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[[File:Hand zur Abmessung 2D4D.jpg|thumb| |
[[File:Hand zur Abmessung 2D4D.jpg|thumb|無名指長於食指, 意味胎兒期時在子宮中暴露於較高的睪固酮環境]] |
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指長比為[[手指]]底部摺痕到[[手指]]前端中點(如圖)不同[[手指]]長度的比例。<ref name="J Anat">{{Cite journal|author=T M Mayhew, L Gillam, R McDonald, and F J P Ebling |title=Human 2D (index) and 4D (ring) digit lengths: their variation and relationships during the menstrual cycle |journal=Journal of Anatomy |volume=211 |issue= 5| pages=630–638 |date=November 2007|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7580.2007.00801.x|pmid=17764524|pmc=2375787}}</ref> 一些科學家認為[[食指]]和[[無名指]]的指長比(2D:4D)受胎兒暴露在[[子宫]]的[[雄激素]]（如[[睾酮]]）和[[雌激素]]不同程度結果所致，因而2D:4D被視為產前[[雄激素]]曝露量的天然測量指標,低2D:4D比率表示胎兒在子宮內暴露在較高濃度的雄激素環境。<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Developmental basis of sexually dimorphic digit ratios|url = http://www.pnas.org/content/108/39/16289|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date = 2011-09-27|issn = 0027-8424|pmc = 3182741|pmid = 21896736|pages = 16289–16294|volume = 108|issue = 39|doi = 10.1073/pnas.1108312108|first = Zhengui|last = Zheng|first2 = Martin J.|last2 = Cohn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Second to fourth digit length ratio (2D:4D) and adult sex hormone levels: New data and a meta-analytic review|url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0306453007000352|journal = Psychoneuroendocrinology|date = 2007-01-01|volume = 32|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.01.007|first = Johannes|last = Hönekopp|first2 = Luise|last2 = Bartholdt|first3 = Lothar|last3 = Beier|first4 = Andreas|last4 = Liebert|pmid=17400395|pages=313–21}}</ref> The 2D:4D ratio is calculated by dividing the length of the index finger of the right hand by the length of the ring finger of the right hand. 較長的[[食指]]將導致指長比大於1，而較長的[[無名指]]將導致小於1的比率。 |
指長比為[[手指]]底部摺痕到[[手指]]前端中點(如圖)不同[[手指]]長度的比例。<ref name="J Anat">{{Cite journal|author=T M Mayhew, L Gillam, R McDonald, and F J P Ebling |title=Human 2D (index) and 4D (ring) digit lengths: their variation and relationships during the menstrual cycle |journal=Journal of Anatomy |volume=211 |issue= 5| pages=630–638 |date=November 2007|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7580.2007.00801.x|pmid=17764524|pmc=2375787}}</ref> 一些科學家認為[[食指]]和[[無名指]]的指長比(2D:4D)受胎兒暴露在[[子宫]]的[[雄激素]]（如[[睾酮]]）和[[雌激素]]不同程度結果所致，因而2D:4D被視為產前[[雄激素]]曝露量的天然測量指標,低2D:4D比率表示胎兒在子宮內暴露在較高濃度的雄激素環境。<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Developmental basis of sexually dimorphic digit ratios|url = http://www.pnas.org/content/108/39/16289|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date = 2011-09-27|issn = 0027-8424|pmc = 3182741|pmid = 21896736|pages = 16289–16294|volume = 108|issue = 39|doi = 10.1073/pnas.1108312108|first = Zhengui|last = Zheng|first2 = Martin J.|last2 = Cohn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Second to fourth digit length ratio (2D:4D) and adult sex hormone levels: New data and a meta-analytic review|url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0306453007000352|journal = Psychoneuroendocrinology|date = 2007-01-01|volume = 32|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.01.007|first = Johannes|last = Hönekopp|first2 = Luise|last2 = Bartholdt|first3 = Lothar|last3 = Beier|first4 = Andreas|last4 = Liebert|pmid=17400395|pages=313–21}}</ref> The 2D:4D ratio is calculated by dividing the length of the index finger of the right hand by the length of the ring finger of the right hand. 較長的[[食指]]將導致指長比大於1，而較長的[[無名指]]將導致小於1的比率。 |
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部分研究已顯示2D:4D與各種生理和行為特徵之間具有關聯性.<ref name="Biology Letters">{{cite journal|last1=Wlodarski|first1=R.|last2=Manning|first2=J.|last3=Dunbar|first3=R. I. M.|title=Stay or stray? Evidence for alternative mating strategy phenotypes in both men and women|journal=Biology Letters|date=4 February 2015|volume=11|issue=2|pages=20140977–20140977|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2014.0977|accessdate=12 February 2015}}</ref> |
部分研究已顯示2D:4D與各種生理和行為特徵之間具有關聯性.<ref name="Biology Letters">{{cite journal|last1=Wlodarski|first1=R.|last2=Manning|first2=J.|last3=Dunbar|first3=R. I. M.|title=Stay or stray? Evidence for alternative mating strategy phenotypes in both men and women|journal=Biology Letters|date=4 February 2015|volume=11|issue=2|pages=20140977–20140977|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2014.0977|accessdate=12 February 2015}}</ref> |
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==指長比研究史== |
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==History of digit ratio research== |
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That a greater proportion of men have shorter index fingers than ring fingers than do women was noted in the scientific literature several times through the late 1800s,<ref name="Ecker A 1875 68–74">{{Cite journal|author=Ecker A |title=Einige Bemerkungen über einen Schwankenden Charakter in den Hand des Menschen[Some remarks about a varying character in the hand of humans] |journal=Archiv für Anthropologie |volume=8 |pages=68–74 |year=1875}}</ref><ref name="Baker F 1888 51–75">{{Cite journal|author=Baker F |title=Anthropological notes on the human hand |journal=The American Anthropologist |volume=1 |pages=51–75 |year=1888 |doi=10.1525/aa.1888.1.1.02a00040}}</ref> with the statistically significant sex difference in a sample of 201 men and 109 women established by 1930,<ref name="George R 1930 199–204">{{Cite journal|author=George R |title=Human finger types |journal=Anatomical Record |volume=46 |pages=199–204 |year=1930 |doi=10.1002/ar.1090460210|issue=2}}</ref> after which time the sex difference appears to have been largely forgotten or ignored. In 1983 Dr {{tsl|en|Glenn Wilson (psychologist)||Glenn Wilson}} of [[伦敦国王学院]] published a study examining the correlation between assertiveness in women and their digit ratio.<ref name=Wilson1983>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/0191-8869(83)90061-2 |title=Finger-length as an index of assertiveness in women |year=1983 |last1=Wilson |first1=Glenn D. |authorlink1=Glenn Wilson (psychologist) |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=111–2}}</ref> This was the first study to examine the correlation between digit ratio and a psychological trait within members of the same sex.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Wilson | first1 = G. | year = 2010 | title = Fingers to feminism: The rise of 2D:4D | url = | journal = Quarterly Review | volume = 4 | issue = | pages = 25–32 }}</ref> Wilson proposed that skeletal structure and personality were simultaneously affected by sex hormone levels in utero.<ref name=Wilson1983/> In 1998, John T. Manning and colleagues reported the sex difference in digit ratios was present in two-year-old children<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Manning JT, Scutt D, Wilson J, Lewis-Jones DI |title=The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length: a predictor of sperm numbers and concentrations of testosterone, luteinizing hormone and oestrogen |journal=Hum Reprod |volume=13 |pages=3000–3004 |year=1998 |pmid=9853845 |doi=10.1093/humrep/13.11.3000 |issue=11|last2=Scutt |last3=Wilson |last4=Lewis-Jones }}</ref> and further developed the idea that the index was a marker of prenatal sex hormones. Since then research on the topic has burgeoned around the world. |
That a greater proportion of men have shorter index fingers than ring fingers than do women was noted in the scientific literature several times through the late 1800s,<ref name="Ecker A 1875 68–74">{{Cite journal|author=Ecker A |title=Einige Bemerkungen über einen Schwankenden Charakter in den Hand des Menschen[Some remarks about a varying character in the hand of humans] |journal=Archiv für Anthropologie |volume=8 |pages=68–74 |year=1875}}</ref><ref name="Baker F 1888 51–75">{{Cite journal|author=Baker F |title=Anthropological notes on the human hand |journal=The American Anthropologist |volume=1 |pages=51–75 |year=1888 |doi=10.1525/aa.1888.1.1.02a00040}}</ref> with the statistically significant sex difference in a sample of 201 men and 109 women established by 1930,<ref name="George R 1930 199–204">{{Cite journal|author=George R |title=Human finger types |journal=Anatomical Record |volume=46 |pages=199–204 |year=1930 |doi=10.1002/ar.1090460210|issue=2}}</ref> after which time the sex difference appears to have been largely forgotten or ignored. In 1983 Dr {{tsl|en|Glenn Wilson (psychologist)||Glenn Wilson}} of [[伦敦国王学院]] published a study examining the correlation between assertiveness in women and their digit ratio.<ref name=Wilson1983>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/0191-8869(83)90061-2 |title=Finger-length as an index of assertiveness in women |year=1983 |last1=Wilson |first1=Glenn D. |authorlink1=Glenn Wilson (psychologist) |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=111–2}}</ref> This was the first study to examine the correlation between digit ratio and a psychological trait within members of the same sex.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Wilson | first1 = G. | year = 2010 | title = Fingers to feminism: The rise of 2D:4D | url = | journal = Quarterly Review | volume = 4 | issue = | pages = 25–32 }}</ref> Wilson proposed that skeletal structure and personality were simultaneously affected by sex hormone levels in utero.<ref name=Wilson1983/> In 1998, John T. Manning and colleagues reported the sex difference in digit ratios was present in two-year-old children<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Manning JT, Scutt D, Wilson J, Lewis-Jones DI |title=The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length: a predictor of sperm numbers and concentrations of testosterone, luteinizing hormone and oestrogen |journal=Hum Reprod |volume=13 |pages=3000–3004 |year=1998 |pmid=9853845 |doi=10.1093/humrep/13.11.3000 |issue=11|last2=Scutt |last3=Wilson |last4=Lewis-Jones }}</ref> and further developed the idea that the index was a marker of prenatal sex hormones. Since then research on the topic has burgeoned around the world. |
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A major problem with the research on this topic comes from the contradiction in the literature as to whether the testosterone level in adults can be predicted by the 2D:4D ratio,<ref name="Hönekopp Johannes, Bartholdt Luise, Beier Lothar, Liebert Andreas 313–321"/> but male sexual traits that are stereotypically attributed to testosterone levels have been found in correlation with the 2D:4D. So there should be a correlation with one or the other but not both. |
