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'''COINTELPRO (Counter Intelligence Program)''' is a program of the [[United States]] [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] aimed at investigating and disrupting dissident political organizations within the United States. Although covert operations have been employed throughout FBI history, the formal COINTELPRO operations of [[1956]]-[[1971]] were broadly targeted against organizations that were (at the time) considered to have politically radical elements, ranging from those whose stated goal was the violent overthrow of the US government (such as the [[Weatherman (organization)|Weathermen]]) to non-violent civil rights groups such as [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]'s [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]] to violent racist and segregationist groups like the [[Ku Klux Klan]] and the [[American Nazi Party]]. The founding document of COINTELPRO directed FBI agents to "expose, disrupt, misdirect, discredit, or otherwise neutralize" the activities of these dissident movements and their leaders. |
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==History== |
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COINTELPRO began in 1956 and was designed to "increase factionalism, cause disruption and win defections" inside the [[Communist Party USA|Communist Party U.S.A.]] (CPUSA). However, the program was soon enlarged to include disruption of the [[Socialist Workers Party (United States)|Socialist Workers Party]] (1961), the [[Ku Klux Klan]] (1964), African-American nationalist groups (including the [[Black Panther Party]] and the [[Nation of Islam]] (1967), and the entire [[New Left]] socio-political movement, which included antiwar, community, and religious groups (1968). |
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A later investigation by the Senate's [[Church Committee]] (see below) stated that "COINTELPRO began in 1956, in part because of frustration with Supreme Court rulings limiting the Government's power to proceed overtly against dissident groups..."<ref>[http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIa.htm http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIa.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]].</ref> Congress and several court cases{{fact}} later concluded that the COINTELPRO operations against communist and socialist groups exceeded statutory limits on FBI activity and violated Constitutional guarantees of freedom of speech and association. |
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Supporters of the program argue that the project was rooted in the Bureau's knowledge that some domestic left-wing and radical organizations were manipulated by hostile foreign intelligence agencies. For example, the FBI had access to the [[Venona]] decrypts that showed the [[Soviet Union]] and its [[KGB]] manipulated and worked under the cover of the [[Communist Party USA|CPUSA]] for espionage purposes and to incite domestic unrest in the United States. |
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Some of the largest COINTELPRO campaigns targeted the [[Socialist Workers Party (United States)|Socialist Worker's Party]], the Ku Klux Klan[http://www.geocities.com/drabbs/workingpapers.html], the "[[New Left]]" (including several anti-war groups such as the [[Students for a Democratic Society]] and the [[Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee]]), [[Black Liberation]] groups (such as the [[Black Panthers]] and the [[Republic of New Africa]]), [[Puerto Rican independence groups]], the [[American Indian Movement]] and the [[Weather Underground]]. |
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The program was secret until [[1971]], when an FBI field office was burglarized by a group of left-wing radicals calling themselves the [[Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI]]. Several dossiers of files were taken and the information passed to [[news]] agencies. Within the year, Director [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] declared that the centralized COINTELPRO was over, and that all future counterintelligence operations would be handled on a case-by-case basis. |
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Further documents were revealed in the course of separate lawsuits filed against the FBI by NBC correspondent Carl Stern, the SWP, and a number of other groups. A major investigation was launched in 1976 by the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities of the United States Senate, commonly referred to as the "[[Church Committee]]" for its chairman, Senator [[Frank Church]] of [[Idaho]]. However, millions of pages of documents remain unreleased, and many released documents are entirely censored. |
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In the Final Report of the Select Committee COINTELPRO was castigated in no uncertain terms: |
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:"Many of the techniques used would be intolerable in a democratic society even if all of the targets had been involved in violent activity, but COINTELPRO went far beyond that...the Bureau conducted a sophisticated vigilante operation aimed squarely at preventing the exercise of First Amendment rights of speech and association, on the theory that preventing the growth of dangerous groups and the propagation of dangerous ideas would protect the national security and deter violence."<ref>[http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIa.htm http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIa.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]].</ref> |
