View source for Hindustani grammar

{{Short description|Grammatical features of the Hindustani lingua franca}}
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{{Very long|date=November 2020}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
[[File:A Grammar of Urdu or Hindustani language.jpg|thumb|Cover page of ''A Grammar of the Urdu or Hindustani Language'']]
{{Hindustani_language}}

[[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], the [[lingua franca]] of Northern India and Pakistan, has two standardised [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]]s: [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]]. Grammatical differences between the two standards are minor but each uses its own script: Hindi uses [[Devanagari]] while Urdu uses [[Urdu alphabet|an extended form]] of the [[Perso-Arabic script]], typically in the [[Nastaʿlīq script|Nastaʿlīq]] style.

On this grammar page, [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] is written in the [[Transcription (linguistics)|transcription]] outlined in {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991}}. Being "primarily a system of [[transliteration]] from the Indian scripts, [and] based in turn upon [[Sanskrit]]" ([[cf.]] [[IAST]]), these are its salient features: [[subscript]] [[dot (diacritic)|dot]]s for [[retroflex consonant]]s; [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]]s for etymologically, contrastively [[long vowel]]s; ''h'' for [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] [[plosive]]s; and [[tilde]]s for [[nasalized vowel|nasalised vowel]]s.

==Phonology==
{{main|Hindustani phonology|Help:IPA/Hindi and Urdu}}
The sounds presented in parentheses in the tables below signify they are only found in loanwords from either [[Persian language|Persian]] or [[Sanskrit]]. More information about phonology of Hindustani can be read on [[Hindustani phonology]] and [[Help:IPA/Hindi and Urdu|IPA/Hindi and Urdu]].

=== Vowels ===
Hindustani natively possesses a symmetrical ten-vowel system. The vowels [ə], [ɪ], [ʊ] are always short in length, while the vowels [ɑː], [iː], [uː], [eː], [oː], [ɛː], [ɔː] are always considered long, in addition to an eleventh vowel /æː/ which is found in [[English language|English]] [[loanword]]s. 
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin: 1em 2em; text-align: center;"
|+Vowels in Hindustani
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="8" |Front
! colspan="4" rowspan="2" |Central
! colspan="8" |Back
|-
! colspan="4" |<small>long</small>
! colspan="4" |<small>short</small>
! colspan="4" |<small>short</small>
! colspan="4" |<small>long</small>
|-
!IPA
!{{abbr|Rom.|Romanization}}
! colspan="2" |script
!IPA
!{{abbr|Rom.|Romanization}}
! colspan="2" |script
!IPA
!{{abbr|Rom.|Romanization}}
! colspan="2" |script
!IPA
!{{abbr|Rom.|Romanization}}
! colspan="2" |script
!IPA
!{{abbr|Rom.|Romanization}}
! colspan="2" |script
|-
!Close
|<big>{{IPA link|iː}}</big>
|ī
|ई
|اِیْ 
|<big>{{IPA link|ɪ}}</big>
|i
|इ
|اِ 
|
|
|
|
|<big>{{IPA link|ʊ}}</big>
|u
|उ
|اُ 
|{{IPA link|uː}}
|ū
|ऊ
|اُوْ
|-
!Close-mid
|<big>{{IPA link|eː}}</big>
|e
|ए
|اِےْ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|<big>{{IPA link|oː}}</big>
|o
|ओ
|اُوْ
|-
!Open-mid
|<big>{{IPA link|ɛː}}</big>
|ai
| rowspan="2" |ऐ
| rowspan="2" |اَےْ
|(<big>{{IPA link|ɛ}}</big>)
|ê
|ऍ
| اْ
|<big>{{IPA link|ə}}</big>
|a
|अ
|اَ
|(<big>{{IPA link|ɔ}}</big>)
|ô
|ऑ
|
|<big>{{IPA link|ɔː}}</big>
|au
|औ
|اَوْ
|-
!Open
|(<big>{{IPA link|æː}}</big>)
|æ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|<big>{{IPA link|ɑː}}</big>
|ā
|आ
|آ
|}

==== Vowel {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} ====
{{IPA|[ɛ]}} occurs as a conditional [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/ə/}} ([[schwa]]) in proximity to {{IPA|/ɦ/}}, if and only if the {{IPA|/ɦ/}} is surrounded on both sides by two schwas.<ref name="Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|p=258">{{Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|p=258}}</ref> and is realised as separate vowel. For example, in {{transl|hi|kahanā}} {{IPA|/kəɦ(ə)naː/}} ({{lang|hi|कहना}} – {{lang|ur|{{nastaliq|کَہنا}}}} 'to say'), the {{IPA|/ɦ/}} is surrounded on both sides by schwa, hence both the schwas will become fronted to short {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, giving the pronunciation {{IPA|[kɛɦɛnaː]}}. Syncopation of phonemic middle schwa can further occur to give {{IPA|[kɛɦ.naː]}}.

Similarly, {{IPA|[ɔ]}} occurs as a conditional [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/ə/}} and {{IPA|/ʊ/}} in proximity to {{IPA|/ɦ/}}, specifically when they occur in the sequence {{IPA|/əɦʊ/}}, pronounced {{IPA|[ɔɦɔ]}}. For example, the word {{transl|hi|bahut}} {{IPA|/bəɦʊt/}} ({{lang|hi|बहुत}} – {{lang|ur|{{nastaliq|بہت}}}} 'many') is pronounced {{IPA|[bɔɦɔt]}}.

=== Consonants ===
Hindustani has a core set of 28 [[consonant]]s inherited from earlier [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]. Supplementing these are two consonants that are internal developments in specific word-medial contexts,<ref name="Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|p=260">{{Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|p=260}}</ref> and seven consonants originally found in loan words, whose expression is dependent on factors such as status (class, education, etc.) and cultural register (Modern Standard Hindi vs Urdu).

==== Allophony of {{IPA|[v]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} ====
{{IPA|[v]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} are [[allophone]]s in Hindustani. These are distinct phonemes in English, but both are allophones of the phoneme {{IPA|/ʋ/}} in Hindustani (written {{angbr|{{lang|hi|व}}}} in Hindi or {{angbr|{{lang|ur|{{nastaliq|و}}}}}} in Urdu), including loanwords of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] origin. More specifically, they are ''[[Complementary distribution#in phonology|conditional allophones]]'', i.e. rules apply on whether {{angbr|{{lang|hi|व}}}} is pronounced as {{IPA|[v]}} or {{IPA|[w]}} depending on context. Native Hindi speakers pronounce {{angbr|{{lang|hi|व}}}} as {{IPA|[v]}} in {{transl|hi|vrat}} ({{lang|hi|व्रत}} – {{lang|ur|{{nastaliq|ورت}}}}, 'vow') and {{IPA|[w]}} in {{transl|hi|pakwān}} ({{lang|hi|पकवान}} – {{lang|ur|{{nastaliq|پکوان}}}} 'food dish'), treating them as a single phoneme and without being aware of the allophonic distinctions, though these are apparent to native English speakers. The rule is that the consonant is pronounced as semivowel {{IPA|[w]}} in onglide position, i.e. between an onset consonant and a following vowel.<ref name="ref25lojir">{{Citation|author=Janet Pierrehumbert, Rami Nair|title=Implications of Hindi Prosodic Structure (Current Trends in Phonology: Models and Methods)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_jqjQwAACAAJ|year=1996|publisher=European Studies Research Institute, University of Salford Press, 1996|isbn=978-1-901471-02-1|quote=''... showed extremely regular patterns. As is not uncommon in a study of subphonemic detail, the objective data patterned much more cleanly than intuitive judgments ... {{IPA|[w]}} occurs when /{{lang|hi|व}} {{lang|ur|{{nastaliq|و}}}}/ is in onglide position ... {{IPA|[v]}} occurs otherwise ...''}}</ref>

[[Consonant]]s and [[vowel]]s are outlined in the table below.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|p=110}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|pp=117–118}}</ref> Hovering the mouse cursor over them will reveal the appropriate [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] information, while in the rest of the article hovering the mouse cursor over {{tooltip|2=|underlined}} forms will reveal the appropriate English [[translation]]. 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Consonants in Hindustani
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="4" |[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
| rowspan="13" |
! colspan="4" |[[Dental consonant|Dental]] / [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
| rowspan="13" |
! colspan="4" |[[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
| rowspan="13" |
! colspan="4" |[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
| rowspan="13" |
! colspan="4" |[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
| rowspan="13" |
! colspan="4" |[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
| rowspan="13" |
! colspan="4" |[[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!IPA
!{{abbr|Rom.|Romanization}}
! colspan="2" |script
!IPA
!{{abbr|Rom.|Romanization}}
! colspan="2" |script
!IPA
!{{abbr|Rom.|Romanization}}
! colspan="2" |script
!IPA
!{{abbr|Rom.|Romanization}}
! colspan="2" |script
!IPA
!{{abbr|Rom.|Romanization}}
! colspan="2" |script
!IPA
!{{abbr|Rom.|Romanization}}
! colspan="2" |script
!IPA
!{{abbr|Rom.|Romanization}}
! colspan="2" |script
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|''Nasal'']]
|{{IPA link|m}}
|m
|म
|م 
|{{IPA link|n̪|n}}
|n
|न
|ن
|{{IPA link|ɳ}}
|ṇ
|ण
|ݨ
|({{IPA link|ɲ}})
|ñ
|ञ
|نیْ
|{{IPA link|ŋ}}
|ṅ
|ङ
|ن٘گ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="4" |[[Plosive consonant|''Plosive'']]
''and''

[[Affricate consonant|''Affricate'']]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|''voiceless'']]</small>
|{{IPA link|p}}
|p
|प
|پ 
|{{IPA link|t̪|t}}
|t
|त
|ت
|{{IPA link|ʈ}}
|ṭ
|ट
|ٹ
|{{IPA link|tʃ}}
|c
|च
|چ
|{{IPA link|k}}
|k
|क
|ک
|({{IPA link|q}})
|q
|क़
|ق
|
|
|
|
|-
!<small>''[[Voicelessness|voiceless]] [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]''</small>
|{{IPA|pʰ}}
|ph
|फ
|پھ
|{{IPA|tʰ}}
|th
|थ
|تھ
|{{IPA|ʈʰ}}
|ṭh
|ठ
|ٹھ
|{{IPA|tʃʰ}}
|ch
|छ
|چھ
|{{IPA|kʰ}}
|kh
|ख
|کھ 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|''voiced'']]</small>
|{{IPA link|b}}
|b
|ब
|ب
|{{IPA link|d̪|d}}
|d
|द
|د
|{{IPA link|ɖ}}
|ḍ
|ड
|ڈ
|{{IPA link|dʒ}}
|j
|ज
|ج
|{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|g
|ग
|گ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!<small>''[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]''</small>
|{{IPA|bʱ}}
|bh
|भ
|بھ
|{{IPA|dʱ}}
|dh
|ध
|دھ
|{{IPA|ɖʱ}}
|ḍh
|ढ
|ڈھ
|{{IPA|dʒʱ}}
|jh
|झ
|جھ
|{{IPA|ɡʱ}}
|gh
|घ
|گھ 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Flap consonant|''Flap'']]
''and''

[[Trill consonant|''Trill'']]
!<small>''voiced trill''</small>
|
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|r}}
|r / rr
|र / र्र 
|ر/ رّ
|{{IPA link|ɽ}}
|ṛ
|ड़
|ڑ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!<small>''[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] trill [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]''</small>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{IPA|ɽʱ}}
|ṛh
|ढ़
|ڑھ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!<small>''voiced tap<ref name="rhotic">{{IPA|/ɾ/}} can surface as a trill {{IPA|[r]}} in word-initial and syllable-final positions. Geminate {{IPA|/ɾː/}} is always a trill.</ref>''</small>
|
|
|
|
|{{IPAlink|ɾ}}
|r
|र
|ر
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|''Fricative'']]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|''voiceless'']]</small>
|{{IPA link|f}}
|f
|फ़
|ف
|{{IPA link|s}}
|s
|स
|س
|([[ʂ]])
|ṣ
|ष
|شؕ
|{{IPA link|ʃ}}
|ś
|श
|ش
|
|
|
|
|({{IPA link|x}})
|x
|ख़
|خ
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA link|ɦ}}
| rowspan="3" |h
| rowspan="3" |ह
| rowspan="3" |ہ
|-
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|''voiced'']]</small>
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA link|ʋ}}~{{IPA link|w}}
| rowspan="2" |v / w
| rowspan="2" |व
| rowspan="2" |و
|{{IPA link|z}}
|z
|ज़
|ز
|
|
|
|
|({{IPA link|ʒ}})
|zh
|झ़
|ژ
|
|
|
|
|({{IPA link|ɣ}})
|ġ
|ग़
|غ
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Approximant consonant|''Approximant'']]
|{{IPA link|l}}
|l
|ल
|ل
|
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|j}}
|y
|य
|ی
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

==Morphology==
{{see also|Hindustani declension}}

===Nouns===
Hindustani distinguishes two [[grammatical gender|genders]] (masculine and feminine), two noun types ([[count noun|count]] and non-count), two [[grammatical number|numbers]] (singular and plural), and three [[grammatical case|case]]s ([[direct case|nominative]], [[oblique case|oblique]], and [[vocative case|vocative]]).<ref name="Kachru">{{cite book |last1=Kachru |first1=Yamuna |title=Hindi |date=2006 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-3812-2 }}{{pn|date=November 2021}}</ref> Nouns may be further divided into two classes based on [[declension]], called type-I, type-II, and type-III. The basic difference between the two categories is that the former two have characteristic [[suffix|termination]]s in the nominative singular while the latter does not.{{sfn|Shapiro|2003|pp=262–263}}

The table below displays the suffix paradigms. A [[hyphen]] symbol (for the marked type-I) denotes change from the original termination to another (for example '''''laṛkā''''' to '''''laṛke''''' in the masculine singular oblique), whereas a [[Plus and minus signs|plus]] sign (for the unmarked type-II) denotes an ending which should be added ('''''seb''''' to '''''sebõ''''' in the masculine plural oblique). -Ø denotes that no suffix is added to the noun stem. The next table of noun [[declension]]s shows the above noun case paradigms in action.<ref name=":22" />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |  !! colspan="3" | ''Singular''!! colspan="3" | ''Plural''
! rowspan="2" |''Translation''
|-
! ''Nominative''!! ''Oblique''
!''Vocative''!! ''Nominative''!! ''Oblique''!! ''Vocative''
|-
! rowspan="4" |''{{abbr|m.|masculine}}''!! ''I''
| -''ā''<br />''laṛkā''
| colspan="2" | -''e''<br />''laṛke''
|  -''e''<br />''laṛke''
|  -''õ''<br />''laṛkõ''
|  -''o''<br />''laṛko''
|''boy''
|-
! rowspan="2" | ''II''
| colspan="4" | -''ī''<br />''ādmī''
| -''iyõ''<br />''ādmiyõ''
| -''iyo''<br />''ādmiyo''
|''man''
|-
| colspan="4" | -''ū''<br />''cāqū''
| -''uõ''<br />''cāquõ''
| -''uo''<br />''cāquo''
|''knife''
|-
! ''III''
| colspan="4" | -''Ø''<br />''seb''
|  +''õ''<br />''sebõ''
|  +''o''<br />''sebo''
|''apple''
|-
! rowspan="2" |''{{abbr|f.|feminine}}''!! ''I''
| colspan="3" | -''ī, -i, -iyā''<br />''laṛkī'' 
| -''iyā̃''<br />''laṛkīyā̃''
| -''iyõ''<br />''laṛkīyõ''
| -''iyo''<br />''laṛkīyo''
|''girl''
|-
! ''II''
| colspan="3" | -''Ø''<br />''bhāṣā''
| +''ẽ''<br />''bhāṣāẽ''
| +''õ''<br />''bhāṣāõ''
| +''o''<br />''bhāṣāo''
|''language''
|}

'''Notesː''' 
# The [[semi-consonant]] '''-y-''' is added after the noun stem before adding the declension suffix in the plural declension when the noun stem ends in a vowel.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=VAN OLPHEN|first=HERMAN|date=1975|title=Aspect, Tense, and Mood in the Hindi Verb|journal=Indo-Iranian Journal|volume=16|issue=4|pages=284–301|doi=10.1163/000000075791615397|issn=0019-7246|jstor=24651488|s2cid=161530848 }}</ref>
# A small number of marked masculine nouns like '''''kuā̃''''' display [[nasalization]] of all terminations.{{sfn|Shapiro|2003|p=262}}
# Some masculine nouns (which refer to family relations) ending in -'''ā''' do not change in the nominative plural and fall in the unmarked category. i.e. '''''pāpā''''' "father", '''''vālid''''' "father", '''''cācā''''' "[[uncle]]", '''''rājā''''' "[[king]]".{{sfn|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=24}}
# Unmarked nouns ending in '''''-ū''''' and '''''-ī''''' generally shorten this to '''''-u''''' and '''''-i''''' before the oblique (and vocative) plural terminations, with the latter also inserting the semivowel '''''y'''''.{{sfn|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=24}}{{sfn|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=43}}{{sfn|Shapiro|2003|p=263}}
# Many feminine [[Sanskrit]] loanwords such as '''''bhāṣā''''' ('language') and '''''mātā''''' (mother) end in ''-'''ā''''', therefore the ending ''-'''ā''''' is not always a reliable indicator of noun gender.{{sfn|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=24}}
# In Urdu, many Arabic words may retain their original [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]] and [[plural]] markings in Urdu. i.e. '''''vālid''''' "father" → '''''vālidain''''' "[[parent]]s".
# The ''-'''iyā''''' ending is also not always a reliable indicator of gender or noun type.<br />Some words such as '''''pahiyā''''' ('wheel') and [[Persian language|Persian]] '''''takiyā''''' ('pillow') are masculine type-I: '''{{transl|hi|pahiye}}''' ('wheels'), '''''takiye''''' ('pillows').<br />Feminine loanwords such as [[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''''duniyā''''' ('world') and [[Sanskrit]] '''''kriyā''''' ('action') use feminine type-II endings: '''''duniyāẽ''''' ('worlds'), '''''kriyāẽ''''' ('actions').
# [[Persian language|Perso]]-[[Arabic language|Arabic]] [[loanword|loan]]s ending in final unpronounced '''''-h''''' are handled as masculine marked nouns.{{sfn|Schmidt|2003|p=313}} Hence '''{{transl|ur|bacca(h)}}''' → '''{{transl|hi|baccā}}'''. The former is the Urdu spelling, the latter the Hindi. The pronunciation is '''{{transl|hi|baccā}}''' in both cases.