A major problem with the research on this topic comes from the contradiction in the literature as to whether the testosterone level in adults can be predicted by the 2D:4D ratio,<ref name="Hönekopp Johannes, Bartholdt Luise, Beier Lothar, Liebert Andreas 313–321"/> but male sexual traits that are stereotypically attributed to testosterone levels have been found in correlation with the 2D:4D. So there should be a correlation with one or the other but not both. |
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==指長比的常態分布== |
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==Digit ratio distribution== |
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[[File:Digit ratio visualization according to data from Bailey and Hurd, 2005.png|thumbnail|right|A visualization of the distributions: Men (blue), women (green), and the whole population (red). Based on a population at University of Alberta and assuming normal distribution.]] |
[[File:Digit ratio visualization according to data from Bailey and Hurd, 2005.png|thumbnail|right|A visualization of the distributions: Men (blue), women (green), and the whole population (red). Based on a population at University of Alberta and assuming normal distribution.]] |
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根據一份來自[[阿爾伯塔大學]]136名男性與137名女性的研究<ref name="Bailey & Hurd 2005">{{Cite journal|author=Bailey AA, Hurd PL |title=Finger length ratio (2D:4D) correlates with physical aggression in men but not in women |journal=Biological Psychology |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=215–22 |date=March 2005 |pmid=15620791 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.05.001 |laysummary=http://www.livescience.com/193-finger-length-predicts-aggression-men.html |laysource={{tsl|en|LiveScience||LiveScience}} |laydate=2 March 2005|last2=Hurd }}</ref> |
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* 男性[[平均數]] = 0.947, [[標準差]] = 0.029. |
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* |
* 女性[[平均數]] = 0.965, [[標準差]] = 0.026. |
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設其為[[正态分布]], 2D:4D比率的95%[[信賴區間]]，男性落於0.889-1.005，而女性落於0.913-1.017 . |
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==[[雄激素]]影響指長比的證據== |
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==Evidence of androgen effect on digit ratio== |
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患有[[先天性腎上腺增生症]] (CAH)的女性具有較高濃度的[[雄激素]], 她們有著較平均值低的2D:4D比.<ref name=Brown2002>{{Cite journal|author=Brown WM, Hines M, Fane BA, Breedlove SM |title=Masculinized finger length patterns in human males and females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Hormones and Behavior |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=380–6 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12488105 |doi=10.1006/hbeh.2002.1830 |url=https://www.msu.edu/~breedsm/pdf/CAHFingersFinal.pdf|last2=Hines |last3=Fane |last4=Breedlove }}</ref><ref name=Okten2002>{{Cite journal|author=Okten A, Kalyoncu M, Yariş N |title=The ratio of second- and fourth-digit lengths and congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal={{tsl|en|Early Human Development||Early Human Development}} |volume=70 |issue=1–2 |pages=47–54 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12441204 |doi=10.1016/S0378-3782(02)00073-7|last2=Kalyoncu |last3=Yariş }}</ref><ref name=Ciumas2009>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1093/cercor/bhn160 |author=Ciumas C, Lindén Hirschberg A, Savic I. |title=High fetal testosterone and sexually dimorphic cerebral networks in females |url=http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/5/1167.full?view=long&pmid=18854582 |journal=Cereb Cortex |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=1164–72 |year=2009 |pmid=18854582|last2=Lindén Hirschberg |last3=Savic }}</ref> 其它可能的生理影響包括[[陰蒂]]肥厚與[[陰道]]淺短.<ref>Richard D. McAnulty, M. Michele Burnette (2006) ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=KBi9aG0pQAkC&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165&dq=%22Digit+ratio%22+clitoris&source=bl&ots=SQjuEc1zm0&sig=VAVPJgd4f4wu6ToO9nPpGthPedY&hl=en&ei=hyZYTaLoKpKgtwfDxrnGDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Digit%20ratio%22%20clitoris&f=false Sex and sexuality, Volume 1]'', {{tsl|en|Greenwood Publishing Group||Greenwood Publishing Group}}, p.165</ref> |
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Males with CAH have more masculine (smaller) digit ratios than control males,<ref name=Brown2002/><ref name=Okten2002/> which also suggests that prenatal androgens affect digit ratios, since amniocentesis samples show that prenatal levels of testosterone are in the high normal range in males with CAH, while levels of the weaker androgen {{tsl|en|androstenedione||androstenedione}} are several fold higher than in control males.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Pang S, Levine LS, Cederqvist LL, Fuentes M, Riccardi VM,Holcombe JH, Nitowsky HM, Sachs G, Anderson CE, Duchon MA,Owens R, Merkatz I, New MI|title=Amniotic fluid concentrations of delta5 and delta4 steroids in fetuses with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=51 |pages=223–229 |year=1980 |pmid=6447160 |doi=10.1210/jcem-51-2-223 |issue=2|last2=Levine |last3=Cederqvist |last4=Fuentes |last5=Riccardi |last6=Holcombe |last7=Nitowsky |last8=Sachs |last9=Anderson |last10=Duchon |last11=Owens |last12=Merkatz |last13=New }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Dorr, H. G., and Sippell, W. G. |title=Prenatal dexamethasone treatment in pregnancies at risk for congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency: Effect on midgestational amniotic fluid steroid levels |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=76 |pages=117–120 |year=1993 |pmid=8421074 |doi=10.1210/jc.76.1.117 |issue=1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=LWudy, S. A., Dorr, H. G., Solleder, C., Djalali, M., and Homoki, J. |title=Profiling steroid hormones in amniotic fluid of midpregnancy by routine stable isotope dilution/gas chromatography mass spectrometry: Reference values and concentrations in fetuses at risk for 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=84 |pages=2724–2728 |year=1999 |pmid=10443667 |doi=10.1210/jc.84.8.2724 |issue=8 }}</ref> These measures indicate that males with CAH are exposed to greater prenatal concentrations of total androgens than are control males. |
Males with CAH have more masculine (smaller) digit ratios than control males,<ref name=Brown2002/><ref name=Okten2002/> which also suggests that prenatal androgens affect digit ratios, since amniocentesis samples show that prenatal levels of testosterone are in the high normal range in males with CAH, while levels of the weaker androgen {{tsl|en|androstenedione||androstenedione}} are several fold higher than in control males.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Pang S, Levine LS, Cederqvist LL, Fuentes M, Riccardi VM,Holcombe JH, Nitowsky HM, Sachs G, Anderson CE, Duchon MA,Owens R, Merkatz I, New MI|title=Amniotic fluid concentrations of delta5 and delta4 steroids in fetuses with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=51 |pages=223–229 |year=1980 |pmid=6447160 |doi=10.1210/jcem-51-2-223 |issue=2|last2=Levine |last3=Cederqvist |last4=Fuentes |last5=Riccardi |last6=Holcombe |last7=Nitowsky |last8=Sachs |last9=Anderson |last10=Duchon |last11=Owens |last12=Merkatz |last13=New }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Dorr, H. G., and Sippell, W. G. |title=Prenatal dexamethasone treatment in pregnancies at risk for congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency: Effect on midgestational amniotic fluid steroid levels |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=76 |pages=117–120 |year=1993 |pmid=8421074 |doi=10.1210/jc.76.1.117 |issue=1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=LWudy, S. A., Dorr, H. G., Solleder, C., Djalali, M., and Homoki, J. |title=Profiling steroid hormones in amniotic fluid of midpregnancy by routine stable isotope dilution/gas chromatography mass spectrometry: Reference values and concentrations in fetuses at risk for 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=84 |pages=2724–2728 |year=1999 |pmid=10443667 |doi=10.1210/jc.84.8.2724 |issue=8 }}</ref> These measures indicate that males with CAH are exposed to greater prenatal concentrations of total androgens than are control males. |
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The level of estrogen in the amniotic fluid is not correlated with higher 2D:4D, and when examined researchers found no difference in estrogen levels between males and females.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lutchmaya S., Baron-Cohen S., Raggatt P., Knickmeyer R., Manning J. T. | year = 2004 | title = 2nd To 4th Digit Ratios, Fetal Testosterone and Estradiol | url = | journal = Early human development | volume = 77 | issue = 1–2| pages = 23–8 | doi = 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2003.12.002 | pmid=15113628| last2 = Baron-Cohen | last3 = Raggatt | last4 = Knickmeyer | last5 = Manning }}</ref> |
The level of estrogen in the amniotic fluid is not correlated with higher 2D:4D, and when examined researchers found no difference in estrogen levels between males and females.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lutchmaya S., Baron-Cohen S., Raggatt P., Knickmeyer R., Manning J. T. | year = 2004 | title = 2nd To 4th Digit Ratios, Fetal Testosterone and Estradiol | url = | journal = Early human development | volume = 77 | issue = 1–2| pages = 23–8 | doi = 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2003.12.002 | pmid=15113628| last2 = Baron-Cohen | last3 = Raggatt | last4 = Knickmeyer | last5 = Manning }}</ref> |
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==指長比影響的解釋== |
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==Explanation of the digit ratio effect== |
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目前尚不清楚為何產前[[激素]]會影響指長比. 還有其它類似特徵的證據,例如耳聲傳射和手臂到軀幹長度之比也顯示了類似的效果. [[同源异形基因]] responsible for both digit and penis development<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Dickman S. |title=HOX gene links limb, genital defects |
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|journal=Science |volume=275 |issue=5306 |pages=1568–9 |date=Mar 1997 |pmid= 9072822 |doi=10.1126/science.275.5306.1568}}</ref> have been implicated in affecting these multiple traits ([[基因多效性]]). Direct effects of sex hormones on bone growth might be responsible, either by regulation of Hox genes in digit development or independently of such genes. Likewise, it is unclear why digit ratio on the right hand should be more responsive than that on the left hand, as is indicated by the greater sex difference on the right than the left.<ref name=Honekopp2010>{{Cite journal|author=Honekopp J, Watson S |title=Meta-analysis of digit ratio 2D:4D shows greater sex difference in the right hand |journal=American Journal of Human Biology |volume=online |issue=5 |pages=619–30 |year=2010 |pmid=20737609 |doi=10.1002/ajhb.21054|last2=Watson }}</ref> |