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The Church Committee documented a history of the FBI being used for purposes of [[political repression]] as far back as [[World War I]], through the [[1920s]], when they were charged with rounding up "anarchists and revolutionaries" for deportation, and then building from [[1936]] through [[1976]]. |
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The FBI claims that it no longer undertakes COINTELPRO or COINTELPRO-like operations. However, critics claim that agency programs in the spirit of COINTELPRO target groups like the [[Committee in Solidarity with the People of El Salvador]], [[Earth First!]] and the [[Anti-Globalization Movement]]. |
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==Methods== |
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According to Brian Glick, in ''War at Home'', COINTELPRO used a broad array of methods, including: |
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1. "'''Infiltration:''' Agents and informers did not merely spy on political activists. Their main purpose was to discredit and disrupt. Their very presence served to undermine trust and scare off potential supporters. The FBI and police exploited this fear to smear genuine activists as agents." <ref>As an example of infiltration of organizations, Bill Wilkinson, the leader of the Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, was an FBI informant.</ref> |
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2. "'''Psychological Warfare From the Outside''': The FBI and police used myriad other "dirty tricks" to undermine progressive movements. They planted false media stories and published bogus leaflets and other publications in the name of targeted groups. They forged correspondence, sent anonymous letters, and made anonymous telephone calls. They spread misinformation about meetings and events, set up pseudo movement groups run by government agents, and manipulated or strong-armed parents, employers, landlords, school officials and others to cause trouble for activists." <ref>An example of COINTELPRO's work in the media is a series of articles run in the San Francisco Examiner purporting to be interviews with radical Marxist [[H. Bruce Franklin]]. A subsequent libel suit showed that right-wing columnist Ed Montgomery had cooperated closely with the FBI in writing the story, and that J. Edgar Hoover had signed off on the articles before publication. [http://www.sfbg.com/39/03/cover_anniversary_intro.html http://www.sfbg.com/39/03/cover_anniversary_intro.html], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]]. In another example, the FBI also carried out a smear campaign against civil rights activist [[Viola Liuzzo]] after she was murdered by four [[Ku Klux Klan]] members, of whom one was a paid FBI informant. [http://www.detnews.com/2004/metro/0409/30/c01-289311.htm http://www.detnews.com/2004/metro/0409/30/c01-289311.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]].</ref> |
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3. "'''Harassment Through the Legal System''': The FBI and police abused the legal system to harass dissidents and make them appear to be criminals. Officers of the law gave perjured testimony and presented fabricated evidence as a pretext for false arrests and wrongful imprisonment. They discriminatorily enforced tax laws and other government regulations and used conspicuous surveillance, 'investigative' interviews, and grand jury subpoenas in an effort to intimidate activists and silence their supporters." |
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4. "'''Extralegal Force and Violence''': The FBI and police threatened, instigated, and themselves conducted break-ins, vandalism, assaults, and beatings. The object was to frighten dissidents and disrupt their movements. In the case of radical Black and Puerto Rican activists (and later Native Americans), these attacks—including political assassinations—were so extensive, vicious, and calculated that they can accurately be termed a form of official 'terrorism.'". <ref>An example of a burglary is discussed at [http://www.sfbg.com/39/03/cover_anniversary_intro.html http://www.sfbg.com/39/03/cover_anniversary_intro.html], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]]. An example of involvement in violent acts is the 1965 murder of civil rights activist [[Viola Liuzzo]] by four Klansmen, of whom one was FBI informant Gary Rowe. The Church Committee also found that, "while performing duties paid for by the Government, [Rowe] had ... 'beaten people severely, had boarded buses and kicked people, had [gone] into restaurants and beaten them [blacks] with blackjacks, chains, pistols.'" [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]]. Another example noted by the Church Committee was "Sending an anonymous letter to the leader of a Chicago street gang (described as 'violence-prone') stating that the Black Panthers were supposed to have 'a hit out for you'. The letter was suggested because it 'may intensify . . . animosity' and cause the street gang leader to 'take retaliatory action'" [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]].</ref> |
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The FBI also conducted "black bag" jobs, warrantless surreptitious entries, against the targeted groups and their members.<ref>[http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIf.htm http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIf.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]].</ref> |
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Supporters of the FBI argue that the Bureau was convinced that there was such a threat of domestic subversion posed by radical groups that extraordinary efforts were required to forestall violence and revolutionary insurgency. Hoover was willing to use false claims to attack his political enemies. In one memo he wrote: "Purpose of counterintelligence action is to disrupt the [[Black Panther Party]] and it is immaterial whether facts exist to substantiate the charge." |