===Adjectives===
[[Adjective]]s may be divided into '''declinable''' and '''indeclinable''' categories.<ref name="Shapiro2003p264">{{Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|p=264}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kachru|first=Yamuna|title=Hindi|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|year=2006|isbn=90-272-3812-X|location=Philadelphia, PA|pages=65}}</ref> Declinables are marked, through termination, for the gender, number, case of the nouns they qualify. The set of declinable adjective terminations is similar but greatly simplified in comparison to that of noun terminations. Indeclinable adjectives are completely invariable, and can end in either [[consonant]]s or [[vowel]]s (including '''''ā''''' and '''''ī''' ''). A number of declinables display nasalisation of all terminations.<ref name="Shapiro2003p264" /> Nominative masculine singular form ('''''-ā''''') is the [[citation form]].

All adjectives can be used either [[Attributive adjective#Attributive.2C predicative.2C absolute.2C and substantive adjectives|attributively, predicatively, or substantively]]. Substantively they are declined as nouns rather than adjectives. The [[Semblative case|semblative postposition]] '''''sā''''' is used with adjectives for modifying or lightening their meaning; giving them an "-ish", "-esque", "like", or "quite" sense. e.g. '''''nīlā''''' "blue" → '''''nīlā sā''''' "bluish". Its emphasis is rather ambiguous, sometimes enhancing, sometimes toning down, the sense of the adjective.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=117}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |''Singular''
! colspan="3" |''Plural''
! rowspan="2" |''Translation''
|-
! ''Nominative''
!''Oblique''
!''Vocative''!! ''Nominative''
!''Oblique''
!''Vocative''
|-
! rowspan="4" | ''Declinable''
! rowspan="2" |''I''!!''{{abbr|m.|masculine}}''
| ''-ā'' 
''acchā''
| colspan="5" | ''-e'' 
''acche''
| rowspan="2" |''good''
|-
!''{{abbr|f.|feminine}}''
| colspan="6" | ''-ī''
''acchī''
|-
! rowspan="2" |''II''
!''{{abbr|m.|masculine}}''
| ''-yā̃''
''dāyā̃''
| colspan="5" | ''-yẽ''
''dāyẽ''
| rowspan="2" |''right (direction)''
|-
!''{{abbr|f.|feminine}}''
| colspan="6" | ''-yī̃''
''dāyī̃''
|-
! colspan="3" | ''Indeclinable''
| colspan="6" | ''-Ø''
''lāl''
|''red''
|}
* ''Examples of declinable (type-I) adjectives:'' '''''baṛā''''' "big", '''''choṭā''''' "small", '''''acchā''''' "good", '''''burā''''' "bad", '''''kālā''''' "black", '''''ṭhanḍā''''' "cold"..
* ''Examples of declinable (type-II) adjectives:'' '''''dāyā̃''''' ''"right (direction)", '''bāyā̃ "'''left (direction)".''
* ''Examples of indeclinable adjectives'': '''''xarāb''''' "bad", '''''sāf''''' "clean", '''''bhārī''''' "heavy", '''''murdā''''' "dead", '''''sundar''''' "beautiful", '''''pāgal''''' "crazy/mad", '''''lāl''''' "red".

====Comparatives and superlatives====
[[Comparative|Comparison]]s are made by using the [[Instrumental case|instrumental]] [[postposition]] '''''se''''' ([[#Postpositions|see below]]) the noun takes the oblique case and the combination of ''"noun + postposition"'' gets the [[instrumental case]], and words like '''''aur''''', '''''zyādā''''' ("more") and '''''kam''''' ("less") are added for relative comparisons. The word for "more" (zyādā) is optional, while "less" (kam) is required, so that in the absence of either, "more" will be inferred.
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
! Hindustani
|-
|{{interlinear|Gītā Gautam-se lambī hai|gita {than gautam} tall is|Gita is taller than Gautam.}}
|-
|{{interlinear|Gītā Gautam-se zyādā lambī hai|gita {than gautam} more tall is|Gita is taller than Gautam.}}
|-
|{{interlinear|Gītā Gautam-se adhik lambī hai|gita {than gautam} more tall is|Gita is taller than Gautam.}}
|-
|{{interlinear|Gītā Gautam-se aur lambī hai|gita {than gautam} more tall is|Gita is even more tall than Gautam.}}
|-
|{{interlinear|Gītā Gautam jitnī lambī hai|gita gautam {as much} tall is|Gita is as tall as Gautam.}}
|-
|{{interlinear|Gītā Gautam-se kam lambī hai|gita {than gautam} less tall is|Gita is less tall than Gautam.}}
|}

In the absence of an object of comparison the word for "more" is now no longer optional:
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|-
|{{interlinear|baccā zyādā baṛā hai|kid more big is|The kid is bigger.}}
|{{interlinear|baccā adhik baṛā hai|kid more big is|The kid is bigger.}}
|{{interlinear|zyādā baṛā baccā|more big kid|The bigger kid.}}
|{{interlinear|aur baṛā baccā|more big kid|The bigger kid.}}
|-
|{{interlinear|baccā {utnā hi} lambā hai|kid {just as much} tall/long is|The kid is just as tall (as someone else).}}
|{{interlinear|{utnā hī} baṛā baccā|{just as much} big kid|The just as big kid.}}
|-
|{{interlinear|baccā kam baṛā hai|kid less big is|The kid is less big.}}
|{{interlinear|kam baṛā baccā|less big kid|The shorter kid.}}
|}

[[Superlative]]s are made through comparisons with '''''sab''''' ("all") with the [[Instrumental case|instrumental postposition]] '''''se''''' as the suffix. Comparisons using "least" are rare; it is more common to use an antonym.
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|-
|{{interlinear|kamrā sabse sāf hai|room {than all} clean is|The room is the cleanest}}
|{{interlinear|sabse sāf kamrā|{than all} clean room|The cleanest room.}}
|-
|{{interlinear|kamrā sabse kam sāf hai|room {than all} less clean is|The room is the least clean}}
|{{interlinear|sabse kam sāf kamrā|{than all} less clean room|The least clean room}}
|-
|{{interlinear|kamrā sabse gandā hai|room {than all} dirty is|The room is the dirtiest}}
|{{interlinear|sabse gandā kamrā|{than all} dirty room|The dirtiest room.}}
|}

In Sanskritised and Persianised [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]]s of Hindustani, comparative and superlative adjectival forms using suffixes derived from those languages can be found.<ref name="Shapiro 2003 265">{{Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|p=265}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|-
! !! English
!Sanskrit
!Persian
|-
! Comparative
| -er
| colspan="2" | -tar
|-
! Superlative
| -est
| -tam
| -tarīn
|}

===Numerals===
{{main|Hindustani numerals}}
The numeral systems of several of the Indo-Aryan languages, including Hindustani and [[Nepali language|Nepali]], are typical [[decimal]] systems, but contracted to the extent that nearly every number 1–99 is irregular.<ref>{{Citation|last=McGregor|first=Ronald Stuart|title=Outline of Hindi Grammar|pages=61–62|year=1987|edition=2nd revised|place=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press}}</ref> The first four, and sixth, [[Ordinal number (linguistics)|ordinal numbers]] are also irregular. The suffix ''-'''vā̃''''' marks ordinals five and seven onwards. The ordinals decline in the same way as the declinable adjectives. The suffix -'''''gunā''''' (translates as "times" as in multiplying) marks the multipliers which for the first three multipliers changes the numeral root. The collective forms of numerals take the same form as the oblique plural case for masculine nouns. They are formed by adding the suffix '''-''õ'''''''. There are two types of adverbials. The first type is formed using the suffix -'''''bārā''''' but only for the numerals 2, 3, and 4 (but it's rarely used for 3 and even more rarely for 4). The second type of adverbial is constructed periphrastically using the quantifier '''''bār''''' meaning "times" (as in turns). The adverbial "''dobārā''" could be translated as "again" or "for a second time", similarly "''tibārā''" and "''caubārā''" mean "for a third time" and "for a fourth time" respectively. However, the periphrasatic adverbial constructions "''do bār''", "''tīn bār''" etc. translate as "two times", "three times" etc. respectively.
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|-
! ''Numeral''!! ''English''
!''Cardinals''
!''Ordinals''
!''Multipliers''
!''Collective''
! colspan="2" |''Adverbial''
!''Fractional''
|-
! ''0''
!''zero''
|''śūnya<sup>H</sup>,'' ''sifar<sup>U</sup>''
|''śūnyavā̃<sup>H</sup>,'' ''sifarvā̃<sup>U</sup>''
|''śūnyagunā''
|''—''
|''—''
|''śūnya bār''
|''—''
|-
!''1''
!''one''
|''ek''
|''pehlā, pratham<sup>H</sup>, avval<sup>U</sup>''
|''ekgunā''
|''—''
|''—''
|''ek bār''
|''pūrā''
|-
!''2''
!''two''
|''do''
|''dūsrā'', ''dvitīya<sup>H</sup>'', ''dom<sup>U</sup>''
|''dugnā, dogunā''
|''donõ''
|''dobārā, dubārā''
|''do bār''
|''ādhā''
|-
!''3''
!''three''
|''tīn''
|''tīsrā, tṛtīya<sup>H</sup>'', ''som<sup>U</sup>''
|''tigunā, tīngunā''
|''tīnõ''
|''tibārā''
|''tīn bār''
|''tihāī''
|-
!''4''
!''four''
|''cār''
|''cauthā, caturth<sup>H</sup>'', ''cahāram<sup>U</sup>''
|''caugunā, cārgunā''
|''cārõ''
|''caubārā''
|''cār bār''
|''cauthāī''
|-
!''5''
!''five''
|''pā̃c''
|''pā̃cvā̃, pañcam<sup>H</sup>'', ''pãjam<sup>U</sup>''
|''pā̃cgunā'', ''pacgunā''
|''pācõ''
|''—''
|''pā̃c bār''
|''—''
|-
!''6''
!''six''
|''cheh''
|''chaṭhā, chaṭhvā̃, ṣaṣṭ<sup>H</sup>'', ''šašm<sup>U</sup>''
|''chehgunā''
|''cheõ''
|''—''
|''cheh bār''
|''—''
|-
!''7''
!''seven''
|''sāt''
|''sātvā̃, saptam<sup>H</sup>'', ''haftam<sup>U</sup>''
|''sātgunā''
|''sātõ''
|''—''
|''sāt bār''
|''—''
|-
!''8''
!''eight''
|''āṭh''
|''āṭhvā̃, așțam<sup>H</sup>'', ''haštam<sup>U</sup>''
|''āṭhgunā''
|''āṭhõ''
|''—''
|''āṭh bār''
|''—''
|-
!''9''
!''nine''
|''nau''
|''nauvā̃, navā̃, navam<sup>H</sup>'', ''naham<sup>U</sup>''
|''naugunā''
|''nauõ''
|''—''
|''nau bār''
|''—''
|-
!''10''
!''ten''
|''das''
|''dasvā̃, dašam<sup>H</sup>'', ''daham<sup>U</sup>''
|''dasgunā''
|''dasõ''
|''—''
|''das bār''
|''dašam''
|-
!''100''
!''hundred''
|''sau, šat<sup>H</sup>, sad<sup>U</sup>''
|''sauvā̃, šatatam<sup>H</sup>, sadum<sup>U</sup>''
|''saugunā''
|''sauõ''
|''—''
|''sau bār''
|''—''
|-
!''1,000''
!''thousand''
|''sahas, sahasra<sup>H</sup>, hazār<sup>B</sup>''
|''sahasvā̃, sahasratam<sup>H</sup>, hazārum<sup>H</sup>, hazārvā̃<sup>B</sup>''
|''sahasgunā, hazārgunā''
|''sahasõ, hazārõ''
|''—''
|''sahas bār, hazār bār''
|''—''
|-
!''100,000''
!''hundred thousand''
|''lākh''
|''lākhvā̃''
|''lākhgunā''
|''lākhõ''
|''—''
|''lākh bār''
|''—''
|-
!''10,000,000''
!''ten million''
|''karoṛ, koți<sup>H</sup>''
|''karoṛvā̃, koțitam<sup>H</sup>''
|''karoṛguna''
|''karoṛõ''
|''—''
|''karoṛ bār''
|''—''
|}
''<sup>H</sup> = Hindi; <sup>U</sup> = Urdu; <sup>B</sup> = Both but comes from Persian''

===Postpositions===
The aforementioned [[inflection]]al [[grammatical case|case]] system only goes so far on its own, and rather serves as that upon which is built a system of [[agglutinative]] [[suffix]]es or [[Grammatical particle|particle]]s known as [[postposition]]s, which parallel [[English language|English]]'s [[preposition]]s. It is their use with a noun or verb that necessitates the noun or verb taking the oblique case (though the bare oblique is also sometimes used [[adverb]]ially<ref name="Shapiro2003p266">{{Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|p=266}}</ref>), and it is with them that the locus of grammatical function or "case-marking" then lies. There are eight such "one-word" primary case-marking postpositions.

==== Primary postpositions ====
{|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+Case-markers
!''Case''
!''Marker''
!''Example''
!''English''
!''Explanation''
|-
|[[Nominative case|'''''Nominative''''']]
|''—''
|''laṛkā''
|''the boy''
|marks the subject
|-
|[[Ergative case|'''''Ergative''''']]
|''ne''
|''laṛke ne''
|''the boy''
|marks the subject for [[transitive verb]]s in their [[perfective aspect]]
|-
|[[Accusative case|'''''Accusative''''']]
| rowspan="2" |''ko''
| rowspan="2" |''laṛke ko''
|''the boy''
|marks the direct object
|-
|[[Dative case|'''''Dative''''']]
|''to the boy''
|marks the direct object; can also mark [[Quirky subject|dative subjects]]<ref name=":32">Bhatt, Rajesh (2003). Experiencer subjects. Handout from MIT course "Structure of the Modern Indo-Aryan Languages".</ref> (see also [[Dative construction#Hindustani|Dative construction § Hindustani]])
|-
|[[Instrumental case|'''''Instrumental''''']]
| rowspan="2" |''se''
| rowspan="2" |''laṛke se''
|''with the boy''
|marks the instrument of the action; "with", "using", "by"
|-
|[[Ablative case|'''''Ablative''''']]
|''from the boy''
|[[Ablative case|ablative]], and [[Perlative case|perlative]] marker; "from", "through", "along"
|-
|[[Genitive case|'''''Genitive''''']]
|''kā''
|''laṛke kā''
|''boy's''
|shows possession;
|-
|[[Inessive case|'''''Inessive''''']]
|''mẽ''
|''laṛke mẽ''
|''in the boy''
|shows something is in/inside something;
|-
|[[Adessive case|'''''Adessive''''']]
|''pe/par''
|''laṛke pe''
|''on the boy''
|shows something is on/at something;
|-
|[[Terminative case|'''''Terminative''''']]
|''tak''
|''laṛke tak''
|''till the boy''
|shows end or limit; "until", "till", "up to".
|-
|[[Semblative case|'''''Semblative''''']]
|''sā''
|''laṛke sā''
|''boy-ish''
|shows resemblance and similarity; "like", "similar to", "resembles","-esque", "-ish".
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+Genitive & Semblative Marker Declension
! rowspan="2" |'''''Case'''''
! colspan="2" |''{{abbr|m.|masculine}}''
! colspan="2" |''{{abbr|f.|feminine}}''
|-
!'''''Singular'''''
!'''''Plural'''''
!'''''Singular'''''
!'''''Plural'''''
|-
|'''[[Nominative case|''Nominative'']]'''
| ''-ā''
| ''-e''
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | ''-ī''
|-
|'''[[Oblique case|''Oblique'']]'''
| colspan="2" | ''-e''
|}
|}
* Out of these 8 postpositions, the [[Genitive case|genitive]] and [[Semblative case|semblative]] postpositions '''''kā''''' & '''''sā''''' decline to agree with the [[Grammatical gender|gender]], [[Grammatical number|number]], and [[Grammatical case|case]] of the object it shows possession of and the object whose semblance is described.
* For some verbs like '''''bolnā''''' (to speak/say), the speaker can use both the [[Instrumental case|instrumental]] marker '''''se''''' and the [[Accusative case|accusative]]/[[Dative case|dative]] marker '''''ko'''''. For example, '''''rāhul se bolo''''' and '''''rāhul ko bolo''''' both translate to the same ''"Say it to Rahul.".'' However, the nuance  expressed by both are different, instrumental marker '''''se''''' has a softer tone to it. '''''rāhul se bolo''''' is more like a suggestion in form of an imperative while '''''rāhul ko bolo''''' is an order.
* Beyond the list above, there is a large range of compound postpositions, constructed majoritarily from the genitive marker '''''kā''''' (in its oblique cases '''''ke''''' & '''''kī''''') plus an adverb. When using with pronouns, these all the compound postpositions can only be used with the genitive oblique case pronouns and the genitive '''''kī/ke''''' must be omitted before attaching them with the genitive oblique case.

