia. After the [[American Revolution]], the colony was settled by Loyalists. During the nineteenth century, Nova Scotia became [[self-governing colony|self-governing]] in 1848 and joined the [[Canadian Confederation]] in 1867. The colonial history of Nova Scotkjhg uirehgruihgjhkjdhfgiueh geuia includes the present-day Canadian Maritime provinces and northern Maine (see [[Sunbury County, Nova Scotia]]), all of which were at one time part of Nova Scotia. In 1763 Cape Breton Island and St. John's Island (what is now [[Prince Edward Island]]) became part of Nova Scotia. In 1769, St. John's Island became a separate colony. Nova Scotia included present-day [[New Brunswick]] until that province was established in 1784.<ref>In 1765, the county of [[Sunbury County, Nova Scotia|Sunbury]] was created, and included the territory of present-day [[New Brunswick]] and eastern [[Maine]] as far as the Penobscot River.</ref> == Mi'kmaq == The oldest evidence of humans in Nova Scotia indicates the [[Paleo Indians|Paleo-Indians]] were the first, approximately 11,000&nbsp;years ago. [[Archaic stage|Natives]] are believed to have been present in the area between 11,000 and 5,000&nbsp;years ago. [[Mi'kmaq people|Mi'kmaq]], the [[First Nations]] of the province and region, are their direct descendants. [[File:The Mi'kmaq.png|thumb|right|200px|Mi'kmaq Territory]] The '''Mi'kmaq''' (previously spelled ''Micmac'' in English texts) are a First Nations people, indigenous to the [[Maritime Provinces]], the [[Gaspé Peninsula]] [[Quebec]] and northeastern [[New England]]. '''Míkmaw''' is the singular form of Mí'kmaq. In 1616 Father Biard believed the Mi'kmaq population to be in excess of 3,000. However, he remarked that, because of European diseases, including [[smallpox]] and alcoholism, there had been large population losses in the previous century. The Mi'kmaq were originally allies with other nearby Algonquian nations including the [[Abenaki]], forming the seven nation [[Wabanaki Confederacy|''Wabanaki'' Confederacy]], pronounced {{IPA-alg|wɑbɑnɑːɣɔdi|}}; this was later expanded to eight with the ceremonial addition of Great Britain at the time of the 1749 treaty. At the time of contact with the French (late 16th century) they were expanding from their Maritime base westward along the Gaspé Peninsula /St. Lawrence River at the expense of Iroquioian Mohawk tribes, hence the Mi'kmaq name for this peninsula, ''Gespedeg'' ("last-acquired"). They were amenable to limited French settlement in their midst. Between the loss of control of Acadia by France in the early 18th century and the deportation of the Acadians in the mid-eighteenth century an uneasy stalemate existed between the Mi’kmaq and English. With the complete loss by France during the Seven Years' War of its North American territories, the Mi’kmaq lost their primary ally. The Mi’kmaq continued to suffer a population collapse and with the influx of Planters in the 1760s and Loyalists in the 1780s, soon found themselves overwhelmed. Later on the Mi'kmaq also settled Newfoundland as the unrelated [[Beothuk]] tribe became extinct. == Seventeenth century == === Port Royal established === {{Main|Habitation at Port-Royal}} The first European settlement in Nova Scotia was established in 1605. The [[France|French]], led by [[Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts]] established the first capital for the colony [[Acadia]] at [[Habitation at Port-Royal|Port Royal]].<ref>Also, that same year, French fishermen established a settlement at [[Canso, Nova Scotia|Canso]].</ref> Other than a few trading posts around the province, for the next seventy-five years, Port Royal was virtually the only European settlement in Nova Scotia. Port Royal (later renamed Annapolis Royal) remained the capital of Acadia and later Nova Scotia for almost 150 years, prior to the founding of Halifax in 1749. Approximately seventy-five years after Port Royal was founded, [[Acadians]] migrated from the capital and established what would become the other major Acadian settlements before the [[Expulsion of the Acadians]]: [[Grand-Pré, Nova Scotia|Grand Pré]], [[Isthmus of Chignecto|Chignecto]], [[Cobequid]] and [[Pisiguit]]. Until the Conquest of Acadia, the English made six attempts to conquer Acadia by defeating the capital. They finally defeated the French in the [[Siege of Port Royal (1710)|Siege of Port Royal]] in 1710. Over the following fifty years, the French and their allies made six unsuccessful military attempts to regain the capital.<ref>Brenda Dunn. A History of Port Royal, Annapolis Royal: 1605-1800. Nimbus Publishing, 2004</ref> === Scottish Colony === From 1629-1632, Nova Scotia briefly became a [[Scottish colonization of the Americas|Scottish colony]]. [[William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling|Sir William Alexander]] of [[Menstrie Castle]], [[Scotland]] claimed mainland Nova Scotia and settled at Port Royal, while Ochiltree claimed Île Royale (present-day [[Cape Breton Island]]) and settled at [[Baleine, Nova Scotia]]. There were three battles between the Scottish and the French: the Raid on [[Saint John, New Brunswick|St. John]] (1632), the Siege of [[Baleine, Nova Scotia|Baleine]] (1629) as well as Siege of Cap de Sable (present-day [[Port La Tour, Nova Scotia]]) (1630). Nova Scotia was returned to France through a treaty.<ref>Nicholls, Andrew. A Fleeting Empire: Early Stuart Britain and the Merchant Adventures to Canada. McGill-Queen's University Press. 2010.</ref> The French quickly defeated the Scottish at [[Baleine, Nova Scotia|Baleine]] and established settlements on Île Royale at present day [[Englishtown, Nova Scotia|Englishtown]] (1629) and [[St. Peter's, Nova Scotia|St. Peter's]] (1630). These two settlements remained the only settlements on the island until they were abandoned by [[Nicolas Denys]] in 1659. Île Royale then remained vacant for more than fifty years until the communities were re-established when [[Louisbourg]] was established in 1713. === Acadian Civil War === {{main|Acadian Civil War}} [[File:Madame La Tour Defending Fort St.Jean.jpg|thumb|right|Françoise-Marie Jacquelin, second wife of Charles de Saint-Étienne de La Tour, commanding the defending troops at Fort La Tour]] Acadia was plunged into what some historians have described as a [[civil war]] in Acadia (1640–1645). The war was between Port Royal, where Governor of Acadia [[Charles de Menou d'Aulnay]] de Charnisay was stationed, and present-day [[Saint John, New Brunswick]], where Governor of Acadia. [[Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour]] was stationed.<ref>M. A. MacDonald, ''Fortune & La Tour: The civil war in Acadia'', Toronto: Methuen. 1983</ref> In the war, there were four major battles. la Tour attacked d'Aulnay at Port Royal in 1640.<ref>Brenda Dunn, p. 19</ref> In response to the attack, D'Aulnay sailed out of Port Royal to establish a five-month blockade of La Tour's fort at Saint John, which La Tour eventually defeated (1643). La Tour attacked d'Aulnay again at Port Royal in 1643. d'Aulnay and Port Royal ultimately won the war against La Tour with the 1645 siege of Saint John.