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In 1969 the FBI special agent in San Francisco wrote Hoover that his investigation of the Black Panther Party revealed that in his city, at least, the Black nationalists were primarily feeding breakfast to children. Hoover fired back a memo implying the career ambitions of the agent were directly related to his supplying evidence to support Hoover's view that the BPP was "a violence prone organization seeking to overthrow the Government by revolutionary means". |
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On Memorial Day, 1970, during the University of California Berkeley's explosive political response to the bombing of Cambodia, the Jimi Hendrix Experience played at the Berkeley Community Center. As a condition of safe-passage for the event, the Community-Relations Consultant retained to "Cool-Out" the locals introduced Jimi Hendrix to the wives of the leaders of the Black Panther Party: Artie Seal and Pat Hilliard. The meeting was restricted to the principals and afterward the announcement was made that Jimi Hendrix would perform a [[benefit concert]] for the Panthers {Black & White} at Oakland Colosseum during September, 1970. It was not to be. COINTELPRO operatives in London intercepted this fusion of the Black Political Revolution and the White Cultural Revolution. Hendrix played Berkeley, but not Oakland. |
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==Illegal surveillance== |
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The Final report of the [[Church Committee]] concluded: |
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:Too many people have been spied upon by too many Government agencies and too much information has been collected. The Government has often undertaken the secret surveillance of citizens on the basis of their political beliefs, even when those beliefs posed no threat of violence or illegal acts on behalf of a hostile foreign power. The Government, operating primarily through secret informants, but also using other intrusive techniques such as wiretaps, microphone "bugs" surreptitious mail opening, and break-ins, has swept in vast amounts of information about the personal lives, views, and associations of American citizens. Investigations of groups deemed potentially dangerous -- and even of groups suspected of associating with potentially dangerous organizations -- have continued for decades, despite the fact that those groups did not engage in unlawful activity. Groups and individuals have been harassed and disrupted because of their political views and their lifestyles. Investigations have been based upon vague standards whose breadth made excessive collection inevitable. Unsavory and vicious tactics have been employed -- including anonymous attempts to break up marriages, disrupt meetings, ostracize persons from their professions, and provoke target groups into rivalries that might result in deaths. Intelligence agencies have served the political and personal objectives of presidents and other high officials. While the agencies often committed excesses in response to pressure from high officials in the Executive branch and Congress, they also occasionally initiated improper activities and then concealed them from officials whom they had a duty to inform. |
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:Governmental officials -- including those whose principal duty is to enforce the law --have violated or ignored the law over long periods of time and have advocated and defended their right to break the law. |
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:The Constitutional system of checks and balances has not adequately controlled intelligence activities. Until recently the Executive branch has neither delineated the scope of permissible activities nor established procedures for supervising intelligence agencies. Congress has failed to exercise sufficient oversight, seldom questioning the use to which its appropriations were being put. Most domestic intelligence issues have not reached the courts, and in those cases when they have reached the courts, the judiciary has been reluctant to grapple with them.<ref name = "Church"> {{cite web |
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| title =INTELLIGENCE ACTIVITIES AND THE RIGHTS OF AMERICANS BOOK II, FINAL REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE TO STUDY GOVERNMENTAL OPERATIONS WITH RESPECT TO INTELLIGENCE ACTIVITIES UNITED STATES SENATE (Church Committee) |
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| work =United States Senate |
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| url =http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm |
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| accessdate=May 11, 2006 |
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}} </ref> <ref name = "Slate"> {{cite web |
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| title =Tapped Out Why Congress won't get through to the NSA. |
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| work =Slate.com |
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| url =http://www.slate.com/id/2135325/ |
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| accessdate=May 11, 2006 |
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}} </ref> |
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==Further reading== |
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===Books=== |
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*{{cite book | author=Blacstock, Nelson | title=Cointelpro: The FBI's Secret War on Political Freedom | publisher=Pathfinder Press | year=1988 | id=ISBN 0873488776}} |