==== Secondary postpositions ====
{| class="wikitable"
!Compound 
Postpositions
!Explanation
!Compound 
Postpositions
!Explanation
|-
!''kī taraf''
|[[Orientative case|orientative]] marker; "towards",
!'''''ke bāre'''''
|"concerning (something)"
|-
!''ke andar''
|[[Inessive case|inessive]] marker; "inside",
!''ke bād''
|[[Antessive case|antessive]] marker; "after"
|-
!''ke bāhar''
|[[Elative case|elative]] marker "outside"
!''ke pās''
|[[Adessive case|adessive]] marker; "near" 
|-
!''ke baġal''
|[[Adessive case|adessive]] marker "adjacent" 
!''ke jaisā''
|[[Semblative case|semblative]] marker, "like" "similar to"
|-
!''ke āge'' 
|[[Apudessive case|apudessive]] marker; "in front of, ahead of",
!''ke liye''
|[[Benefactive case|benefactive]] marker; "for"
|-
!''ke ūpar''
|[[Superessive case|superessive]] marker; "on top of, above"
!''ke sāmne''
|[[postessive case]]  "facing, opposite, in front", etc.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|pp=80–81}}</ref>
|-
!''ke nīce'' 
|[[Subessive case|subessive]] marker; "beneath, below"
!''ke pīche''
|[[Pertingent case|pertingent]] marker; "behind"
|-
!''ke binā/baġair'' 
|[[Abessive case|abessive]] marker; "without"
!''ke dvārā/zariye''
|[[Perlative case|perlative]] marker; "via, through, by"
|}
Some compound postpositions do not have the genitive marker as their primary postposition, such as:
{| class="wikitable"
!Compound
Postpositions
!Explanation
|-
!''tak mẽ''
| [[limitative]] marker "within"
|}

==== Tertiary postpositions ====
Some other compound postpositions with two secondary postpositions (called tertiary postposition) can be constructed by adding primary postpositions to some of the compound postpositions shown above.
{| class="wikitable"
!Compound
Postpositions
!Marker
!Explanation
|-
!''ke bāre mẽ''
|"about"
|''"regarding/concerning/about something"''
|-
!''ke bād mẽ''
|[[Antessive case|antessive]] marker; "after (emphatic)"
|''"(in a sequence) something is after something"''
|-
!''ke sāth mẽ''
|[[Sociative case|sociative]] marker; "with (emphatic)"
|''"something is along/together with something else"''
|-
!''ke nīce mẽ''
|[[Subessive case|subessive]] marker; "beneath, below (emphatic)"
|''"location of something is below something else"''
|-
!''kī vajah se''
|[[Causal case|causal]] marker, "because of"
|''"something happens/ed because of (fault of) something else"''
|-
!''ke pīche se''
|[[Postelative case|postelative]] marker; "from behind"
|''"motion/movement from behind something"''
|-
!''ke andar se''
|[[Inessive case|inessive]] marker; "inside",
|''"motion/movement from inside something"''
|-
!''ke āge se''
|"from in front"
|''"motion/movement from in front of something"''
|-
!''ke pās se''
|[[Ablative case|adelative]] marker; "from near (something)"
|''"motion/movement near something"''
|-
!''ke nīce se''
|[[Subessive case|subessive]] marker; "beneath, below"
|''"motion/movement from below something"''
|-
!''ke ūpar se''
|[[Delative case|delative]] marker; "from above"
|''"motion/movement from above something"''
|-
!''ke ūpar ko''
|[[Sublative case|sublative]] marker;
|''"motion/movement onto a surface"''
|-
!''kī taraf ko''
|"towards [a direction] (emphatic)"
|''"motion/movement towards a direction"''
|}

===Pronouns===

====Personal and non-personal pronouns====
Hindustani has [[personal pronoun]]s for the first and second persons, while for the third person [[demonstrative]]s are used, which can be categorised [[Deixis|deictically]] as proximate and non-proximate.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|pp=264–265}}</ref> '''''tū''''', '''''tum''''', and '''''āp''''' are the three ''2P'' pronouns, constituting a threefold scale of sociolinguistic formality: respectively, ''intimate'', ''familiar'', and ''formal''. The ''2P'' intimate conjugations are grammatically singular while the ''2P'' familiar and formal conjugations are grammatically plural.<ref name="Shapiro 2003 265" /> For the non-personal pronouns (demonstrative, relative, and interrogative) the plural forms are also the formal forms.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=21}}</ref><ref name=":222">{{Cite book|last=Shapiro|first=Michael C.|title=A Primer of Modern Standard Hindi|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=2003a|isbn=81-208-0475-9|location=New Delhi|pages=265}}</ref> [[Pronoun]]s in Hindustani do not distinguish [[Grammatical gender|gender]] however they distinguish the [[Direct case|nominative]], [[Oblique case|oblique]], and the common [[Accusative case|accusative]]/[[dative]] [[grammatical case]]s. The latter-most, often called a set of [[Contraction (grammar)|contracted]] forms, is used synonymously with the dative/accusative pronoun constructed from the oblique case by suffixing the dative/accusative [[postposition]] '''''ko'''''. So, for e.g., '''''mujhe''''' and '''''mujhko''''' are synonymous dative/accusative pronouns. 

The ''1P'' and ''2P'' pronouns (except the formal ''2P'' pronoun '''''āp''''') have their own distinctive genitive forms '''''merā''''', '''''hamārā''''', '''''terā''''', & '''''tumhārā''''' unlike the non-personal pronouns whose genitive forms are constructed employing the [[oblique case]] pronoun to which the genitive postposition '''''kā''''' is suffixed ('''<small>''OBL''.</small> + ''kā'''''). The personal pronouns (except the formal 2P '''''āp''''') colloquially can also take the genitive oblique case before primary postpositions. So, instead of '''''mujhe''''' or '''''mujhko''''', the [[Periphrasis|periphrastic]] construction '''''mere ko''''' is fairly commonly heard as a synonym to '''''mujhe'''/'''mujhko''''' in colloquial speech.

To construct the [[Ergative case|ergative]] case pronouns, the ergative postposition '''''ne''''' is suffixed to the nominative case forms rather than the oblique case forms for the personal pronouns, while the ''[[demonstrative]]'', ''[[Relative pronoun|relative]]'', and ''[[Interrogative word|interrogative]]'' pronouns have unique ergative oblique case forms to which '''''ne''''' gets suffixed. So, rather than '''*''mujh-ne''''' and '''*''tujh-ne''''', it's '''''maĩ-ne''''' and '''''tū-ne''''', and for the non-personal pronouns (e.g., for demonstrative plural) it's '''''inhõ-ne''''' and '''''unhõ-ne'''.'' The ''1P'' plural and the ''2P'' familiar pronouns also have an emphatic ergative case form which respectively are '''''hamī̃ne''''' and '''''tumhī̃ne''''' which are derived using the exclusive emphatic particle '''''hī''''' as '''''ham + hī + ne''''' and '''''tum + hī + ne'''.'' For the rest of the personal pronouns, the inclusive emphatic particle '''''hī''''' must come after the pronoun in ergative case and never between the pronoun and the postposition '''''ne'''''. So, rather than '''*''maĩ-hī-ne''''', it's [[Periphrasis|periphrastically]] constructed as '''''maĩne hī'''.'' As for the non-personal pronouns, both ways of constructing the emphatic forms are grammatically valid. So, for e.g. the demonstrative proximal singular emphatic pronoun '''''isīne''''' and '''''isne hī''''' are synonymous. The emphatic forms for the relative pronouns are constructed [[Periphrasis|periphrastically]] as well, but they instead use the inclusive emphatic particle '''''bhī'''.'' So, the emphatic form of the relative singular ergative pronoun '''''jisne''''' is '''''jisne bhī'''''  meaning "whoever" and not '''''*jis-bhī-ne''''', which not a valid construction.

Compound postpositions must be used with the genitive oblique cases when using them with the personal pronouns (except the ''2P'' formal '''''āp'''''). So, when using the compound postposition '''''ke andar –''' "inside"'', '''*''mujh-ke andar''''' and '''*''mujh andar''''' are grammatically invalid constructions and instead it should be '''''mere andar –''''' ''"inside me"''. The compound postpositions that have the primary postposition '''''kī''''' in place of '''''kā''''' must have the genitive oblique case declined to the feminine gender. So, when using the postposition '''''kī taraf'''''  – "towards", it should be '''''merī taraf''''' and not '''''*mere taraf.'''''

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" rowspan="4" |Case
! colspan="5" |[[Personal pronoun|Personal]]
|-
! colspan="2" |1st person
! colspan="3" |2nd person
|-
! rowspan="2" |{{abbr|sg.|singular}}
! rowspan="2" |{{abbr|pl.|plural}}
!{{abbr|sg.|singular}}
! colspan="2" |{{abbr|sg.|singular}} & {{abbr|pl.|plural}}
|-
!Intimate
!Familiar
!Formal
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nominative case|Nominative]]
|''maĩ''
|''ham''
|''tū''
|''tum''
|''āp''
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Ergative case|Ergative]]
!Regular
|''maĩne''
|''hamne''
|''tūne''
|''tumne''
|''āpne''
|-
!Emphatic
|''—''
|''hamī̃ne''
|''—''
|''tumhī̃ne''
|''—''
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Dative case|Dative]]
| rowspan="2" |''mujhe''
| rowspan="2" |''hamẽ''
| rowspan="2" |''tujhe''
| rowspan="2" |''tumhẽ''
| rowspan="2" |''āpko''
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Accusative case|Accusative]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Oblique case|Oblique]]
!Regular
|''mujh''
|''ham''
|''tujh''
|''tum''
|''āp''
|-
!Emphatic
|''mujhī''
|''hamī̃''
|''tujhī''
|''tumhī̃''
|''—''
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" rowspan="4" |Case
! colspan="4" |[[Demonstrative pronouns|Demonstrative]]
! colspan="2" |[[Relative pronoun|Relative]]
! colspan="2" |[[Interrogative word|Interrogative]]
|-
! colspan="8" |3rd person
|-
! colspan="2" |Proximal
! colspan="2" |Non-proximal
! rowspan="2" |{{abbr|sg.|singular}}
! rowspan="2" |{{abbr|pl.|plural}}
! rowspan="2" |{{abbr|sg.|singular}}
! rowspan="2" |{{abbr|pl.|plural}}
|-
!{{abbr|sg.|singular}}
!{{abbr|pl.|plural}}
!{{abbr|sg.|singular}}
!{{abbr|pl.|plural}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Nominative case|Nominative]]
!Literary
|''yah''<ref name=":5">Hindi only. Urdu singular and plural forms remain the same in both the literary forms and colloquial forms.</ref>
|''ye''
|''vah''<ref name=":5" />
|''ve''<ref name=":5" />
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |''jo''
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |''kaun, kyā''
|-
!Colloquial
| colspan="2" |''ye''
| colspan="2" |''vo''
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Ergative case|Ergative]]
!Regular
|''isne''
|''inhõne''
|''usne''
|''unhõne''
|''jisne''
|''jinhõne''
|''kisne''
|''kinhõne''
|-
!Emphatic
|''isīne''
|''inhī̃ne''
|''usīne''
|''unhī̃ne''
|''—''
|''—''
|''kisīne''
|''kinhī̃ne''
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Dative case|Dative]]
| rowspan="2" |''ise''
| rowspan="2" |''inhẽ''
| rowspan="2" |''use''
| rowspan="2" |''unhẽ''
| rowspan="2" |''jise''
| rowspan="2" |''jinhẽ''
| rowspan="2" |''kise''
| rowspan="2" |''kinhẽ''
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Accusative case|Accusative]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Oblique case|Oblique]]
!Regular
|''is''
|''in''
|''us''
|''un''
|''jis''
|''jin''
|''kis''
|''kin''
|-
!Emphatic
|''isī''
|''inhī̃''
|''usī''
|''unhī̃''
|''—''
|''—''
|''kisī''
|''kinhī̃''
|}

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="3" rowspan="4" |Case
! colspan="4" |[[Possessive pronouns|Possessive]] & [[Genitive case|Genitive]]
|-
! colspan="2" |1st Person
! colspan="2" |2nd Person
|-
! rowspan="2" |{{abbr|sg.|singular}}
! rowspan="2" |{{abbr|pl.|plural}}
!{{abbr|sg.|singular}}
!{{abbr|sg.|singular}} & {{abbr|pl.|plural}}
|-
!Intimate
!Familiar
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Nominative case|Nominative]]
! rowspan="3" |{{abbr|m.|masculine}}
!{{abbr|sg.|singular}}
|''merā''
|''hamārā''
|''terā''
|''tumhārā''
|-
!{{abbr|pl.|plural}}
| rowspan="2" |''mere''
| rowspan="2" |''hamāre''
| rowspan="2" |''tere''
| rowspan="2" |''tumhāre''
|-
![[Oblique case|Oblique]]
!{{abbr|sg.|singular}} & {{abbr|pl.|plural}}
|-
![[Nominative case|Nominative]]
! rowspan="2" |{{abbr|f.|feminine}}
!{{abbr|sg.|singular}} & {{abbr|pl.|plural}}
| rowspan="2" |''merī''
| rowspan="2" |''hamārī''
| rowspan="2" |''terī''
| rowspan="2" |''tumhārī''
|-
![[Oblique case|Oblique]]
!{{abbr|sg.|singular}} & {{abbr|pl.|plural}}
|}

;Note:
# Postpositions are treated as [[bound morpheme]]s after pronouns in Hindi, but as separate words in Urdu.<ref name="Schmidt2003p293">{{Harvcoltxt|Schmidt|2003|p=293}}</ref>
# The varying forms for the demonstrative nominative case pronouns constitute one of the small number of grammatical differences between Hindi and Urdu. In Hindi, '''yah''' "this" / '''ye''' "these" / '''vah''' "that" / '''ve''' "those" are considered the literary pronoun set while in Urdu, '''ye''' "this, these" / '''vo''' "that, those" is the only pronoun set.
# The above [[#Postpositions|section on postpositions]] noted that '''ko''' (the dative/accusative case) marks direct objects if [[definiteness|definite]]. As "the most specific thing of all is an individual", persons (or their pronouns) nearly always take the dative case or postposition.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=68}}</ref>
# It is very common practice to use plural pronouns (and their accompanying conjugation) in formal situations, thus '''tum''' can be used in the second person when referring to one person. Similarly, some speakers prefer plural '''ham''' over singular '''maĩ'''. This is usually not quite the same as the "[[Pluralis majestatis|royal we]]"; it is rather colloquial.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=106}}</ref>

==== Reflexive pronouns ====
'''''apnā''''' is a (genitive) [[reflexive pronoun]]: "my/your/etc. (own)".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=79}}</ref> Using non-reflexive and reflexive together gives emphasis; e.g. '''''merā apnā''''' "my (very) own".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=80}}</ref> '''''xud''''', '''''āp''''', and '''''svayam''''' are some (nominative; non-genitive) others: "my/your/etc.-self".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=198}}</ref> Bases for oblique usage are usually '''''apne''' (self)'' or '''''apne āp''' (automatically)''. The latter alone can also mean "of one's own accord"; '''''āpas mẽ''''' means "among/between oneselves".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=199}}</ref>
{|
|
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |''Reflexive Pronouns''
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |''Case''
!''Singular''
!''Plural''
!''Singular''
!''Plural''
! rowspan="2" |''Translation''
|-
! colspan="2" |''Masculine''
! colspan="2" |''Feminine''
|-
! rowspan="4" |'''''Undeclinable'''''
! colspan="2" rowspan="4" |'''''Nominative'''''
'''''&'''''

'''''Oblique'''''
| colspan="4" |''xud''
|''self''
|-
| colspan="4" |''svayam'' 
|''self''
|-
| colspan="4" |''apne āp''
|''by oneself, automatically''
|-
| colspan="4" |''āpas mẽ''
|''among oneselves''
|-
! rowspan="3" |'''''Declinable'''''
! colspan="2" |'''''Nominative'''''
|''apnā''
| rowspan="2" |''apne''
| rowspan="3" |''apnī''
| rowspan="2" |''apnī''
| rowspan="3" |''of one's own''
|-
! rowspan="2" |'''''Oblique'''''
!'''''with noun'''''
| rowspan="2" |''apne''
|-
!'''''sans noun'''''
|''apnõ''
|''apniyõ''
|}

|}

==== Indefinite quantifier pronouns ====
'''''koī''''' and '''''kuch''''' are [[indefinite pronoun]]s/[[Quantifier (linguistics)|quantifier]]s. As pronouns, '''''koī''''' is used for [[Animacy|animate]] singular ("someone") and '''''kuch''''' for animate plural and inanimates ("something").<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=88}}</ref> As quantifiers/adjectives '''''koī''''' is used for singular [[count noun]]s and '''''kuch''''' for [[mass noun]]s and plural count nouns. '''''koī''''' takes the form '''''kisī''''' in the oblique. The form '''''kaī''''' is a [[Grammatical number#paucal|paucal]] equivalent to '''''koī''''', being used in the context of "several" or "a few" things.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=89}}</ref> '''''kuch''''' can also act as an [[adverb]], qualifying an adjective, meaning "rather". '''''koī''''' preceding a number takes the meaning of "about, approximately". In this usage it does not oblique to '''''kisī'''''.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=90}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |''Indefinite quantifier''
''pronouns''
! colspan="2" |''nominative''
! colspan="2" |''oblique''
! rowspan="2" |''Translation''
|-
!''animate''
!''inanimate''
!''animate''
!''inanimate''
|-
! rowspan="2" |''singular''
!'''''with noun'''''
| rowspan="2" |''koī''
|''kuch''
| rowspan="2" |''kisī''
|''kisī''
| rowspan="2" |''someone,''
''something''
|-
!'''''sans noun'''''
|''—''
|''—''
|-
! rowspan="2" |''paucal''
!'''''with noun'''''
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |''kuch''
| colspan="2" |''kuch''
| rowspan="2" |''some''
|-
!'''''sans noun'''''
|''kuchõ''
|''—''
|-
! rowspan="2" |''plural''
!'''''with noun'''''
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |''kaī''
| colspan="2" |''kaī''
| rowspan="2" |''several''
|-
!'''''sans noun'''''
|''kaiyõ''
|''—''
|}

====Adverbial pronouns====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | !! rowspan="2" |''Interrogative''!! rowspan="2" |''Relative''!! colspan="2" |''Demonstrative''
|-
! ''Proximal''!! ''Distant''
|-
! rowspan="4" |''Undeclinable''
!''Time''
|{{tooltip|2=when?|''kab''}}||{{tooltip|2=when|''jab''}}
|{{tooltip|2=now|''ab''}}||{{tooltip|2=then|''tab''}}
|-
!''Direction''
|{{tooltip|2=whither?|''kidhar''}}||{{tooltip|2=whither|''jidhar''}}
|{{tooltip|2=hither|''idhar''}}||{{tooltip|2=thither|''udhar''}}
|-
!''Place''
|{{tooltip|2=where?|''kahā̃''}}||{{tooltip|2=where|''jahā̃''}}
|{{tooltip|2=here|''yahā̃''}}||{{tooltip|2=there|''vahā̃''}}
|-
!''Manner''
|''kaise''
|''jaise''
|''aise''
|''vaise''
|-
! rowspan="2" |''Declinable''
!''Quantity''
|{{tooltip|2=how much/many?|''kitnā''}}
|{{tooltip|2=as much/many|''jitnā''}}
|{{tooltip|2=this much/many|''itnā''}}
|{{tooltip|2=that much/many|''utnā''}}
|-
!''Quality''
|''kaisā''
|''jaisā''
|''aisā''
|''vaisā''
|}
'''Note:'''

* The feminine plural forms are commonly used as singular respect forms and the feminine singular forms often are used interchangeably with the feminine plural forms.
* The declension pattern followed is the same as how genitive pronouns and postpositions decline.