<ref>Brenda Dunn. A History of Port Royal, Annapolis Royal: 1605-1800. Nimbus Publishing, 2004. p. 20</ref> After d'Aulnay died (1650), La Tour re-established himself in Acadia. == Eighteenth century == === The Colonial Wars === {{main|Military history of Nova Scotia}} [[File:FortEdwardWindsorNovaScotiaCanada.JPG|thumb|left|[[Fort Edward (Nova Scotia)|Fort Edward]] (built 1750). The oldest [[blockhouse]] in North America.]] There were six colonial wars that took place in Nova Scotia over a seventy-four year period (see the [[French and Indian Wars]] as well as [[Father Rale's War]] and [[Father Le Loutre's War]]). These wars were fought between [[New England]] and [[New France]] and their respective native allies before the British defeated the French in North America (1763). During these wars, Acadians, Mi'kmaq and Maliseet from the region fought to protect the border of Acadia from New England, which New France defined as the [[Kennebec River]] in southern Maine.<ref>William Williamson. The history of the state of Maine. Vol. 2. 1832. p. 27</ref> The wars also involved attempting to prevent the New Englanders from taking the capital of Acadia, Port Royal (See [[Queen Anne's War]]), establishing themselves at [[Canso, Nova Scotia|Canso]] (See [[Father Rale's War]]) and establishing Halifax (See [[Father Le Loutre's War]]). The seventy-five year period of war ended with the [[Burying the Hatchet Ceremony (Nova Scotia)|Burial of the Hatchet Ceremony]] between the British and the Mi'kmaq (1761). === New England Planters === [[File:Sambroandcannons.jpg|thumb|210px|[[Sambro Island Lighthouse]] - oldest lighthouse in [[North America]] (1758)]] After Britain won the [[French and Indian War]], between 1759 and 1768, about 8,000 [[New England Planters]] responded to Governor [[Charles Lawrence (British Army officer)|Charles Lawrence]]'s request for settlers from the New England colonies. ===Government changes=== The colony's jurisdiction changed during this time. Nova Scotia was granted a supreme court in 1754 with the appointment of [[Jonathan Belcher (jurist)|Jonathan Belcher]] and a [[Legislative Assembly of Nova Scotia|Legislative Assembly]] in 1758. In 1763 [[Cape Breton Island]] became part of Nova Scotia. In 1769, St. John's Island (now [[Prince Edward Island]]) became a separate colony. The county of [[Sunbury County, Nova Scotia|Sunbury]] was created in 1765, and included all of the territory of current day [[New Brunswick]] and eastern [[Maine]] as far as the Penobscot River. In 1784, the western, mainland portion of the colony was separated and became the province of [[New Brunswick]]. Maine became part of the newly independent American state of [[Massachusetts]], but the international boundary was vague. Cape Breton became a separate colony in 1784; it was returned to Nova Scotia in 1820. Confronted with a large Yankee element sympathetic to the [[American revolution]], Nova Scotian politicians in 1774-75 adopted a policy of enlightened moderation and humanism. Governing a marginal colony that received little attention from London, the royal governor, [[Francis Legge]] (1772 to 1776) battled the popularly elected assembly for control of the policies regarding trade, commerce, and taxation.<ref>John Brebner, ''The Neutral Yankees of Nova Scotia: A Marginal Colony During the Revolutionary Years'' (1937)</ref> [[Desserud]] shows that [[John Day (Nova Scotia legislator)|John Day]], elected to the assembly in 1774, called for [[Montesquieu]]-type fundamental reforms that would balance political power among the three branches of government. Day argued that taxes should be assessed according to actual wealth, and to discourage patronage there should be term limits for all officials. He thought members of the Executive Council should own at least ₤1000 of property to connect their personal interest in the welfare of the colony as a whole. He wanted the dismissal of judges who misused their offices. These reforms were not as yet enacted, but they suggest that politicians in Nova Scotia were aware of the demands being made by Americans, and hoped their moderate proposals would reduce possible tensions with the British government.<ref>Donald A. Desserud, "An Outpost's Response: The Language and Politics of Moderation in Eighteenth-century Nova Scotia," ''American Review of Canadian Studies'' 1999 29(3): 379-405.</ref> === American Revolution === [[File:Combat naval de Louisbourg 1781.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[[Naval battle off Cape Breton]]]] The [[American Revolution]] (1776–1783) had a significant impact on shaping Nova Scotia. At the beginning, there was ambivalence in Nova Scotia, "the 14th American Colony" as some called it, over whether the colony should join the Americans in the war against Britain. Rebellions flared at the [[Battle of Fort Cumberland]], the [[Siege of Saint John (1777)]], the [[Maugerville, New Brunswick|Maugerville Rebellion]] in 1776 and the [[Miramichi, New Brunswick|Battle at Miramichi]] in 1779. However the Nova Scotia government in Halifax was controlled by an Anglo-European mercantile elite for whom loyalty was more profitable than rebellion. Facing attacks which forced choices of loyalty, rebellion or neutrality, settlers outside Halifax experienced a religious revival that expressed some of their anxieties.<ref>Barry Cahill, "The Treason of the Merchants: Dissent and Repression in Halifax in the Era of the American Revolution," ''Acadiensis'' 1996 26(1): 52-70; G. Stewart, and G. Rawlyk, ''A People Highly Favoured of God: The Nova Scotia Yankees and the American Revolution'' (1972); Maurice Armstrong, "Neutrality and Religion in Revolutionary Nova Scotia," ''The New England Quarterly'' v19, no. 1 (1946): 50-62 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/361206 in JSTOR]</ref> Throughout the war, American [[privateers]] devastated the maritime economy by raiding many of the coastal communities. In addition to capturing 225 vessels either leaving or arriving at Nova Scotia ports,<ref>Julian Gwyn. Frigates and Foremasts. University of British Columbia. 2003. p. 56</ref> American privateers made regular land raids, attacking [[Raid on Lunenburg (1782)|Lunenburg]], [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia|Annapolis Royal]], [[Canso, Nova Scotia|Canso]] and [[Liverpool, Nova Scotia|Liverpool]]. American Privateers also repeatedly raided [[Canso, Nova Scotia]] in 1775 and 1779, destroying the fisheries, which were worth £50,000 a year to Britain.<ref>Lieutenant Governor Sir Richard Hughes stated in a dispatch to Lord Germaine that "rebel cruisers" made the attack.</ref> These American raids alienated many sympathetic or neutral Nova Scotians into supporting the British. By the end of the war a number of Nova Scotian privateers were outfitted to attack American shipping.<ref>Roger Marsters (2004). ''Bold Privateers: Terror, Plunder and Profit on Canada's Atlantic Coast'', p. 87–89.</ref> [[File:BriggObserveregagingtheJack29May1782HalifaxPublRDodd1Sept1784BerleyRobisonCollectionUSNavalAcademy.jpg|300px|thumb|left|[[Naval battle off Halifax]]]]. To guard against repeated American privateer attacks, the [[84th Regiment of Foot (Royal Highland Emigrants)]] was garrisoned at forts around the [[Atlantic Canada]] to strengthen the small and ill-equipped militia companies of the colony. [[Fort Edward (Nova Scotia)]] in [[Windsor, Nova Scotia]] was the Regiment's headquarters to prevent a possible American land assault on Halifax from the Bay of Fundy. There was an American attack on Nova Scotia by land, the [[Battle of Fort Cumberland]] followed by the [[Siege of Saint John (1777)]] The British naval squadron based at Halifax was successful in deterring any American invasion, blocking American support for Nova Scotia rebels and launched some attacks on New England, such as the [[Battle of Machias (1777)]]. However the Royal Navy was unable to establish naval supremacy. While many American privateers were captured in battles such as the [[Naval battle off Halifax]], many more continued attacks on shipping and settlements until the final months of the war. The Royal Navy struggled to maintain British supply lines, defending convoys from American and in 1781, after the [[Franco-American alliance]] against [[Great Britain]], French attacks such as a fiercely fought convoy battle, the [[Naval battle off Cape Breton|a naval engagement]] with a French fleet at [[Sydney, Nova Scotia]], near Spanish River, Cape Breton.