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*{{cite book | author=Carson, Clayborne; Gallen, David, editors | title=Malcolm X: The FBI File | publisher=Carroll & Graf Publishers | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0881847585}} |
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*{{cite book | author=[[Ward Churchill|Churchill, Ward]]; Vander Wall, Jim. | title=The Cointelpro Papers: Documents from the FBI's Secret Wars Against Dissent in the United States (2nd ed.) | publisher=South End Press | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0896086488}} |
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*{{cite book | author=[[Ward Churchill|Churchill, Ward]]; Vander Wall, Jim. | title=Agents of Repression: The FBI's Secret Wars Against the Black Panther Party and the American Indian Movement (2nd ed.) | publisher=South End Press | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0896086461}} |
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*{{cite book | author=Cunningham, David | title=There’s Something Happening Here: The New Left, The Klan, and FBI Counterintelligence | publisher=University of California Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0520239970}} |
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*{{cite book | author=Davis, James Kirkpatrick | title=Assault on the Left | publisher=Praeger Trade | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0275954552}} |
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*{{cite book | author=Garrow, David | title=The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr. (Revised ed.) | publisher=Yale University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0300087314}} |
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*{{cite book | author=Glick, Brian | title=War at Home: Covert Action Against U.S. Activists and What We Can Do About It | publisher=South End Press | year=1989 | id=ISBN 0896083497}} |
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*{{cite book | author=Halperin, [[Morton]]; Berman, Jerry; Borosage Robert; Marwick, Christine | title=The Lawless State: The Crimes Of The U.S. Intelligence Agencies | publisher= | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0140043861}} |
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*{{cite book | author=Perkus, Cathy | title=Cointelpro | publisher=Vintage | year=1976 | id=}} |
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===U.S. Government reports=== |
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* U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Internal Security. '''Hearings on Domestic Intelligence Operations for Internal Security Purposes'''. 93rd Cong., 2d sess, 1974. |
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* U.S. Congress. House. Select Committee on Intelligence. '''Hearings on Domestic Intelligence Programs'''. 94th Cong., 1st sess, 1975. |
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* U.S. Congress. Senate. '''Committee on Government Operations. Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations. Hearings on Riots, Civil and Criminal Disorders'''. 90th Cong., 1st sess. - 91st Cong. , 2d sess, 1967-1970. |
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* U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. '''Hearings — The National Security Agency and Fourth Amendment Rights. Vol. 6'''. 94th Cong., 1st sess, 1975. |
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* U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. '''Hearings — Federal Bureau of Investigation. Vol. 6'''. 94th Cong., 1st sess, 1975. |
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* U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. '''Final Report — Book II, Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans'''. 94th Cong., 2d sess, 1976. |
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* U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. '''Final Report — Book III , Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans'''. 94th Cong., 2d sess, 1976. |
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==See also== |
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<!--alphabetize all additions--> |
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* [[Agent provocateur]] |
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* [[H. Bruce Franklin|Franklin, H. Bruce]], targeted by [[COINTELPRO]] |
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* [[Fred Hampton|Hampton, Fred]], targeted by [[COINTELPRO]] |
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* [[NSA call database]] |
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* [[Operation Mockingbird]] |
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* Gary Rowe, [[COINTELPRO]] informant accused (and acquitted) of involvement in the murder of civil rights activist [[Viola Liuzzo]] |
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* [[Morris Starsky|Starsky, Morris ]], early target of [[COINTELPRO]] |
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* [[THERMCON]] |
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* [[Weather Underground]] |
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* Song "Wake Up" by [[Rage Against The Machine]] |
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* Song "No Justice, No Peace" by [[Aus-Rotten]] |
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* Song "Your Next Bold Move" by [[Ani Difranco]] |
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* Song "With Friends Like These Who the Fuck Needs Cointelpro" by [[Propagandhi]] |
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* Song "You're Wong" by [[NOFX]] |