==== Emphatic pronouns ====
Emphatic pronouns of Hindustani are formed by combining the exclusive emphatic particle '''''hī''''' or the inclusive emphatic particle '''''bhī''''' (with the interrogatory and relative pronouns respectively) and the pronoun in their regular oblique and nominative case. Usually, combining the emphatic particles and the pronouns with end with the consonant '''-h''' form a new set of emphatic nominative case and emphatic oblique case pronouns. The rest of the pronouns can also be combined with the exclusive emphatic particle but they do not form true pronouns, but simply add the emphatic particle as an adposition after them. The Relative and Interrogatory pronouns can only take the inclusive emphatic particle '''''bhī''''' as an adposition and never the exclusive emphatic particle '''''hī.'''''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" rowspan="4" |
! colspan="5" |Personal
! colspan="4" |Demonstrative
|-
! colspan="2" |1st person
! colspan="3" |2nd person
! colspan="4" |3rd person
|-
! rowspan="2" |Singular
! rowspan="2" |Plural
!Singular
! colspan="2" |Plural
! colspan="2" |Proximal
! colspan="2" |Non-proximal
|-
!Intimate
!Familiar
!Formal
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
! colspan="2" |Nominative
|''—''
| rowspan="2" |{{tooltip|2=we/us|''hamī̃''}}
|''—''
| rowspan="2" |{{tooltip|2=you|''tumhī̃''}}
| rowspan="2" |''—''
|''yahī''
|''—''
|''vahī''
|''—''
|-
!Oblique
!Emphatic
|{{tooltip|2=me|''mujhī''}}
|{{tooltip|2=thee|''tujhī''}}
|{{tooltip|2=this/it/he/she|''isī''}}
|{{tooltip|2=them/these|''inhī̃''}}
|{{tooltip|2=him/her/it/that|''usī''}}
|''unhī̃''
|}

===Adverbs===
Hindustani has few underived forms.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Schmidt|2003|p=322}}</ref> [[Adverb]]s may be derived in ways such as the following —

# Simply obliquing some nouns and adjectives:
#* '''''nīcā''''' "low" → '''''nīce''''' "down"
#* '''''sīdhā''''' "straight" → '''''sīdhe''''' "straight"
#* '''''dhīrā''''' "slow" → '''''dhīre''''' "slowly"
#* '''''saverā''''' "morning" → '''''savere''''' "in the morning"
#* '''''ye taraf'''''  "this direction" → '''''is taraf'''''  "in this direction/this way"
#* '''''kalkattā''''' "[[Calcutta]]" → '''''kalkatte''''' "to Calcutta".
# Nouns using the instrumental marker '''''se''''' "by, with, -ly":
#* '''''zor''''' "force" → '''''zor se''''' "forcefully" (lit. "with force")
#* '''''dhyān''''' "attention" → '''''dhyān se''''' "attentively" (lit. "with attention")
# Adjectives using post-positional phrases involving "way, manner":
#* '''''acchā''''' "good" → '''''acche se''''' "well" (lit. "by/in a good way")
#* '''''xās''''' "special" → '''''xās taur pe''''' "especially" (lit. "on a special way")
# Verbs in conjunctive form:
#* '''''hãs''''' "laugh" → '''''hãske''''' "laughingly" (lit. "having laughed")
#* '''''meherbānī kar''''' "do kindness" → '''''meherbānī karke''''' "kindly, please" (lit. "having done kindness")<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|pp=150}}</ref>
# Formative suffixes from Sanskrit or Perso-Arabic in higher registers of Hindi or Urdu
#* Skt. '''''sambhava''''' "possible" + '''''{{IAST|-taḥ}}''''' → '''''{{IAST|sambhavataḥ}}''''' "possibly".
#* Ara. '''''ittifāq''''' "chance" + '''''-an''''' → '''''ittifāqan''''' "by chance", "coincidentally".<ref name="Shapiro2003p266" />

==Verbs==
{{main|Hindustani verbs}}

===Overview===
The Hindustani [[verb]]al system is largely structured around a combination of [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] and [[Grammatical tense|tense]]/[[Grammatical mood|mood]]. Like the nominal system, the Hindustani verb involves successive layers of (inflectional) elements to the right of the [[Root (linguistics)|lexical base]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|p=257}}</ref>

Hindustani has 3 aspects: [[perfective]], [[habitual aspect|habitual]], and [[Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive]], each having overt morphological correlates.<ref name="Shapiro2003p266"/> These are [[participle]] forms, inflecting for [[Grammatical gender|gender]] and [[Grammatical number|number]] by way of a vowel termination, like adjectives.<ref name="Schmidt2003p323"/> The perfective, though displaying a "number of irregularities and morphophonemic adjustments", is the simplest, being just the [[Word stem|verb stem]] followed by the agreement vowel. The habitual forms from the [[imperfective]] participle; verb stem, plus -''t''-, then vowel. The continuous forms [[Periphrasis|periphrastic]]ally through [[compound verb|compound]]ing ([[#Compounds|see below]]) with the perfective of '''''rahnā''''' "to stay".

The [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]] '''''honā''''' "to be" can be put into five grammatical moods: [[indicative]], [[Presumptive mood|presumptive]], [[subjunctive]], [[contrafactual]], and [[Imperative mood|imperative]]. Used both in basic predicative/existential sentences and as [[Auxiliary verb|verbal auxiliaries]] to aspectual forms, these constitute the basis of tense and mood.

Non-aspectual forms include the [[infinitive]], the [[Imperative mood|imperative]], and the [[conjunction (grammar)|conjunctive]]. Mentioned morphological conditions such as the subjunctive, "presumptive", etc. are applicable to both copula roots for auxiliary usage with aspectual forms ''and'' to non-copula roots directly for often unspecified (non-aspectual) [[Finite verb|finite]] forms.

[[Finite verb]]al [[Agreement (linguistics)|agreement]] is with the nominative [[Subject (grammar)|subject]], except in the ''[[Transitive verb|transitive]] perfective'', where it is with the [[direct object]], with the erstwhile subject taking the [[ergative case|ergative]] construction ''-'''ne''''' (see [[#Postpositions|postpositions]] above). The perfective aspect thus displays [[split ergativity]].

Tabled below on the left are the paradigms for adjectival [[Agreement (linguistics)|concord]] (<sup>A</sup>), here only slightly different from that introduced [[#Adjectives|previously]]: the f. pl. can nasalise under certain conditions. To the right are the paradigms for [[Grammatical person|personal]] concord (<sup>P</sup>), used by the subjunctive.

{|
|-
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! (A) !! Sg. !! Pl.
|-
! Masc.
| ''-ā''||''-e''
|-
! Fem.
| ''-ī''||''-ī / ī̃''
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" | (P) !! rowspan="2" | 1st 
Person 
! colspan="3" | 2nd Person !! colspan="4" | 3rd Person
|-
!Intimate
!Familiar
!Formal
!Proximal
!Distal
!Proximal Formal
!Distal Formal
|-
!Singular
|  ''-ū̃''||''-e''
| rowspan="2" | ''-o''
| rowspan="2" |''-ẽ''
| colspan="2" | ''-e''
| colspan="2" |''-ẽ''
|-
!Plural
|  ''-ẽ''|| ''doesn't exist''|| colspan="4" | ''-ẽ''
|}
|}

===Copula in Hindustani===
All the verbs in Hindustani except the verb '''''honā''''' (to be) are [[Defective verb|defective]] and cannot be conjugated into these following moods and tenses in their non-aspectual forms (or simple aspect):

* ''present indicative''
* ''imperfect indicative''
* ''presumptive mood''
* ''present subjunctive''

The verb '''''honā''''' (to be) serves as the copula whose conjugations are used to form the three aspectual (or compound) forms of verbs (habitual, perfective, and progressive). In the tables below all the conjugations of the copula '''''honā''''' (to be) are shown on the left and all the conjugations of the verb '''''karnā''''' (to do) (like which all other verbs have conjugations) are shown on the right.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ PERSONAL FORMS of "''honā'' (to be)"
|-
! rowspan="5" |mood
! rowspan="5" |tense
! colspan="6" |singular
! colspan="2" |plural
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" |1P – maĩ
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" |2P – tum<sup>1</sup>
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |3P – yah/ye, vah/vo
! colspan="2" |1P – ham
|-
! colspan="2" |2P – āp<sup>1</sup>
|-
! colspan="2" |2P – tū
! colspan="2" |3P – ye, ve/vo
|-
!{{abbr|m.|masculine}}
!{{abbr|f.|feminine}}
!{{abbr|m.|masculine}}
!{{abbr|f.|feminine}}
!{{abbr|m.|masculine}}
!{{abbr|f.|feminine}}
!{{abbr|m.|masculine}}
!{{abbr|f.|feminine}}
|-
! rowspan="4" | indicative
! present
| colspan="2" |''hū̃''
| colspan="2" |''ho''
| colspan="2" |''hai''
| colspan="2" |''haĩ''
|-
! perfect
|''huā''
|''huī''
|''hue''
|''huī''
|''huā''
|''huī''
|''hue''
|''huī̃''
|-
! imperfect
|''thā''
|''thī''
|''the''
|''thī''
|''thā''
|''thī''
|''the''
|''thī̃''
|-
! future
|''hoū̃gā / hū̃gā''
|''hoū̃gī / hū̃gī''
|''hooge / hoge''
|''hoogī / hogī''
|''hoegā / hogā''
|''hoegī / hogī''
|''hoẽge / hõge''
|''hoẽgī / hõgī''
|-
! presumptive
! all
|''hū̃gā''
|''hū̃gī''
|''hoge''
|''hogī''
|''hogā''
|''hogī''
|''hõge''
|''hõgī''
|-
! rowspan="2" | subjunctive
! present
| colspan="2" |''hū̃''
| colspan="2" |''ho''
| colspan="2" |''ho''
| colspan="2" |''hõ''
|-
! future
| colspan="2" |''hoū̃''
| colspan="2" |''hoo''
| colspan="2" |''hoe''
| colspan="2" |''hoẽ''
|-
! contrafactual<sup>2</sup>
! past
|''hotā''
|''hotī''
|''hote''
|''hotī''
|''hotā''
|''hotī''
|''hote''
|''hotī̃''
|-
! rowspan="2" | imperative
! present
| colspan="2" |''—''
| colspan="2" |''hoo''
| colspan="2" |''ho''
| colspan="2" |''hoiye''
|-
! future
| colspan="2" |''—''
| colspan="2" |''honā''
| colspan="2" |''hoiyo''
| colspan="2" |''hoiyegā''
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ conjugations of "''karnā'' (to do)"
|-
! rowspan="5" |''mood''
! rowspan="5" |''tense''
! colspan="6" |''singular''
! colspan="2" |''plural''
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" |1P – maĩ
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" |2P – tum<sup>1</sup>
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |3P – yah/ye, vah/vo
! colspan="2" |1P – ham
|-
! colspan="2" |2P – āp<sup>1</sup>
|-
! colspan="2" |2P – tū
! colspan="2" |3P – ye, ve/vo
|-
!{{abbr|m.|masculine}}
!{{abbr|f.|feminine}}
!{{abbr|m.|masculine}}
!{{abbr|f.|feminine}}
!{{abbr|m.|masculine}}
!{{abbr|f.|feminine}}
!{{abbr|m.|masculine}}
!{{abbr|f.|feminine}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | indicative
! perfect
|''kiyā''
|''kī''
|''kiye''
|''kī''
|''kiyā''
|''kī''
|''kiye''
|''kī̃''
|-
! future
|''karū̃gā''
|''karū̃gī''
|''karoge''
|''karogī''
|''karegā''
|''karegī''
|''karẽge''
|''karẽgī''
|-
! subjunctive
! future
| colspan="2" |''karū̃''
| colspan="2" |''karo''
| colspan="2" |''kare''
| colspan="2" |''karẽ''
|-
! contrafactual
! past
|''kartā''
|''kartī''
|''karte''
|''kartī''
|''kartā''
|''kartī''
|''karte''
|''kartī̃''
|-
! rowspan="2" | imperative
! present
| colspan="2" |''—''
| colspan="2" |''karo''
| colspan="2" |''kar''
| colspan="2" |''kariye / kījiye''
|-
! future
| colspan="2" |''—''
| colspan="2" |''karnā''
| colspan="2" |''kariyo''
| colspan="2" |''kariyegā / kījiyegā''
|}

<sup>'''''1'''''</sup> ''the pronouns '''tum''' and '''āp''' can be used in both singular and plural sense by adding plural indicator words'' <nowiki/>''like '''sab''' (all) and '''log''' (people), akin to the English pronouns '''you''''' and '''''y'all.'''''

''<sup>'''2'''</sup> the contrafactual mood serves as both the past subjunctive and the past conditional mood.''

===Compound tenses===
Periphrastic Hindustani verb forms consist of two elements. The first of these two elements is the aspect marker. The second element (the copula) is the common tense-mood marker.<ref name=":1" />

===Mood & aspects===
Hindustani has three aspects, ''Habitual aspect'', ''Perfective Aspect'' and the ''Progressive Aspect''.<ref name=":1" /> To construct the progressive aspect and forms, Hindustani makes use of the progressive participle '''''rahā''''' which is derived from the verb '''''rahnā''''' ("to stay" or "to remain"). Unlike English and many other Indo-European languages, Hindustani does differentiate between Continuous and the Progressive aspects. So, for e.g. the sentence "'''''maĩ śarṭ <u>pahan rahā</u> hū̃'''''" will always translate as "''I am (in the process) of wearing a shirt.''" and it can never be used to mean "''I am (already) wearing a shirt''.". In English, however, ''"I am wearing a shirt."'' can be used to mean both the idea of progressive action and a continuous action. To convey the continuous state of an action the ''perfective adjectival participle'' is employed. So, ''"I am (already) wearing a shirt."'' translates into Hindustani as "'''''maĩ śarṭ <u>pahnā huā</u> hū̃.'''''" All the personal compound forms of the verb '''''karnā''''' (to do) in all three aspects and all the grammatical moods are shown in the table below:
{|
|
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
| colspan="10" |'''''Compound Aspectual Forms'''''
|-
! rowspan="5" |''mood''
! rowspan="5" |''tense''
! colspan="6" |''singular''
! colspan="2" |''plural''
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" |''1P – maĩ''
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" |''2P – tum<sup>1</sup>''
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |''3P – yah/ye, vah/vo''
! colspan="2" |''1P – ham''
|-
! colspan="2" |''2P – āp<sup>1</sup>''
|-
! colspan="2" |''2P – tū''
! colspan="2" |''3P – ye, ve/vo''
|-
!''{{abbr|m.|masculine}}''
!''{{abbr|f.|feminine}}''
!''{{abbr|m.|masculine}}''
!''{{abbr|f.|feminine}}''
!''{{abbr|m.|masculine}}''
!''{{abbr|f.|feminine}}''
!''{{abbr|m.|masculine}}''
!''{{abbr|f.|feminine}}''
|-
! colspan="10" |'''''HABITUAL ASPECT<sup>2</sup>''''' 
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''indicative'''
|'''present'''
|''kartā hū̃''
|''kartī hū̃''
|''karte ho''
|''kartī ho''
|''kartā hai''
|''kartī hai''
|''karte haĩ''
|''kartī haĩ''
|-
|'''past'''
|''kartā thā''
|''kartī thī''
|''karte the''
|''kartī thī''
|''kartā thā''
|''kartī thī''
|''karte the''
|''kartī thī̃''
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''presumptive'''
|'''present'''
| rowspan="2" |''kartā hū̃gā''
| rowspan="2" |''kartī hū̃gī''
| rowspan="2" |''karte hoge''
| rowspan="2" |''kartī hogī''
| rowspan="2" |''kartā hogā''
| rowspan="2" |''kartī hogī''
| rowspan="2" |''karte hõge''
| rowspan="2" |''kartī hõgī''
|-
|'''past'''
|-
|'''subjunctive'''
|'''present'''
|''kartā hū̃''
|''kartī hū̃''
|''karte ho''
|''kartī ho''
|''kartā ho''
|''kartī ho''
|''kartā hõ''
|''kartī hõ''
|-
|'''contrafactual'''
|'''past'''
|''kartā hotā''
|''kartī hotī''
|''karte hote''
|''kartī hotī''
|''kartā hotā''
|''kartī hotī''
|''karte hote''
|''kartī hotī̃''
|-
! colspan="10" |'''''PERFECTIVE ASPECT<sup>3</sup>'''''
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''indicative'''
|'''present'''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''kiyā hai''
|''kī hai''
|''kiye haĩ''
|''kī haĩ''
|-
|'''past'''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''kiyā thā''
|''kī thī''
|''kiye the''
|''kī thī̃''
|-
|'''future'''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''kiyā hoegā''
|''kī hoegī''
|''kiye hoẽge''
|''kī hoẽgī''
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''presumptive'''
|'''present'''
| rowspan="3" |''—''
| rowspan="3" |''—''
| rowspan="3" |''—''
| rowspan="3" |''—''
| rowspan="3" |''kiyā hogā''
| rowspan="3" |''kī hogī''
| rowspan="3" |''kiye hõge''
| rowspan="3" |''kī hõgī''
|-
|'''past'''
|-
|'''future'''
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''subjunctive'''
|'''present'''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''kiyā ho''
|''kī ho''
|''kiye hõ''
|''kī hõ''
|-
|'''future'''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''kiyā hoe''
|''kī hoe''
|''kiye hoẽ''
|''kī hoẽ''
|-
|'''contrafactual'''
|'''past'''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''kiyā hotā''
|''kī hotī''
|''kiye hote''
|''kī hotī̃''
|-
! colspan="10" |'''''PROGRESSIVE ASPECT<sup>4</sup>'''''
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''indicative'''
|'''present'''
|''kar rahā hū̃''
|''kar rahī hū̃''
|''kar rahe ho''
|''kar rahī ho''
|''kar rahā hai''
|''kar rahī hai''
|''kar rahe haĩ''
|''kar rahī haĩ''
|-
|'''past'''
|''kar rahā thā''
|''kar rahī thī''
|''kar rahe the''
|''kar rahī thī''
|''kar rahā thā''
|''kar rahī thī''
|''kar rahe the''
|''kar rahī thī̃''
|-
|'''future'''
|''kar rahā hoū̃gā''
|''kar rahī hoū̃gī''
|''kar rahe hooge''
|''kar rahī hoogī''
|''kar rahā hoegā''
|''kar rahī hoegī''
|''kar rahe hoẽge''
|''kar rahī hoẽgī''
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''presumptive'''
|'''present'''
| rowspan="3" |''kar rahā hū̃gā''
| rowspan="3" |''kar rahī hū̃gī''
| rowspan="3" |''kar rahe hoge''
| rowspan="3" |''kar rahī hogī''
| rowspan="3" |''kar rahā hogā''
| rowspan="3" |''kar rahī hogī''
| rowspan="3" |''kar rahe hõge''
| rowspan="3" |''kar rahī hõgī''
|-
|'''past'''
|-
|'''future'''
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''subjunctive'''
|'''present'''
|''kar rahā hū̃''
|''kar rahī hū̃''
|''kar rahe ho''
|''kar rahī ho''
|''kar rahā ho''
|''kar rahī ho''
|''kar rahe hõ''
|''kar rahī hõ''
|-
|'''future'''
|''kar rahā hoū̃''
|''kar rahī hoū̃''
|''kar rahe hoo''
|''kar rahī hoo''
|''kar rahā hoe''
|''kar rahī hoe''
|''kar rahe hoẽ''
|''kar rahī hoẽ''
|-
|'''contrafactual'''
|'''past'''
|''kar rahā hotā''
|''kar rahī hotī''
|''kar rahe hote''
|''kar rahī hotī''
|''kar rahā hotā''
|''kar rahī hotī''
|''kar rahe hote''
|''kar rahī hotī̃''
|}
|-
|<sup>'''''1'''''</sup> ''the pronouns '''tum''' and '''āp''' can be used in both singular and plural sense, akin to the English pronoun '''you'''.''
|-
|<sup>'''''2'''''</sup> ''the habitual aspect of Hindustani cannot be put into future tense.''
|-
|<sup>'''''3'''''</sup> ''the perfective aspect behaves ergatively, agreeing with the object of the sentence. However, if the object is marked with the postposition '''ko''', the noun is placed in the third-person masculine singular. As personal object pronouns are always marked with '''ko''', there are no personal perfective forms.''
|-
|<sup>'''''4'''''</sup> ''unlike English in which both the continuous and the progressive aspect have the same forms, the progressive aspect of Hindustani cannot convey the continuous aspect.''
|}