|journal=Science |volume=275 |issue=5306 |pages=1568–9 |date=Mar 1997 |pmid= 9072822 |doi=10.1126/science.275.5306.1568}}</ref> have been implicated in affecting these multiple traits ([[基因多效性]]). Direct effects of sex hormones on bone growth might be responsible, either by regulation of Hox genes in digit development or independently of such genes. Likewise, it is unclear why digit ratio on the right hand should be more responsive than that on the left hand, as is indicated by the greater sex difference on the right than the left.<ref name=Honekopp2010>{{Cite journal|author=Honekopp J, Watson S |title=Meta-analysis of digit ratio 2D:4D shows greater sex difference in the right hand |journal=American Journal of Human Biology |volume=online |issue=5 |pages=619–30 |year=2010 |pmid=20737609 |doi=10.1002/ajhb.21054|last2=Watson }}</ref> |
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==2D:4D的種族差異== |
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==Geographic and ethnic variation in 2D:4D== |
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Manning與其同事已表明，2D:4D比率在不同民族之間的差異很大。 |
Manning與其同事已表明，2D:4D比率在不同民族之間的差異很大。Manning等人發現漢族兒童有最高的2D:4D平均值(0.954±−0.032), 柏柏人次之(0.950±0.033), 然後是維吾爾族(0.946±0.037), 牙買加兒童的2D:4D平均比值最低(0.935±0.035).<ref name=Manning2000>{{Cite journal |title=The 2nd:4th digit ratio, sexual dimorphism, population differences, and reproductive success. evidence for sexually antagonistic genes? |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=163–183 |date=May 2000 |pmid=10828555 |doi=10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00029-5 |last1=Manning |first1=J. T. |last2=Barley |first2=L. |last3=Walton |first3=J. |display-authors=3 |last4=Lewis-Jones |first4=D. I. |last5=Trivers |first5=R. L. |last6=Singh |first6=D. |last7=Thornhill |first7=R. |last8=Rohde |first8=P. |last9=Bereczkei |first9=T. |last10=Henzi |first10=P. |last11=Soler |first11=M. |last12=Szwed |first12=A.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Manning JT, Stewart A, Bundred PE, Trivers RL |title=Sex and ethnic differences in 2nd to 4th digit ratio of children |journal=Early Human Development |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=161–8 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15500996 |doi=10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2004.06.004|last2=Stewart |last3=Bundred |last4=Trivers }}</ref> 不同種族間的差異遠大於性別差異; Manning說：「一個 [[波蘭人]]跟一個[[芬兰人]]的差異，大於一個男人跟一個女人」<ref name="Terrance 455–456">{{Cite journal |
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| last = Terrance | first = J. | author2 = Williams, Michelle E. Pepitone, Scott E. Christensen, Bradley M. Cooke, Andrew D. Huberman, Nicholas J. Breedlove, Tessa J. Breedlove, Cynthia L. Jordan and S. Marc Breedlove |
| last = Terrance | first = J. | author2 = Williams, Michelle E. Pepitone, Scott E. Christensen, Bradley M. Cooke, Andrew D. Huberman, Nicholas J. Breedlove, Tessa J. Breedlove, Cynthia L. Jordan and S. Marc Breedlove |
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| title = Finger-length ratios and sexual orientation |
| title = Finger-length ratios and sexual orientation |
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It should be noted, however, that the errors associated with each given 2D:4D mean are such that there could in fact be no ethnic variation. For example, the ratio for Han children (0.954±−0.032) allows for a ratio as low as 0.922. The ratio for Jamaican children (0.935±0.035) allows for a ratio as high as 0.970. Research of higher accuracy is therefore necessary to determine whether or not there is ethnic variation in 2D:4D ratios. |
It should be noted, however, that the errors associated with each given 2D:4D mean are such that there could in fact be no ethnic variation. For example, the ratio for Han children (0.954±−0.032) allows for a ratio as low as 0.922. The ratio for Jamaican children (0.935±0.035) allows for a ratio as high as 0.970. Research of higher accuracy is therefore necessary to determine whether or not there is ethnic variation in 2D:4D ratios. |
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==2D:4D與特質間的關聯== |
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==Correlation between digit ratio and traits== |
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有些作者認為指長比與人生中的健康、行為，甚或 [[人类的性]] 有關聯. 以下是一些非全面的清單，整理一些指長比與特質有關的發表. |
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Some authors suggest that digit ratio correlates with health, behavior, and even [[人类的性]] in later life. Below is a non-exhaustive list of some traits that have been either demonstrated or suggested to correlate with either high or low digit ratio. |
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低指長比 |
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Low digit ratio |
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高指長比 |
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High digit ratio |
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| ''' |
| '''生理與疾病''' |
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* Increased risk of [[前列腺癌]] and prostate diseases in males.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Relationship Between Second to Fourth Digit Ratios and Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Aging Men|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4484107/|journal = Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research : JCDR|date = 2015-05-01|issn = 2249-782X|pmc = 4484107|pmid = 26155515|pages = PC01–PC03|volume = 9|issue = 5|doi = 10.7860/JCDR/2015/11992.5937|first = Hanumanthaiah Honnamachanahalli|last = Sudhakar|first2 = Revanna|last2 = Manjunatha|first3 = Heragu Rangegowda|last3 = Madhusudhana}}</ref> |
* Increased risk of [[前列腺癌]] and prostate diseases in males.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Relationship Between Second to Fourth Digit Ratios and Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Aging Men|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4484107/|journal = Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research : JCDR|date = 2015-05-01|issn = 2249-782X|pmc = 4484107|pmid = 26155515|pages = PC01–PC03|volume = 9|issue = 5|doi = 10.7860/JCDR/2015/11992.5937|first = Hanumanthaiah Honnamachanahalli|last = Sudhakar|first2 = Revanna|last2 = Manjunatha|first3 = Heragu Rangegowda|last3 = Madhusudhana}}</ref> |
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* Increased reproductive success in males.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|title = The 2nd:4th digit ratio, sexual dimorphism, population differences, and reproductive success: evidence for sexually antagonistic genes?|url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090513800000295|journal = Evolution and Human Behavior|date = 2000-05-01|pages = 163–183|volume = 21|issue = 3|doi = 10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00029-5|first = J. T.|last = Manning|first2 = L.|last2 = Barley|first3 = J.|last3 = Walton|first4 = D. I.|last4 = Lewis-Jones|first5 = R. L.|last5 = Trivers|first6 = D.|last6 = Singh|first7 = R.|last7 = Thornhill|first8 = P.|last8 = Rohde|first9 = T.|last9 = Bereczkei}}</ref> |
* Increased reproductive success in males.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|title = The 2nd:4th digit ratio, sexual dimorphism, population differences, and reproductive success: evidence for sexually antagonistic genes?|url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090513800000295|journal = Evolution and Human Behavior|date = 2000-05-01|pages = 163–183|volume = 21|issue = 3|doi = 10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00029-5|first = J. T.|last = Manning|first2 = L.|last2 = Barley|first3 = J.|last3 = Walton|first4 = D. I.|last4 = Lewis-Jones|first5 = R. L.|last5 = Trivers|first6 = D.|last6 = Singh|first7 = R.|last7 = Thornhill|first8 = P.|last8 = Rohde|first9 = T.|last9 = Bereczkei}}</ref> |
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* |
* 較少的[[精蟲]]數<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Manning JT, Scutt D, Wilson J, Lewis-Jones DI |title=The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length: a predictor of sperm numbers and concentrations of testosterone, luteinizing hormone and oestrogen |journal=Human Reproduction |volume=13 |issue=11 |pages=3000–4 |date=November 1998 |pmid=9853845 |doi=10.1093/humrep/13.11.3000|last2=Scutt |last3=Wilson |last4=Lewis-Jones }}</ref> |
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* |
* 男性有較高[[心血管疾病]]的風險<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Manning JT, Bundred PE |title=The ratio of second to fourth digit length and age at first myocardial infarction in men: a link with testosterone? |journal=British Journal of Cardiology |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=720–3 |year=2001 |issn=0969-6113}}</ref> |
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* |
* 男性有較高[[肥胖症]]和[[代謝症候群]]的風險<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fink B, Manning JT, Neave N |title=The 2nd-4th digit ratio (2D:4D) and neck circumference: implications for risk factors in coronary heart disease |journal=International Journal of Obesity |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=711–4 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16261185 |doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803154|last2=Manning |last3=Neave }}</ref> |
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* |
* 較低的[[前列腺癌]]的風險<ref name="prostate">{{cite news|last=Walsh|first=Fergus|title=Index finger length prostate cancer clue|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-11880415|work=BBC News|accessdate=1 December 2010|date=1 December 2010}}</ref> |
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* Reduced birth size in males<ref>Ronalds G, Phillips DIW, Godfrey KM, Manning JT. The ratio of second to fourth digit lengths: a marker of impaired fetal growth? Early Hum. Dev. 2002;68:21–6.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klimek M, Galbarczyk A, Nenko I, Alvarado LC, Jasienska G. |title=Digit ratio (2D:4D)as an indicator of body size, testosterone concentration and number of children in human males |journal=Ann Hum Biol |pages=1 |year=2014 |pmid=24766144 |doi=10.3109/03014460.2014.902993|last2=Galbarczyk |last3=Nenko |last4=Alvarado |last5=Jasienska |volume=41}}</ref> |
* Reduced birth size in males<ref>Ronalds G, Phillips DIW, Godfrey KM, Manning JT. The ratio of second to fourth digit lengths: a marker of impaired fetal growth? Early Hum. Dev. 2002;68:21–6.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klimek M, Galbarczyk A, Nenko I, Alvarado LC, Jasienska G. |title=Digit ratio (2D:4D)as an indicator of body size, testosterone concentration and number of children in human males |journal=Ann Hum Biol |pages=1 |year=2014 |pmid=24766144 |doi=10.3109/03014460.2014.902993|last2=Galbarczyk |last3=Nenko |last4=Alvarado |last5=Jasienska |volume=41}}</ref> |