<ref>Thomas B. Akins. (1895) History of Halifax. Dartmouth: Brook House Press.p. 82</ref> As the [[New England Planters]] and [[United Empire Loyalists]] began to arrive in Mi'kmaki (the Maritimes) in greater numbers, economic, environmental and cultural pressures were put on the Mi'kmaq with the erosion of the intent of the treaties. The Mi'kmaq tried to enforce the treaties through threat of force. At the beginning of the [[American Revolution]], many Mi’kmaq and Maliseet tribes were supportive of the Americans against the British. They participated in the [[Maugerville, New Brunswick|Maugerville Rebellion]] and the [[Battle of Fort Cumberland]] in 1776. (Mí'kmaq delegates concluded the first international treaty, the [[Treaty of Watertown]], with the [[United States]] soon after it declared its independence in July 1776. These delegates did not officially represent the Mi'kmaq government, although many individual Mi'kmaq did privately join the Continental army as a result.) During the [[St. John River expedition]], Col. Allan's untiring effort to gain the friendship and support of the Maliseet and Mi'kmaq for the Revolution was somewhat successful. There was a significant exodus of Maliseet from the St John River to join the American forces at [[Machias, Maine]].<ref>Hannay, p. 119</ref> On Sunday, July 13, 1777, a party of between 400 and 500 men, women, and children, embarked in 128 canoes from the [[Meductic Indian Village / Fort Meductic|Old Fort Meduetic]] (8 miles below Woodstock) for Machias. The party arrived at a very opportune moment for the Americans, and afforded material assistance in the defence of that post during [[Battle of Machias (1777)|the attack]] made by Sir [[George Collier]] on the 13th to 15 August. The British did only minimal damage to the place, and the services of the Indians on the occasion earned for them the thanks of the council of Massachusetts.<ref name=Raymond>Rev. W. O. Raymond</ref> In June 1779, Mi’kmaq in the [[Miramichi, New Brunswick|Miramichi]] attacked and plundered some of the British in the area. The following month, British Captain Augustus Harvey, in command of the HMS Viper, arrived in the area and battled with the Mi’kmaq. One Mi’kmaq was killed and 16 were taken prisoner to Quebec. The prisoners were eventually brought to Halifax, where they were later released upon signing the Oath of Allegiance to the British Crown on 28 July 1779.<ref>http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?id_nbr=2486; Sessional papers, Volume 5 By Canada. Parliament July 2 - September 22, 1779; Wilfred Brenton Kerr. The Maritime Provinces of British North America and the American Revolution. p. 96</ref><ref>Among the annual festivals of the old times, now lost sight of, was the celebration of St. Aspinquid's Day, known as the Indian Saint. St. Aspinquid appeared in the Nova Scotia almanacks from 1774 to 1786. The festival was celebrated on or immediately after the last quarter of the moon in the month of May. The tide being low at that time, many of the principal inhabitants of the town, on these occasions, assembled on the shore of the North West Arm and partook of a dish of clam soup, the clams being collected on the spot at low water. There is a tradition that during the American troubles when agents of the revolted colonies were active to gain over the good people of Halifax, in the year 1786, were celebrating St. Aspinquid, the wine having been circulated freely, the Union Jack was suddenly hauled down and replaced by the Stars and Stripes. This was soon reversed, but all those persons who held public offices immediately left the grounds, and St. Aspinquid was never after celebrated at Halifax. (See Akins. History of Halifax, p. 218, note 94</ref> === Loyalists === After the British were defeated in the Thirteen Colonies, some former Nova Scotian territory in Maine entered the control of the newly independent American state of [[Massachusetts]]. British troops from Nova Scotia helped evacuate approximately 30,000 [[United Empire Loyalists]] (American Tories), who settled in Nova Scotia, with land grants by the Crown as some compensation for their losses. Of these, 14,000 went to present-day New Brunswick and in response the mainland portion of the Nova Scotia colony was separated and became the province of [[New Brunswick]] with Sir [[Thomas Carleton]] the first governor on August 16, 1784.<ref>Neil MacKinnon, ''This Unfriendly Soil: The Loyalist Experience in Nova Scotia, 1783-1791'' (1989)</ref> Loyalist settlements also led [[Cape Breton Island]] to become a separate colony in 1784, only to be returned to Nova Scotia in 1820. The Loyalists exodus created new communities across Nova Scotia, including [[Shelburne, Nova Scotia|Shelburne]], which was briefly one of the larger British settlements in North America, and infused the province with additional capital and skills. The Loyalist migration also caused political tensions between Loyalist leaders and the leaders of the existing [[New England Planters]] settlement. Some Loyalist leaders felt that the elected leaders in Nova Scotia represented a Yankee population which had been sympathetic to the American Revolutionary movement, and which disparaged the intensely anti-American, anti-republican attitudes of the Loyalists. "They [the loyalists]," Colonel Thomas Dundas wrote in 1786, "have experienced every possible injury from the old inhabitants of Nova Scotia, who are even more disaffected towards the British Government than any of the new States ever were. This makes me much doubt their remaining long dependent."<ref>S.D. Clark, ''Movements of Political Protest in Canada, 1640–1840,'' (1959), pp. 150-51</ref> The Loyalist influx also created pressure for settlement land which pushed Nova Scotia's Mi'kmaq People to the margins as Loyalist land grants encroached on ill-defined native lands. Approximately 3,000 members of the Loyalist migration were [[Black Loyalist]]s who founded the largest free Black settlement in North America at [[Birchtown, Nova Scotia|Birchtown]], near Shelburne. However unfair treatment and harsh conditions caused about one-third of the Black Loyalists to combine forces with British abolitionists and the [[Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor]] to resettle in [[Sierra Leone]]. In 1792, Black Loyalists from Nova Scotia founded [[Freetown, Sierra Leone|Freetown]] and became known in Africa as the [[Nova Scotian Settlers (Sierra Leone)|Nova Scotian Settlers]].<ref>Simon Schama, ''Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves and the American Revolution'', Viking Canada (2005) p. 11</ref> Large numbers of [[Canadian Gaelic|Gaelic-speaking]] [[Highland Scots]] emigrated to Cape Breton and the western part of the mainland during the late 18th century and 19th century. In 1812 [[Sir Hector Maclean, 7th Baronet|Sir Hector Maclean]] (the [[Maclean Baronets|7th Baronet of Morvern]] and 23rd Chief of the [[Clan Maclean]]) emigrated to Pictou from [[Glensanda|Glensanda and Kingairloch]] in Scotland bringing along almost the entire population of 500.