===Different copulas===
The ''habitual'', ''progressive'', and ''imperfect'' aspectual participles can be used with copulas other than '''''honā''''' ''(to be)'' such as '''''rahnā''' (to stay)'', '''''ānā''' (to come)'', '''''jānā''' (to go)''.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last=Shapiro|first=Michael C.|title=A Primer of Modern Standard Hindi|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1989|isbn=81-208-0475-9|location=New Delhi|pages=263}}</ref> These copulas can be converted into their participle forms and can be conjugated to form personal compound aspectual forms. Each of the four copulas provides a unique nuance to the aspect.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="12" |''ASPECT''
! rowspan="2" |Translation
|-
!''Simple''
! colspan="5" |''Perfective''
! colspan="4" |''Habitual''
! colspan="2" |''Progressive''
|-
|''honā''
|''huā honā''
|''huā karnā''
|''huā rahnā''
|''huā jānā''
|''huā ānā''
|''hotā honā''
|''hotā rahnā''
|''hotā ānā''
|''hotā jānā''
|''ho rahā honā''
|''ho rahā rahnā''
|to happen
|-
|''karnā''
|''kiyā honā''
|''kiyā karnā''
|''kiyā rahnā''
|''kiyā janā''
|''kiyā anā''
|''kartā honā''
|''kartā rahnā''
|''kartā ānā''
|''kartā jānā''
|''kar rahā honā''
|''kar rahā rahnā''
|to do
|-
|''marnā''
|''marā honā''
|''marā karnā''
|''marā rahnā''
|''marā jānā''
|''marā ānā''
|''martā honā''
|''martā rahnā''
|''martā ānā''
|''martā jānā''
|''mar rahā honā''
|''mar rahā rahnā''
|to die
|}

===Participles===
The participle forms of any verb is constructed by adding suffixes to the verb root. The participle forms of the verb '''''karnā''''' ''(to do)'' are shown in the tables below:
{|
|
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
| colspan="3" |'''''Undeclinable'''''
|-
!
!Verb forms
!English equivalent
|-
!'''Infinitive'''
|''kar'''nā'''''
|to do
|-
!'''Oblique''' '''Infinitive'''
|''kar'''ne'''''
|do, doing
|-
!'''Conjunctive'''
|''kar'''ke''', kar'''kar'''''
|after/by doing
|-
!'''Progressive'''
|''kar'''te'''-kar'''te'''''
|while doing
|}
|
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
| colspan="3" |'''''Declinable'''''
|-
!'''Habitual'''
|''kar'''tā''' (sg., masc.)''
''kar'''te''' (pl., masc.)''

''kar'''tī''' (sg., pl. fem.)''

''kar'''tī̃'''  (pl., fem.)''
|does/do,
used to do
|-
!'''Perfective'''
|''kiy'''ā''' (sg., masc.)''
''kiy'''e''' (pl., masc.)''

''k'''ī''' (sg., fem.)''

''k'''ī̃''' (pl., fem.)''
|did
|-
!'''Infinitive'''
|''kar'''nā''' (sg., masc.)''
''kar'''ne''' (pl., masc.)''

''kar'''nī''' (sg., fem.)''

''kar'''nī̃''' (pl., fem.)''
|to do
|-
!'''Prospective &'''
Agentive
|''kar'''nevālā''' (sg., masc.)''
''kar'''nevāle''' (pl., masc.)''

''kar'''nevālī''' (sg., pl. fem.)''

''kar'''nevālī̃''' (pl., fem.)''
|going to do
|-
!'''Perfective Adjectival'''
|''kiy'''ā-huā''' (sg., masc.)''
''kiy'''e-hue''' (pl., masc.)''

''k'''ī-huī''' (sg. fem.)''

''k'''ī-huī̃''' (pl. fem.)''
|(already) done
|-
!'''Habitual Adjectival'''
|''kar'''tā-huā''' (sg., masc.)''
''kar'''te-hue''' (pl., masc.)''

''kar'''tī-huī''' (sg., fem.)''

''kar'''tī-huī̃''' (pl., fem.)''
|while doing
|}
|}

===Verb forms===
A summary of all verb forms is given in the tables below. The sample verb is intransitive '''''dauṛnā''''' "to run", and the sample inflection is 3rd. masc. sg. (<sup>P</sup> = ''e'', <sup>A</sup> = ''ā'') where applicable.

{| border="1" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="1"
|-
! !!Non-aspectual !!Aspectual
|-
![[Non-finite verb|Non-finite]]
|
{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
!Root
||{{mono|*}} ||{{tooltip|2=run|''dauṛ''}}
|-
!Infinitive
||{{mono|*-nā}},
|{{tooltip|2=to run / running|''dauṛnā''}}
|-
!Oblique Infinitive
||{{mono|*-ne}}||''dauṛne''
|-
!Conjunctive
||{{mono|*-kar, *-ke}} ||{{tooltip|2=having run|''dauṛkar'', ''dauṛke''}}
|-
!Progressive
|{{mono|*-te-*-te}}
|{{tooltip|2=while running|''dauṛte-dauṛte''}}
|-
!Agentive
| rowspan="2"|{{mono|*-ne vāl-<sup>A</sup>, *-nevāl-<sup>A</sup>}} || rowspan="2" |{{tooltip|2=runner / about to run|''dauṛne vālā'', ''dauṛnevālā''}}
|-
!Prospective
|}
|
{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+Adjectival.
!Perfective
||{{mono|*-<sup>A</sup> (hu-<sup>A</sup>)}} ||{{tooltip|2=run|''dauṛā'' (''huā'')}}
|-
!Imperfective
||{{mono|*-t-<sup>A</sup> (hu-<sup>A</sup>)}} ||{{tooltip|2=running|''dauṛtā'' (''huā'')}}
|}
{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+Adverbial. Obl. of adjectival.
|-
!Imperfective
||{{mono|*-t-e (hu-e)}} ||''dauṛte hue''
|}
|-
![[Finite verb|Finite]]
|
{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|-
!Contingent Future
||{{mono|*-<sup>P</sup>}} ||{{tooltip|2=(if ...) were to run / (then ...) will run|''dauṛe''}}
|-
!Definite Future
||{{mono|*-<sup>P</sup>-g-<sup>A</sup>}} ||{{tooltip|2=will run|''dauṛegā''}}
|}
{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+Imperatives<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|p=268}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Bhatia|first=Tej. K.|title=Colloquial Hindi|publisher=Routledge|year=1996|isbn=0-415-11087-4|location=Great Britain|pages=276}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="3" |Present
!Intimate
||{{mono|*}} ||''dauṛ''
|-
!Familiar
||{{mono|*-o}} ||''dauṛ'''o'''''
|-
!Formal
||{{mono|*-iye}} ||''dauṛ'''iye'''''
|-
! rowspan="3" |Future
!Intimate
|{{mono|*-iyo}}
|''dauṛ'''iyo'''''
|-
!Familiar
||{{mono|*-nā}}||''dauṛ'''nā'''''
|-
!Formal
||{{mono|*-iyegā}}||''dauṛ'''iyegā'''''
|}
|
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+Aspectuals plotted against copulas.
! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| !! Perfective !! Habitual !! Progressive
|-
|{{mono|*-<sup>A</sup>}}
|{{mono|*-t-<sup>A</sup>}}
|{{mono|* rah-<sup>A</sup>}}
|-
!Present Perfect
|{{mono|[[#endnote_10|h-?]]}}
|{{tooltip|2=has run|''dauṛā hai''}}
|{{tooltip|2=runs|''dauṛtā hai''}}
|{{tooltip|2=is running|''dauṛ rahā hai''}}
|-
!Past Perfect
|{{mono|{{tooltip|2=was; were|th-<sup>A</sup>}}}}
|{{tooltip|2=had run|''dauṛā thā''}}
|{{tooltip|2=used to run|''dauṛtā thā''}}
|{{tooltip|2=was running|''dauṛ rahā thā''}}
|-
!Subjunctive
|{{mono|[[#endnote_10|ho-<sup>P</sup>]]}}
|{{tooltip|2=(if ...) has run|''dauṛā ho''}}
|{{tooltip|2=(if ...) runs (regularly)|''dauṛtā ho''}}
|{{tooltip|2=(if ...) is running|''dauṛ rahā ho''}}
|-
!Presumptive
|{{mono|{{tooltip|2=must be|ho-<sup>P</sup> g-<sup>A</sup>}}}}
|{{tooltip|2=has presumably run|''dauṛā hogā''}}
|{{tooltip|2=presumably runs|''dauṛtā hogā''}}
|{{tooltip|2=is presumably running|''dauṛ rahā hogā''}}
|-
!Contrafactual
|{{mono|ho-t-<sup>A</sup>}}
|{{tooltip|2=(if ...) had run / (then ...) would have run|''dauṛā hotā''}}
|{{tooltip|2=(if ...) used to run / (then ...) would have run (regularly)|''dauṛtā hotā''}}
|{{tooltip|2=(if ...) had been running / (then ...) would have been running|''dauṛ rahā hotā''}}
|-
!Unspecified
|
|{{tooltip|2=ran|''dauṛā''}}
|''dauṛtā''
|
|}
|}

'''Notes'''
*Much of the above chart information derives from {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|pp=292–294, 323–325}}.
*The future tense is formed by adding the suffix '''''gā''''' (~ '''''ge''''' ~ '''''gī''''') to the subjunctive, which is a contraction of '''''gaā''''' (= '''''gayā''''', perfective participle of '''''jānā''''' "to go").<ref name="Schmidt2003p323">{{Harvcoltxt|Schmidt|2003|p=323}}</ref> The future suffix, conjunctive participle, and suffix '''''vālā''''' are treated as bound morphemes in written Hindi, but as separate words in written Urdu.<ref name="Schmidt2003p293"/>
*{{note|10}}The present copula ({{mono|h-?}}) seems not to follow along the lines of the regular <sup>P</sup> system of terminations; while the subjunctive copula ({{mono|ho-<sup>P</sup>}}) is thoroughly irregular. So here are all of their forms.
*For the 1. subj. sg. copula {{Harvcoltxt|Schmidt|2003|pp=324}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|pp=113, 125}} list ''hū̃'' while {{Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|p=267}} lists ''hoū̃''.
*{{Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|p=268}} lists the formal imperative ending as ''-'''iye''''', while {{Harvcoltxt|Schmidt|2003|p=330}} lists it as ''-'''ie''''' but ''-'''iye''''' after '''''ā''', '''o''', '''ū'''''.
*The euphonic [[Semivowel|glide]] ''y'' is inserted in perfective participles between prohibited [[vowel cluster]]s. It is historically the remnant of the old perfective marker.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Schmidt|2003|pp=324}}</ref> The clusters are '''''a + ā'', ''ā + ā'', ''o + ā''''', and '''''ī + ā''''', resulting in '''''āyā''''', '''''ayā''''', '''''oyā''''', '''''iyā'''''.<ref name="Schmidt2003p328"/> e.g. ''khā'''y'''ā/khā'''y'''e/khā'''y'''ī/khā'''y'''ī̃'' (''khā''- "eat").
*In addition, the combinations '''''ī + ī''''' and '''''i + ī''''' give '''''ī'''''.<ref name="Schmidt2003p328"/> e.g. '''''piyā'''/'''piye'''/p'''ī'''/p'''ī̃''''' (''pī-'' "drink").
*As stated, agreement in the transitive perfective is with the direct object, with the erstwhile subject taking the ergative postposition ''ne''. If however the direct object takes the postposition '''''ko''''' (marking [[definiteness]]), or if no direct object is expressed, then agreement neutralises to default m. sg. '''''-ā'''''.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=140}}</ref>
*In this regard, there are a small number of verbs that while perhaps logically transitive still do not take ''ne'' and continue to agree with the subject, in the perfective. e.g. '''''lānā''''' "to bring", '''''bhūlnā''''' "to forget", '''''milnā''''' "to meet", etc.
<!--- perhaps Ergative points belong to Syntax
also discuss: forms both intransitive/transitive
--->
*Besides supplying the copulas, '''''honā''''' "to be" can be used aspectually: '''''huā''''' "happened, became"; '''''hotā''''' "happens, becomes, is"; '''''ho rahā''''' "happening, being".
*''-'''ke''''' can be used as a colloquial alternative to ''-'''kar''''' for the conjunctive participle of any verb.
*Hindustani displays a very small number of irregular forms, spelled out in the cells below. Historically, there were many more irregular forms (e.g. '''''muā''''' for '''''marnā''''' 'to die') but most have been regularised. Notably, some dialects regularise the perfective of '''''karnā''''' to '''''karā''''' and the formal imperative of '''''kijiye''''' to '''''kariye'''''.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="5" |Verb
! rowspan="5" |Root
! rowspan="5" | Perfective<br />Stem<br /><ref name="Schmidt2003p328">{{Harvcoltxt|Schmidt|2003|p=328}}</ref>
! colspan="4" rowspan="2" |Perfective<br>Forms
! colspan="3" |Imperative<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=64}}</ref>
! colspan="2" rowspan="5" |Subjunctive.<br />Stem<br /><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|pp=113, 125}}</ref>
! colspan="7" rowspan="2" |Subjunctive<br>Forms
|-
! rowspan="4" |Intimate
! rowspan="4" |Familiar
! rowspan="4" |Formal
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Masculine
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Feminine
! colspan="3" | Singular
! colspan="4" | Plural
|-
!1st
!2nd
!3rd
! colspan="2" |2nd
!3rd
!1st
|-
! Singular || Plural
! Singular || Plural
!''mãĩ''
!''tū''
!''ye/vo''
!''tum''
!''āp''
!''ye/vo''
!''ham''
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''''honā''' "to happen"''
| rowspan="2" |'''''ho-''''' || rowspan="2" |''hu-''
| rowspan="2" |<u>''huā''</u>
| rowspan="2" |<u>''hue''</u>
| rowspan="2" |<u>''huī''</u>
| rowspan="2" |<u>''huī̃''</u>
| rowspan="2" |''ho''|| rowspan="2" | ''hoo'' || rowspan="2" |''hoiye''
|'''present subjunctive'''
|''<u>h-</u>''
|<u>''hū̃''</u>
| colspan="2" |<u>''ho''</u>
|<u>''ho''</u>
| colspan="3" |<u>''hõ''</u>
|-
|'''future subjunctive'''
|''ho-''
|''hoū̃''
| colspan="2" |''hoe''
|''ho'o''
| colspan="3" |''hoẽ''
|-
|'''''jānā''' "to go"''
|'''''jā-'''''||''ga-''
|<u>''gayā''</u>
|<u>''gaye''</u>
|<u>''gayī''</u>
|<u>''gayī̃''</u>
|''jā''|| ''jāo''
|''jāiye''
| colspan="2" |''jā''
|''jāū̃''
| colspan="2" |''jāe''
|''jāo''
| colspan="3" |''jāẽ''
|-
|'''''karnā''' "to do"''
|'''''kar-'''''||''ki-''
|<u>''kiyā''</u>
|<u>''kiye''</u>
|<u>''kī''</u>
|<u>''kī̃''</u>
|''kar''|| ''karo'' ||''<u>kījie</u>''|| colspan="2" |''kar''
|''karū̃''
| colspan="2" |''kare''
|''karo''
| colspan="3" |''karẽ''
|-
|'''''denā''' "to give"''
|'''''de-'''''||''di-''
|<u>''diyā''</u>
|<u>''diye''</u>
|<u>''dī''</u>
|<u>''dī̃''</u>
|''de''||''<u>do</u>''||''<u>dījie</u>''|| colspan="2" |''<u>d-</u>''
|<u>''dū̃''</u>
| colspan="2" |<u>''de''</u>
|<u>''do''</u>
| colspan="3" |<u>''dẽ''</u>
|-
|'''''lenā''' "to take"''
|'''''le-'''''||''li-''
|<u>''liyā''</u>
|<u>''liye''</u>
|<u>''lī''</u>
|<u>''lī̃''</u>
|''le''||''<u>lo</u>''||''<u>lījie</u>''|| colspan="2" |''<u>l-</u>''
|<u>''lū̃''</u>
| colspan="2" |<u>''le''</u>
|<u>''lo''</u>
| colspan="3" |<u>''lẽ''</u>
|-
|'''''pīnā''' "to drink"''
|'''''pī-'''''||''pi-''
|<u>''piyā''</u>
|<u>''piye''</u>
|<u>''pī''</u>
|<u>''pī̃''</u>
|''pī''|| <u>''piyo''</u> ||''<u>pījie</u>''
| colspan="2" |''<u>pi-</u>''
|<u>''piyū̃''</u>
| colspan="2" |<u>''piye''</u>
|<u>''piyo''</u>
| colspan="3" |<u>''piyẽ''</u>
|}