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* Increased reproductive success in females.<ref name=":3" /> |
* Increased reproductive success in females.<ref name=":3" /> |
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| ''' |
| '''精神障礙''' |
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*男性有較高比例的[[注意力不足過動症]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=McFadden, D., Westhafer, J.G., Pasanen, E.G., Carlson, C.L., and Tucker, D.M. |title=Physiological evidence of hypermasculinization in boys with the inattentive subtype of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |journal=Clinical Neuroscience Research |volume=5 |pages=233–245 |year=2005 |doi=10.1016/j.cnr.2005.09.004|issue=5–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Stevenson JC, Everson PM, Williams DC, Hipskind G, Grimes M, Mahoney ER. |title=Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and digit ratios in a college sample |journal=Am J Hum Biol |volume=19 |pages=41–50 |year=2007 |pmid=17160985 |doi=10.1002/ajhb.20571 |issue=1|last2=Everson |last3=Williams |last4=Hipskind |last5=Grimes |last6=Mahoney }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Martel, M.M, K.L.Gobrogge, S.M.Breedlove & J.T.Nigg |title=Masculinized Finger-Length Ratios of Boys, but Not Girls, Are Associated With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder |journal=Behavioral Neuroscience |volume=122 |pages=273–281 |year=2008 |pmid=18410167 |pmc=2902868 |doi=10.1037/0735-7044.122.2.273 |issue=2|last2=Gobrogge |last3=Breedlove |last4=Nigg }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Martel, M.M. |title=Conscientiousness as a mediator of the association between masculinized finger-length ratios and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |volume=50 |pages=790–798. |year=2009 |pmid=19298468 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02065.x |issue=7}}</ref> |
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* Increased rate of [[亞斯伯格症候群]] and other [[自閉症光譜]] disorders (when comparing digit ratio to general population)<ref name="Manning">{{Cite journal|author=Manning JT, Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Sanders G |title=The 2nd to 4th digit ratio and autism |journal=Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=160–4 |date=March 2001 |pmid=11263685 |doi=10.1017/S0012162201000317|last2=Baron-Cohen |last3=Wheelwright |last4=Sanders }}</ref> |
* Increased rate of [[亞斯伯格症候群]] and other [[自閉症光譜]] disorders (when comparing digit ratio to general population)<ref name="Manning">{{Cite journal|author=Manning JT, Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Sanders G |title=The 2nd to 4th digit ratio and autism |journal=Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=160–4 |date=March 2001 |pmid=11263685 |doi=10.1017/S0012162201000317|last2=Baron-Cohen |last3=Wheelwright |last4=Sanders }}</ref> |
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*Increased risk in females for [[神经性厌食症]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title = The 2nd to 4th digit ratio (2D:4D) and eating disorder diagnosis in women|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3134962/|journal = Personality and individual differences|date = 2011-09-01|issn = 0191-8869|pmc = 3134962|pmid = 21765573|pages = 402–405|volume = 51|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.024|first = Stephanie Jane|last = Quinton|first2 = April Rose|last2 = Smith|first3 = Thomas|last3 = Joiner}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|title = The 2 to 4 digit ratio (2D:4D) and eating disorder diagnosis in women|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21765573|journal = Personality and Individual Differences|date = 2011-09-01|issn = 0191-8869|pmc = 3134962|pmid = 21765573|pages = 402–405|volume = 51|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.024|first = Stephanie Jane|last = Quinton|first2 = April Rose|last2 = Smith|first3 = Thomas|last3 = Joiner}}</ref> |
*Increased risk in females for [[神经性厌食症]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title = The 2nd to 4th digit ratio (2D:4D) and eating disorder diagnosis in women|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3134962/|journal = Personality and individual differences|date = 2011-09-01|issn = 0191-8869|pmc = 3134962|pmid = 21765573|pages = 402–405|volume = 51|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.024|first = Stephanie Jane|last = Quinton|first2 = April Rose|last2 = Smith|first3 = Thomas|last3 = Joiner}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|title = The 2 to 4 digit ratio (2D:4D) and eating disorder diagnosis in women|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21765573|journal = Personality and Individual Differences|date = 2011-09-01|issn = 0191-8869|pmc = 3134962|pmid = 21765573|pages = 402–405|volume = 51|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.024|first = Stephanie Jane|last = Quinton|first2 = April Rose|last2 = Smith|first3 = Thomas|last3 = Joiner}}</ref> |
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*Increased rate of alcohol dependency.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Low Digit Ratio 2D∶4D in Alcohol Dependent Patients|url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0019332|journal = PLoS ONE|date = 2011-04-25|pmc = 3081847|pmid = 21547078|pages = e19332|volume = 6|issue = 4|doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0019332|first = Johannes|last = Kornhuber|first2 = Gabriele|last2 = Erhard|first3 = Bernd|last3 = Lenz|first4 = Thomas|last4 = Kraus|first5 = Wolfgang|last5 = Sperling|first6 = Kristina|last6 = Bayerlein|first7 = Teresa|last7 = Biermann|first8 = Christina|last8 = Stoessel}}</ref> |
*Increased rate of alcohol dependency.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Low Digit Ratio 2D∶4D in Alcohol Dependent Patients|url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0019332|journal = PLoS ONE|date = 2011-04-25|pmc = 3081847|pmid = 21547078|pages = e19332|volume = 6|issue = 4|doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0019332|first = Johannes|last = Kornhuber|first2 = Gabriele|last2 = Erhard|first3 = Bernd|last3 = Lenz|first4 = Thomas|last4 = Kraus|first5 = Wolfgang|last5 = Sperling|first6 = Kristina|last6 = Bayerlein|first7 = Teresa|last7 = Biermann|first8 = Christina|last8 = Stoessel}}</ref> |
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* 男性有較高[[抑郁 (情绪)]]的風險<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bailey, A. & Hurd, P.|title=Depression in men is associated with more feminine finger length ratios|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|year=2005|volume=39|issue=4|pages=829–836|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2004.12.017|first1=Allison A.|last2=Hurd|first2=Peter L.}}</ref> |
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* Increased rate of [[精神分裂症]]<ref name="Arató M, Frecska E, Beck C, An M, Kiss H 2004 191–4">{{Cite journal|author=Arató M, Frecska E, Beck C, An M, Kiss H |title=Digit length pattern in schizophrenia suggests disturbed prenatal hemispheric lateralization |journal=Progress in Neuro-psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=191–4 |date=January 2004 |pmid=14687873 |doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2003.09.020|last2=Frecska |last3=Beck |last4=An |last5=Kiss }}</ref> |
* Increased rate of [[精神分裂症]]<ref name="Arató M, Frecska E, Beck C, An M, Kiss H 2004 191–4">{{Cite journal|author=Arató M, Frecska E, Beck C, An M, Kiss H |title=Digit length pattern in schizophrenia suggests disturbed prenatal hemispheric lateralization |journal=Progress in Neuro-psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=191–4 |date=January 2004 |pmid=14687873 |doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2003.09.020|last2=Frecska |last3=Beck |last4=An |last5=Kiss }}</ref> |
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* Increased rate of {{tsl|en|psychopathy||psychopathy}} in females<ref>{{cite journal|last=Blanchard|first=A.|author2=Lyons, M.|title=An Investigation into the Relationship between Digit Length Ratio and Psychopathy|journal=British Journal of Forensic Practice|date=May 2010|volume=12|issue=2|url=http://lhu.academia.edu/AlysonBlanchard/Papers/305985/An_Investigation_Into_the_Relationship_Between_Digit_Length_Ratio_2D_4D_and_Psychopathy|doi=10.5042/bjfp.2010.0183|pages=23–31}}</ref> |
* Increased rate of {{tsl|en|psychopathy||psychopathy}} in females<ref>{{cite journal|last=Blanchard|first=A.|author2=Lyons, M.|title=An Investigation into the Relationship between Digit Length Ratio and Psychopathy|journal=British Journal of Forensic Practice|date=May 2010|volume=12|issue=2|url=http://lhu.academia.edu/AlysonBlanchard/Papers/305985/An_Investigation_Into_the_Relationship_Between_Digit_Length_Ratio_2D_4D_and_Psychopathy|doi=10.5042/bjfp.2010.0183|pages=23–31}}</ref> |
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* |
* 降低[[酒精依賴]]的風險<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kornhuber J, Erhard G, Lenz B, Kraus T, Sperling W, Bayerlein K, Biermann T, Stoessel C |title=Low Digit Ratio 2D∶4D in Alcohol Dependent Patients |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=e19332 |date=April 2011 |pmid=21547078 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0019332|editor1-last=Zhang|editor1-first=Xiang Yang|pmc=3081847|last2=Erhard |last3=Lenz |last4=Kraus |last5=Sperling |last6=Bayerlein |last7=Biermann |last8=Stoessel }}</ref> |
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* |
* 降低電玩成癮的風險<ref>[http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0079539#abstract0 J. Kornhuber, EM Zenses, B Lenz, C Stoessel, P Bouna-Pyrrou, F Rehbein, S Kliem, T Mößle (2013): Low digit ratio 2D:4D associated with video game addiction. ''PLoS ONE'' 2013; Vol. 8, Nr. 11: e79539]</ref> |
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* Increased [[焦慮]] in males<ref>{{cite journal|last=Evardone & Alexander|title=Anxiety, Sex-linked Behavior, and Digit Ratios|journal=Arch Sex Behav.|year=2009|volume=38|issue=3|pmc=2768336|pmid=17943431|doi=10.1007/s10508-007-9260-6|pages=442–55|first1=Milagros|last2=Alexander|first2=Gerianne M.}}</ref> |
* Increased [[焦慮]] in males<ref>{{cite journal|last=Evardone & Alexander|title=Anxiety, Sex-linked Behavior, and Digit Ratios|journal=Arch Sex Behav.|year=2009|volume=38|issue=3|pmc=2768336|pmid=17943431|doi=10.1007/s10508-007-9260-6|pages=442–55|first1=Milagros|last2=Alexander|first2=Gerianne M.}}</ref> |
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* 女性有較高的[[神經性暴食症]]風險.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> |
