Исламская аграрная революция: различия между версиями

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{{Значения|Аграрная революция}}
'''Исламская аграрная революция''' — крупные преобразования в сельском хозяйстве Арабского Халифата и связанный с этим прогресс в науках о земле, естественных науках и экономике в т.наз. эпоху [[Исламский золотой век|Исламского золотого века]] с 8 по 13 в. н. э. Синонимы — '''Арабская аграрная революция''', '''Средневековая зелёная революция'''.<ref name=Watson/><ref>A. M. Watson (1981), «A Medieval Green Revolution: New Crops and Farming Techniques in the Early Islamic World», in ''The Islamic Middle East, 700—1900: Studies in Economic and Social History''</ref><ref name=Idrisi>Zohor Idrisi (2005), [http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/AgricultureRevolution2.pdf The Muslim Agricultural Revolution and its influence on Europe], FSTC</ref>
'''Исламская аграрная революция''' (также '''арабская аграрная революция''', '''средневековая зелёная революция''') — крупные преобразования в сельском хозяйстве [[Арабский халифат|Арабского халифата]] и связанный с этим прогресс в науках о земле, естественных науках и экономике в эпоху [[Золотой век ислама|Исламского золотого века]] с VIII по XIII в. н. э.<ref name=Watson/><ref>A. M. Watson (1981), «A Medieval Green Revolution: New Crops and Farming Techniques in the Early Islamic World», in ''The Islamic Middle East, 700—1900: Studies in Economic and Social History''</ref><ref name=Idrisi>Zohor Idrisi (2005), [http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/AgricultureRevolution2.pdf The Muslim Agricultural Revolution and its influence on Europe] {{Wayback|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/AgricultureRevolution2.pdf |date=20080625192522 }}, FSTC</ref> Термин предложил историк Эндрю Уотсон в 1974 году.


В результате установления Арабского халифата на обширной территории с запада Европы и до Центральной Азии возникла [[глобальная экономика]], что позволило арабским и другим мусульманским торговцам вести широкий торговый обмен, распространить по всей территории Халифата и за его пределы множество сельскохозяйственных культур и технологий ведения сельского хозяйства, а также адаптировать эти культуры и методы за пределами Халифата. Помимо сельскохозяйственных культур арабского мира, широкое распространение за пределами своей родины получили [[сорго]] (Африка), [[цитрусовые]] ([[Китай]]), различные культуры Индии ([[манго]], [[рис]], [[хлопок]], [[сахарный тростник]]).<ref name=Watson/> Ряд исследователей называют этот период «глобализацией сельскохозяйственных культур».<ref>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=229 The Globalisation of Crops], FSTC</ref> Появление новых культур, рост механизации сельского хозяйства привели к большим сдвигам в экономике, распределении населения, типам посевов,<ref>Andrew M. Watson (1983), ''Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World'', [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0-521-24711-X.</ref> с/х производстве, доходах населения, урбанизации, распределении рабочей силы, инфраструктуры, кухни народов мира и одежды.<ref name=Watson>Andrew M. Watson (1974), «The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700—1100», ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''34''' (1), pp. 8-35.</ref>
В результате установления Арабского халифата на обширной территории с запада Европы и до [[Центральная Азия|Центральной Азии]] возникла [[глобальная экономика]], что позволило арабским и другим мусульманским торговцам вести широкий торговый обмен, распространить по всей территории Халифата и за его пределы множество сельскохозяйственных культур и технологий ведения сельского хозяйства, а также адаптировать эти культуры и методы за пределами Халифата. Помимо сельскохозяйственных культур арабского мира, широкое распространение за пределами своей родины получили [[сорго]] ([[Африка]]), [[цитрус]]овые ([[Китай]]), различные культуры Индии ([[Манго индийское|манго]], [[рис]], [[хлопок]], [[сахарный тростник]])<ref name=Watson/>. Ряд исследователей называют этот период «[[Глобализация|глобализацией]] сельскохозяйственных культур»<ref>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=229 The Globalisation of Crops] {{Wayback|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=229 |date=20140102191037 }}, FSTC</ref>. Появление новых культур, рост механизации сельского хозяйства привели к большим сдвигам в экономике, распределении населения, типам посевов<ref>Andrew M. Watson (1983), ''Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-24711-X.</ref>, с/х производстве, доходах населения, [[Урбанизация|урбанизации]], распределении рабочей силы, инфраструктуры, кухни народов мира и одежды<ref name=Watson>Andrew M. Watson (1974), «The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700—1100», ''The Journal of Economic History'' 34 (1), pp. 8-35.</ref>.


== География ==
== География ==
При образовании [[Арабский халифат|Арабского халифата]] многие ранее изолированные друг от друга регионы были объединены в одном государстве, в связи с чем между ними начался интенсивный научный, торговый и хозяйственный обмен<ref name=Labib>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), «Capitalism in Medieval Islam», ''The Journal of Economic History'' 29 (1), p. 79-96.</ref>. Исламские мореплаватели стали активно осваивать соседние регионы, в том числе [[Европа|Европу]], Китай и Индию.


Эффект глобализации нарастал постепенно, а его кульминация на поздних этапах существования халифата получила в историографии название [[Золотой век ислама]]<ref name="Hobson-29-30">John M. Hobson (2004), ''The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation'', p. 29-30, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-54724-5.</ref>. Примерным историческим рубежом условно считается правление [[Харун ар-Рашид|Харуна ар-Рашида]], в связи с чем этот далеко не успешный халиф столь популярен в исламской литературе.
При образовании [[Арабский халифат|Арабского халифата]] многие ранее изолированные друг от друга регионы были объединены в одном государстве, в связи с чем между ними начался интенсивный научный, торговый и хозяйственный обмен<ref name=Labib>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), «Capitalism in Medieval Islam», ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96.</ref>. Исламские мореплаватели стали активно осваивать соседние регионы, в том числе в Европу, Китай и Индию. Ряд средневековых источников, по мнению историка С. Ахсани, позволяют предположить, что арабские мореплаватели из Андалусии и Магриба могли достичь Америки.<ref>S. A. H. Ahsani (July 1984). «Muslims in Latin America: a survey», ''Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs'' '''5''' (2), p. 454—463.</ref>
Эффект глобализации нарастал постепенно, а его кульминация на поздних этапах существования халифата получила в историографии название [[Золотой век ислама]]<ref name=Hobson-29-30>John M. Hobson (2004), ''The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation'', p. 29-30, [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0-521-54724-5.</ref>. Примерным историческим рубежом условно считается правление [[Харун ар-Рашид|Харуна ар-Рашида]], в связи с чем этот далеко не успешный халиф столь популярен в исламской литературе.


== См. также ==
<!--== Сельскохозяйственные инновации ==
* [[Золотой век ислама]]
Muslims introduced [[cash crop]]ping<ref name=Banaji/> and the modern [[crop rotation]] system where land was cropped four or more times in a two-year period. Winter crops were followed by summer ones, and in some cases there was in between. In areas where [[plant]]s of shorter growing season were used, such as [[spinach]] and [[eggplant]]s, the land could be cropped three or more times a year. In parts of [[Yemen]], [[wheat]] [[yield]]ed two [[harvest]]s a year on the same land, as did [[rice]] in Iraq.<ref name=Watson/> Muslims developed a [[Science|scientific]] approach based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of crop rotation, highly developed [[irrigation]] techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of [[crops]] which were studied and catalogued according to the [[season]], type of [[land]] and amount of [[water]] they require. Numerous [[encyclopaedia]]s on [[farming]] and [[botany]] were produced, with highly accurate [[precision]] and details.<ref name=Woodcock>Al-Hassani, Woodcock and Saoud (2007), ''Muslim heritage in Our World'', FSTC publishing, 2nd Edition, pp. 102-23.</ref> The earliest [[cookbook]]s on [[Arab cuisine]] were also written, such as the ''[[Kitab al-Tabikh]]'' (''The Book of Dishes'') of Ibn Sayyiir al-Warraq (10th century) and the ''Kitab al-Tabikh'' of [[Muhammad bin Hasan al-Baghdadi]] (1226).<ref>David Waines (1987), «Cereals, Bread and Society: An Essay on the Staff of Life in Medieval Iraq», ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' '''30''' (3), pp. 255-85 [276, 278, 282].</ref>