* The irregular forms are underlined in the above table.
* There are two subjunctive stems for the verb '''''honā''''', one being regular and the other being irregular. The regular set is the ''future subjunctive forms'' and the regular ones are the as the ''present subjunctive forms''. '''''honā''''' is the only verb in Hindi to have distinct forms for the future and the present subjunctive, for all other forms there is one common subjunctive form which is used as both the present and the future subjunctive.
*However, it is '''''jā'''-'' that is used as the perfective stem in the rare instance of an intransitive verb like '''''jānā''''' being expressed passively, such as in a passivized imperative/subjunctive construction: '''''ghar jāyā jāye'''?'' "Shall [we] go home?" (lit. "Shall home be gone to [by us]?").<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=179}}</ref>

===Set of related verbs===
Transitives are morphologically contrastive in Hindustani, leading to the existence of related verb sets divisible along such lines. While the derivation of such forms shows patterns, they do reach a level of variegation so as to make it somewhat difficult to outline all-encompassing rules. Furthermore, some sets may have as many as four to five distinct members; also, the meaning of certain members of given sets may be idiosyncratic.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|p=270}}</ref> 

These below are the verb forms that a verb in Hindi can have —

# '''Intransitive'''
## '''Involitional'''  — these are actions that cannot be done intentionally.
### '''Dative''' — these involitional verbs require the subject to be in the dative case.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Hong|first1=Sungok|last2=Bhatt Kumar|first2=Sunil|last3=Ranjan|first3=Rajiv|last4=Gusain|first4=Lakhan|date=|title=Hindi-Urduː Dative Subject Construction|url=https://open.lib.umn.edu/hindiurdu/chapter/grammar-notes-7-1-dative-subject-construction-i/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
### '''Non-dative''' — these verbs require the verb to be in the nominative case.
## '''Volitional''' — these are actions that can be intentionally done.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Piepers |first1=Joske |title=Optional ergative case marking in Hindi |date=May 2016 |hdl=123456789/2440 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=197863131 }}</ref>
### '''Ergative''' — these verbs can take in the ergative case (the subject can be in the ergative case).
### '''Non-ergative''' — these verbs cannot take in the ergative case (the subject can only be in the nominative case).
# '''Transitive'''
## '''Direct''' — the subject themselves experiences the action but the subject and the object are not the same
## '''Indirect''' — the subject imparts the action onto the object, the object is the experiencer of the action, it is usually translated into English as "to make (someone/something) verb"
## '''Reflexive''' —  the verb does action on the subject itself, the doer and experiencer of the action is the same subject
## '''Causative''' — the subject causes the action to happen. ''Translationː'' ''"to cause to be verbed"'', the agent takes the instrumental postposition '''''se'''''. Thus ''Y '''se''' Z '''banvānā''''' = "''to cause Z to be made by Y''" = "''to cause Y to make Z''" = "''to have Z made by Y''" = "''to have Y make Z''", etc.

Starting from direct transitive verb forms, the other verb stems i.e., intransitive, causative, reflexive, indirect stems are produced according to these following (not exhaustive) assorted rules<ref>Shapiro (2003ː pg. 270)</ref><ref>Snell & Weightman (1989ː pg. 243–244)</ref> —

# Root vowel changeː
#* '''''a → ā'''''
#* '''''u / ū → o'''''
#* '''''i / ī → e'''''
# Sometimes the root vowel change accompanies the root's final consonant changeː
#* '''''k → c'''''
#* '''''ṭ → r̥'''''
#* '''''l → Ø'''''
# Suffixation of '''''-ā''''' to form the indirect or reflexive formː
#* Root vowel changeː '''''ū/o → u; e/ai/ā/ī → i'''''
#* Insertion of [[semivowel]] '''''l''''' between such vowel-terminating stems
# Suffixation of -'''''vā''''' (in place of '''''-ā''''' where it would occur) to form the causative verb stem

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
| colspan="9" |'''''Set of related verbs'''''
|-
! rowspan="3" |''English''
''verbs''
! colspan="4" |''Intransitive''
! colspan="4" |''Transitive''
|-
! colspan="2" |'''''involitional'''''
! colspan="2" |'''''volitional'''''
! rowspan="2" |''direct''
! rowspan="2" |''indirect''
! rowspan="2" |''reflexive''
! rowspan="2" |''causative''
|-
!''non-dative''
!''dative''
!''non-ergative''
!''ergative''
|-
|''be, become''
|''honā''
|''—''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
|''—''
|-
|''happen, have''
|''—''
|''honā''
|''hovānā''
|-
|''do''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''karnā''
|''karānā''
|''—''
|''karvānā''
|-
|''fall''
|''girnā''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''girānā''
|''—''
|''girvānā''
|-
|''prepare''
|''bannā''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''banānā''
|''—''
|''banvānā''
|-
|''send''
|''bhijnā''
|''—''
|'''''—'''''
|'''''—'''''
|''bhejnā''
|'''''—'''''
|''bhejānā''
|''bhijvānā''
|-
|''dance''
|''nacnā''
|''—''
|''—''
|''nācnā''
|'''''—'''''
|''nacānā''
|'''''—'''''
|''nacvānā''
|-
|''be found''
|''milnā''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
| rowspan="3" |''—''
| rowspan="3" |''—''
| rowspan="3" |''—''
|''—''
| rowspan="3" |''—''
|''—''
|-
|''unite, mix''
|''—''
|''milānā''
|''milvānā''
|-
|''receive''
|'''''—'''''
|''milnā''
|''—''
|''dilvānā''
|-
| rowspan="2" |''open''
| rowspan="2" |''khulnā''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
| rowspan="2" |''kholnā''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
|''khulānā''
|''khulvānā''
|-
|''kholānā''
|''kholvānā''
|-
|''learn''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''sīkhnā''
|''sikhānā''
|''—''
|''sikhvānā''
|-
|''eat''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''khānā''
|''khilānā''
|''—''
|''khilvānā''
|-
|''come''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
|''—''
|''anā''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
|-
|''to know how to''
|''anā''
|''—''
|-
|''drink''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''pīnā''
|''pilānā''
|''—''
|''pilvānā''
|-
|''sell''
|''biknā''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''becnā''
|''—''
|''becānā''
|''bikvānā''
|-
|''see''
|''—''
|''dikhnā''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
|''dekhnā''
|''dikhānā''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
|''dikhvānā''
|-
|''appear, look like''
|''dikhnā''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|-
|''look like''
|''lagnā''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
|''—''
| rowspan="3" |''—''
| rowspan="3" |''—''
|''—''
| rowspan="3" |''—''
|''—''
|-
|''stick/put together''
| rowspan="2" |''—''
|''lagnā''
| rowspan="2" |''lagānā''
| rowspan="2" |''lagvānā''
|-
|''feel, feel like''
|''lagnā''
|''—''
|-
|''tell, be called''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''kahnā''
|''—''
|''—''
|''kahlānā''
|''kahalvānā''
|-
|''say, call''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''bolnā''
|''—''
|''bulānā''
|''—''
|''bulvānā''
|-
|''sit''
|''biṭhnā''
|''—''
|''baiṭhnā''
|''—''
|''—''
|''baiṭhānā''
|''—''
|''baiṭhvānā''
|-
|''break''
|''ṭūṭnā''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''tor̥nā''
|''—''
|''tur̥ānā''
|''tur̥vānā''
|-
|''understand''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''samajhnā''
|''—''
|''samjhānā''
|''—''
|''samajhvānā''
|-
|''tear''
|''phaṭnā''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''phār̥nā''
|''—''
|''phar̥ānā''
|''phar̥vānā''
|-
|''blast, shatter''
|''phūṭnā, phaṭnā''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''phor̥nā''
|''—''
|''phor̥ānā''
|''phor̥vānā''
|-
|''beat''
|''piṭnā''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''pīṭnā''
|''—''
|''piṭānā''
|''piṭvānā''
|-
|''bathe''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''nahānā''
|''—''
|''nahlānā''
|''nahalnā''
|''nahalvānā''
|-
|''know''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''jānnā''
|''—''
|''—''
|''—''
|''janvānā''
|-
|''laugh''
|''—''
|''—''
|''hãsnā''
|''—''
|''—''
|''hãsānā''
|''—''
|''hãsvānā''
|}<!---Need to add those that change from a to A. Also bolnA/bulAnA/bulvAnA. Change "The following are sets..." to "The majority of the following are sets...".--->

===Light verbs===
<!---
Straight from Shapiro
270:
degree of productivity. Considerable attention has been paid by scholars to determining the {{sic|semnatic}} properties contributed by the election of particle V2 verbs for use in particular compounds. In many cases the meaning contributed by V2 element bears scant resemblance to the literal meaning of the V2 element when it occurs as an independent verb. Thus for example, it is not possible to explain the semantic difference between uThnA "to rise, get up" and uTh baiThnA "to get up suddenly, to spring up" in terms of the semantics of baiThnA "to sit down".
--->
[[Compound verb]]s, a highly visible feature of Hindi–Urdu grammar, consist of a verbal stem plus a [[light verb]]. The light verb (also called "subsidiary", "explicator verb", and "vector"<ref name="Shapiro2003p269">{{Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|p=269}}</ref>) loses its own independent meaning and instead "lends a certain shade of meaning"<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=154}}</ref> to the main or stem verb, which "comprises the lexical core of the compound".<ref name="Shapiro2003p269" /> While almost any verb can act as a main verb, there is a limited set of productive light verbs.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|pp=269–270}}</ref> Shown below are prominent such light verbs, with their independent meaning first outlined, followed by their semantic contribution as auxiliaries. Finally, having to do with the ''manner'' of an occurrence, compounds verbs are mostly used with completed actions and imperatives, and much less with negatives, conjunctives, and contexts continuous or speculative. This is because non-occurrences cannot be described to have occurred in a particular manner.<ref name="Snell&Weightman1989p156">{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|pp=156}}</ref> The auxiliaries when combined with the main verb provides an aspectual sense to the main verb it modifies. Light verbs such as '''''jānā''' "to go", '''ānā''' "to come", '''cuknā''''' when combined with the main verb give the formed compound verb a [[perfective aspect]], while retaining the original meaning of the main verb.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Perfective aspect compound verbs
!Light Verb
!Explanation
!Main Verb
!Examples
|-
|'''''jānā''''' "to go"
|Shows perfective aspect (completed action) of the main verb which
means gives a sense of completeness of the action, finality,

or change of state.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|pp=155}}</ref>
|''1. '''ānā''' "to come"''
''2. '''khānā''' "to eat"''

''3. '''marnā''' "to die"''

''4. '''pīnā''' "to drink"''

''5. '''baiṭhnā''' "to sit"''

6. '''''honā''' "to happen"''
|''1. '''ā jānā''' "to arrive" " to have come"''
''2. '''khā jānā''' "to eat up (all/everything/completely)"''

''3. '''mar jānā''' "to be dead"''

''4. '''pī jānā''' "to drink up (all/everything/completely)" "to gulp"''

''5. '''baiṭh jānā''' "to sit down" "to have sit down"''

6. '''''ho jānā''' "to have happened (completely)" "to have finished happening"''
|-
|'''''lenā''''' "to take"
|Suggests that the (usually planned/expected) action is completed and the benefit of the action flows

towards the doer.<ref name="Snell&Weightman1989p156" /> This auxiliary verb can also be used to soften down

the tone of imperatives (commands) and usually is used to give suggestions. Nuance of planned/expected action is not present. 
|''1. '''paṛhnā'''''

''2. '''karnā'''''

''3. '''calnā'''''

''4. '''mārnā'''''
|''1. '''{{IAST|paṛh lenā}}''''' "to read (for oneself/for own's desire)"
2. '''''kar lenā''''' "to do (something fully for oneself)" "to have finished doing something"

3. '''''cal lenā''''' ''"to have walked"''

4. '''''mār lenā''' "to (try to) kill (oneself)"''
|-
|'''''denā''''' "to give"
|Suggests that the (usually planned/expected) action was completed and the benefit of the action flows

away from the doer.<ref name="Snell&Weightman1989p156" /> This auxiliary verb can also be used to soften down

the tone of imperatives (commands) and usually is used to ask for favours. Nuance of planned/expected action is not present. This can also mean "to let" in the imperative – to let someone do: karne denā (oblique)
|''1. '''paṛhnā'''''

''2. '''mārnā'''''

''3. '''karnā'''''
|''1. '''{{IAST|paṛh denā}}''''' "to read (for someone)" "to read out"
2. '''''mār denā''' "to kill", "to kill off", "to murder"''

3. '''''kār denā''''' ''"to do (something completely for someone else and not oneself)"''
|-
|'''''ānā''''' "to come"
|Shows perfective aspect of the main verb which means gives

a sense of completeness of the action, finality, or change of state.

The meaning conveyed is the doer went somewhere to do something

and came back after completing the action. This can also mean "to know how to" in the indefinite/habitual present tense – to know how to do: karnā ānā
|''1. '''karnā'''''
|1. '''''kar''''' '''''ānā''' "to finish (and come back)", "to do (and return)";''
|-
|'''''cuknā''' "to have (already) completed something"''
|Shows sense of completeness of an action in the past, that the action
was already done/finished/completed by the doer sometime in the past.
|1. '''''marnā''''' 
2''. '''jītnā'''''
|1. '''''mar cuknā''' "to have already died"''
2. '''''jīt cuknā''' "to have already won"''
|}

The first three light verbs in the above table are the most common of auxiliaries, and the "least marked", or "lexically nearly colourless".<ref name="Schmidt2003p337">{{Harvcoltxt|Schmidt|2003|pp=337}}</ref> The nuance conveyed by an auxiliary can often be very subtle, and need not always be expressed with different words in English translation. '''''lenā''''' and '''''denā''''', transitive verbs, occur with transitives, while intransitive '''''jānā''''' occurs mostly with intransitives; a compound of a transitive and '''''jānā''''' will be grammatically intransitive as '''''jānā''''' is.
{| class="wikitable"
!Light Verb
!Explanation
!Examples
|-
|'''''{{IAST|ḍālnā}}''''' "to throw, pour"
|Indicates an action done vigorously, decisively, violently or recklessly;<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=220}}</ref>

it is an intensifier, showing intensity, urgency, completeness, or violence.<ref name="Schmidt2003p338">{{Harvcoltxt|Schmidt|2003|p=338}}</ref>
|1. '''''mārnā''''' "to hit/ kill" → '''''{{IAST|mār ḍālnā}}''''' "to kill (violently)"
2. '''''pīnā''''' "to drink" → '''''{{IAST|pī ḍālnā}}''''' "to drink (hastily)".
|-
|'''''{{IAST|baiṭhnā}}''''' "to sit"
|Implies an action done foolishly or stubbornly;<ref name="Snell&Weightman1989p221">{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=221}}</ref> shows speaker disapproval

or an impulsive or involuntary action.<ref name="Schmidt2003p338" /> 
|1. '''''kahnā''''' "to say" → '''''{{IAST|kah baiṭhnā}}''''' "to say something (involuntarily or by mistake)"
2. '''''karnā''''' "to do" → '''''{{IAST|kar baiṭhnā}}''''' "to do (something as a blunder)"

3. '''''{{IAST|laṛnā}}''''' "to fight" → '''''{{IAST|laṛ baiṭhnā}}''''' "to quarrel (foolishly, or without giving it second thought)".
|-
|'''''{{IAST|paṛnā}}''''' "to suddenly fall" "to lie flat" 
|Connotes involuntary, sudden, or unavoidable occurrence.;<ref name="Schmidt2003p337" /> This can also mean "to have to, must" in the perfect tenses – to have to do: karnā paṛnā
|1. '''''uṭhnā''' "to get up"'' → '''''uṭh {{IAST|paṛnā}}''''' "to suddenly get up"
2. '''''girnā''''' "to fall down" → '''''gir paṛnā''''' "to collapse"
|-
|'''''{{IAST|uṭhnā}}''''' "to rise"
|Functions like an intensifier;<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Schmidt|2003|pp=337–338}}</ref> suggests inception of action or feeling,

with its independent/literal meaning sometimes showing through

in a sense of upward movement.
|1. '''''jalnā''''' "to burn" → '''''{{IAST|jal uṭhnā}}''''' "to burst into flames"
2. '''''nācnā''''' "to dance" → '''''{{IAST|nāc uṭhnā}}''''' "to break into dance".<ref name="Snell&Weightman1989p221" />
|-
|'''''{{IAST|saknā}}''''' "to be able to"
|A modal verb that indicates the capability of performing an action.
|1. '''''karnā''''' "to do" → '''''kar saknā''''' "to be able to do"
2. '''''dekhnā''''' "to see" → '''''dekh saknā''''' "to be able to see"
|-
|'''''rakhnā''''' "to keep, maintain"
|Implies a firmness of action, or one with possibly long-lasting results or implications;<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Snell|Weightman|1989|p=222}}</ref>

occurs with '''''lenā''''' and '''''denā''''', meaning "to give/take (as a loan)",

and with other appropriate verbs, showing an action performed beforehand.<ref name="Schmidt2003p338" />

It usually works almost the same as '''''cuknā''' the main difference being the nuance conveyed''

''by '''rakhnā''''' is that the action has either "''continued effect till the present time"'' or "is more

recent than the same action conveyed using the '''''cuknā'''''.". '''''cuknā''''' ''signifies distant past.''
|1. '''''dekhnā''''' "to see" → '''''dekh rakhnā''''' "to have already seen."
|-
|'''''rahnā''''' "to remain/stay"
|The continuous aspect marker '''''rahā''''' apparently originated as a compound verb with '''''rahnā''''' ("remain"): 
thus '''''maĩ bol rahā hū̃''''' = "I have remained speaking" → "I have continued speaking" → "I am speaking".