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| '''生理和競爭行為''' |
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| '''Physical and competitive behavior''' |
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|運動中有較多的攻擊性行為.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Soccer players awarded one or more red cards exhibit lower 2D:4D ratios|url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ab.21638/abstract|journal = Aggressive Behavior|date = 2015-12-01|issn = 1098-2337|pages = n/a-n/a|doi = 10.1002/ab.21638|language = en|first = Alvaro|last = Mailhos|first2 = Abraham P.|last2 = Buunk|first3 = Denise|last3 = del Arca|first4 = Verónica|last4 = Tutte}}</ref> |
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* Reduced performance in sports<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Manning JT, Taylor RP |title=Second to fourth digit ratio and male ability in sport: implications for sexual selection in humans |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=61–69 |date=January 2001 |pmid=11182575 |doi=10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00063-5|last2=Taylor }}</ref> |
* Reduced performance in sports<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Manning JT, Taylor RP |title=Second to fourth digit ratio and male ability in sport: implications for sexual selection in humans |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=61–69 |date=January 2001 |pmid=11182575 |doi=10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00063-5|last2=Taylor }}</ref> |
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* Right handedness skills<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fink B, Manning JT, Neave N, Tan U |title=Second to fourth digit ratio and hand skill in Austrian children |journal=Biological Psychology |volume=67 |issue=3 |pages=375–84 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15294393 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.03.012|last2=Manning |last3=Neave |last4=Tan }}</ref> (inconclusive)<ref>{{cite journal|last=Titus-Ernstoff|title=Psychosexual Characteristics of Men and Women Exposed Prenatally to Diethylstilbestrol|journal=CDC|year=2003 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/des/consumers/research/recent_psychosexual.html}}</ref> |
* Right handedness skills<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fink B, Manning JT, Neave N, Tan U |title=Second to fourth digit ratio and hand skill in Austrian children |journal=Biological Psychology |volume=67 |issue=3 |pages=375–84 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15294393 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.03.012|last2=Manning |last3=Neave |last4=Tan }}</ref> (inconclusive)<ref>{{cite journal|last=Titus-Ernstoff|title=Psychosexual Characteristics of Men and Women Exposed Prenatally to Diethylstilbestrol|journal=CDC|year=2003 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/des/consumers/research/recent_psychosexual.html}}</ref> |
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| ''' |
| '''認知與人格''' |
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* {{tsl|en|Assertiveness||Assertiveness}} in females<ref name=Wilson1983/> |
* {{tsl|en|Assertiveness||Assertiveness}} in females<ref name=Wilson1983/> |
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* [[侵略 (社會科學)]] in males<ref name="Bailey & Hurd 2005"/><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Benderlioglu Z, Nelson RJ |title=Digit length ratios predict reactive aggression in women, but not in men |journal=Hormones and Behavior |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=558–64 |date=December 2004 |pmid=15555497 |doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2004.06.004|last2=Nelson }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Association between a marker for prenatal testosterone exposure and externalizing behavior problems in children|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4247331/|journal = Development and Psychopathology|date = 2012-08-01|issn = 0954-5794|pmc = 4247331|pmid = 22781854|pages = 771–782|volume = 24|issue = 3|doi = 10.1017/S0954579412000363|first = Jianghong|last = Liu|first2 = Jill|last2 = Portnoy|first3 = Adrian|last3 = Raine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Digit ratio (2D:4D), aggression, and dominance in the Hadza and the Datoga of Tanzania|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25824265|journal = American Journal of Human Biology|date = 2015-10-01|issn = 1520-6300|pmid = 25824265|pages = 620–627|volume = 27|issue = 5|doi = 10.1002/ajhb.22718|first = Marina|last = Butovskaya|first2 = Valentina|last2 = Burkova|first3 = Dmitry|last3 = Karelin|first4 = Bernhard|last4 = Fink}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Second to fourth digit ratio confirms aggressive tendencies in patients with boxers fractures|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23972912|journal = Injury|date = 2013-11-01|issn = 1879-0267|pmid = 23972912|pages = 1636–1639|volume = 44|issue = 11|doi = 10.1016/j.injury.2013.07.018|first = C. W.|last = Joyce|first2 = J. C.|last2 = Kelly|first3 = J. C.|last3 = Chan|first4 = G.|last4 = Colgan|first5 = D.|last5 = O'Briain|first6 = J. P.|last6 = Mc Cabe|first7 = W.|last7 = Curtin}}</ref> |
* [[侵略 (社會科學)]] in males<ref name="Bailey & Hurd 2005"/><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Benderlioglu Z, Nelson RJ |title=Digit length ratios predict reactive aggression in women, but not in men |journal=Hormones and Behavior |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=558–64 |date=December 2004 |pmid=15555497 |doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2004.06.004|last2=Nelson }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Association between a marker for prenatal testosterone exposure and externalizing behavior problems in children|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4247331/|journal = Development and Psychopathology|date = 2012-08-01|issn = 0954-5794|pmc = 4247331|pmid = 22781854|pages = 771–782|volume = 24|issue = 3|doi = 10.1017/S0954579412000363|first = Jianghong|last = Liu|first2 = Jill|last2 = Portnoy|first3 = Adrian|last3 = Raine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Digit ratio (2D:4D), aggression, and dominance in the Hadza and the Datoga of Tanzania|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25824265|journal = American Journal of Human Biology|date = 2015-10-01|issn = 1520-6300|pmid = 25824265|pages = 620–627|volume = 27|issue = 5|doi = 10.1002/ajhb.22718|first = Marina|last = Butovskaya|first2 = Valentina|last2 = Burkova|first3 = Dmitry|last3 = Karelin|first4 = Bernhard|last4 = Fink}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Second to fourth digit ratio confirms aggressive tendencies in patients with boxers fractures|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23972912|journal = Injury|date = 2013-11-01|issn = 1879-0267|pmid = 23972912|pages = 1636–1639|volume = 44|issue = 11|doi = 10.1016/j.injury.2013.07.018|first = C. W.|last = Joyce|first2 = J. C.|last2 = Kelly|first3 = J. C.|last3 = Chan|first4 = G.|last4 = Colgan|first5 = D.|last5 = O'Briain|first6 = J. P.|last6 = Mc Cabe|first7 = W.|last7 = Curtin}}</ref> |
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* 女性偏向男性化的書寫風格<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2005.01.024 |title=Do differences in sex hormones affect handwriting style? Evidence from digit ratio and sex role identity as determinants of the sex of handwriting |date=July 2005 |first1=John R. |last1=Beech |first2=Isla C. |last2=MacKintosh |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=459–68}}</ref> |
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* Perceived 'dominance' and masculinity of man's face<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Neave N, Laing S, Fink B, Manning JT |title=Second to fourth digit ratio, testosterone and perceived male dominance |journal=[[皇家學會報告]] |volume=270 |issue=1529 |pages=2167–72 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14561281 |pmc=1691489 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2003.2502|last2=Laing |last3=Fink |last4=Manning }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Burriss RP, Little AC, Nelson EC |title=2D:4D and sexually dimorphic facial characteristics |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=377–84 |date=June 2007 |pmid=17203400 |doi=10.1007/s10508-006-9136-1|last2=Little |last3=Nelson }}</ref> |
* Perceived 'dominance' and masculinity of man's face<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Neave N, Laing S, Fink B, Manning JT |title=Second to fourth digit ratio, testosterone and perceived male dominance |journal=[[皇家學會報告]] |volume=270 |issue=1529 |pages=2167–72 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14561281 |pmc=1691489 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2003.2502|last2=Laing |last3=Fink |last4=Manning }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Burriss RP, Little AC, Nelson EC |title=2D:4D and sexually dimorphic facial characteristics |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=377–84 |date=June 2007 |pmid=17203400 |doi=10.1007/s10508-006-9136-1|last2=Little |last3=Nelson }}</ref> |
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* In an orchestral context, rank and musical ability in males<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/S1090-5138(99)00026-4 |title=Second to fourth digit ratio in elite musicians Evidence for musical ability as an honest signal of male fitness |date=January 2000 |last1=Sluming |first1=Vanessa A. |last2=Manning |first2=John T. |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=1–9}}</ref> |
* In an orchestral context, rank and musical ability in males<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/S1090-5138(99)00026-4 |title=Second to fourth digit ratio in elite musicians Evidence for musical ability as an honest signal of male fitness |date=January 2000 |last1=Sluming |first1=Vanessa A. |last2=Manning |first2=John T. |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=1–9}}</ref> |
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* Higher visual recall in females.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Picture recall skills correlate with 2D:4D ratio in women but not men|url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090513804000200|journal = Evolution and Human Behavior|date = 2004-05-01|pages = 174–181|volume = 25|issue = 3|doi = 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.03.004|first = Mary|last = Poulin|first2 = Rachael L|last2 = O'Connell|first3 = Louise M|last3 = Freeman}}</ref> |