=== Продвинутые сельскохозяйственные методы ===
As early as the 9th century, an essentially modern agricultural system became central to economic life and organization in the Arab caliphates, replacing the largely export driven Roman model. The great cities of the Near East, North Africa and Moorish Spain were supported by elaborate agricultural systems which included extensive irrigation based on knowledge of [[hydraulic]] and [[hydrostatic]] principles, some of which were continued from Roman times. In later centuries, Persian Muslims began to function as a conduit, transmitting cultural elements, including advanced agricultural techniques, into Turkic lands and western India. The Muslims introduced what was to become an agricultural revolution based on four key areas:

* Development of a sophisticated system of [[irrigation]] using [[machine]]s such as [[noria]]s, [[water mill]]s, water raising machines, [[dam]]s and [[reservoir]]s. With such technology they managed to greatly expand the exploitable land area.
* The adoption of a scientific approach to farming enabled them to improve farming techniques derived from the collection and collation of relevant information throughout the whole of the known world.<ref name=Woodcock/> Farming manuals were produced in every corner of the Muslim world detailing where, when and how to plant and grow various crops. Advanced scientific techniques allowed leaders like [[Ibn al-Baitar]] to introduce new crops and breeds and strains of livestock into areas where they were previously unknown.
* Incentives based on a new approach to [[land ownership]] and labourers' rights, combining the recognition of private ownership and the rewarding of cultivators with a harvest share commensurate with their efforts. Their counterparts in Europe struggled under a feudal system in which they were almost slaves ([[serfs]]) with little hope of improving their lot by hard work.
* The introduction of new crops transforming private farming into a new global industry exported everywhere,<ref name=Watson/> including Europe, where farming was mostly restricted to wheat strains obtained much earlier via central Asia. Spain received what she in turn transmitted to the rest of Europe; many agricultural and fruit-growing processes, together with many new plants, fruit and vegetables. These new crops included sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, cotton, artichokes, aubergines, and saffron. Others, previously known, were further developed. Muslims also brought to that country lemons, oranges, cotton, almonds, figs and sub-tropical crops such as bananas and sugar cane. Several were later exported from Spanish coastal areas to the Spanish colonies in the New World. Also transmitted via Muslim influence, a silk industry flourished, flax was cultivated and linen exported, and [[esparto]] grass, which grew wild in the more arid parts, was collected and turned into various articles.

=== Экономические и социальные реформы ===
The [[Caliphate]] understood that real [[incentive]]s were needed to increase [[productivity]] and [[wealth]], thus enhancing [[tax revenue]]s, hence they introduced a social transformation through the changed [[ownership]] of land,<ref name=Idrisi/> where any individual of any [[gender]]<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 263.</ref> or any [[ethnic]] or [[religious]] background had the right to [[buy]], [[sell]], [[mortgage]] and [[inherit]] land for [[farming]] or any other purposes. They also introduced the [[Signature|signing]] of a [[contract]] for every major [[financial transaction]] concerning [[agriculture]], [[industry]], [[commerce]], and [[employment]]. Copies of the contract was usually kept by both parties involved.<ref name=Idrisi/>

The two types of [[economic system]]s that prompted agricultural development in the Islamic world were either [[politic]]ally-driven, by the conscious decisions of the central authority to develop under-exploited lands; or [[market]]-driven, involving the spread of [[advice]], [[education]], and free [[seed]]s, and the introduction of high value [[crops]] or [[animal]]s to areas where they were previously unknown. These led to increased [[subsistence]], a high level of [[economic security]] that ensured [[wealth]] for all citizens, and a higher [[quality of life]] due to the introduction of [[artichoke]]s, [[spinach]], [[aubergine]]s, [[carrot]]s, [[sugar cane]], and various exotic [[plant]]s; [[vegetable]]s being available all year round without the need to dry them for winter; [[citrus]] and [[olive]] plantations becoming a common sight, [[market garden]]s and [[orchard]]s springing up in every Muslim [[city]]; intense [[crop]]ping and the technique of intensive [[irrigation]] agriculture with land [[fertility]] replacement; a major increase in [[animal husbandry]]; higher quality of [[wool]] and other [[clothing]] materials; and the introduction of [[selective breeding]] of animals from different parts of the [[Old World]] resulting in improved [[horse]] stocks and the best load-carrying [[camel]]s.<ref name=Idrisi/>

=== Сахарная промышленность ===
During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, [[sugar]] production was refined and transformed into a large-scale [[industry]] by the [[Arab]]s. The Arabs and [[Berbers]] diffused sugar throughout the [[Arab Empire]] from the 8th century.<ref name=Hassan/>

=== Прочие инновации ===
Many other agricultural innovations were introduced by Muslim farmers and engineers, such as new forms of [[land tenure]], improvements in [[irrigation]], a variety of sophisticated irrigation methods,<ref>Elias H. Tuma (1987), «''Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World: The Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques, 700—1100'' by Andrew M. Watson», ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''47''' (2), pp. 543-4.</ref> the introduction of [[fertilizer]]s and widespread artificial irrigation systems, the development of [[gravity]]-flow irrigation systems from [[river]]s and [[Spring (hydrosphere)|springs]],<ref name=Glick/> the first uses of [[noria]] and [[chain pump]]s for irrigation purposes,<ref name=Idrisi/> the establishment of the [[sugar cane]] industry in the [[Mediterranean]] and [[experiment]]ation in [[sugar]] cultivation,<ref>J. H. Galloway (1977), «The Mediterranean Sugar Industry», ''Geographical Review'' '''67''' (2), pp. 177-94.</ref> numerous advances in industrial [[mill]]ing and water-raising machines (see [[#Industrial growth|Industrial growth]] below), and many other improvements and innovations.

== Науки, связанные с сельским хозяйством ==

During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, [[Islamic science|Muslim scientists]] laid the foundations of [[agricultural science]], which included significant advances in the fields of [[agronomy]], [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]], [[botany]], [[earth science]], [[environmental philosophy]], and [[environmental science]]. In particular, the [[experiment]]al [[scientific method]] was introduced into the field in the 13th century by the [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]]-Arab botanist Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, the teacher of [[Ibn al-Baitar]]. Al-Nabati introduced [[empirical]] techniques in the testing, description and identification of numerous [[materia medica]], and he separated unverified reports from those supported by actual tests and observations.<ref>{{Citation
|first=Toby
|last=Huff
|year=2003
|title=The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West
|page=218
|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
|isbn=0521529948
}}</ref>

The earliest known work dedicated to the study of agriculture was [[Ibn Wahshiyya]]'s ''Nabatean Agriculture'', which also dealt with the related field of botany and was also an early [[cookbook]]. The early Arab [[Lexicography|lexicographs]] were the first known works to separate the two disciplines of agriculture and botany, though both were considered part of the [[Islamic medicine|medical sciences]] due to agriculture’s primary role being to feed and botany’s primary role being to heal. The agricultural sciences were known by the Arabic term ''filaha'', which had a dual-meaning, to both care for the Earth and to take care of plants. Many of the early Islamic authors on botany were often [[philologists]], due to their role in the translation of ancient scientific texts.<ref>{{citation|last=Fahd|first=Toufic|contribution=Botany and agriculture|pages=813}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=813-52}}</ref> This was also the case with early Arabic [[zoology]], like with [[al-Jahiz]] for example.

[[Al-Asma'i]] was the earliest known Arab biologist, botanist and zoologist; his works include the ''Book of Distinction'', ''Book of the Wild Animals'', ''Book of the Horse'', and ''Book of the Sheep''.