<ref>Donald Campbell and R. A. MacLean, ''Beyond the Atlantic roar: a study of the Nova Scotia Scots'' (1974) p. 3</ref> == Nineteenth century == ===Renewed Wars with France=== The French Revolutionary and later Napoleonic Wars at first created confusion and hardship as the fishery was disrupted and Nova Scotia's West Indies trade suffered severe French attacks. However, military spending in the strategic colony gradually led to increasing prosperity. Many Nova Scotian merchants outfitted their own privateers to attack French and Spanish shipping in the West Indies. The maturing colony built new roads and lighthouses and in 1801 established a lifesaving station on [[Sable Island]] to deal with the many international shipwrecks on the island. === War of 1812 === [[File:John Christian Schetky, H.M.S. Shannon Leading Her Prize the American Frigate Chesapeake into Halifax Harbour (c. 1830).jpg|300px|thumb|right|War of 1812, Halifax, NS: [[HMS Shannon (1806)|HMS Shannon]] leading the [[Capture of USS Chesapeake|captured American Frigate USS Chesapeake]] into [[Halifax Harbour]] (1813)]] During the [[War of 1812]] with the United States, Nova Scotia became an even larger military base for the British as the centre for the British Royal Navy's blockade and naval raids on the United States. The colony also contributed to the war effort by purchasing or building various privateer ships to seize 250 American vessels.<ref>John Boileau. Half-hearted Enemies: Nova Scotia, New England and the War of 1812. Halifax: Formac Publishing. 2005. p.53</ref> The colony's privateers were led by the town of [[Liverpool, Nova Scotia]], notably by the schooner [[Liverpool Packet]] which captured over fifty ships in the war - the most of any privateer in Canada.<ref name="John Boileau 2005">John Boileau. 2005. Half-hearted Enemies: Nova Scotia: New England and the War of 1812. Formac Press</ref> The [[Sir John Sherbrooke (Halifax)]], jointly owned between Liverpool and Halifax was also very successful during the war, being the largest privateer from British North America. Other communities also joined the privateer campaign, including [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia|Annapolis Royal]], [[Windsor, Nova Scotia|Windsor]], and in [[Lunenburg, Nova Scotia]], three members of the town of purchased a privateer schooner and named it ''Lunenburg'' on August 8, 1814.<ref>C.H.J.Snider, Under the Red Jack: privateers of the Maritime Provinces of Canada in the War of 1812 (London: Martin Hopkinson & Co. Ltd, 1928), 225-258 (see http://www.1812privateers.org/Ca/canada.htm#LG)</ref> The Nova Scotian privateer vessel captured seven American vessels. [[Image:John Coape Sherbrooke.jpg|thumb|left|Sir [[John Coape Sherbrooke]] - Lt Gov. of Nova Scotia departed Halifax and conquered [[Maine]], renaming the colony [[New Ireland (Maine)|New Ireland]]]] Perhaps the most dramatic moment in the war for Nova Scotia was the [[HMS Shannon (1806)|HMS Shannon]]'s led the [[Capture of USS Chesapeake|captured American Frigate USS Chesapeake]] into [[Halifax Harbour]] (1813). The Captain of the Shannon was injured and Nova Scotian [[Provo Wallis]] took command of the ship to escort the Chesapeake to Halifax. Many of the prisoners were kept at [[Deadman's Island, Halifax]].<ref name="John Boileau 2005"/> At the same time, there was the [[HMS Hogue (1811)|HMS Hogue's]] traumatic capture of the American Privateer [[Young Teazer]] off [[Chester, Nova Scotia]]. [[File:WilliamParryWallisByRobertField.jpg|thumb| right| Nova Scotian [[Provo Wallis]] commanded Shannon back to Halifax]] On September 3, 1814 a British fleet from [[City of Halifax|Halifax, Nova Scotia]] began to [[Battle of Hampden|lay siege to Maine]] to re-establish British title to Maine east of the [[Penobscot River]], an area the British had renamed "New Ireland". Carving off "New Ireland" from New England had been a goal of the British government and settlers of Nova Scotia ("New Scotland") since the American Revolution.<ref>Seymour, p. 10</ref> The British expedition involved 8 war-ships and 10 transports (carrying 3,500 British regulars) that were under the overall command of Sir [[John Coape Sherbrooke]], then Lt. Gov. of [[Nova Scotia]].<ref>Tom Seymour, ''Tom Seymour's Maine: A Maine Anthology'' (2003), pp. 10-17</ref> On July 3, 1814, the expedition captured the coastal town of [[Castine, Maine]] and then went on to raid [[Belfast, Maine|Belfast]], [[Machias, Maine|Machias]], [[Eastport, Maine|Eastport]], [[Hampden, Maine|Hampden]] and [[Bangor, Maine|Bangor]](See [[Battle of Hampden]]). After the war, Maine was returned to America through the [[Treaty of Ghent]]. The British returned to Halifax and, with the spoils of war they had taken from Maine, they built [[Dalhousie University]] (established 1818).<ref>D.C. Harvey, "The Halifax–Castine expedition," ''Dalhousie Review'', 18 (1938–39): 207–13.</ref> The [[Black Refugee (War of 1812)|Black Refugees]] from the [[War of 1812]] were [[African American]] slaves who fought for the [[United Kingdom|British]] and were relocated to Nova Scotia. The Black Refugees were the second group of [[African Americans]], after the [[Black Loyalists]], to defect to the British side and be relocated to Nova Scotia. There was also migration out of the colony because of the hardships immigrants faced. Reverend [[Norman McLeod (minister)|Norman McLeod]] led a large group of approximately 800 Scottish residents from the [[St. Anns, Nova Scotia]] to [[Waipu, New Zealand]], during the 1850s. ===Workers=== Working conditions in the Halifax Naval Yard during the 1775-1820 era included officials who took bribes from workers and widespread nepotism. The laborers endured poor working conditions and limited personal freedoms. However, the laborers were willing to remain there for many years because wages were high and more steady than any alternative. Unlike almost any other jobs the yards paid disability benefits for men injured at work and gave retirement pensions to those who spent their career in the yards.<ref>Julian Gwyn, "the Culture of Work in the Halifax Naval Yard Before 1820." ''Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society'' 1999 2: 118-144.</ref> Nova Scotia had one of the first labour organizations in what became Canada. By 1799 workers set up a Carpenters' Society at Halifax, and soon there were attempts at organization by other craftsmen and tradesmen. Businessmen complained, and in 1816 Nova Scotia passed an act against trade unions, the preamble of which declared that great numbers of master tradesmen, journeymen, and workmen in the town of Halifax and other parts of the province had, by unlawful meetings and combinations, endeavored to regulate the rate of wages and effectuate other illegal aims. Unions remained illegal until 1851.