* Higher visual recall in females.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Picture recall skills correlate with 2D:4D ratio in women but not men|url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090513804000200|journal = Evolution and Human Behavior|date = 2004-05-01|pages = 174–181|volume = 25|issue = 3|doi = 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.03.004|first = Mary|last = Poulin|first2 = Rachael L|last2 = O'Connell|first3 = Louise M|last3 = Freeman}}</ref> |
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* 領導能力<ref>Derval, Diana. ''The Right Sensory Mix: Targeting Consumer Product Development Scientifically''. Springer, 2010, p. 129-130.</ref> |
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* 創新能力<ref>Derval, Diana. ''The Right Sensory Mix: Targeting Consumer Product Development Scientifically''. Springer, 2010, p. 129-135.</ref> |
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| '''感官知覺''' |
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| '''[[性取向]]''' |
| '''[[性取向]]''' |
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* [[女同性戀]]者的指長比較[[異性戀]]者或常態分布的平均值低<ref name=Csatho2003/><ref name = "Williams, T.J. et al. (2000)">{{Cite journal|author=Williams TJ |title=Finger-length ratios and sexual orientation |journal=Nature |volume=404 |issue=6777 |pages=455–6 |date=March 2000 |pmid=10761903 |doi=10.1038/35006555 |url=http://msu.edu/~breedsm/pdf/breedlove2000.pdf|author2=Pepitone ME|author3=Christensen SE|display-authors=3|last4=Cooke|first4=Bradley M.|last5=Huberman|first5=Andrew D.|last6=Breedlove|first6=Nicholas J.|last7=Breedlove|first7=Tessa J.|last8=Jordan|first8=Cynthia L.|last9=Breedlove|first9=S. Marc}}</ref><ref name = "Tortorice, J.L. (2002)">{{Cite journal|author=Tortorice JL |year=2002 |publisher=Rutgers University |title=Written on the body: {{tsl|en|butch and femme||butch vs. femme}} lesbian gender identity and biological correlates of low digit ratio |oclc=80234273}}</ref><ref name = "McFadden and Shubel (2002)">{{Cite journal|author=McFadden D, Shubel E |title=Relative lengths of fingers and toes in human males and females |journal=Hormones and Behavior |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=492–500 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12488115 |doi=10.1006/hbeh.2002.1833|last2=Shubel }}</ref><ref name = "Hall and Love (2003)">{{Cite journal|author=Hall LS, Love CT |title=Finger-length ratios in female monozygotic twins discordant for sexual orientation |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=23–8 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12597269 |doi=10.1023/A:1021837211630|last2=Love }}</ref><ref name = "Rahman and Wilson (2003)">{{Cite journal|author=Rahman Q, Wilson GD |title=Sexual orientation and the 2nd to 4th finger length ratio: evidence for organising effects of sex hormones or developmental instability? |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=288–303 |date=April 2003 |pmid=12573297 |doi=10.1016/S0306-4530(02)00022-7|last2=Wilson }}</ref><ref name = "Putz, D.A. et al. (2004)">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.03.005 |title=Sex hormones and finger length: What does 2D:4D indicate? |date=May 2004 |first1=David A. |last1=Putz |first2=Steven J. C. |last2=Gaulin |first3=Robert J. |last3=Sporter |first4=Donald H. |last4=McBurney |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=182–99 |url=http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/faculty/gaulin/page1/Puts_et_al_2004.pdf}}</ref><ref name = "Rahman, Q. (2005)">{{Cite journal|author=Rahman Q |title=Fluctuating asymmetry, second to fourth finger length ratios and human sexual orientation |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=382–91 |date=May 2005 |pmid=15694118 |doi=10.1016/j.psyneuen.2004.10.006}}</ref><ref name = "Kraemer et al. (2006)">{{Cite journal|author=Kraemer B, Noll T, Delsignore A, Milos G, Schnyder U, Hepp U |title=Finger length ratio (2D:4D) and dimensions of sexual orientation |journal=Neuropsychobiology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=210–4 |year=2006 |pmid=16874008 |doi=10.1159/000094730|last2=Noll |last3=Delsignore |last4=Milos |last5=Schnyder |last6=Hepp }}</ref><ref name = "Wallien et al. (2008)">{{Cite journal|author=Wallien MS, Zucker KJ, Steensma TD, Cohen-Kettenis PT |title=2D:4D finger-length ratios in children and adults with gender identity disorder |journal=Hormones and Behavior |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=450–4 |date=August 2008 |pmid=18585715 |doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.05.002|last2=Zucker |last3=Steensma |last4=Cohen-Kettenis }}</ref><ref name = "Grimbos et al. (2010)">{{Cite journal|author=Grimbos T, Dawood K, Burriss RP, Zucker KJ, Puts DA |title=Sexual orientation and the second to fourth finger length ratio: a meta-analysis in men and women |journal=Behav Neurosci |volume=124 |issue=2 |pages=278–287 |year=2010 |pmid=20364887 |doi=10.1037/a0018764 |last2=Dawood |last3=Burriss |last4=Zucker |last5=Puts }}</ref><ref name = "Hiraishi, K. (2012)">{{Cite journal|author=Hirashi K, Sasaki S, Shikishima C, Ando J |title=The second to fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) in a Japanese twin sample: heritability, prenatal hormone transfer, and association with sexual orientation |journal=Arch Sex Behav |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=711–24 |date=Jun 2012 |pmid=22270254 |doi=10.1007/s10508-011-9889-z|last2=Sasaki |last3=Shikishima |last4=Ando }}</ref> |
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* [[雙性戀]]男性的指長比較純[[男同性戀]]和無論性取向的社區志願參與者低.<ref name=sj /> |
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* Bisexual men have a lower digit ratio than exclusively homosexual men and community volunteers recruited regardless of sexual orientation.<ref name=sj /> |
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* Sexual preference for more masculine men among women<ref name=Csatho2003>{{Cite journal|author=Csathó A, Osváth A, Bicsák E, Karádi K, Manning J, Kállai J |title=Sex role identity related to the ratio of second to fourth digit length in women |journal=Biological Psychology |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=147–56 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12581689 |doi=10.1016/S0301-0511(02)00127-8|last2=Osváth |last3=Bicsák |last4=Karádi |last5=Manning |last6=Kállai }}</ref> and gay men<ref>{{Cite journal|author=McIntyre MH |title=Digit ratios, childhood gender role behavior, and erotic role preferences of gay men |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=495–6 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14627046 |doi=10.1023/A:1026054625638}}</ref> with high digit ratio; a preference for a masculine facial type means a more "feminized" mindset. |
* Sexual preference for more masculine men among women<ref name=Csatho2003>{{Cite journal|author=Csathó A, Osváth A, Bicsák E, Karádi K, Manning J, Kállai J |title=Sex role identity related to the ratio of second to fourth digit length in women |journal=Biological Psychology |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=147–56 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12581689 |doi=10.1016/S0301-0511(02)00127-8|last2=Osváth |last3=Bicsák |last4=Karádi |last5=Manning |last6=Kállai }}</ref> and gay men<ref>{{Cite journal|author=McIntyre MH |title=Digit ratios, childhood gender role behavior, and erotic role preferences of gay men |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=495–6 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14627046 |doi=10.1023/A:1026054625638}}</ref> with high digit ratio; a preference for a masculine facial type means a more "feminized" mindset. |
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{{See also|Biology and sexual orientation|Neuroscience and sexual orientation#2D:4D digit ratio}} |
{{See also|Biology and sexual orientation|Neuroscience and sexual orientation#2D:4D digit ratio}} |
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===跨性別女性的變性者=== |
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===Male-to-female transsexual women=== |
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一份來自德國的研究發現，[[跨性別女性]]的[[變性]]者有較[[順性別]]男性高的指長比, but one that was comparable to cisgender women.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Schneider HJ, Pickel J, Stalla GK |title=Typical female 2nd-4th finger length (2D:4D) ratios in male-to-female transsexuals-possible implications for prenatal androgen exposure |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=265–9 |date=February 2006 |pmid=16140461 |doi=10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.07.005|last2=Pickel |last3=Stalla }}</ref> |
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===指長比與發展=== |
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===Digit ratio and development=== |
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There is some evidence that 2D:4D ratio may also be indicative for human development and growth. Ronalds ''et al.'' (2002) showed that men who had an above average placental weight and a shorter neonatal crown-heel length had higher 2D:4D ratios in adult life.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=12191526 |year=2002 |last1=Ronalds |first1=G |last2=Phillips |first2=DI |last3=Godfrey |first3=KM |last4=Manning |first4=JT |title=The ratio of second to fourth digit lengths: A marker of impaired fetal growth? |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=21–6 |journal=Early human development |doi=10.1016/s0378-3782(02)00009-9}}</ref> Moreover, studies about 2D:4D correlations with face shape suggest that testosterone exposure early in life may set some constraints for subsequent development. Prenatal sex steroid ratios (in terms of 2D:4D) and actual chromosomal sex dimorphism were found to operate differently on human faces, but affect male and female face shape by similar patterns.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fink B |title=Second to fourth digit ratio and face shape |journal=[[皇家學會報告]] |volume=272 |issue=1576 |pages=1995–2001 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16191608 |pmc=1559906 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2005.3179|author2=Grammer K|author3=Mitteroecker P|display-authors=3|last4=Gunz|first4=P.|last5=Schaefer|first5=K.|last6=Bookstein|first6=F. L|last7=Manning|first7=J. T}}</ref> Fink ''et al.'' (2004) found that men with low (indicating high testosterone) and women with high (indicating high estrogen) 2D:4D ratios express greater levels of {{tsl|en|facial symmetry||facial symmetry}}.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/S1090-5138(03)00084-9 |title=Second to fourth digit ratio and facial asymmetry |date=March 2004 |first1=Bernhard |last1=Fink |first2=John T. |last2=Manning |first3=Nick |last3=Neave |first4=Karl |last4=Grammer |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=125–32}}</ref> However, exposure to very high levels of testosterone and/or estrogen in the womb may have negative effects as well. |