=== Агрономия ===
Muslim agriculturists demonstrated advanced [[Agronomy|agronomic]], agrotechnical and [[economic]] knowledge in areas such as [[meteorology]], [[climatology]], [[hydrology]], [[soil]] occupation, and the [[economy]] and [[management]] of agricultural [[enterprise]]s. They also demonstrated agricultural knowledge in areas such as [[pedology]], agricultural [[ecology]], [[irrigation]], preparation of soil, [[planting]], spreading of [[manure]], killing [[herb]]s, [[sowing]], cutting [[tree]]s, [[grafting]], [[pruning]] [[vine]], [[prophylaxis]], [[phytotherapy]], the care and improvement of [[microbiological culture]]s and [[plant]]s, and the [[harvest]] and storage of [[crops]].<ref>Toufic Fahd (1996), «Botany and agriculture», in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 3, pp. 813-52 [849]. [[Routledge]], London and New York.</ref>

[[Ibn Wahshiyya]]'s ''Nabatean Agriculture'' was an early Arabic work on agronomy and agriculture. The following eight chapters of the book are dedicated to [[water]] in the context of agriculture:<ref>{{citation|last=Fahd|first=Toufic|contribution=Botany and agriculture|pages=841}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=813-52}}</ref>

# Research of water and related technical knowledge
# Digging [[well]]s and increasing their flow using proven artifices and techniques
# The [[drilling]] of wells
# [[Artifice]]s used to increase water in a well
# Making water rise up a very deep well
# [[Augment]]ing the quantity of water in wells and sources
# Modifying and improving the taste of water
# «On the difference in nature and action of the water according to its position» close of far away «with regard to the [[ecliptic]]»

The ''Nabatean Agriculture'' then goes on to discuss a number of other complex issues on agriculture, including the management of an agricultural [[enterprise]] and the duties of the owner regarding his enterprise and workers; the [[official]] (''wakil'') in charge of the management of the enterprise, his obligation towards the [[farmer]]s, and applying the instructions he receives from his boss; the [[weather forecasting]] of atmospheric changes and signs from the planetary astral alterations; signs of rain based on observation of the [[lunar phase]]s, nature of thunder and lightning, direction of [[sunrise]], behaviour of certain plants and animals, and weather forecasts based on the movement of [[wind]]s; the recognition of [[plant tissue culture]]s which succeed in certain years; a list of work to be done in each month of year; the position of the moon relative to the Earth; the required knowledge of a farmer and the owner of an agricultural enterprise; [[pollen]]ized [[air]] and winds; and formation of winds and [[vapour]]s.<ref>{{citation|last=Fahd|first=Toufic|contribution=Botany and agriculture|pages=842}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=813-52}}</ref>

Other agricultural topics discussed in the ''Nabatean Agriculture'' include the causes of the corruption of plants and of [[Wet season|torrential rain]]; the nature of [[soil]]s and their different flavours; the [[manure]]; how to get rid of bad [[herb]]s and how to cut plants which need to be cut; and a number of other agricultural topics.<ref>{{citation|last=Fahd|first=Toufic|contribution=Botany and agriculture|pages=842}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=813-52}}</ref>

In 12th century [[al-Andalus]], [[Ibn al-'Awwam]] al-Ishbili wrote the ''Kitab al-Filaha'' which synthesized his own agricultural knowledge with that of the ''Nabatean Agriculture'' and his other Arabic predecessors. This work also described 585 [[microbiological culture]]s, 55 of which concern [[fruit tree]]s. This work was influential in Europe after it was translated into [[Spanish language|Spanish]] by Banqueri in [[Madrid]] in 1801 and into [[French language|French]] by Clement-Mullet in [[Paris]] in 1864.<ref>{{citation|last=Fahd|first=Toufic|contribution=Botany and agriculture|pages=848-9}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=813-52}}</ref>

=== Астрономия и метеорология ===
Another innovation during this period was the application of [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]] to agriculture and botany. As [[weather forecasting]] predictions and the measurement of [[time]] and the onset of [[season]]s became more precise and reliable, farmers became informed of these advances and often employed them in agriculture. They also benefited from the compilation of [[calendar]]s with information on when to plant each type of crop, when to [[Grafting|graft]] trees, when and how to [[fertilize]] crops, when to [[harvest]], and what to eat and what to avoid at each time of year. These advances made it possible for farmers to plan the growth of each of their crops for specific [[market]]s and at specific times of the year.<ref name=Idrisi/>

Parts of [[al-Dinawari]]'s ''Book of Plants'' deals with the applications of astronomy and [[meteorology]] to agriculture. It describes the astronomical and meteorological character of the sky, the [[planet]]s and [[constellation]]s, the [[sun]] and [[moon]], the [[lunar phase]]s indicating [[season]]s and [[rain]], the ''anwa'' ([[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]] of rain), and atmospheric phenomena such as winds, thunder, lightning, snow, floods, valleys, rivers, lakes, wells and other sources of water.<ref name=Fahd-815/>

=== Ботаника ===
Muslims developed a scientific approach to [[botany]] and agriculture based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of [[crop rotation]], highly developed [[irrigation]] techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of [[crops]] which were studied and catalogued according to the [[season]], type of [[land]] and amount of [[water]] they require. Numerous [[encyclopaedia]]s on [[botany]] were produced, with highly accurate [[precision]] and details.<ref name=Woodcock/>

The 9th century botanist [[al-Dinawari]] is considered the founder of Arabic botany. He wrote a botanical encyclopedia entitled ''Kitab al-Nabat'' (''Book of Plants''), which consisted of six volumes. Only the third and fifth volumes have survived, though the sixth volume has partly been reconstructed based on citations from later works. In the surviving portions of his works, 637 plants are described from the letters ''sin'' to ''ya''. He also discusses [[plant evolution]] from its birth to its death, describing the phases of [[plant growth]] and the production of flowers and fruit.<ref name=Fahd-815>{{citation|last=Fahd|first=Toufic|contribution=Botany and agriculture|pages=815}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=813-52}}</ref>

In the early 13th century, [[Ibn al-Baitar]] published the ''Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada'', which is considered one of the greatest botanical compilations and pharmaceutical encyclopedias, and was a botanical authority for centuries.<ref name=McNeil/> It contains details on at least 1,400 different [[plant]]s, [[food]]s, and [[drug]]s, 300 of which were his own original discoveries.<ref name=Diane/> The ''Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada'' was also influential in [[Europe]] after it was translated into [[Latin]] in 1758,<ref name=McNeil>Russell McNeil, [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~mcneil/baitart.htm Ibn al-Baitar], [[Malaspina University-College]].</ref> where it was being used up until the early 19th century.<ref name=Diane>Diane Boulanger (2002), «The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology», ''OISE Papers'', in ''STSE Education'', Vol. 3.</ref>

=== Науки о земле ===

Muslim scientists made a number of contributions to the [[Earth science]]s. [[Alkindus]] introduced [[experiment]]ation into the Earth sciences.<ref name=Plinio>Plinio Prioreschi, «Al-Kindi, A Precursor Of The Scientific Revolution», ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2002 (2): 17-19.</ref>

Parts of [[al-Dinawari]]'s ''Book of Plants'' deals with the Earth sciences in the context of agriculture. He considers the Earth, stone and sands, and describes different types of [[ground]], indicating which types are more convenient for plants and the qualities and properties of good ground.<ref name=Fahd-815/>

[[Biruni]] is considered the father of [[geodesy]] for his important contributions to the field,<ref name=Ahmed>Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). «Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist», ''RAIN'' '''60''', p. 9-10.</ref><ref>H. Mowlana (2001). «Information in the Arab World», ''Cooperation South Journal'' '''1'''.</ref> along with his significant contributions to [[geography]] and [[geology]].

Among his writings on geology, Biruni wrote the following on the [[geology of India]]:

{{quote|"But if you see the soil of [[India]] with your own eyes and meditate on its nature, if you consider the rounded stones found in earth however deeply you dig, stones that are huge near the mountains and where the rivers have a violent current: stones that are of smaller size at a greater distance from the mountains and where the streams flow more slowly: stones that appear pulverised in the shape of sand where the streams begin to stagnate near their mouths and near the sea - if you consider all this you can scarcely help thinking that India was once a sea, which by degrees has been filled up by the alluvium of the streams."<ref>[[Abdus Salam]] (1984), "Islam and Science". In C. H. Lai (1987), ''Ideals and Realities: Selected Essays of Abdus Salam'', 2nd ed., World Scientific, Singapore, p. 179-213.</ref>}}

John J. O’Connor and Edmund F. Robertson write in the ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]'':

{{quote|"Important contributions to geodesy and geography were also made by al-Biruni. He introduced techniques to measure the earth and distances on it using [[triangulation]]. He found the [[radius]] of the earth to be 6339.6 km, a value not obtained in the [[Western world|West]] until the 16th century. His ''Masudic canon'' contains a table giving the coordinates of six hundred places, almost all of which he had direct knowledge."<ref name=Biruni>{{MacTutor|id=Al-Biruni|title=Al-Biruni}}</ref>}}

In [[geology]], [[Avicenna]] hypothesized on two causes of [[mountain]]s in ''[[The Book of Healing]]''. In [[cartography]], the [[Piri Reis map]] drawn by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] cartographer [[Piri Reis]] in 1513, was one of the earliest [[world map]]s to include the [[Americas]], and perhaps the first to include [[Antarctica]]. His map of the world was considered the most accurate in the 16th century.