<ref>Buckner and Reid, ''The Atlantic region to Confederation: a history'' (1995) p. 338</ref> === Crimean War === [[File:Welsford-Parker Monument at the entrance to the Old Burying Ground in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.jpg|thumb|right|[[Welsford-Parker Monument]], [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax, Nova Scotia]] - Only Crimean War Monument in North America]] Nova Scotians fought in the [[Crimean War]]. The [[Welsford-Parker Monument]] in Halifax is the oldest war monument in Canada (1860) and the only Crimean War monument in North America. It commemorates the [[Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)]]. === Indian Mutiny === Nova Scotians also participated in the [[Indian Mutiny]]. Two of the most famous were [[William Hall (VC)]] and Sir [[John Eardley Inglis]], both of whom participated in the [[Siege of Lucknow]]. The [[78th (Highlanders) Regiment of Foot]] were famous for their involvement with the siege and were later posted to [[Citadel Hill (Fort George)]]. === Responsible government === Nova Scotia was the first colony in [[British North America]] and in the [[British Empire]] to achieve [[responsible government]] in January–February 1848 and become [[self-governing colony|self-governing]] through the efforts of [[Joseph Howe]].<ref name="Beck, J. Murray 1983">Beck, J. Murray. (1983) ''Joseph Howe: The Briton Becomes Canadian 1848–1873''. (v.2). Kingston & Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-0388-9</ref> (In 1758, Nova Scotia also became the first British colony to establish [[representative government]], commemorated in 1908 by erecting the [[Sir Sandford Fleming Park|Dingle Tower]].) <gallery> File:Nova Scotia stamp.jpg|Nova Scotia postage stamp (1851-1857). Printed in England. Also used in New Brunswick. File:NSwik-stamp8c1860.jpg|Nova Scotia stamp (issued 1860) </gallery> === American Civil War === Over 200 Nova Scotians have been identified as fighting in the [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865). Most joined Maine or Massachusetts infantry regiments, but one in ten served the Confederacy (South). The total probably reached into two thousand as many young men had migrated to the U.S. before 1860. Pacifism, neutrality, anti-Americanism, and anti-Yankee sentiments all operated to keep the numbers down, but on the other hand there were strong cash incentives to join the well-paid Northern army and the long tradition of emigrating out of Nova Scotia, combined with a zest for adventure, attracted many young men.<ref>Greg Marquis, "Mercenaries or Killer Angels? Nova Scotians in the American Civil War," ''Collections of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society,'' 1995, Vol. 44, pp 83-94</ref> The British Empire (including Nova Scotia) declared neutrality, and Nova Scotia prospered greatly from trade with the North. There were no attempts to trade with the South. Nova Scotia was the site of two minor international incidents during the war: the [[Chesapeake Affair]] and the escape from [[Halifax Harbour]] of the [[CSS Tallahassee]], aided by Confederate sympathizers.<ref>Greg Marquis, ''In Armageddon’s Shadow: The Civil War and Canada’s Maritime Provinces'' . McGill-Queen’s University Press. 1998.</ref> The war left many fearful that the North might attempt to annex [[British North America]], particularly after the [[Fenian raids]] began. In response, volunteer regiments were raised across Nova Scotia. One of the main reasons why Britain sanctioned the creation of Canada (1867) was to avoid another possible conflict with America and to leave the defence of Nova Scotia to a Canadian Government.<ref>Marquis, ''In Armageddon’s Shadow''</ref> === Anti-Confederation campaign === The [[Constitution Act, 1867|British North America Act]], by which Nova Scotia became part of the Dominion of Canada, went into effect on July 1, 1867. Premier [[Charles Tupper]] had worked energetically to bring about the union. But it was controversial because localism, Protestant fears of Catholics and distrust of Canadians generally, and worries about losing free trade with America, were all intensified by the refusal of Tupper to consult Nova Scotia's voters on the subject. A movement for withdrawal from Canada developed, led by [[Joseph Howe]]. Howe's [[Anti-Confederation Party]] swept the next election, on September 18, 1867, winning 18 out of 19 federal seats, and 36 out of 38 seats in the provincial legislature. A motion passed by the Nova Scotia House of Assembly in 1868 refusing to recognise the legitimacy of Confederation has never been rescinded. With the great [[Hants County]] bi-election of 1869, Howe was successful in turning the province away from appealing confederation to simply seeking "better terms" within it.<ref name="Beck, J. Murray 1983"/> Despite its temporary popularity, Howe's movement failed in its goal to withdraw from Canada because London was determined the union go forward. Howe did succeed in getting better financial terms for the province, and gained a national office for himself.<ref>Beck (2000)</ref> Long-term adverse factors came into play. In 1865 came the end of the American Civil War and all the extra business it had generated. In 1866 came the end of [[Canadian-American Reciprocity Treaty]], which led to higher and damaging American tariffs on goods imported from Nova Scotia. In the long run the transition at sea from wood-wind-water sailing to steel steamships undercut the advantages Nova Scotia had enjoyed before 1867. Many residents for decades grumbled that Confederation had slowed the economic progress of the province and it lagged other parts of Canada. Repeal, as anti-confederation became known, would rear its head again in the 1880s, and transform into the [[Maritime Rights Movement]] in the 1920s. Some [[Flag of Nova Scotia|Nova Scotia flags]] flew at half mast on [[Dominion Day]] as late as that time. ===Economic growth=== Throughout the nineteenth century, there were numerous businesses that were developed in Nova Scotia that became of national and international importance: The [[Starr Manufacturing Company]], the [[Bank of Nova Scotia]], [[Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce|CIBC]], [[Cunard Line]], [[Alexander Keith's Brewery]], [[Morse's Tea Company]], among others. Most people were farmers and agriculture dominated the economy, despite all the attention given to ships. The rural situation peaked in 1891 in terms of total rural population, farmland, grain production, cattle production, and number of farms, then fell steadily into the 21st century. Apples and dairy products resisted the downward trend in the 20th century.<ref>Kris Inwood, and Phyllis Wagg, "Wealth and Prosperity in Nova Scotia Agriculture, 1851-71." ''Canadian Historical Review'' 1994 75(2): 239-264.</ref> The pattern of Nova Scotia's trade and tariffs between 1830 and 1866 suggests that the colony was already moving toward free trade before the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 with the U.S. took effect. The treaty produced modest additional direct gains. The Reciprocity Treaty complemented the earlier movement toward free trade and stimulated the export of commodities sold primarily to the United States, especially coal.<ref>Marilyn Gerriets and Julian Gwyn, "Tariffs, Trade and Reciprocity: Nova Scotia, 1830-1866." ''Acadiensis'' 1996 25(2): 62-81. Issn: 0044-5851</ref> Halifax was the home of [[Samuel Cunard]]. With his father, Abraham, a master ship's carpenter, he founded the A. Cunard & Co. cargo shipping company and later the [[Cunard Line]], a pride of the British Empire. Samuel parlayed his father's modest waterfront properties into a succession of businesses that revolutionized transatlantic shipping and passenger travel with the introduction of steam and steel. Cunard was a booster who was active in philanthropy and helped found the Chamber of Commerce, where he found business partners for his ventures in banking, mining, and other businesses. In the process he became one of the largest landholders in the Maritime Provinces.