There is some evidence that 2D:4D ratio may also be indicative for human development and growth. Ronalds ''et al.'' (2002) showed that men who had an above average placental weight and a shorter neonatal crown-heel length had higher 2D:4D ratios in adult life.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=12191526 |year=2002 |last1=Ronalds |first1=G |last2=Phillips |first2=DI |last3=Godfrey |first3=KM |last4=Manning |first4=JT |title=The ratio of second to fourth digit lengths: A marker of impaired fetal growth? |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=21–6 |journal=Early human development |doi=10.1016/s0378-3782(02)00009-9}}</ref> Moreover, studies about 2D:4D correlations with face shape suggest that testosterone exposure early in life may set some constraints for subsequent development. Prenatal sex steroid ratios (in terms of 2D:4D) and actual chromosomal sex dimorphism were found to operate differently on human faces, but affect male and female face shape by similar patterns.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fink B |title=Second to fourth digit ratio and face shape |journal=[[皇家學會報告]] |volume=272 |issue=1576 |pages=1995–2001 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16191608 |pmc=1559906 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2005.3179|author2=Grammer K|author3=Mitteroecker P|display-authors=3|last4=Gunz|first4=P.|last5=Schaefer|first5=K.|last6=Bookstein|first6=F. L|last7=Manning|first7=J. T}}</ref> Fink ''et al.'' (2004) found that men with low (indicating high testosterone) and women with high (indicating high estrogen) 2D:4D ratios express greater levels of {{tsl|en|facial symmetry||facial symmetry}}.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/S1090-5138(03)00084-9 |title=Second to fourth digit ratio and facial asymmetry |date=March 2004 |first1=Bernhard |last1=Fink |first2=John T. |last2=Manning |first3=Nick |last3=Neave |first4=Karl |last4=Grammer |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=125–32}}</ref> However, exposure to very high levels of testosterone and/or estrogen in the womb may have negative effects as well. |
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==舊石器時代手模中的指長比== |
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==Digit ratio and palaeolithic hand stencils== |
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部分研究者正試圖藉由鑽研史前歐洲和印尼的[[石洞壁画]]中舊石器時代的手模來研究當時的2D:4D.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Dean R. |last1=Snow |year=2006 |title=Sexual dimorphism in Upper Palaeolithic hand stencils |url=http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/080/ant0800390.htm |journal=Antiquity |volume=80 |issue=308 |pages=390–404}}</ref><ref name="bradshawfoundation.com">{{Cite journal|first1=Jean-Michel |last1=Chazine |first2=Arnaud |last2=Noury |year=2006 |title=Sexual Determination of Hand Stencils at the Masri II Cave |url=http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/inora/divers_44_1.html |journal=Inora Newsletter |volume=44 |pages=21–6}}</ref><ref name="waspjournals.com">{{Cite journal|first1=Emma C. |last1=Nelson |first2=John T. |last2=Manning |first3=Anthony G. M. |last3=Sinclair |year=2006 |title=Using the length of the 2nd to 4th digit ratio (2D:4D) to sex cave art hand stencils: factors to consider |url=http://www.waspjournals.com/journals/beforefarming/journal_20061/news/2006_1_06.pdf |journal=Before Farming |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=1–7}}</ref> |
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==其它動物== |
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* Dennis McFadden |
* Dennis McFadden與其同僚宣稱某些[[人科]]動物(如大猩猩和黑猩猩)後肢指長比具有[[兩性異形]]的現象。<ref name = "McFadden and Shubel (2002)"/> |
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* Emma Nelson |
* Emma Nelson和Susanne Shultz目前正在調查2D:4D與靈長類動物的交配戰略和人類社會演化的關聯性。<ref>{{cite web|first=Emma |last=Nelson |title=Investigating relationships between the second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D), social and bonding behaviours in non-human anthropoids |url=https://sites.google.com/site/enelson67profile/Home/profile/research/current-research |accessdate=29 October 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20111108114036/https://sites.google.com/site/enelson67profile/Home/profile/research/current-research |archivedate=8 November 2011 }}{{Self-published inline|date=October 2009}}</ref> |
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* Sexual dimorphism in hind limb 2D:4D has been demonstrated in mice by two studies by both John Manning and {{tsl|en|Marc Breedlove||Marc Breedlove}}'s research groups. There is some evidence to suggest that this effect is not seen in all mouse strains.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} |
* Sexual dimorphism in hind limb 2D:4D has been demonstrated in mice by two studies by both John Manning and {{tsl|en|Marc Breedlove||Marc Breedlove}}'s research groups. There is some evidence to suggest that this effect is not seen in all mouse strains.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} |
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* Nancy Burley's research group has demonstrated sexual dimorphism in zebra finches, and found a correlation between digit ratio in females and the strength of their preference for sexually selected traits in males.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} |
* Nancy Burley's research group has demonstrated sexual dimorphism in zebra finches, and found a correlation between digit ratio in females and the strength of their preference for sexually selected traits in males.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} |
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* {{tsl|en|Peter L. Hurd||Peter L. Hurd}}, {{tsl|en|Theodore Garland, Jr.||Theodore Garland, Jr.}}, and their students have examined hindlimb 2D:4D in lines of mice selectively bred for high voluntary wheel-running behavior (see {{tsl|en|experimental evolution||experimental evolution}}). These high-runner mice exhibit increased 2D:4D. This apparent "feminization" is opposite to the relation seen between 2D:4D and physical fitness in human beings, and is difficult to reconcile with the idea that 2D:4D is a clear proxy for prenatal androgen exposure in mice. The authors suggest that 2D:4D may more accurately reflect effect of glucocorticoids or other factors that regulate any of various genes.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Yan RH, Malisch JL, Hannon RM, Hurd PL, Garland T |title=Selective Breeding for a Behavioral Trait Changes Digit Ratio |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=3 |issue=9 |pages=e3216 |year=2008 |pmid=18797502 |pmc=2528935 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0003216|editor1-last=Svensson|editor1-first=Erik I.|last2=Malisch |last3=Hannon |last4=Hurd |last5=Garland Jr }}</ref> |
* {{tsl|en|Peter L. Hurd||Peter L. Hurd}}, {{tsl|en|Theodore Garland, Jr.||Theodore Garland, Jr.}}, and their students have examined hindlimb 2D:4D in lines of mice selectively bred for high voluntary wheel-running behavior (see {{tsl|en|experimental evolution||experimental evolution}}). These high-runner mice exhibit increased 2D:4D. This apparent "feminization" is opposite to the relation seen between 2D:4D and physical fitness in human beings, and is difficult to reconcile with the idea that 2D:4D is a clear proxy for prenatal androgen exposure in mice. The authors suggest that 2D:4D may more accurately reflect effect of glucocorticoids or other factors that regulate any of various genes.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Yan RH, Malisch JL, Hannon RM, Hurd PL, Garland T |title=Selective Breeding for a Behavioral Trait Changes Digit Ratio |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=3 |issue=9 |pages=e3216 |year=2008 |pmid=18797502 |pmc=2528935 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0003216|editor1-last=Svensson|editor1-first=Erik I.|last2=Malisch |last3=Hannon |last4=Hurd |last5=Garland Jr }}</ref> |
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==參見== |
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* {{tsl|en|Anogenital distance||Anogenital distance}} |
* {{tsl|en|Anogenital distance||Anogenital distance}} |
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* [[腰臀比]] |
* [[腰臀比]] |
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* [[手相]] — hand analysis |
* [[手相]] — hand analysis |
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==參考文獻== |
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{{Reflist|30em}} |
{{Reflist|30em}} |
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==外部連結== |
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{{Commons category|Digit ratio}} |
{{Commons category|Digit ratio}} |
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*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=search&term=%22digit%20ratio%22or%22digit%20ratios%22or%222D%3A4D%22 PubMed listing of papers on digit ratios] |
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=search&term=%22digit%20ratio%22or%22digit%20ratios%22or%222D%3A4D%22 PubMed listing of papers on digit ratios] |
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2016年4月19日 (二) 17:25的最新版本
指長比為手指底部摺痕到手指前端中點(如圖)不同手指長度的比例。[1] 一些科學家認為食指和無名指的指長比(2D:4D)受胎兒暴露在子宫的雄激素（如睾酮）和雌激素不同程度結果所致，因而2D:4D被視為產前雄激素曝露量的天然測量指標,低2D:4D比率表示胎兒在子宮內暴露在較高濃度的雄激素環境。[2][3] The 2D:4D ratio is calculated by dividing the length of the index finger of the right hand by the length of the ring finger of the right hand. 較長的食指將導致指長比大於1，而較長的無名指將導致小於1的比率。
指長比2D:4D為两性异形，無論女性或男性，食指通常較短，但一般而言男性的指長差大於女性(意謂男性的2D:4D比率較女性小).[4]
部分研究已顯示2D:4D與各種生理和行為特徵之間具有關聯性.[5]
指長比研究史
[编辑]That a greater proportion of men have shorter index fingers than ring fingers than do women was noted in the scientific literature several times through the late 1800s,[6][7] with the statistically significant sex difference in a sample of 201 men and 109 women established by 1930,[8] after which time the sex difference appears to have been largely forgotten or ignored. In 1983 Dr Glenn Wilson of 伦敦国王学院 published a study examining the correlation between assertiveness in women and their digit ratio.[9] This was the first study to examine the correlation between digit ratio and a psychological trait within members of the same sex.[10] Wilson proposed that skeletal structure and personality were simultaneously affected by sex hormone levels in utero.[9] In 1998, John T. Manning and colleagues reported the sex difference in digit ratios was present in two-year-old children[11] and further developed the idea that the index was a marker of prenatal sex hormones. Since then research on the topic has burgeoned around the world.