However, it has lost the ability to take any form other than the imperfective, and is thus considered

to have become grammaticalized.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|pp=329}}</ref>
|
|}
Finally, having to do with the ''manner'' of an occurrence, compounds verbs are mostly used with completed actions and imperatives, and much less with negatives, conjunctives, and contexts continuous or speculative. This is because non-occurrences cannot be described to have occurred in a particular manner.<ref name="Snell&Weightman1989p156"/>

===Conjuncts===
Another notable aspect of Hindi–Urdu grammar is that of "conjunct verbs", composed of a [[noun]] or [[adjective]] paired up with a general verbaliser, most commonly transitive '''''karnā''''' "to do" or intransitive '''''honā''''' "to be", "to happen", functioning in the place of what in [[English language|English]] would be single unified verb. All conjunct verbs formed using '''''karnā''''' are transitive verbs and all conjunct verbs formed using the verb '''honā''' are intransitive verbs.

In the case of an adjective as the non-verbal element, it is often helps to think of '''''karnā''''' "to do" as supplementarily having the senses of "to cause to be", "to make", "to render", etc.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! Adjective !! Conjunct !! Literal !! Meaning
|-
|'''''sāf'''''   "clean"||''sāf karnā''||to do clean||to clean
|-
|'''''nyukt'''<sup>H</sup> '''/ muqarrar'''<sup>U</sup>''  "appointed"||''nyukt / muqarrar karnā''||to do appointed||to appoint
|-
|'''''band'''''  "closed"||''band honā''||to be closed||to close (intransitive)
|-
|'''''xatam'''''  "finished"||''xatam honā''||to be finished||to finish (intransitive)
|}

In the case of a noun as the non-verbal element, it is treated syntactically as the verb's (direct) object (never taking the '''''ko''''' marker; governing agreement in perfective and infinitival constructions), and the semantic [[Patient (grammar)|patient]] (or [[Agent (grammar)|agent]]: see '''''gālī khānā''''' below) of the conjunct verbal expression is often expressed/marked syntactically as a [[Genitive case|genitive postposition]] ('''''-kā'' ~ ''ke'' ~ ''kī''''') of the noun.<ref>{{Harv|Masica|1991|p=368}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! Noun !! Conjunct !! Conjunct + patient !! Literal !! Meaning
|-
|'''''intezār''''' "wait"||''intezār karnā''||''kisī kā intezār karnā''||to do somebody's wait||to wait for somebody
|-
|'''''istemāl''''' "use"||''istemāl karnā''||''fon kā istemāl karnā''||to do a phone's use||to use a phone
|-
|'''''bāt''''' "talk"||''bāt karnā''||''samīr kī bāt karnā''||to do Sameer's talk||to talk about Sameer
|-
|'''''gālī''''' "cuss/bad word"||''gālī khānā''||''sanam kī gālī khānā''||to eat a lover's curse||to be cursed out by one's own lover
|-
|'''''tasvīr''''' "picture"||''tasvīr khīñcnā''||''Ibrāhīm kī tasvīr khīñcnā''||to pull Ibrahim's picture||to take Ibrahim's picture
|}

With [[English language|English]] it is the verb stems themselves that are used. All English loan words are used by forming compound verbs in Hindi by using either '''''honā''''' (intransitive) or '''''karnā''''' (transitive).

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!English Verb
! Hindi Verb Stem !! Conjuncts !! Meaning
|-
| rowspan="2" |check
| rowspan="2" |'''cêk'''||''cêk honā''||to be/get checked
|-
|''cêk karnā''
|to check (someone/something)
|-
| rowspan="2" |bore 
| rowspan="2" |'''bor'''||''bor honā''||to be/get bored
|-
|''bor karnā''
|to bore (someone)
|-
| rowspan="2" |apply
| rowspan="2" |'''aplāi'''
|''aplāi honā''
|to be/get applied
|-
|''aplāi karnā''
|to apply (for something)
|}

===Passive===
The [[Grammatical voice|passive]] construction is [[Periphrasis|periphrastic]]. It is formed from the perfective participle by addition of the auxiliary '''''jānā''''' "to go"; i.e. '''''likhnā''''' "to write" → '''''likhā jānā''''' "to be written". The agent is marked by the [[Instrumental case|instrumental postposition]] '''''se'''''. Furthermore, both intransitive and transitive verbs may be grammatically passivized to show physical/psychological incapacity, usually in negative sentences. Lastly, intransitives often have a passive sense, or convey unintentional action.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Schmidt|2003|p=331}}</ref>

==Syntax==

=== Word order ===
Hindustani generally has free word order, in the sense that word order does not usually signal grammatical functions in the language.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Butt|first1=Miriam|title=Theoretical Perspectives on Word Order in South Asian Languages|last2=Holloway King|first2=Tracy|last3=Ramchand|first3=Gillian|publisher=CSLI Publications|year=1994|isbn=1-881526-49-6|location=Stanford, California|pages=185–199}}</ref> However, the default [[unmarked]] word order in Hindustani is [[subject–object–verb|SOV]]. It is neither purely [[Branching (linguistics)|left- nor right-branching]], and phenomena of both types can be found. The order of constituents in sentences as a whole lacks governing "hard and fast rules", and frequent deviations can be found from normative word position, describable in terms of a small number of rules, accounting for facts beyond the pale of the label of "SOV".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|p=271}}</ref>

* Subject precedes the direct object of the sentence if both the dative and the accusative case marks the objects of a sentence. Prescriptively, the relative position is fixed in order to make it unambiguous which is the direct object and which is the indirect object in the sentence as both the dative case and the accusative case is the same in Hindustani and are marked by the same postposition '''''ko'''''.
* Attributive adjectives precede the noun they qualify by default, but can also be placed after the noun, doing that usually makes the sentence sound either more poetic or gives as stronger emphasises on the attribute that the adjective describes.
* Adverbs usually can appear either before or after the verb they qualify.
* Negative markers ('''''nahī̃''', '''na''', '''mat''''') and interrogatives precede the verb by default but can also appear after it, however the position for negation can be more flexible and the negation can occur before or after the auxiliary verbs too if the sentence has an auxiliary verb. Whenever the negation comes after the verbs instead of before the verb, it always emphasises the negation. The negation can never come before a noun.
* '''kyā''' ("what?") as the [[yes–no question]] marker occurs at the beginning or the end of a clause as its unmarked positions but it can be put anywhere in the sentence except before a verb, where it is instead interpreted as the interrogative meaning "what".<ref name=":02">{{cite journal |last1=Bhatt |first1=Rajesh |last2=Dayal |first2=Veneeta |title=Polar question particles: Hindi-Urdu kya |journal=Natural Language & Linguistic Theory |date=November 2020 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=1115–1144 |doi=10.1007/s11049-020-09464-0 |s2cid=213719773 }}</ref> This is frequently dropped in colloquial conversation, and instead, the last word of the question has a higher pitch.

In the example below, it is shown that all word orders make sense for simple sentences, which do not have adjectives, negations and adverbs. As a general rule, whatever information comes first in the sentence gets emphasised and the information which appears at the end of a sentence gets emphasised the least.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Patil |first1=Umesh |last2=Kentner |first2=Gerrit |last3=Gollrad |first3=Anja |last4=Kügler |first4=Frank |last5=Fery |first5=Caroline |last6=Vasishth |first6=Shravan |title=Focus, Word Order and Intonation in Hindi |journal=Journal of South Asian Linguistics |date=17 November 2008 |volume=1 |url=https://ojs.ub.uni-konstanz.de/jsal/index.php/jsal/article/view/3 }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite book |doi=10.1515/9783110179897.113 |chapter=Discourse Context and Word Order Preferences in Hindi |title=The Yearbook of South Asian Languages and Linguistics (2004) |year=2004 |last1=Vasishth |first1=Shravan |pages=113–128 |isbn=978-3-11-020776-7 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="4" |[maĩ]<small>.1P.NOM.SG</small> [baccā].<small>kid.NOM.SG.MASC</small> [hū̃]<small>.be.1P.SG</small>
!
! colspan="3" |[mujhe].<small>1P.DAT</small> [karnā].<small>INF.PTCP.MASC.SG</small> [hai]<small>.be.3P.SG</small>
|-
!
!Sentence
!Literal
!Translation
!
!Sentence
!Literal
!Translation
|-
! rowspan="6" |1.
|''maĩ baccā hū̃''
|[I] [kid] [am]
| rowspan="6" |I am a kid.
! rowspan="6" |2.
|''mujhe karnā hai''
|[to me] [to do] [is]
| rowspan="6" |I have/want to do.
|-
|''maĩ hū̃ baccā''
|[I] [am] [kid]
|''mujhe hai karnā''
|[to me] [is] [to do]
|-
|''baccā maĩ hū̃''
|[kid] [I] [am]
|''karnā mujhe hai''
|[to do] [to me] [is]
|-
|''baccā hū̃ maĩ''
|[kid] [am] [I]
|''karnā hai mujhe''
|[to do] [is] [to me]
|-
|''hū̃ maĩ baccā''
|[am] [I] [kid]
|''hai mujhe karnā''
|[is] [to me] [to do]
|-
|''hū̃ baccā maĩ''
|[am] [kid] [I]
|''hai karnā mujhe''
|[is] [to do] [to me]
|}
As long as both dative and the accusative case are not used in the sentence, the word order flexibility remains. For example, in the table below the locative and the accusative case is used in the same sentence, the word order is flexible because the markers for the locative and the accusative cases are different but in Hindustani, the marker for the accusative and the dative case are the same, which is '''ko''' for nouns and the oblique case pronouns or they have their own unique pronoun forms which are the same for dative and the accusative case.<ref name=":4" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+Translation: He/she wants/have to go [up] on that.
| colspan="4" |'''[use]<small>.he/she.DEM.DAT</small> [uspe]<small>.that.DEM.LOC</small> [jānā]<small>.go.INF</small> [hai]<small>.be.3P.SG</small>'''
|-
|''use uspe jānā hai''
|''uspe use jānā hai''
|''jānā use uspe hai''
|''hai use uspe jān̄ā''
|-
|''use uspe hai jānā''
|''uspe use hai jānā''
|''jānā use hai uspe''
|''hai use jān̄ā uspe''
|-
|''use jānā hai uspe''
|''uspe hai use jānā''
|''jānā hai use uspe''
|''hai jānā use uspe''
|-
|''use jānā uspe hai''
|''uspe hai jānā use''
|''jānā hai uspe use''
|''hai jānā uspe use''
|-
|''use hai uspe jānā''
|''uspe jānā hai use''
|''jānā uspe use hai''
|''hai uspe use jānā''
|-
|''use hai jānā uspe''
|''uspe jānā use hai''
|''jānā uspe hai use''
|''hai uspe jānā use''
|-
| colspan="4" |'''Note: All word orders make sense but each has its own nuance and specific context of usage.'''
|}<br />'''Usage of dative/accusative noun + accusative/dative pronoun'''

When noun and pronoun are used together in a sentence and one is in accusative case while the other is in the dative case, there is no way to differentiate which one is which just by looking at the sentence. Usually in such cases, owing to the default word order of Hindi (which is SOV) which noun/pronoun comes earlier in the sentence becomes the subject of the sentence and what comes later becomes the object of the sentence.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |1. [use]<small>.DEM.ACC</small> [kutte-ko]<small>.dog.DAT</small> [do].<small>give.IMP.2P</small>
|-
! colspan="2" |2. [use]<small>.DEM.DAT</small> [kutte-ko]<small>.dog.ACC</small> [do].<small>give.IMP.2P</small>
|-
|''use kutte-ko do''
| rowspan="6" |Either "'''Give it/him/her to the dog.'''"
or "'''Give the dog to it/him/her.'''"

(Prescriptively, what comes

first becomes the subject of the sentence)
|-
|''use do kutte-ko''
|-
|''kutte-ko use do''
|-
|''kutte-ko do use''
|-
|''do kutte-ko use''
|-
|''do use kutte-ko''
|}<br />'''Usage of dative noun + accusative noun'''<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Spencer|first=Andrew|date=2005|title=Case in Hindi|url=http://csli-publications.stanford.edu/|publisher=CSLI Publications|pages=5}}</ref><ref name=":2" />

Nouns in Hindi are put in the dative or accusative case first having the noun in the oblique case and then by adding the postposition '''''ko''''' after it. However, when two nouns are used in a sentence in which one of them is in the accusative case and the other in the dative case, the sentence becomes ambiguous and stops making sense, so, to make sense of the sentence, one of the noun (which is assumed to be in the accusative case) is put into the nominative case and the other one is left as it is (in the dative case). The noun which is put into the nominative case becomes the direct object of the sentence and the other one (which is now in the Accusative case) becomes the indirect object of the sentence.

When both the nouns use the '''''ko''''' marker, generally, all permutations in which the nouns with the same case marker are adjacent to one another become ambiguous or convey no sense.<ref name=":0" />
{| class="wikitable"
!Sentence
!Note
!Translation
|-
|''?sā̃p-ko sapere-ko do''
|with proper intonation it makes sense<ref name=":3" />
|give the snake to the snake-charmer.
|-
|''*sā̃p-ko do sapere-ko''
|doesn't make sense
| –
|-
|''?sapere-ko sā̃p-ko do''
|with proper intonation it makes sense<ref name=":3" />
| give the snake-charmer to the snake.
|-
|''*sapere-ko do sā̃p-ko''
|doesn't make sense
| –
|-
|''*do sapere-ko sā̃p-ko''
|doesn't make sense
| –
|-
|''*do sā̃p-ko sapere-ko''
|doesn't make sense
| –
|}
Removing the '''''ko''''' from the word '''''sā̃p''''' leaves it in the ''nominative case''. Now, it acts as the ''direct object'' of the sentence and '''saperā''' becomes the ''indirect object'' of the sentence. The English translation becomes "'''''Give the snake-charmer a snake'''.''" and when the opposite is done, the English translation of the sentence becomes "'''''Give the snake a snake-charmer.'''''" 
{| class="wikitable"
!Sentence
!Translation
!Sentence
!Translation
|-
|''sā̃p sapere-ko do''
| rowspan="6" |'''''Give the snake-charmer a snake'''''
|''sā̃p-ko sapere do''
| rowspan="6" |'''''Give the snake a snake-charmer'''''
|-
|''sā̃p do sapere-ko''
|''sā̃p-ko do sapere''
|-
|''sapere-ko sā̃p do''
|''sapere sā̃p-ko do''
|-
|''sapere-ko do sā̃p''
|''sapere do sā̃p-ko''
|-
|''do sapere-ko sā̃p''
|''do sapere sā̃p-ko''
|-
|''do sā̃p sapere-ko''
|''do sā̃p-ko sapere''
|}
<br />'''Usage of dative pronoun + accusative pronoun'''

When two pronouns are used in a sentence, all the sentences remain grammatically valid but the ambiguity of precisely telling the subject and the object of the sentence remains.<ref name=":0" /> However, just as we did above, converting one the pronoun into nominative case does not work for all pronouns but only for the 3rd person pronouns and doing that for any other pronoun will leave the sentence ungrammatical and without sense. The reason that this works only for the 3rd person pronoun because these are not really the "regular" 3rd person pronouns but are instead the demonstrative pronouns. Hindustani lacks the regular 3rd person pronouns and hence compensates for them by using the demonstrative pronouns.