<ref>John G. Langley, "Samuel Cunard 1787-1865: 'As Fine a Specimen of a Self-made Man as this Western Continent Can Boast Of.'" ''Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society'' 2005 8: 92-115. Issn: 1486-5920</ref> [[John Fitzwilliam Stairs]] (1848–1904), scion of the powerful Stairs family, enlarged the family's multiple businesses by merging the cordage firms and sugar refineries and then creating the steel industry in the province. In order to develop new regional sources of capital, Stairs became an innovator in building legal and regulatory frameworks for these new forms of financial structure. Frost contrasts Stairs's success in promoting regional development with the obstacles that he had encountered in promoting regional interests, particularly at the federal level. The family finally sold its businesses in 1971, after 160 years.<ref>J.B. Cahill, "STAIRS, JOHN FITZWILLIAM" in ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'' (2000) [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=41203&query=stairs online edition]</ref><ref>James D. Frost, ''Merchant princes: Halifax's first family of finance, ships, and steel'' (2003)</ref> After Confederation, boosters of Halifax expected federal help to make the city's natural harbor Canada's official winter port and a gateway for trade with Europe. Halifax's advantages included its location just off the Great Circle route made it the closest to Europe of any mainland North American port. But the new [[Intercolonial Railway]] (ICR) took an indirect, southerly route for military and political reasons, and the national government made little effort to promote Halifax as Canada's winter port. Ignoring appeals to nationalism and the ICR's own attempts to promote traffic to Halifax, most Canadian exporters sent their wares by train though Boston or Portland. No one was interested in financing the large-scale port facilities Halifax lacked. It took the First World War to at last boost Halifax's harbor into prominence on the North Atlantic.<ref>James D. Frost, "Halifax: the Wharf of the Dominion, 1867-1914." ''Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society'' 2005 8: 35-48.</ref> Unionization, legal after 1851, was based on skilled crafts except in the coal mines and steel plants, where unskilled men could also join. There has been an increase in [[industrial unionism]] with the expansion of industry. International unionism with a strong American influence became important, as international unions began in 1869, when a local of the International Typographical Union was chartered in Halifax. In 1870 the woodworking trades started their union. Different unions banded together to support strike action, as seen in the organization of the Amalgamated Trade Unions of Halifax in 1889, which was succeeded by the Halifax District Trades and Labour Council in 1898. By the end of the 19th century there were more than 70 local unions in the province.<ref>Ian McKay, "'By Wisdom, Wile or War:' The Provincial Workmen's Association and the Struggle for Working-Class Independence in Nova Scotia, 1879-97," ''Labour/Le Travail,'' (Fall 1986), 18:13-62 [http://www.lltjournal.ca/index.php/llt/article/download/2502/2905 online]</ref><ref>Paul MacEwan, ''Miners and Steelworkers: Labour in Cape Breton'' (1976)</ref> === Golden age of sail === [[File:RMS Britannia 1840 paddlewheel.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[RMS Britannia Class|''Britannia'']] of 1840 (1150 GRT), the first [[Samuel Cunard]] liner built for the transatlantic service.]] Nova Scotia became a world leader in both building and owning wooden sailing ships in the second half of the century. Nova Scotia produced internationally recognized ship builders [[Donald McKay]], [[John M. Blaikie]] and [[William Dawson Lawrence]] and ship designers such as [[Ebenezer Moseley]]. Notable ships included the [[barque]] [[Stag (barque)|''Stag'']], a clipper renowned for speed and the [[full rigged ship|ship]] [[William D. Lawrence (ship)|''William D. Lawrence'']], the largest wooden [[full rigged ship|ship]] ever built in Canada. The fame Nova Scotia achieved from sailors was assured when [[Joshua Slocum]] became the first man to sail single-handedly around the world (1895). Competition from steamships in the late 19th century ended the Golden Age of Sail, although the legacy continued to inspire into the following century with the many racing victories of the [[Bluenose]] schooner. The population grew steadily from 277,000 in 1851 to 388,000 in 1871, mostly from natural increase since immigration was slight. The era has been called a golden age, but that was a myth created in the 1930s to lure tourists to a romantic era of tall ships and antiques.<ref>Ian McKay, "History and the Tourist Gaze: The Politics of Commemoration in Nova Scotia, 1935-1964," ''Acadiensis,'' Spring 1993, Vol. 22 Issue 2, pp 102-138</ref> Recent historians using census data have shown that is a fallacy. In 1851-1871 there was an overall increase in per capita wealth holding. However most of the gains went to the urban elite class, especially businessmen and financiers living in Halifax. The wealth held by the top 10% rose considerably over the two decades, but there was little improvement in the wealth levels in rural areas, which comprised the great majority of the population.<ref>Julian Gwyn and Fazley Siddiq, "Wealth distribution in Nova Scotia during the Confederation era, 1851 and 1871," ''Canadian Historical Review,'' Dec 1992, Vol. 73 Issue 4, pp 435-52</ref> Likewise Gwyn reports that gentlemen, merchants, bankers, colliery owners, shipowners, shipbuilders, and master mariners flourished. However the great majority of families were headed by farmers, fishermen, craftsmen and laborers. Most of them-and many widows as well—lived in poverty. Out migration became an increasingly necessary option.<ref>Julian Gwyn, "Golden Age or Bronze Moment? Wealth and Poverty in Nova Scotia: The 1850s and 1860s," ''Canadian Papers in Rural History,'' 1992, Vol. 8, pp 195-230</ref><ref>Rural poverty is the theme of Rusty Bittermann, Robert A. Mackinnon, and Graeme Wynn, "Of inequality and interdependence in the Nova Scotian countryside, 1850-70," ''Canadian Historical Review,'' March 1993, Vol. 74 Issue 1, pp 1-43</ref> Thus the era was indeed a golden age but only for a small but powerful and highly visible elite. === North West Rebellion === The [[Halifax Provisional Battalion]] was a military unit from [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]], which was sent to fight in the [[North-West Rebellion]] in 1885. The battalion was under command of Lieut.-Colonel James J. Bremner and consisted of 168 non-commissioned officers and men of the [[The Princess Louise Fusiliers]], 100 of the [[The Halifax Rifles (RCAC)|63rd Battalion Rifles]], and 84 of the [[1st (Halifax-Dartmouth) Field Artillery Regiment, RCA|Halifax Garrison Artillery]], with 32 officers. The battalion left Halifax under orders for the North-West on Saturday, April 11, 1885, and they stayed for almost three months.<ref>The history of the North-west rebellion of 1885: Comprising a full and ... By Charles Pelham Mulvany, Louis Riel, p. 410</ref> Prior to Nova Scotia's involvement, the province remained hostile to Canada in the aftermath of the [[Anti-Confederation Party|how the colony was forced into Canada]]. The celebration that followed the Halifax Provisional Battalion's return by train across the county ignited a national patriotism in Nova Scotia. Prime Minister Robert Borden, stated that "up to this time Nova Scotia hardly regarded itself as included in the Canadian Confederation... The rebellion evoked a new sprit... The Riel Rebellion did more to unite Nova Scotia with the rest of Canada than any event that had occurred since Confderation." Similarly, in 1907 Governor General Earl Grey declared, "This Battalion... went out Nova Scotians, they returned Canadians." The wrought iron gates at the [[Halifax Public Gardens]] were made in the Battalion's honour.