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==Endnotes== |
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<references /> |
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==External links== |
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===Documentary=== |
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* [http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=03/04/07/0259253&mode=thread&tid=5 ''"Me and My Shadow": A History of the FBI's Covert Operations and COINTELPRO - Part 1'']. 34:21 minute Real Audio. Produced by Adi Gevins, Pacifica Radio. 1976. Rebroadcast by '''[[Democracy Now!]]''' Wednesday, [[June 5]] [[2002]]. Retrieved [[May 12]] [[2005]]. |
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* [http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=03/04/07/0259257&mode=thread&tid=5 ''"Me and My Shadow": A History of the FBI's Covert Operations and COINTELPRO - Part 2'']. 13:43 minute Real Audio. Produced by Adi Gevins, Pacifica Radio. 1976. Rebroadcast by '''Democracy Now!''' Thursday, [[June 6]] [[2002]]. Retrieved [[May 12]] [[2005]]. |
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===Websites=== |
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*[http://www.oilempire.us/cointelpro.html COINTELPRO now] |
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* [http://www.cointel.org Paul Wolf's COINTELPRO website, a detailed reference site]. Retrieved [[April 19]] [[2005]]. |
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* [http://www.sonic.net/~doretk/Issues/98-09%20FALL/coint.html COINTELPRO STILL LIVES by Sista Shiriki Unganisha] |
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* [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/coinwcar3.htm COINTELPRO: The Untold American Story - presented to U.N. World Conference Against Racism 2001 by the U.S. Congressional Black Caucus] |
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* [http://www.judibari.org The Judi Bari case, COINTELPRO in the 1990s]. Retrieved [[April 19]] [[2005]]. |
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* [http://www.whatreallyhappened.com/RANCHO/POLITICS/COINTELPRO/cointelpro.html COINTELPRO: the Sabotage of Legitimate Dissent], ''What Really Happened'', [[June 5]] [[1998]]. |
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* [http://www.whatreallyhappened.com/RANCHO/POLITICS/COINTELPRO/coloring.html Fake ''Black Panther Party'' coloring book distributed by the FBI] |
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* [http://www.geocities.com/drabbs/workingpapers.html COINTELPRO-WHITE HATE Operation Against the Ku Klux Klan] |
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===U.S Government reports=== |
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'''Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities'''. United States Senate, 94th Congress, 2nd Session, [[April 26]] (legislative day, [[April 14]]), 1976. [AKA "Church Committee Report"]. Archived on [http://www.cointel.org COINTELPRO sources website]. Transcription and html by Paul Wolf. Retrieved [[April 19]] [[2005]]. |
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* '''Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans, Book II''' |
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: I. [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm Introduction and Summary] |
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: II. [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIb.htm The Growth of Domestic Intelligence: 1936 to 1976] |
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: III. [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportfindings.htm Findings] |
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:: (A) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIca.htm Violating and Ignoring the Law] |
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:: (B) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIcb.htm Overbreadth of Domestic Intelligence Activity] |
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:: (C) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIcc.htm Excessive Use of Intrusive Techniques] |
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:: (D) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIcd.htm Using Covert Action to Disrupt and Discredit Domestic Groups] |
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:: (E) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIce.htm Political Abuse of Intelligence Information] |
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:: (F) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIcf.htm Inadequate Controls on Dissemination and Retention] |
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:: (G) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIcg.htm Deficiencies in Control and Accountability] |
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: IV. [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIId.htm Conclusions and Recommendations] |
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* '''Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports, Book III''' |
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** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIa.htm COINTELPRO: The FBI's Covert Action Programs Against American Citizens] |
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** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIb.htm Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Case Study] |
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** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIc.htm The FBI's Covert Action Program to Destroy the Black Panther Party] |