=== Философия окружающей среды ===
Perhaps due to resource scarcity in most Islamic nations, there was an emphasis on limited (and some claim also sustainable) use of [[natural capital]], i.e. producing land. Traditions of [[haram]] and [[hima]] and early [[urban planning]] were expressions of strong social obligations to stay within [[carrying capacity]] and to preserve the [[natural environment]] as an obligation of [[khalifa]] or «stewardship».<ref>S. Nomanul Haq, «Islam», in Dale Jamieson (2001), ''A Companion to Environmental Philosophy'', pp. 111—129, [[Blackwell Publishing]], ISBN 1-4051-0659-X.</ref>

[[Muhammad]] is considered a pioneer of [[environmentalism]] for his teachings on [[environmental preservation]]. His [[hadith]]s on [[agriculture]] and [[environmental philosophy]] were compiled in the «Book of Agriculture» of the ''[[Sahih Bukhari]]'', which included the following saying:<ref>S. Nomanul Haq, «Islam», in Dale Jamieson (2001), ''A Companion to Environmental Philosophy'', pp. 111—129 [119-129], [[Blackwell Publishing]], ISBN 1-4051-0659-X.</ref>

{{quote|"There is none amongst the believers who plants a tree, or sows a seed, and then a bird, or a person, or an animal eats thereof, but it is regarded as having given a charitable gift [for which there is great recompense]."<ref>''[[Sahih Bukhari]]'' 3:513</ref>}}

Several such statements concerning the environment are also found in the [[Qur'an]], such as the following:<ref>S. Nomanul Haq, «Islam», in Dale Jamieson (2001), ''A Companion to Environmental Philosophy'', pp. 111—129 [111-119], [[Blackwell Publishing]], ISBN 1-4051-0659-X.</ref>

{{quote|"And there is no animal in the earth nor bird that flies with its two wings, but that they are communities like yourselves."<ref>{{cite quran|6|38}}</ref>}}

=== Науки об окружающей среде ===
The earliest known treatises dealing with [[environmentalism]] and [[environmental science]], especially [[pollution]], were [[Islamic medicine|Arabic medical treatises]] written by [[al-Kindi]], [[Qusta ibn Luqa]], [[al-Razi]], [[Ibn Al-Jazzar]], [[al-Tamimi]], [[al-Masihi]], [[Avicenna]], [[Ali ibn Ridwan]], Ibn Jumay, [[Isaac Israeli ben Solomon]], [[Abd-el-latif]], Ibn al-Quff, and [[Ibn al-Nafis]]. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as [[air pollution]], [[water pollution]], [[soil contamination]], [[municipal solid waste]] mishandling, and [[environmental impact assessment]]s of certain localities.<ref>L. Gari (2002), «Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century», ''Environment and History'' '''8''' (4), pp. 475—488.</ref> [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]], [[al-Andalus]] also had the first [[waste container]]s and [[waste disposal]] facilities for [[litter]] collection.<ref>S. P. Scott (1904), ''History of the Moorish Empire in Europe'', 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London. <br /> F. B. Artz (1980), ''The Mind of the Middle Ages'', Third edition revised, [[University of Chicago Press]], pp 148-50. <br /> ([[cf.]] [http://www.1001inventions.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=main.viewSection&intSectionID=441 References], 1001 Inventions)</ref>

=== Зоология ===
: ''Further information: [[Early Islamic philosophy#Evolution|Early Islamic philosophy: Evolution]] and [[Islamic medicine]]''

In the [[zoology]] field of [[biology]], Muslim biologists developed theories on [[evolution]] and [[natural selection]] which were widely taught in medieval Islamic schools. [[John William Draper]], a contemporary of [[Charles Darwin]], considered the «Mohammedan theory of evolution» to be developed «much farther than we are disposed to do, extending them even to [[Inorganic compound|inorganic]] or [[mineral]] things.» According to [[al-Khazini]], ideas on evolution were widespread among «common people» in the Islamic world by the 12th century.<ref>[[John William Draper]] (1878). ''History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science'', p. 154—155, 237. ISBN 1-60303-096-4.</ref>

The first Muslim biologist to develop a theory on evolution was [[al-Jahiz]] (781—869). He wrote on the effects of the environment on the likelihood of an animal to survive, and he first described the [[The Origin of Species#Struggle for existence, and natural selection|struggle for existence]] and an early form of [[natural selection]].<ref>Conway Zirkle (1941). Natural Selection before the «Origin of Species», ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' '''84''' (1), p. 71-123.</ref><ref>Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third Quarter, 1983). «Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism», ''The Islamic Quarterly''. [[London]].</ref> Al-Jahiz was also the first to discuss [[food chain]]s,<ref>Frank N. Egerton, «A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 6: Arabic Language Science — Origins and Zoological», ''Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America'', April 2002: 142—146 [143]</ref>
and was also an early adherent of [[environmental determinism]], arguing that the environment can determine the physical characteristics of the inhabitants of a certain community and that the origins of different [[human skin color]]s is the result of the environment.<ref>Lawrence I. Conrad (1982), «Taun and Waba: Conceptions of Plague and Pestilence in Early Islam», ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' '''25''' (3), pp. 268—307 [278].</ref>

[[Ibn al-Haytham]] wrote a book in which he argued for [[evolutionism]] (although not natural selection), and numerous other Islamic scholars and scientists, such as [[Ibn Miskawayh]], the [[Brethren of Purity]], [[al-Khazini]], [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], [[Nasir al-Din Tusi]], and [[Ibn Khaldun]], discussed and developed these ideas. Translated into Latin, these works began to appear in the West after the [[Renaissance]] and appear to have had an impact on Western science.

[[Ibn Miskawayh]]'s ''al-Fawz al-Asghar'' and the [[Brethren of Purity]]'s ''[[Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity]]'' (''The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa'') expressed evolutionary ideas on how species evolved from [[matter]], into [[vapor]], and then [[water]], then [[mineral]]s, then [[plant]]s, then [[animal]]s, then [[ape]]s, and then [[human]]s. These works were known in Europe and likely had an influence on [[Darwinism]].<ref name=Hamidullah>[[Muhammad Hamidullah]] and Afzal Iqbal (1993), ''The Emergence of Islam: Lectures on the Development of Islamic World-view, Intellectual Tradition and Polity'', p. 143—144. Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad.</ref>

== Зачатки капиталистического рынка ==

[[Capitalism]] developed much earlier in Islamic regions than in the [[Occident]]. Subhi Y. Labib argues the reason for this was the growing trade economy of the Muslim world, and security from Barbarian invasions. The first [[market economy]] and earliest forms of [[merchant capitalism]] took root between the 8th-12th centuries in the Caliphate, which are referred to as «Islamic capitalism».<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), «Capitalism in Medieval Islam», ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), pp. 79-96 [81, 83, 85, 90, 93, 96].</ref> A vigorous [[monetary economy]] was created on the basis of the expanding levels of [[List of circulating currencies|circulation]] of a stable high-value [[currency]] (the [[dinar]]) and the integration of [[monetary]] areas that were previously independent. Innovative new [[business]] techniques and forms of [[business organisation]] were introduced by [[economist]]s, [[merchant]]s and traders during this time. Such innovations included the earliest [[Trading company|trading companies]], [[big business]]es, [[contract]]s, [[bills of exchange]], long-distance [[international trade]], the first forms of [[partnership]] (''mufawada'') such as [[limited partnership]]s (''mudaraba''), and the earliest forms of [[Credit (finance)|credit]], [[debt]], [[profit]], [[loss]], [[Capital (economics)|capital]] (''al-mal''), [[capital accumulation]] (''nama al-mal''),<ref name=Banaji/> [[circulating capital]], [[capital expenditure]], [[revenue]], [[cheque]]s, [[promissory note]]s,<ref>Robert Sabatino Lopez, Irving Woodworth Raymond, Olivia Remie Constable (2001), ''Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents'', [[Columbia University Press]], ISBN 0-231-12357-4.</ref> [[trusts]] and [[charitable trust]]s (see ''[[Waqf]]''), [[startup companies]],<ref>Timur Kuran (2005), «The Absence of the Corporation in Islamic Law: Origins and Persistence», ''American Journal of Comparative Law'' '''53''', pp. 785—834 [798-9].</ref> [[savings account]]s, [[transactional account]]s, [[pawn]]ing, [[loan]]ing, [[exchange rate]]s, [[bank]]ers, [[money changer]]s, [[ledger]]s, [[deposit]]s, [[Assignment (law)|assignments]], the [[double-entry bookkeeping system]],<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), «Capitalism in Medieval Islam», ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), pp. 79-96 [92-3].</ref> and [[lawsuit]]s.<ref>Ray Spier (2002), «The history of the peer-review process», ''Trends in Biotechnology'' '''20''' (8), p. 357—358 [357].</ref> [[Organization]]al [[enterprise]]s similar to [[corporation]]s independent from the [[state]] also existed in the medieval Islamic world, while the [[Agency (law)|agency]] and [[aval]] institutions (see ''[[Hawala]]'') was also introduced.<ref>Said Amir Arjomand (1999), «The Law, Agency, and Policy in Medieval Islamic Society: Development of the Institutions of Learning from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century», ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' '''41''', pp. 263-93. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref><ref>Samir Amin (1978), «The Arab Nation: Some Conclusions and Problems», ''MERIP Reports'' '''68''', pp. 3-14 [8, 13].</ref> Many of these early capitalist concepts were adopted and further advanced in [[medieval Europe]] from the 13th century onwards.<ref name=Banaji>Jairus Banaji (2007), «Islam, the Mediterranean and the rise of capitalism», ''Journal Historical Materialism'' '''15''' (1), pp. 47-74, [[Brill Publishers]].</ref>