So, the ambiguity cannot completely be removed in this case here, unless of course it is interpreted that what comes first becomes the subject of the sentence. The English translation becomes either "'''Give me to that/him/her/it.'''" or "'''Give me that/him/her/it.'''" depending on which pronoun appears first in the sentence.
{| class="wikitable"
!Sentence
!Translation
!Sentence
!Translation
|-
|''mujhe use do''
| rowspan="6" |'''Give me to that/him/her/it.'''
or

'''Give me that/him/her/it.'''
|''mujhe vo do''
| rowspan="6" |'''Give me that.'''
|-
|''mujhe do use''
|''mujhe do vo''
|-
|''do mujhe use''
|''do mujhe vo''
|-
|''do use mujhe''
|''do vo mujhe''
|-
|''use mujhe do''
|''vo mujhe do''
|-
|''use do mujhe''
|''vo do mujhe''
|}

===Possession===
Unlike English and many other Indo-European languages, Hindustani does not have a verb which uniquely translate to "to have" of English. Possession is reflected in Hindustani by the genitive marker '''kā''' (inflected appropriately) or the postposition '''''ke pās''''' ("near") and the verb '''''honā'''''. Possible objects of possession fall into the following four main categories in Hindustani,

# '''Fundamental possessions:''' These are possessions that are of permanent nature, which one has not obtained but got naturally and cannot be owned. These include, family relations, body parts, etc.
#*For indicating fundamental possessions, '''''kā''''' appears after the subject of the possession. With personal pronouns, this requires the use of the possessive pronoun (inflected appropriately).
# '''Non-Fundamental possessions:''' These are possessions that one has obtained or can be owned. These include possession of any object, living beings (including humans), etc.
#*For indicating non-fundamental possessions, the compound postposition '''''ke pās''''' (literally, "of near") is used. However, this postposition cannot ever be translated as "near", showing proximity.
# '''Proximal possessions:''' These are possessions that show that someone or something has something near themselves.
#*For indicating proximity of the object to the subject, the double compound postposition '''''ke''''' '''''pās mẽ''''' (literally, "of near in") is used. It translates as "nearby".
#'''Dative/Abstract possessions''': These are abstract possessions such as pain, problems, issue, wanting, happiness, etc. but sometimes it can also be used to show number of children one has (gave birth to and not adopted).
#*For indicating dative possessions, the pronouns in their dative case or the dative postposition '''''ko''''' is used.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Fundamental possessions
!
!width="300px"|Sentence
!Explanation 
|-
!1.
|{{interlinear|merī mā̃ hai.|my mother {there is}|I have a mother.}}
|means that your mother is still alive, and hence in a fundamental way you still possess her, as in, the relationship "she is your mother" is true.
|-
!2.
|{{interlinear|uskī do ā̃khẽ haĩ.|his two eyes {there are}|He/She has two eyes.}}
|means that a person fundamentally/naturally has two eyes. The person was born like that.
|-
!3.
|{{interlinear|mere do bacce haĩ.|mine two children {there are}|I have two children.}}
|means you are the parent of two kids. The relationship is permanent.
|-
!4.
|{{interlinear|merī nazar acchī nahī̃ hai.|mine vision good not is|My vision is not good.}}
|as vision is a fundamental property of a person and hence it cannot be owned and so the fundamental possession is used.
|}
'''Note''': The verb '''''honā''''' can be translated as "to be", "to have/possess", "to exist" or "to happen" depending on the context. The third person singular and plural conjugations depending on the context could also be translated as "there is" and "there are" respectively.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Non-fundamental possessions
!
!width="300px"|Sentence
!Explanation
|-
!1.
|{{interlinear|mere pās mā̃ hai.|mine near mother {there is}|I have a mother.}}
|means the same as the fundamental possession, but with the nuance that you and your mother are physically together or close.
|-
!2.
|{{interlinear|uske pās do ā̃khẽ haĩ.|his near two eyes {there are}|He/she has two eyes.}}
|means the same as the fundamental possession with an emphasis on the current ability of one's eyes (as opposed to blindness),
but also has an additional meaning of possession of someone else's eye.
|-
!3.
|{{interlinear|mere pās do bacce haĩ.|mine near two kids {there are}|I have two kids.}}
|means that you have kids of some other person, usually used in situations of school (teacher-student), kidnapping, etc.
|-
!4.
|{{interlinear|mere pās ek idea hai.|mine near one idea {there is}|I have an idea.}}
|means that you possess an idea. An idea occurred to you.
|}
'''Note''': Sometimes when talking about physical objects (including animals) both the fundamental and non-fundamental possessions are used interchangeably when the meaning conveyed in both cases does not lead to confusion. For example, '''''mere do kutte haĩ''''' and '''''mere pās do kutte haĩ''''' (both translating as, "I have two dogs.") are often used interchangeably when referring to pet dogs, with the sentence with the fundamental possession showing or having more emotional attachment. The reason these both are used interchangeably because it is a priori understood that the dogs in the context must be pet dogs. Same happens with the second example above on both the tables conveying the possession of eyes; it is understood that the eyes in the context are one's own. In the contexts where such a priori information is not immediately understood, these two types of possessions cannot be used interchangeably.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Proximal possessions
!
!Sentence 
|-
!1.
|{{interlinear|mere {pās mẽ} mā̃ hai.|mine nearby mother {there is}|"Mother is near me." or, "I have mother near me."}}
|-
!2.
|{{interlinear|uske {pās mẽ} do kutte haĩ.|his nearby two dogs {there are}|"There are two dogs near him/her." or, "He/She/It has two dogs near him/her/it."}}
|-
!3.
|{{interlinear|mere {pās mẽ} do bacce haĩ.|mine nearby two kids {there are}|"I have two kids near me."}}
|-
!4.
|{{interlinear|mere {pās mẽ} ek ghar hai.|mine nearby one house {there is}|"I have a house near me."}}
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Dative/Abstract possessions
!
!Sentence
!Explanation 
|-
! 1.
| {{interlinear
  |mujhe ek dikkat hai.
  |{to me} one problem {there is}
  |I have a problem.}}
|since problem is an abstract noun, the dative/abstract possession is used.
|-
!2.
| {{interlinear
  |use usse do bacce haĩ.
  |{to him/her} {from him/her} two kids {there are}
  |She has two kids with him.}}
|dative/abstract possession is used to show number of children someone has (gave birth to, and not adopted).
|-
!3.
| {{interlinear
  |tujhe itnī xušī kyõ hai?
  |{to you} {this much} happiness why {there is}
  |Why are you so happy? ({{lit}} why do you have so much happiness?)}}
|since happiness is an abstract noun, the dative/abstract possession is used.
|}

===Relativisation===
Rather than using relative clauses after nouns, as in English, Hindustani uses correlative clauses. In Hindustani, a correlative clause can go before or after the entire clause, the adjective, the noun, the pronoun or the verb it relativises.<ref name=Dayal1996>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-94-011-4808-5_5 |chapter=Relativization Structures in Hindi |title=Locality in WH Quantification |series=Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy |year=1996 |last1=Dayal |first1=Veneeta |volume=62 |pages=151–186 |isbn=978-0-7923-5478-9 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Relative pronouns positions
!
!Sentence
!Note
|-
! 1.
| {{interlinear
  |'''jo''' laṛkī khaṛī hai vo lambī hai.
  |who.REL girl.FEM.SG stand.PTCP.FEM.SG be.PRS.3P.SG. she.DEM tall.ADJ.FEM.SG be.PRS.3P.SG.
  |The girl '''who''' is standing, she is tall.}}
|pre-noun relative clause<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beshears |first1=Anne |title=The Hindi correlative as an overtly pronounced index |journal=Formal Approaches to South Asian Languages |date=23 November 2016 |url=https://ojs.ub.uni-konstanz.de/jsal/index.php/fasal/article/view/109 }}</ref>
|-
! 2.
| {{interlinear
  |bacca '''jo''' cillātā hai bura hai.
  |kid.MASC.SG. who.REL shout.PTCP.MASC.SG be.PRS.3P.SG bad.ADJ.MASC.SG be.PRS.3P.SG
  |The kid '''who''' shouts is bad.}}
|post-noun relative clause<ref name=Dayal1996/>
|-
! 3.
| {{interlinear
  |vo khātā hai '''jo''' vo khātā hai.
  |he.DEM eat.PTCP.MASC.SG be.PRS.3P.SG what.REL he.DEM eat.PTCP.MASC.SG be.PRS.3P.SG
  |He eats '''what''' he eats.}}
|post-verb relative clause<ref name=Dayal1996/>
|-
! 4.
| {{interlinear
  |karo '''jo''' karnā hai [tumko].
  |do.IMP.2P.SG what.REL do.INF.PTCP be.PRS.3P.SG {}
  |Do '''what''' you want/have to do.}}
|pre-verb relative clause<ref name=Dayal1996/>
|-
! 5.
| {{interlinear
  |'''jo''' karo sahī karo.
  |what.REL do.SUBJ.2P.SG correct.ADJ do.IMP.2P.SG
  |Do right '''what''' you do.}}
|pre-verb relative clause<ref name=Dayal1996/>
|-
! 6.
| {{interlinear
  |acchī̃ nahī̃ haĩ vo '''jo''' gātī̃ haĩ.
  |good.ADJ.FEM.PL not.NEG be.PRS.3P.PL they.NOM.FEM. who.REL sing.PTCP.FEM.PL be.PRS.3P.PL
  |Those [women] '''who''' sing are not good.}}
|post-pronoun relative clause<ref name=Dayal1996/>
|-
! 7.
| {{interlinear
  |'''jo''' tum karoge sahī karoge.
  |what.REL you.NOM do.FUT.MASC.2P.SG correct.ADJ do.FUT.MASC.2P.SG
  |'''What(ever)''' you'll do, you'll do correct(ly)/right.}}
|pre-pronoun relative clause<ref name=Dayal1996/>
|-
! 8.
| {{interlinear
  |acchī '''jo''' haī vo vo laṛkī haī.
  |good.ADJ.FEM.SG who.REL be.PRS.3P.SG she.DEM that.DEM girl.NOM.SG. be.PRS.3P.SG.
  |The girl '''who''' is good is her.}}
|post-adjective relative clause<ref name=Dayal1996/>
|-
! 9.
| {{interlinear
  |'''jo''' acchī haī vo vo laṛkī haī.
  |who.REL good.ADJ.FEM.SG be.PRS.3P.SG that.DEM she.DEM girl.NOM.SG. be.PRS.3P.SG.
  |The girl '''who''' is good is her.}}
|pre-adjective relative clause<ref name=Dayal1996/>
|}
'''Note:''' The relative pronoun '''''jo''''' can be used as both relative "''what''" and relative "''who''".

===Case-marking and verb agreement===
Hindustani has [[tripartite alignment|tripartite case-marking]], which means that the subject in intransitive clauses, and the agent and the object in transitive clauses each can be marked by a distinct case form. The full set of case distinctions is however only realized in certain clause types.<ref name=Comrie>{{cite book |last=Comrie |first=Bernard |year=2013 |chapter=Alignment of Case Marking of Full Noun Phrases |editor1=Dryer, Matthew S. |editor2=Haspelmath, Martin |title=The World Atlas of Language Structures Online |place=Leipzig |publisher=Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology |chapter-url=https://wals.info/chapter/98 |access-date=26 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Verbeke |first=Saartje |year=2013 |title=Alignment and Ergativity in New Indo-Aryan Languages |place=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton}}</ref>

In ''intransitive'' clauses, the subject is in nominative case. The verb displays [[Agreement (linguistics)|agreement]] with the subject: depending on aspect and mood, the verb agrees in gender and number, and/or person and number.<ref name=Comrie/>

{{interlinear|indent=2|abbreviations=PRF:perfective; NOM:nominative case
|laṛkā kal āyā
|boy:NOM yesterday come:PRF:MASC:SG
|'The boy came yesterday.'}}

In ''transitive'' clauses, there are three patterns:<ref>{{cite book |last=Butt |first=Miriam |year=2017 |chapter=Hindi/Urdu and Related Languages |editor1=Coon, Jessica |editor2=Massam, Diane |editor3=Travis, Lisa Demena |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ergativity |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=807–831}}</ref>

;1. Perfective clauses with animate/definite object
Fully distinctive case marking is found in perfective clauses with animate and/or definite objects. Here, the agent takes the ergative case marker ''ne'', while the object takes the accusative case marker ''ko''. The verb does not agree with either of the core arguments (agent and object), but is marked per default as third person masculine singular ('''''calāyā hai''''').{{efn|In the sample clause, the agent happens to be masculine singular, but the verb would not change even if the agent were plural or feminine.}}

{{interlinear|indent=2|abbreviations=PRF:perfective
|laṛke{{=}}ne gāṛī{{=}}ko calāyā hai
|boy:OBL{{=}}ERG car{{=}}ACC drive:PRF:MASC:SG be:PRES:3.SG
|'The boy has driven the car.'}}

;2. Perfective clauses with inanimate/indefinite object
In perfective clauses with an indefinite object, the agent keeps the ergative case marker, but the object is in nominative case. The verb agrees with the object: the perfective form '''''calāyī''' '''hai''''' is marked for feminine gender, agreeing with the gender of the object '''''gāṛī'''''.

{{interlinear|indent=2|abbreviations=PRF:perfective
|laṛke{{=}}ne gāṛī calāyī hai
|boy:OBL{{=}}ERG car drive:PRF:FEM:SG be:PRES:3.SG
|'The boy has driven a car.'}}

;3. Non-perfective clauses
In all other clause types, the agent is in nominative case and triggers agreement on the verb. The object is either in nominative case or accusative case, depending on animacy/definiteness

{{interlinear|indent=2|abbreviations=IMPF:imperfective; NOM:nominative case
|laṛkā gāṛī calātā hai
|boy:NOM car:NOM drive:IMPF:MASC:SG be:PRES:3.SG
|'The boy drives a car.'}}

The following table summarises the three basic case-marking and agreement types.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 |
! colspan=3 | Case marking
! colspan=2 | Verb agreement
|-
! S*
! A
! O
! transitive
! intransitive
|-
! rowspan=2 | Perfective clauses
! definite object
| nominative
| ergative
| accusative
| none
| rowspan=2 | with S
|-
! indefinite object
| nominative
| ergative
| nominative
| with O
|-
! colspan=2 | Non-perfective clauses
| nominative
| nominative
| nominative/accusative
| with A
| with S
|-
| colspan=7 | <small>*'''S''' is the subject in intransitive clauses. '''A''' and '''O''' are the agent and the object in transitive clauses, respectively.</small>
|}

====Differential argument marking====
{{See also|Differential argument marking}}

Hindustani, like other Indo-Aryan languages, displays differential case marking on both subjects (DSM) and [[differential object marking|objects]] (DOM).<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-008044651-6/50015-X |chapter=Differential Case-Marking in Hindi |title=Competition and Variation in Natural Languages |year=2005 |last1=De Hoop |first1=Helen |last2=Narasimhan |first2=Bhuvana |pages=321–345 |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1748-5 |isbn=978-0-08-044651-6 }}</ref> Diachronically, differential argument marking developed very differently for subjects and objects, but became prevalent for both in the 17th century. For subjects, it is predicate-licensed and dependent on semantics, whereas for objects it is discourse-driven.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Montaut |first1=Annie |editor1-last=Seržant |editor1-first=Ilja A. |editor2-last=Witzlack-Makarevich |editor2-first=Alena |title=Diachrony of differential argument marking |date=2018 |publisher=Language Science Press |location=Berlin |chapter=The rise of differential object marking in Hindi and related languages |chapter-url=https://langsci-press.org/catalog/view/173/1277/1051-1 |isbn=978-3-96110-085-9 }}</ref>

For subjects, on top of the previously discussed [[split ergativity]] (in which perfective case verbs take the ergative ''ne'' on the subject, while other conjugations have an unmarked subject), certain [[modal auxiliary verb]]s take different case markers for their subjects.

The most notable instance of DSM is the [[experiencer (linguistics)|experiencer dative subject]] (a type of [[quirky subject]]). Verbs indicating sensations ('''''lagnā''''' "to seem"), emotions ('''''mahsūs honā''''' "to feel"), and cognition ('''''patā honā''''' "to be known"), all license the dative case marker '''''ko''''' on their subjects. This is a cross-lingual phenomenon.

{{interlinear|indent=2|abbreviations=PRF:perfective; NOM:nominative case; PROGːprogressive aspect
|us{{=}}ko terī bāt acchī lag rahī hai
|3.SG:OBL{{=}}DAT 2.SG:GEN talk:NOM good:FEM seem PROG:FEM be:3.SG:PRS
|'She likes what you're saying.'}}

Passive subjects taking the modal auxiliary '''''jānā''''' 'to go', usually connoting reduced agentivity, take the instrumental '''''se'''''. This construction can also be used to indicate ability.

{{interlinear|indent=2|abbreviations=PRF:perfective; NOM:nominative case
|bacce{{=}}se śīśā ṭūṭ gayā
|child:OBL{{=}}INS mirror:NOM break go:PRF:MASC:SG
|'The mirror was broken by the child.'}}

The dative '''''ko''''' indicates obligation or necessity. The modal '''''honā''''' 'to be' and '''''paṛnā''''' 'to fall' both take this on their subjects.

{{interlinear|indent=2|abbreviations=PRF:perfective; NOM:nominative case
|logõ{{=}}ko kām karnā hai
|people:OBL:PL{{=}}DAT work:NOM do:INF be:PRS:3.SG
|'The people have to work.'}}

The accusative marker '''''ko''''' is only applied when the object is definite, similar to the distinction between ''the'' and ''a(n)'' in English.

{{interlinear|indent=2|abbreviations=PRF:perfective
|maĩ{{=}}ne laṛkõ{{=}}ko bacāyā
|1.SG{{=}}ERG boy:OBL:PL{{=}}ACC save:PRF:MASC:SG
|'I saved the boys.'}}

{{interlinear|indent=2|abbreviations=PRF:perfective; NOM:nominative case
|maĩ{{=}}ne laṛke bacāye
|1.SG{{=}}ERG boy:NOM:PL save:PRF:MASC:PL
|'I saved boys.'}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== See also ==

* [[Urdu|Urdu language]]
* [[Hindi|Hindi language]]
* [[Hindi verbs]]
* [[Hindi pronouns]]
* [[Urdu alphabet]]
* [[Devanagari]]
* [[Devanagari transliteration]]
* [[Hindustani phonology]]

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

==Bibliography==
*{{Citation
 |last=Masica
 |first=Colin
 |author-link=Colin Masica
 |year=1991
 |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages
|place= Cambridge
 |publisher=Cambridge University Press
 |isbn=978-0-521-29944-2
 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC&q=indo-aryan+languages
}}.
*{{Citation
 |last=Schmidt
 |first=Ruth Laila
 |year=2003
 |chapter=Urdu
 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jPR2OlbTbdkC&q=indo-aryan&pg=PA286
|editor1-last= Cardona
|editor1-first= George
|editor2-last= Jain
|editor2-first= Dhanesh
 |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages
 |publisher=Routledge
 |isbn=978-0-415-77294-5
 |pages=286–350
}}.
*{{Citation
 |last=McGregor
 |first=Ronald Stuart
 |year=1995
 |title=Outline of Hindi Grammar
 |publisher=Clarendon Press
|place=Oxford
 |edition=third
 |isbn=0-19-870008-3
}}.
*{{Citation
 |last=Shapiro
 |first=Michael C.
 |year=2003
 |chapter=Hindi
 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jPR2OlbTbdkC&q=indo-aryan&pg=PA250
|editor1-last= Cardona
|editor1-first= George
|editor2-last= Jain
|editor2-first= Dhanesh
 |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages
 |publisher=Routledge
 |isbn=978-0-415-77294-5
 |pages=250–285
}}.
*{{Citation
|last1= Snell
|first1= Rupert
|last2= Weightman
|first2= Simon
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 |title=[[Teach Yourself]] Hindi
 |publisher=McGraw-Hill
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}}.

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/introductiontohi00shakrich#page/8/mode/2up|title=An introduction to the Hindustani language comprising a grammar, and a vocabulary, English and Hindustani : also short stories and dialogues, short stories in Persian and Nagari characters ... and military words of command, Nagari and English|author=Shakespear, John |year=1845 |publisher=London : W.H. Allen}}
*{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/grammarofurduorh00dowsiala#page/n11/mode/2up|title=A grammar of the Urdu or Hindustani language|author=Dowson, John (1820–1881)|year=1908|publisher= London : K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., ltd. 1908}} (public domain e-book) Contributed by [[University of California]] libraries
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<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
ABBR1:meaning1
ABBR2:meaning2
</div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

[[Category:Indo-Aryan grammars]]
[[Category:Hindustani language]]
[[Category:Hindi]]
[[Category:Urdu]]