<ref>David A. Sutherland. "Halifax Encounter with the North-West Uprising of 1885". ''Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society''. Vol. 13, 2010. p. 73</ref> == Twentieth century == ===Heavy industry=== [[File:ReserveColliery DominioncoalCompanyCa1900.jpg|thumb|340px|A Scotia colliery in [[Reserve Mines, Nova Scotia]], about 1900; it closed in the 1950s]] The Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company (known as Scotia) became a vertically-integrated industrial giant. It grew rapidly and made handsome profits from exports of coal, pig iron and steel products to Canadian and international markets. At first its convenient tidewater location and control over all steps of production boosted growth, as it grew through mergers and acquisitions. However the long term negative factors included fragmentation, limited Maritime region markets, rising costs, low quality raw materials, and the lack of external economies.<ref>L. D. McCann, "Fragmented Integration: the Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company and the Anatomy of an Urban-industrial Landscape, c. 1912." ''Urban History Review'' 1994 22(2): 139-158.</ref> When Scotia (now called DOSCO--[[Dominion Steel and Coal Corporation]]) finally closed in the 1960s it was a blow to numerous towns that had counted on its well paid jobs and the political activism of its workers, such as [[Florence, Nova Scotia|Florence]], [[Reserve Mines, Nova Scotia|Reserve Mines]], Sydney Mines, Trenton, and [[New Glasgow, Nova Scotia|New Glasgow]].<ref>John Mellor, ''The Company Stores: J.B. McLachian and the Cape Breton Coal Miners 1900-1925'' (1983)</ref> ===Rural decline and political response=== Rural areas steadily lost population, especially the eastern counties. Liberal premiers [[George Henry Murray]] (1896–1923) and [[Ernest H. Armstrong]] (1923–25) implemented programs to improve rural life and modernize agricultural industry. They secured federal assistance through loans and grants for agriculture, roads, and immigration. Murray was criticized for being too cautious in his reforms, while Armstrong, even with a Liberal federal government behind him, was unable to keep the assistance flowing. The situation only worsened with the post-war downturn which brought the United Farmers Party to power in 1920 in the hardest hit areas of eastern Nova Scotia. The Liberals' failure to stem the decline of the area brought their defeat in 1925 by "rejuvenated" Conservatives who capitalized on Armstrong's weakness.<ref>Paul Brown, "'Come East, Young Man!' the Politics of Rural Depopulation in Nova Scotia, 1900-1925." ''Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society''1998 1: 47-78.</ref> === Second Boer War === [[File:BoerWarVictoryParade,BarringtonSt.HalifaxNovaScotiabyNotmanStudioNSARMNo1983-310Neg5691.jpg|thumb| Boer War Victory Parade, Barrington Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia]] During the [[Second Boer War]] (1899–1902), the First Contingent was composed of seven Companies from across Canada. The Nova Scotia Company (H) consisted of 125 men. (The total First Contingent was a total force of 1,019. Eventually over 8600 Canadians served.) The mobilization of the Contingent took place at Quebec. On October 30, 1899, the ship Sardinian sailed the troops for four weeks to Cape Town. The Boer War marked the first occasion in which large contingents of Nova Scotian troops served abroad (individual Nova Scotians had served in the Crimean War). The [[Battle of Paardeberg]] in February 1900 represented the second time Canadian soldiers saw battle abroad (the first being the Canadian involvement in the [[Nile Expedition]]).<ref>{{cite web|author=Canadian War Museum |year=2008|title=Battle of Paardeberg|url=http://www.civilisations.ca/cwm/boer/battlepaardeberg_e.html|publisher=[[Canadian War Museum]]|accessdate=2008-05-10}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> Canadians also saw action at the Battle of Faber's Put on May 30, 1900.<ref>{{cite web|author=Canadian War Museum |year=2008|title=Battle of Faber's Put|url=http://www.civilisations.ca/cwm/boer/battlefabersput_e.html|publisher=[[Canadian War Museum]]|accessdate=2008-05-10}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> On November 7, 1900, the [[Royal Canadian Dragoons]] engaged the Boers in the [[Battle of Leliefontein]], where they saved British guns from capture during a retreat from the banks of the [[Komati River]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Canadian War Museum |year=2008|title=Battle of Leliefontein|url=http://www.civilisations.ca/cwm/boer/battleleliefontein_e.html|publisher=[[Canadian War Museum]]|accessdate=2008-05-10}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> Approximately 267 Canadians died in the War. 89 men were killed in action, 135 died of disease, and the remainder died of accident or injury. 252 were wounded. Of all the Canadians who died during the war, the most famous was the young Lt. [[Harold Lothrop Borden]] of [[Canning, Nova Scotia]]. Harold Borden's father was Sir [[Frederick W. Borden]], Canada's Minister of Militia who was a strong proponent of Canadian participation in the war.<ref>http://angloboerwarmuseum.com/Boer70g_hero7_borden1.html</ref> Another famous Nova Scotian casualty of the war was [[Charles Carroll Wood]], son of the renoun Confederate naval captain [[John Taylor Wood]] and the first Canadian to die in the war.<ref>John Bell. Confederate Seadog: John Taylor Wood in War and Exile. McFarland Publishers. 2002. p. 59</ref> ===First World War=== During [[World War I]], Halifax became a major international [[port]] and [[Navy|naval]] facility. The harbour became a major shipment point for war supplies, [[troop ship]]s to Europe from Canada and the [[United States]] and [[hospital ship]]s returning the wounded. These factors drove a major military, industrial and residential expansion of the city.<ref>''The Halifax Explosion and the Royal Canadian Navy'' John Armstrong, University of British Columbia Press, 2002, p.10-11.</ref> On Thursday, December 6, 1917, the city of Halifax was devastated by [[Halifax Explosion|the huge detonation]] of a French cargo ship, loaded with wartime explosives. It has accidentally collided with a Norwegian ship in "The Narrows" section of the [[Halifax Harbour]]. Approximately 2,000 people were killed by debris, fires, or collapsed buildings, and over 9,000 people were injured.<ref name=cbc>[http://www.cbc.ca/halifaxexplosion/he2_ruins/he2_ruins_explosion.html CBC - Halifax Explosion 1917]</ref> This is still the [[List of the largest artificial non-nuclear explosions|world's largest man-made accidental explosion]].