The systems of [[contract]] relied upon by [[merchant]]s was very effective. Merchants would buy and sell on [[Commission (remuneration)|commission]], with money [[loan]]ed to them by wealthy [[investor]]s, or a joint [[investment]] of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian and Jewish. Recently, a collection of documents was found in an [[Egypt]]ian [[synagogue]] shedding a very detailed and human light on the life of medieval Middle Eastern merchants. Business [[partnership]]s would be made for many [[Joint venture|commercial ventures]], and bonds of [[kinship]] enabled trade [[network]]s to form over huge distances.

== Злаки, овощные и плодовые культуры ==
Hundreds of [[crops]] were diffused throughout the Islamic world and beyond as a result of the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, some of which include [[artichoke]]s, [[banana]]s, [[coconut palm]]s, [[colocasia]], [[cotton]], [[eggplant]]s, hard [[wheat]], [[lemon]]s, [[Lime (fruit)|lime]]s, [[mango]]s, [[plantain]]s, [[rice]], [[sorghum]], [[sour orange]]s, [[spinach]], [[sugar cane]], and [[watermelon]]s,<ref>Andrew M. Watson (1974), «The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700—1100», ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''34''' (1), pp. 8-35 [9].</ref> among hundreds of other crops.<ref name=Idrisi/>

== Промышленный рост ==
Muslim engineers in the Islamic world were responsible for numerous innovative [[Industry|industrial]] uses of [[hydropower]], early industrial uses of [[tidal power]], [[wind power]], and [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[petroleum]], and the earliest large [[factory]] complexes (''tiraz'' in Arabic).<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 36.</ref> The industrial uses of [[watermill]]s in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-[[Water wheel|wheeled]] and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial [[mill]]s were first invented in the Islamic world, including [[fulling]] mills, [[gristmill]]s, [[huller]]s, [[paper mill]]s, [[sawmill]]s, shipmills, [[stamp mill]]s, [[steel mill]]s, [[Sugar refinery|sugar mills]], [[tide mill]]s, and [[windmill]]s. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from [[al-Andalus]] and [[North Africa]] to the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref name = "Lucas">Adam Robert Lucas (2005), «Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe», ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), pp. 1-30 [10].</ref> Muslim engineers also invented [[crankshaft]]s and [[water turbine]]s, first employed [[gear]]s in mills and water-raising [[machine]]s, and pioneered the use of [[dam]]s as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.<ref name=Hassan/> Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by [[manual labour]] in [[ancient times]] to be [[Mechanization|mechanized]] and driven by [[machine]]ry instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe later laid the foundations for the [[Industrial Revolution]] in 18th century Europe.<ref name = "Lucas" />

Many industries were generated due to the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, including the earliest industries for [[agribusiness]], [[Islamic astronomy#Instruments|astronomical instruments]], [[ceramic]]s, [[Chemical industry|chemicals]], [[distillation]] technologies, [[clock]]s, [[glass]], mechanical [[hydropower]]ed and [[wind power]]ed [[machine]]ry, [[mat]]ting, [[mosaic]]s, [[Pulp and paper industry|pulp and paper]], [[perfume]]ry, [[Petroleum industry|petroleum]], [[Pharmaceutical company|pharmaceuticals]], [[rope]]-making, [[shipping]], [[shipbuilding]], [[silk]], [[sugar]], [[Textile industry|textiles]], [[Water industry|water]], [[weapon]]s, and the [[mining]] of [[mineral]]s such as [[sulfur]], [[ammonia]], [[lead]] and [[iron]]. The first large [[factory]] complexes (''tiraz'') were built for many of these industries. Knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to [[medieval Europe]], especially during the [[Latin translations of the 12th century]], as well as before and after. For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century by [[Egypt]]ian craftsmen in [[Greece]].<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%207.htm Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part 1: Avenues Of Technology Transfer]</ref> The [[agricultural]] and [[handicraft]] industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.<ref name=Labib/>

[[Image:Jabir ibn Hayyan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Geber|Jabir ibn Hayyan]] (Geber) is considered the father of [[chemistry]], particularly for introducing the [[Scientific method|experimental method]] in chemistry. He also established the [[chemical industry]] and [[perfume]]ry industry.]]

=== Алхимия и химическая промышленность ===

The [[chemical industry]] and [[petroleum industry]] were established in the 8th century, when the [[mineral acid]]s (such as [[sulfuric acid]]) were first produced through [[dry distillation]], and when the [[street]]s of [[Baghdad]] were paved with [[tar]], derived from [[petroleum]] through [[destructive distillation]]. In the 9th century, [[oil field]]s were exploited in the area around modern [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]], to produce [[naphtha]]. These fields were described by [[Masudi]] in the 10th century, and by [[Marco Polo]] in the 13th century, who described the output of those [[oil well]]s as hundreds of shiploads.<ref>K. Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0-911119-43-4.</ref> Petroleum was [[Distillation|distilled]] by [[al-Razi]] in the 9th century, producing chemicals such as [[kerosene]] in the [[alembic]], which he used to invent [[kerosene lamp]]s for use in the [[oil lamp]] industry.<ref>Zayn Bilkadi ([[University of California, Berkeley]]), «The Oil Weapons», ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', January-February 1995, pp. 20-7.</ref>

An early industrial use of [[steam power]] dates back to the [[perfume]]ry industry established by [[Alchemy (Islam)|Muslim chemists]] such as [[Geber]], [[al-Razi]], and [[Avicenna]], who pioneered and perfected the extraction of [[fragrance]]s and [[essential oil]]s through [[steam distillation]], introduced new raw [[ingredient]]s, and developed cheap methods for the [[mass production]] of perfumery and [[incense]]s. Both the raw ingredients and [[distillation]] technology significantly influenced Western perfumery. Muslim traders had wide access to a variety of different [[spice]]s, [[herb]]s, and other fragrance materials. In addition to trading them, many of these exotic materials were cultivated by the Muslims such that they could be successfully grown outside of their native climates. Two examples of this include [[jasmine]], which is native to [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]], and various [[citrus fruit]]s native to [[East Asia]]. Both of these ingredients are still highly important in modern perfumery.