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** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIId.htm The Use of Informants in FBI Intelligence Investigations] |
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** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIe.htm Warrantless FBI Electronic Surveillance] |
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** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIf.htm Warrantless Surreptitious Entries: FBI "Black Bag" Break-ins And Microphone Installations] |
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** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIg.htm The Development of FBI Domestic Intelligence Investigations] |
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** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIh.htm Domestic CIA and FBI Mail Opening] |
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** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIi.htm CIA Intelligence Collection About Americans: CHAOS Program And The Office of Security] |
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** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIj.htm National Security Agency Surveillance Affecting Americans] |
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** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIk.htm Improper Surveillance of Private Citizens By The Military] |
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** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIl.htm The Internal Revenue Service: An Intelligence Resource and Collector] |
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** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIm.htm National Security, Civil Liberties, And The Collection of Intelligence: A Report On The Huston Plan ] |
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[[Category:CIA operations]] |
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[[Category:History of anti-communism in the United States]] |
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[[Category:History of civil rights in the United States]] |
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[[Category:Law enforcement in the United States]] |
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[[Category:Political repression]] |
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[[Category:Propaganda in the United States]] |
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|grupo=Blackfoot |
|grupo=Blackfoot |
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Revisión del 12:22 9 jul 2006
| Blackfoot | ||
|---|---|---|
| Descendencia | En 1900 se estimaron unos 20.000. Actualmente, aproximadamente 25.000 | |
| Idioma | Idioma Blackfoot, Idiomas Algonquinos | |
| Etnias relacionadas | la Nación Kainai, los Peigan del Norte y la Nación Siksikay los Indios de los Planos | |
| Montana, Estados Unidos | ||
- Este artículo es sobre los Piegan Blackfeet, la parte de la tribu emplazada en la Nación Backfeet en Montana. Para otras escisiones de los Blackfood. Para la antigua colonia Franco-Argelina de similar traducción, véase Pieds-noirs.
Los Piegan Blackfeet (Pikuni en el idioma Blackfoot) son una tribu de amerindios Blackfoot asentados en Montana. Muchos miembros de la tribu viven actualmente como parte de la Nación Blackfeet en el noroeste de Montana, con la población concentrada en Browning.
Los Blackfeet están estrechamente relacionados a otras tres First Nations de la prvincia canadiense de Alberta. Estas Primeras Naciones son la Nación Kainai (antiguamente los Blood), los Peigan del Norte y la Nación Siksika. A veces estas First Nations y los Blackfeet son mentadas colectivamente como los Blackfoot o la Confederación Blackfoot. La literatura etnográfica usa la mayoría de las veces el término Blackfoot people (Pueblo Blackfoot) y la mayoría de sus propios integrantes usan el singular Blackfoot, aunque E.E.U.U. y los gobiernos tribales oficialmente usen Blackfeet como en la Reserva India Blackfeet y la Nación Blackfeet según el sitio web oficial de la tribu. El término Siksika, derivado de Siksikaikwan - "una persona Blackfoot" - puede también ser usado como identificador propio, de la misma manera en que se podría usar en castellano Soy Blackfoot o Soy miembro de la tribu Blackfeet. (Nettl, 1989)
Las relaciones del idioma Blackfoot con otros idiomas de la familia Algonquina indican que los Blackfoot vivieron en algún lugar al oeste de los Grandes Lagos. Aunque practicaban la agricultura un poco, eran parcialmente nómadas. Se movían en dirección al oeste en parte por la introducción de los caballos y las armas y se convirtieron en parte de la cultura de los Indios de los Planos a pricipios de 1800. La introducción del caballo se sitúa cercana a 1730. En 1900, se estimaba que había 20.000 Blackfoot, y a día de hoy son aproximadamente 25.000. La poblaciones a veces bajó dramáticamente cuando el pueblo Blackfoot sufrió brotes de enfermedades, hambrunas y guerra, como la hambruna de 1882 cuando la última caza de bisontes americanos fracasó o la epidemia de viruela de 1837 que mató a 6.000 de ellos. Habían poseído grandes partes de Alberta y Montana, aunque actualmente la Reserva Blackfeet es del tamaño de Delaware, y las tres reservas Blackfoot en Alberta tienen un área mucho menor. (Nettl, 1989)
El idioma Blackfoot es también aglutinante. Los Blackfoot no han documentado bien los Dos-Espíritus varones, pero tienen "mujeres con corazón de hombre" (Lewis, 1941) que en muchos de los roles sociales actúan como mujeres, incluyendo la voluntad de cantar sólo, normalmente considerado "presuntuoso", y usando el estilo de canto de los hombres. (Nettl, 1989, p.84, 125).
Véase también
Fuentes
- Nettl, Bruno (1989). Blackfoot Musical Thought: Comparative Perspectives. Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 0873383702