<ref name="Jay White 1994 p. 266">Jay White, "Exploding Myths: The Halifax Explosion in Historical Context", ''Ground Zero: A Reassessment of the 1917 explosion in Halifax'' Alan Ruffman and Colin D. Howell editors, Nimbus Publishing (1994), p. 266</ref> Halifax as a port never fully recovered. ===1930s=== Nova Scotia was hard hit by the worldwide [[Great Depression]] that began in 1929 as demand plunged for coal and steel, and the prices of fish and lumber plummeted. Prosperity returned in World War II, especially as Halifax again became a major staging point for convoys to Britain. Liberal premier [[Angus L. Macdonald]] dominated the political scene as premier (1933–40 and 1945–54). Macdonald dealt with the mass unemployment of the 1930s by putting the jobless to work on highway projects. He felt direct government relief payments would weaken moral character, undermine self-respect and discourage personal initiative.<ref>T. Stephen Henderson, ''Angus L. Macdonald: A Provincial Liberal'' (2007) pp. 3–9.</ref> However, he also faced the reality that his financially strapped government could not afford to participate fully in federal relief programs that required matching contributions from the provinces.<ref>E.R. Forbes, ''Challenging the Regional Stereotype: Essays on the 20th Century Maritimes'' (1989) p.148.</ref> The [[Antigonish Movement]] emerged offering a "middle way" to helping people distressed hit by the depression through cooperative ventures under popular control. It was a Catholic operation started by Reverend Moses Coady of St Francis Xavier University in 1928. He sought a Church-approved alternative to socialism or capitalism. The cooperatives were organized at the grass roots and brought together fishermen, farmers, miners and factory workers, especially in the eastern districts. They set up local fish processing plants, credit unions, housing co-ops, and co-operative stores. Ownership and control was in the hands of the people directly involved It declined after 1950.<ref>Santo Dodaro and Leonard Pluta, ''The Big Picture: The Antigonish Movement of Eastern Nova Scotia'' (2012)</ref> ====Labour unions==== The Provincial Workmen's Association began in 1879 as a miners' union; in 1898, faced by a challenge from the [[Knights of Labor]], it sought to embrace unions in all the industries of the province. The first local union of the [[United Mine Workers]] was established in 1908. After a struggle for control of the labour movement among the miners, the Provincial Workmen's Association was dissolved in 1917, and by 1919 the [[United Mine Workers]] took control of the coal miners. Success was due to the aggressive leadership of J. B. McLachlan (1869–1937), who left the coal mines of Scotland for Canada in 1902, became a Communist (1922 to 1936) and promoted a strong union and a tradition of independent labour politics. McLachlan’s battles with the American UMWA leadership, particularly the dictatorial [[John L. Lewis]], demonstrated his commitment to democratic unionism for the miners and a fighting union, but Lewis won and outsted McLachlan from power.<ref>David Frank, ''J. B. McLachlan: A Biography: The Story of a Legendary Labour Leader and the Cape Breton Coal Miners'' (1999) p 97</ref> Women played an important, though quiet, role in support of the union movement in coal towns during the troubled 1920s and 1930s. They never worked for the mines but provided psychological support especially during strikes when the pay packets did not arrive. They were the family financiers and encouraged other wives who otherwise might have coaxed their menfolk to accept company terms. Women's labor leagues organized a variety of social, educational, and fund-raising functions. Women also violently confronted "scabs", policemen, and soldiers. They had to stretch the food dollar and show inventiveness in clothing their families.<ref>Penfold Steven, "'Have You No Manhood in You?' Gender and Class in the Cape Breton Coal Towns, 1920-1926." ''Acadiensis'' 1994 23(2): 21-44.</ref> ==== World War II ==== [[File:WinstonChurchillHalfaxNovaScotia.JPG|thumb|left|A statue of Winston Churchill in Downtonwn [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]] by [[Oscar Nemon.]]]] During [[World War II]], thousands of Nova Scotians went overseas. One Nova Scotian, [[Mona Louise Parsons]], joined the [[Dutch resistance]] and was eventually captured and imprisoned by the [[Nazis]] for almost four years. ===Since 1945=== After the war Macdonald initiated large-scale spending programs for such services as health, education, labor union protection measures, and pensions. Conservative [[Robert L. Stanfield]] served as premier during 1956-67. The pragmatic Stanfield, though in favor of some government intervention in economic affairs, was cautious about social policy and was unwilling to promote the welfare state. Nevertheless, new hospitals were built, funded by a sales tax. After 1960 there was increased emphasis on provincial assistance for local municipalities in health and education, with finances for university expansion. Generally, Stanfield, though a conservative, took a positive view of the state's role in helping citizens overcome poverty, ill-health, and discrimination and accepted the need to raise taxes to pay for such services.<ref>Jennifer Smith, "The Stanfield Government and Social Policy in Nova Scotia: 1956-1967." ''Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society'' 2003 6: 1-16.</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Nova Scotia|Acadia}} *[[Nova Scotia Federation of Labour]] *[[List of National Historic Sites of Canada in Nova Scotia]] *[[History of Acadia]] *[[Military history of Nova Scotia]] *[[History of the Halifax Regional Municipality]] ==References== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Bibliography== {{main|Bibliography of Nova Scotia}} * Ian McKay and Robin Bates. ''In the Province of History: The Making of the Public Past in Twentieth-Century Nova Scotia'' (2010) * Dr. Ed Whitcomb. ''A Short History of Nova Scotia''. Ottawa. From Sea To Sea Enterprises, 2009. ISBN 978-0-9694667-9-6. 72 pp. * Duncan Campbell, ''History of Nova Scotia, for Schools'' BiblioLife, 2009 ISBN 1-115-65980-4, [http://books.google.ca/books?id=UmGa73sExSIC excerpt] *[http://books.google.ca/books?id=pDg7hxoVz30C&lpg=PP1&dq=The%20Quest%20of%20the%20Folk%3A%20Antimodernism%20and%20Cultural%20Selection%20in%20Twentieth-Century%20Nova%20Scotia&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true The quest of the folk : antimodernism and cultural selection in twentieth-century Nova Scotia BY Ian McKay] McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994 ISBN 0-7735-1179-2 *[http://books.google.ca/books?id=Fwlt7N5UZwYC&lpg=PP1&dq=Conservative%20Reformer%201804-1848%3B%20The%20Briton%20Becomes%20Canadian%201848-1873&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true Conservative reformer, 1804-1848 - v. 2. The Briton becomes Canadian BY Joseph Howe and J. Murray Beck] McGill-Queen's University Press, 1984 ISBN 0-7735-0445-1 *[http://books.google.ca/books?id=6LFOPGedtQ8C&lpg=PA485&dq=Workers%20and%20the%20State%20in%20Twentieth%20Century%20Nova%20Scotia&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true The Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, 1754-2004: from imperial bastion to ...By Philip Girard, Jim Phillips] Society for Canadian Legal History, 2004 ISBN 0-8020-8021-9 *[http://books.google.ca/books?id=2Vu5SZevt3MC&lpg=PP1&dq=Politics%20of%20Nova%20Scotia&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true Against the Grain: Foresters and Politics in Nova Scotia By Anders Sandberg, Peter Clancy] UBC Press, 2000 ISBN 0-7748-0765-2 {{Subdivisions of Nova Scotia}} {{Canada History}} {{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Nova Scotia}} [[Category:History of Nova Scotia| ]] [[Category:Conflicts in Nova Scotia]] [[Category:Military history of Nova Scotia]]'