The first industrial complex for [[glass]] and [[pottery]] production was built in [[Ar-Raqqah]], [[Syria]], in the 8th century. Extensive experimentation was carried out at the complex, which was two [[kilometre]]s in length, and a variety of innovative high-purity glass were developed there.<ref>{{citation|first1=J.|last1=Henderson|first2=S. D.|last2=McLoughlin|first3=D. S.|last3=McPhail|year=2004|title=Radical changes in Islamic glass technology: evidence for conservatism and experimentation with new glass recipes from early and middle Islamic Raqqa, Syria|journal=Archaeometry|volume=46|issue=3|pages=439–68}}</ref>

=== Промышленные мельницы ===

Muslim engineers pioneered two solutions to achieve the maximum output from a [[water mill]]. The first solution was to mount them to [[pier]]s of [[bridge]]s to take advantage of the increased flow. The second solution was the shipmill, a unique type of [[water mill]] powered by [[water wheel]]s mounted on the sides of [[ship]]s [[Mooring (watercraft)|moored]] in [[midstream]]. This was first employed along the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] rivers in 10th century [[Iraq]], where large shipmills made of [[teak]] and [[iron]] could produce 10 [[ton]]s of [[Gristmill|flour from corn]] every day for the [[granary]] in [[Baghdad]].<ref name=Hill2>[[Donald Routledge Hill]], «Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East», ''Scientific American'', May 1991, pp. 64-9. ([[cf.]] [[Donald Routledge Hill]], [http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm Mechanical Engineering])</ref> Industrial water mills were also employed in the first large [[factory]] complexes built in [[al-Andalus]] between the 11th and 13th centuries. Fulling mills, paper mills, steel mills, and other mills, spread from Islamic Spain to Christian Spain by the 12th century.<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), «Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe», ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), pp. 1-30 [11].</ref>

[[Windmill]]s were first built in [[Sistan]], [[Afghanistan]], from the [[7th century]]. These were vertical [[axle]] windmills, which had long vertical [[driveshaft]]s with rectangle shaped [[blade]]s.<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1986). ''Islamic Technology: An illustrated history'', p. 54. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.</ref> The first windmill was built by the [[Rashidun]] [[caliph]] [[Umar]] (634-44).<ref>Dietrich Lohrmann (1995). «Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle», ''Archiv für Kulturgeschichte'' '''77''' (1), pp. 1-30 (8).</ref> Made of six to twelve [[sail]]s covered in [[reed mat]]ting or [[cloth]] material, these windmills were used to grind [[corn]] and draw up [[water]], and were used in the [[gristmill]]ing and [[Sugar refinery|sugarcane industries]].<ref name=Hill2>[[Donald Routledge Hill]], «Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East», ''Scientific American'', May 1991, pp. 64-9. ([[cf.]] [[Donald Routledge Hill]], [http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm Mechanical Engineering])</ref>

After [[paper]] was introduced into the Islamic world by Chinese prisoners following the [[Battle of Talas]], Muslims made significant improvements to [[papermaking]] and built the first [[paper mill]]s in [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]], as early as [[794]]. Papermaking was transformed from an art into a major industry as a result.<ref>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=329 The Beginning of the Paper Industry], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</ref> This allowed the [[manufacturing]] of paper in the Islamic world to be performed using water power rather than manual labour. The first [[fulling]] mills were later invented in the 10th century, followed by the first [[stamp mill]]s and [[steel mill]]s in the 11th century.<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), «Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe», ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), pp. 1-30 [10-1].</ref>

The first [[gristmill]]s were invented by Muslim engineers in the Islamic world, and were used for [[Mill (grinding)|grinding]] [[corn]] and other [[seed]]s to produce [[meal]]s, and many other [[Industry|industrial]] uses such as [[fulling]] cloth, [[Huller|husking rice]], [[papermaking]], [[Sugar refinery|pulping sugarcane]], and [[Stamp mill|crushing metalic ores]] before extraction. Gristmills in the Islamic world were often made from both [[watermill]]s and [[windmill]]s. In order to adapt [[water wheel]]s for gristmilling purposes, [[cam]]s were used for raising and releasing [[trip hammer]]s to fall on a material.<ref name=Hill2/> The first [[water turbine]], which had [[water wheel]]s with curved blades onto which [[water]] flow was directed [[Rotation|axially]], was also first invented in the Islamic world, and was described in a 9th century Arabic text for use in a [[watermill]].<ref name=Hill2/>

=== Рабочая сила ===
The [[labor force]] in the [[Caliphate]] were [[employed]] from diverse [[ethnic]] and [[religious]] backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse [[List of occupations|occupations]] and [[economic]] activities.<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, pp. 6-7.</ref> Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse occupations<ref name=Maya-400-401/> in the primary sector (as [[farmer]]s for example), secondary sector (as [[construction worker]]s, [[dye]]rs, [[Spinning (textiles)|spinners]], etc.) and tertiary sector (as [[investor]]s, [[Physician|doctors]], [[nurse]]s, [[president]]s of [[guild]]s, [[broker]]s, [[peddler]]s, [[lender]]s, [[scholar]]s, etc.).<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, pp. 350-62.</ref> Muslim women also held a [[monopoly]] over certain branches of the [[textile industry]],<ref name=Maya-400-401/> the largest and most specialized and market-oriented industry at the time, in occupations such as [[spinning]], [[dying]], and [[embroidery]]. In comparison, [[Women's rights|female]] [[property rights]] and [[wage labour]] were relatively uncommon in [[Europe]] until the [[Industrial Revolution]] in the 18th and 19th centuries.<ref>Maya Shatzmiller (1997), «Women and Wage Labour in the Medieval Islamic West: Legal Issues in an Economic Context», ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' '''40''' (2), pp. 174—206 [175-7].</ref>

The [[division of labour]] was diverse and had been evolving over the centuries. During the 8th-11th centuries, there were on average 63 unique occupations in the [[primary sector of economic activity]] ([[extract]]ive), 697 unique occupations in the [[secondary sector]] ([[manufacturing]]), and 736 unique occupations in the [[tertiary sector]] ([[Service (economics)|service]]). By the 12th century, the number of unique occupations in the primary sector and secondary sector decreased to 35 and 679 respectively, while the number of unique occupations in the tertiary sector increased to 1,175. These changes in the division of labour reflect the increased [[mechanization]] and use of [[machine]]ry to replace [[manual labour]] and the increased [[standard of living]] and [[quality of life]] of most citizens in the Caliphate.<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, pp. 169-70.</ref>

An economic transition occurred during this period, due to the diversity of the service sector being far greater than any other previous or contemporary society, and the high degree of [[economic integration]] between the labour force and the [[economy]]. Islamic society also experienced a change in attitude towards [[manual labour]]. In previous civilizations such as [[ancient Greece]] and in contemporary civilizations such as [[early medieval]] Europe, intellectuals saw manual labour in a negative light and looked down on them with contempt. This resulted in technological stagnation as they did not see the need for [[machine]]ry to replace manual labour. In the Islamic world, however, manual labour was seen in a far more positive light, as intellectuals such as the [[Brethren of Purity]] likened them to a participant in the act of [[creation]], while [[Ibn Khaldun]] alluded to the benefits of manual labour to the progress of society.<ref name=Maya-400-401>Maya Shatzmiller, pp. 400-1.</ref>

=== Механические технологии ===
[[Image:al-jazari pump.png|thumb|The [[reciprocating engine|reciprocating]] [[suction]] [[piston]] [[pump]] with [[valve]]s and [[crankshaft]]-[[connecting rod]] mechanism used for raising water, invented by [[al-Jazari]], the father of modern day [[engineering]].]]
{{see also|Inventions in medieval Islam|Timeline of Islamic science and engineering}}

[[Noria]] and [[chain pump]] (saqiya) machines became more widespread during the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, when Muslim engineers made a number of improvements to the device.<ref name=Glick>Thomas F. Glick (1977), «Noria Pots in Spain», ''Technology and Culture'' '''18''' (4), pp. 644-50.</ref> These include the first uses of noria and chain pumps for [[irrigation]] purposes,<ref name=Idrisi/> and the invention of the [[flywheel]] mechanism, used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine, which was first invented by Ibn Bassal (fl. 1038-75) of [[al-Andalus]], who pioneered the use of the flywheel in the saqiya and noria.<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%204.htm Flywheel Effect for a ''Saqiya''].</ref>

In 1206, [[al-Jazari]] invented a variety of machines for raising water, which were the most efficient in his time, as well as [[water wheel]]s with [[cam]]s on their [[axle]] used to operate [[automata]]. He invented the [[crankshaft]] and [[connecting rod]], and employed them in a crank-connecting rod system for two of these water-raising machines. His invention of the crankshaft is considered the most important single mechanical invention after the [[wheel]], as it transforms continuous [[rotary engine|rotary motion]] into a linear [[reciprocating engine|reciprocating motion]], and is central to modern machinery such as the [[steam engine]] and the [[internal combustion engine]].<ref name=Vallely/><ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]. [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%203.htm The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine].</ref> Al-Jazari’s most sophisticated water-raising machine featured the first [[suction]] pipes and suction [[pump]], the first use of the [[Steam engine#Double-acting engine|double-action]] principle, the first Reciprocating suction piston pump, the earliest [[valve]] operations, and the use of a water wheel and a system of [[gear]]s. This invention is important to the development of modern machinery, including the steam engine, modern reciprocating pumps,<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]. [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%202.htm The Origin of the Suction Pump — Al-Jazari 1206 A.D.]</ref> internal combustion engine,<ref>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1998). ''Studies in Medieval Islamic Technology'' II, pp. 231-2.</ref> [[artificial heart]],<ref>[http://store.aetv.com/html/product/index.jhtml?id=101300 Ancient Discoveries: Machines of the East DVD], [[The History Channel]].</ref> [[bicycle]], [[bicycle pump]], etc.<ref>''[[What the Ancients Did for Us]]'', Episode 1, «The Islamic World», [[BBC]] & [[Open University]].</ref>

In 1551, after the decline of the golden age, the [[Egypt]]ian engineer [[Taqi al-Din]] described an early practical [[steam turbine]] as a [[Wiktionary:prime mover|prime mover]] for rotating a [[Spit (cooking aide)|spit]]. A similar device appeared later in Europe a century later. <ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]] (1976). ''Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering'', pp. 34-5. Instiute for the History of Arabic Science, [[University of Aleppo]].</ref>

=== Прочие технологии ===

A significant number of inventions and technological advances were made in the Muslim world, as well as adopting and improving technologies centuries before they were used in the West. For example, [[papermaking]] was adopted from China many centuries before it was known in the West.<ref>Huff (2003), p. 74</ref> Iron was a vital industry in Muslim lands and was given importance in the Qur’an.<ref>{{cite quran|57|25|style=ref}}</ref><ref>Hobson (2004), p. 130</ref> The knowledge of [[gunpowder]] was also transmitted from China to [[Islamic countries]], where [[Alchemy (Islam)|Muslim chemists]] were the first to purify [[saltpeter]] to the [[weapons-grade]] purity for use in [[gunpowder]], as [[potassium nitrate]] must be purified to be used effectively. This purification process was first described by Ibn Bakhtawayh in his ''Al-Muqaddimat'' in the early 11th century.<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources]</ref><ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%203.htm Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries]</ref> [[Gunpowder warfare|Gunpowder weapons]] were employed by [[Muslim conquests|Muslim armies]] against [[Christian]] armies during the [[Crusades]] and [[Byzantine-Ottoman wars]].<ref>Phillips (1992), p. 76</ref> Knowledge of chemical processes ([[alchemy]] and [[chemistry]]) and [[distillation]] ([[alcohol]], [[kerosene]] and other [[chemical substance]]s) also spread to Europe from the Muslim world. Numerous contributions were made in laboratory practices such as «refined techniques of [[distillation]], the preparation of [[medicine]]s, and the production of [[salt]]s.»<ref>Levere (2001), p. 6</ref> Advances were made in [[irrigation]] and farming, using technology such as the [[windmill]]. Crops such as [[almond]]s and [[citrus]] fruit were brought to Europe through [[al-Andalus]], and [[sugar]] cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans.<ref>Mintz (1986), pp. 23-9</ref>

[[Fielding H. Garrison]] wrote in the ''History of Medicine'':
{{quote|"The [[Saracen]]s themselves were the originators not only of [[algebra]], [[chemistry]], and [[geology]], but of many of the so-called improvements or refinements of civilization, such as [[Street light|street lamp]]s, window-[[Paned window|panes]], [[firework]], [[string instrument|stringed instruments]], [[cultivation|cultivated]] [[fruit]]s, [[perfume]]s, [[spice]]s, etc..."}}

[[Image:Al-jazari robots.jpg|thumb|The [[Computer programming|programmable]] [[automata]] of [[al-Jazari]], the father of [[robotics]].]]

A significant number of other inventions were also produced by medieval Muslim scientists and engineers, including inventors such as [[Abbas Ibn Firnas]], [[Taqi al-Din]], and especially [[al-Jazari]], who is considered the «father of [[robotics]]»<ref name=Vallely/> and «father of modern day [[engineering]]».<ref>[http://www.mtestudios.com/news_100_years.htm 1000 Years of Knowledge Rediscovered at Ibn Battuta Mall], MTE Studios.</ref>

Some of the other inventions and advances during the Muslim Agricultural Revolution include the [[camera obscura]], [[coffee]], [[hang glider]], [[flight controls]], [[soap bar]], [[shampoo]], pure [[distillation]], [[liquefaction]], [[crystallisation]], [[purification]], [[oxidisation]], [[evaporation]], [[filtration]], [[Distilled beverage|distilled]] [[alcohol]], [[uric acid]], [[nitric acid]], [[alembic]], [[crankshaft]], [[valve]], [[Reciprocating engine|reciprocating]] [[suction]] [[piston]] [[pump]], [[mechanical clock]]s driven by [[Water clock|water]] and [[weight]]s, [[Computer programming|programmable]] [[humanoid robot]], [[combination lock]], [[quilting]], pointed [[arch]], [[scalpel]], bone [[saw]], [[forceps]], surgical [[catgut]], [[windmill]], [[inoculation]], [[smallpox vaccine]], [[fountain pen]], [[cryptanalysis]], [[Frequency analysis (cryptanalysis)|frequency analysis]], three-course [[meal]], [[stained glass]] and [[Fused quartz|quartz glass]], [[Persian carpet]], modern [[cheque]], [[celestial globe]], [[explosive]] [[rocket]]s and [[incendiary device]]s, [[torpedo]], and artificial [[pleasure gardens]].<ref name=Vallely>Paul Vallely, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20060311/ai_n16147544 How Islamic Inventors Changed the World], ''[[The Independent]]'', [[11 March]] [[2006]].</ref>

== Урбанизация ==
There was a significant increase in [[urbanization]] during this period, due to numerous scientific advances in fields such as agriculture, [[hygiene]], [[sanitation]], [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]], [[Islamic medicine|medicine]] and [[Inventions in the Muslim world|engineering]].<ref name=Idrisi/> This also resulted in a rising [[middle class]] population.<ref>Avner Greif (1989), «Reputation and Coalitions in Medieval Trade: Evidence on the Maghribi Traders», ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''49''' (4), pp. 857-82 [862, 874].</ref>

As urbanization increased, Muslim [[City|cities]] grew unregulated, resulting in narrow winding city [[street]]s and [[neighborhood]]s separated by different ethnic backgrounds and religious affiliations. These qualities proved efficient for transporting goods to and from major [[commerce|commercial]] centers while preserving the privacy valued by Islamic family life. Suburbs lay just outside the walled city, from wealthy residential communities, to working class semi-slums. City garbage dumps were located far from the city, as were clearly defined cemeteries which were often homes for criminals. A place of prayer was found just near one of the main gates, for religious festivals and public executions. Similarly, Military Training grounds were found near a main gate.

While varying in appearance due to climate and prior local traditions, Islamic cities were almost always dominated by a [[merchant]] middle class. Some peoples' loyalty towards their neighborhood was very strong, reflecting ethnicity and religion, while a sense of citizenship was at times uncommon (but not in every case). The extended family provided the foundation for social programs, business deals, and negotiations with authorities. Part of this economic and social unit were often the tenants of a wealthy landlord.

State power normally focused on Dar al Imara, the governor’s office in the [[citadel]]. These fortresses towered high above the city built on thousands of years of human settlement. The primary function of the city governor was to provide for defence and to maintain legal order. This system would be responsible for a mixture of autocracy and autonomy within the city. Each neighborhood, and many of the large tenement blocks, elected a representative to deal with urban authorities. These neighborhoods were also expected to organize their young men into a militia providing for protection of their own neighborhoods, and as aid to the professional armies defending the city as a whole.

The head of the family was given the position of authority in his household, although a [[qadi]], or judge was able to negotiate and resolve differences in issues of disagreements within families and between them. The two senior representatives of municipal authority were the qadi and the [[muhtasib]], who held the responsibilities of many issues, including quality of water, maintenance of city streets, containing outbreaks of disease, supervising the markets, and a prompt burial of the dead.

Another aspect of Islamic urban life was [[waqf]], a religious charity directly dealing with the [[qadi]] and religious leaders. Through donations, the waqf owned many of the [[public bath]]s and [[factories]], using the revenue to fund education, and to provide [[irrigation]] for [[orchard]]s outside the city. Following expansion, this system was introduced into [[Eastern Europe]] by [[Ottoman Turks]].

While religious foundations of all faiths were tax exempt in the Muslim world, civilians paid their taxes to the urban authorities, soldiers to the superior officer, and landowners to the state treasury. Taxes were also levied on an unmarried man until he was wed. Instead of [[zakat]], the mandatory charity required of Muslims, non-Muslims were required to pay the [[jizya]], a discriminatory religious tax, imposed on Christians and Jews. During the Muslim Conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries conquered populations were given the three choices of either converting to Islam, paying the jizya, or dying by the sword.

Animals brought to the city for slaughter were restricted to areas outside the city, as were any other industries seen as unclean. The more valuable a good was, the closer its market was to the center of town. Because of this, booksellers and goldsmiths clustered around the main mosque at the heart of the city.

=== Строительство инженерных сооружений ===

Many [[dam]]s, [[acequia]] and [[qanat]] [[water supply]] systems, and «Tribunal of Waters» [[irrigation]] systems, were built during the Islamic Golden Age and are still in use today in the Islamic world and in formerly Islamic regions of Europe such as [[Sicily]] and the [[Iberian Peninsula]], particularly in the [[Andalusia]], [[Aragon]] and [[Valencia (province)|Valencia]] provinces of [[Spain]]. The Arabic systems of irrigation and water distribution were later adopted in the [[Canary Islands]] and [[Americas]] due to the [[Spain|Spanish]] and are still used in places like [[Texas]], [[Mexico]], [[Peru]], and [[Chile]].<ref name=Hassan>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering]</ref>

Muslim cities also had advanced [[domestic water system]]s with [[sewer]]s, [[public bath]]s, drinking [[fountain]]s, [[Water pipe|piped]] [[drinking water]] supplies,<ref>Fiona MacDonald (2006), ''The Plague and Medicine in the Middle Ages'', pp. 42-3, Gareth Stevens, ISBN 0-8368-5907-3.</ref> and widespread private and [[public toilet]] and [[bathing]] facilities.<ref>Tor Eigeland, «The Tiles of Iberia», ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', March-April 1992, pp. 24-31.</ref> By the 10th century, [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]] had 700 [[mosque]]s, 60,000 [[palace]]s, and 70 [[library|libraries]], the largest of which had 600,000 books, while as many as 60,000 [[treatise]]s, [[Arabic poetry|poems]], [[polemic]]s and [[Anthology|compilations]] were published each year in [[al-Andalus]].<ref>Dato' Dzulkifli Abd Razak, [http://www.prn2.usm.my/mainsite/bulletin/article/29dar05.html Quest for knowledge], ''[[New Straits Times|New Sunday Times]]'', [[3 July]] [[2005]].</ref> The library of [[Cairo]] had more than 100,000 books, while the library of [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] is said to have had as many as three million books. The number of important and original Arabic works on science that have survived is much larger than the combined total of [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] works on science.<ref>N. M. Swerdlow (1993). «Montucla’s Legacy: The History of the Exact Sciences», ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''54''' (2), pp. 299—328 [320].</ref>

Islamic cities also had an early public [[health care]] service. «The extraordinary provision of [[Public bathing|public bath-houses]], complex [[sanitary]] systems of [[drainage]] (more extensive even than the famous [[Sanitation in ancient Rome|Roman infrastructures]]), fresh water supplies, and the large and sophisticated [[Bimaristan|urban hospitals]], all contributed to the general health of the population.»<ref>{{citation|title=Medieval Islamic Medicine|first1=Emilie|last-2=Savage-Smith|first2=Peter E.|last2=Pormann|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|year=2007|isbn=1589011600 |url=http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?TaxonomyTypeID=111&TaxonomySubTypeID=139&TaxonomyThirdLevelID=-1&ArticleID=676 |accessdate=2008-01-29}}</ref>
-->


== Примечания ==
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== Литература ==
== Литература ==
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* [[George Sarton]], ''The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East'', A George C. Keiser Foundation Lecture, [[March 29]], [[1950]], Washington DC, 1951
* George Sarton, ''The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East'', A George C. Keiser Foundation Lecture, March 29, [[1950]], Washington DC, 1951
* Maya Shatzmiller (1994), ''Labour in the Medieval Islamic World'', [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 90-04-09896-8
* Maya Shatzmiller (1994), ''Labour in the Medieval Islamic World'', Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-09896-8
* Watson, Andrew. ''Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world''. [[Cambridge University Press]].
* Watson, Andrew. ''Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world''. [[Издательство Кембриджского университета|Cambridge University Press]].



== См. также ==
* [[Золотой век ислама]]


[[Категория:Глобализация]]
[[Категория:Глобализация]]
[[Категория:Сельское хозяйство]]
[[Категория:Сельское хозяйство]]
[[Категория:История ислама]]
[[Категория:История ислама]]
[[Категория:История технологий]]

[[Категория:Аграрная революция]]
[[en:Muslim Agricultural Revolution]]
[[es:Revolución agrícola del Islam medieval]]
[[ms:Revolusi Pertanian Islam]]
[[tr:İslam tarım devrimi]]

Текущая версия от 17:13, 30 июня 2022

У этого термина существуют и другие значения, см. Аграрная революция.

Исламская аграрная революция (также арабская аграрная революция, средневековая зелёная революция) — крупные преобразования в сельском хозяйстве Арабского халифата и связанный с этим прогресс в науках о земле, естественных науках и экономике в эпоху Исламского золотого века с VIII по XIII в. н. э.[1][2][3] Термин предложил историк Эндрю Уотсон в 1974 году.

В результате установления Арабского халифата на обширной территории с запада Европы и до Центральной Азии возникла глобальная экономика, что позволило арабским и другим мусульманским торговцам вести широкий торговый обмен, распространить по всей территории Халифата и за его пределы множество сельскохозяйственных культур и технологий ведения сельского хозяйства, а также адаптировать эти культуры и методы за пределами Халифата. Помимо сельскохозяйственных культур арабского мира, широкое распространение за пределами своей родины получили сорго (Африка), цитрусовые (Китай), различные культуры Индии (манго, рис, хлопок, сахарный тростник)[1]. Ряд исследователей называют этот период «глобализацией сельскохозяйственных культур»[4]. Появление новых культур, рост механизации сельского хозяйства привели к большим сдвигам в экономике, распределении населения, типам посевов[5], с/х производстве, доходах населения, урбанизации, распределении рабочей силы, инфраструктуры, кухни народов мира и одежды[1].

География

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При образовании Арабского халифата многие ранее изолированные друг от друга регионы были объединены в одном государстве, в связи с чем между ними начался интенсивный научный, торговый и хозяйственный обмен[6]. Исламские мореплаватели стали активно осваивать соседние регионы, в том числе Европу, Китай и Индию.

Эффект глобализации нарастал постепенно, а его кульминация на поздних этапах существования халифата получила в историографии название Золотой век ислама[7]. Примерным историческим рубежом условно считается правление Харуна ар-Рашида, в связи с чем этот далеко не успешный халиф столь популярен в исламской литературе.

См. также

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Примечания

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  1. ↑ 1 2 3 Andrew M. Watson (1974), «The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700—1100», The Journal of Economic History 34 (1), pp. 8-35.
  2. ↑ A. M. Watson (1981), «A Medieval Green Revolution: New Crops and Farming Techniques in the Early Islamic World», in The Islamic Middle East, 700—1900: Studies in Economic and Social History
  3. ↑ Zohor Idrisi (2005), The Muslim Agricultural Revolution and its influence on Europe Архивная копия от 25 июня 2008 на Wayback Machine, FSTC
  4. ↑ The Globalisation of Crops Архивная копия от 2 января 2014 на Wayback Machine, FSTC
  5. ↑ Andrew M. Watson (1983), Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-24711-X.
  6. ↑ Subhi Y. Labib (1969), «Capitalism in Medieval Islam», The Journal of Economic History 29 (1), p. 79-96.
  7. ↑ John M. Hobson (2004), The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation, p. 29-30, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-54724-5.

Литература

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  • Donald Routledge Hill, Islamic Science And Engineering, Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0-7486-0455-3
  • Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 3, Routledge, ISBN 0415124107
  • George Sarton, The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East, A George C. Keiser Foundation Lecture, March 29, 1950, Washington DC, 1951
  • Maya Shatzmiller (1994), Labour in the Medieval Islamic World, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-09896-8
  • Watson, Andrew. Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world. Cambridge University Press.
Источник — https://ru.wikipedia.org/ruwiki/w/index.php?title=Исламская_аграрная_революция&oldid=123696746