A 2009 study in Biology Letters argues: "Sexual differences in 2D:4D are mainly caused by the shift along the common 异速生长 line with non-zero intercept, which means 2D:4D necessarily decreases with increasing finger length, and the fact that men have longer fingers than women,"[12] which may be the basis for the sex difference in digit ratios and/or any putative hormonal influence on the ratios.
A 2011 paper by Zhengui Zheng and Martin J. Cohn reports "the 2D:4D ratio in mice is controlled by the balance of androgen to estrogen signaling during a narrow window of digit development."[13] The formation of the digits in humans, in utero, is thought to occur by 13 weeks, and the bone-to-bone ratio is consistent from this point into an individual’s adulthood.[14] During this period if the fetus is exposed to androgens, the exact level of which is thought to be sexually dimorphic, the growth rate of the 4th digit is increased, as can be seen by analyzing the 2D:4D ratio of opposite sex dizygotic twins, where the female twin is exposed to excess androgens from her brother in utero, and thus has a significantly lower 2D:4D ratio.[15]
Importantly, there has been no correlation between the sex hormone levels of an adult and the individual’s 2D:4D,[16] which implies that it is strictly the exposure in utero that causes this phenomenon.
A major problem with the research on this topic comes from the contradiction in the literature as to whether the testosterone level in adults can be predicted by the 2D:4D ratio,[16] but male sexual traits that are stereotypically attributed to testosterone levels have been found in correlation with the 2D:4D. So there should be a correlation with one or the other but not both.
指長比的常態分布
[编辑]
根據一份來自阿爾伯塔大學136名男性與137名女性的研究[17]
設其為正态分布, 2D:4D比率的95%信賴區間，男性落於0.889-1.005，而女性落於0.913-1.017 .
患有先天性腎上腺增生症 (CAH)的女性具有較高濃度的雄激素, 她們有著較平均值低的2D:4D比.[18][19][20] 其它可能的生理影響包括陰蒂肥厚與陰道淺短.[21]
Males with CAH have more masculine (smaller) digit ratios than control males,[18][19] which also suggests that prenatal androgens affect digit ratios, since amniocentesis samples show that prenatal levels of testosterone are in the high normal range in males with CAH, while levels of the weaker androgen androstenedione are several fold higher than in control males.[22][23][24] These measures indicate that males with CAH are exposed to greater prenatal concentrations of total androgens than are control males.
Digit ratio in men with 克氏综合征, who have reduced testosterone secretion throughout life compared to control males, are greater (i.e., more feminine) than in their fathers or control males.[25]
Digit ratio in men correlates with genetic variation in the 雄激素受体 gene.[26] Men with genes that produce androgen receptors that are less sensitive to testosterone (because they have more CAG repeats) have greater, more feminine, digit ratios. There are reports of a failure to replicate this finding.[27] However, men carrying an androgen receptor with more CAG repeats compensate for the less sensitive receptor by secreting more testosterone,[28] probably as a result of reduced negative feedback on gonadotropins. Thus, it is not clear that 2D:4D would be expected to correlate with CAG repeats, even if it accurately reflects prenatal androgen.
XY individuals with androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) due to a dysfunctional gene for the androgen receptor present as women and have feminine digit ratios on average, as would be predicted if androgenic hormones affect digit ratios. This finding also demonstrates that the sex difference in digit ratios is unrelated to the Y chromosome per se.[29]
The sex difference in 2D:4D is present before birth in humans,[30][31] which rules out any social influences that might affect digit growth differentially in the two sexes. Because all somatic sex differences in mammals to date have been found to be due to either androgenic masculinization or effects of the sex chromosomes, and as the AIS finding rules out a role for sex chromosomes in the sex difference in digit ratios, the prenatal sexual dimorphism also indicates that androgens act before birth to affect digit ratios. [來源請求]
The ratio of testosterone to 雌二醇 measured in 33 羊膜穿刺術 samples correlates with the child's subsequent 2D:4D ratio.[32]
In 雉s, the ratio of the 2nd to 4th digit of the foot has been shown to be influenced by manipulations of testosterone in the 卵.[33]
Studies in mice indicate that prenatal androgen acts primarily by promoting growth of the fourth digit.[34]
There is evidence that this reflects 胎兒 exposure to the 激素s 睾酮[35] and 雌激素.[來源請求]
Several studies present evidence that digit ratios are heritable.[36][37]
The level of estrogen in the amniotic fluid is not correlated with higher 2D:4D, and when examined researchers found no difference in estrogen levels between males and females.[38]
指長比影響的解釋
[编辑]目前尚不清楚為何產前激素會影響指長比. 還有其它類似特徵的證據,例如耳聲傳射和手臂到軀幹長度之比也顯示了類似的效果. 同源异形基因 responsible for both digit and penis development[39] have been implicated in affecting these multiple traits (基因多效性). Direct effects of sex hormones on bone growth might be responsible, either by regulation of Hox genes in digit development or independently of such genes. Likewise, it is unclear why digit ratio on the right hand should be more responsive than that on the left hand, as is indicated by the greater sex difference on the right than the left.[40]
2D:4D的種族差異
[编辑]Manning與其同事已表明，2D:4D比率在不同民族之間的差異很大。Manning等人發現漢族兒童有最高的2D:4D平均值(0.954±−0.032), 柏柏人次之(0.950±0.033), 然後是維吾爾族(0.946±0.037), 牙買加兒童的2D:4D平均比值最低(0.935±0.035).[41][42] 不同種族間的差異遠大於性別差異; Manning說：「一個 波蘭人跟一個芬兰人的差異，大於一個男人跟一個女人」[43]
It should be noted, however, that the errors associated with each given 2D:4D mean are such that there could in fact be no ethnic variation. For example, the ratio for Han children (0.954±−0.032) allows for a ratio as low as 0.922. The ratio for Jamaican children (0.935±0.035) allows for a ratio as high as 0.970. Research of higher accuracy is therefore necessary to determine whether or not there is ethnic variation in 2D:4D ratios.
2D:4D與特質間的關聯
[编辑]有些作者認為指長比與人生中的健康、行為，甚或 人类的性 有關聯. 以下是一些非全面的清單，整理一些指長比與特質有關的發表.
|
低指長比 |
高指長比 | |
|---|---|---|
| 生理與疾病 | ||
| 精神障礙 |
|
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| 生理和競爭行為 | 運動中有較多的攻擊性行為.[68] | |
| 認知與人格 |
|
|
| 管理 | ||
| 感官知覺 | ||
| 性取向 |
|
跨性別女性的變性者
[编辑]一份來自德國的研究發現，跨性別女性的變性者有較順性別男性高的指長比, but one that was comparable to cisgender women.[116]
指長比與發展
[编辑]There is some evidence that 2D:4D ratio may also be indicative for human development and growth. Ronalds et al. (2002) showed that men who had an above average placental weight and a shorter neonatal crown-heel length had higher 2D:4D ratios in adult life.[117] Moreover, studies about 2D:4D correlations with face shape suggest that testosterone exposure early in life may set some constraints for subsequent development. Prenatal sex steroid ratios (in terms of 2D:4D) and actual chromosomal sex dimorphism were found to operate differently on human faces, but affect male and female face shape by similar patterns.[118] Fink et al. (2004) found that men with low (indicating high testosterone) and women with high (indicating high estrogen) 2D:4D ratios express greater levels of facial symmetry.[119] However, exposure to very high levels of testosterone and/or estrogen in the womb may have negative effects as well.
舊石器時代手模中的指長比
[编辑]部分研究者正試圖藉由鑽研史前歐洲和印尼的石洞壁画中舊石器時代的手模來研究當時的2D:4D.[120][121][122]
其它動物
[编辑]- Dennis McFadden與其同僚宣稱某些人科動物(如大猩猩和黑猩猩)後肢指長比具有兩性異形的現象。[99]
- Emma Nelson和Susanne Shultz目前正在調查2D:4D與靈長類動物的交配戰略和人類社會演化的關聯性。[123]
- Sexual dimorphism in hind limb 2D:4D has been demonstrated in mice by two studies by both John Manning and Marc Breedlove's research groups. There is some evidence to suggest that this effect is not seen in all mouse strains.[來源請求]
- Nancy Burley's research group has demonstrated sexual dimorphism in zebra finches, and found a correlation between digit ratio in females and the strength of their preference for sexually selected traits in males.[來源請求]
- Front limb D2:D3 has shown to be influenced by prenatal alcohol exposure in female rats.[來源請求]
- Alžbeta Talarovičová and collaborators found in rats that elevated testosterone during the prenatal period can influence 4D length, the 2D:4D ratio, and open field motor activity.[124]
- Peter L. Hurd, Theodore Garland, Jr., and their students have examined hindlimb 2D:4D in lines of mice selectively bred for high voluntary wheel-running behavior (see experimental evolution). These high-runner mice exhibit increased 2D:4D. This apparent "feminization" is opposite to the relation seen between 2D:4D and physical fitness in human beings, and is difficult to reconcile with the idea that 2D:4D is a clear proxy for prenatal androgen exposure in mice. The authors suggest that 2D:4D may more accurately reflect effect of glucocorticoids or other factors that regulate any of various genes.[125]
參見
[编辑]- Anogenital distance
- 腰臀比
- 皮紋檢測
- 身高體重指數
- Handedness and sexual orientation
- 手相 — hand analysis
參考文獻
[编辑]- ^ T M Mayhew, L Gillam, R McDonald, and F J P Ebling. Human 2D (index) and 4D (ring) digit lengths: their variation and relationships during the menstrual cycle. Journal of Anatomy. November 2007, 211 (5): 630–638. PMC 2375787
. PMID 17764524. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2007.00801.x.
- ^ Zheng, Zhengui; Cohn, Martin J. Developmental basis of sexually dimorphic digit ratios. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2011-09-27, 108 (39): 16289–16294. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3182741 . PMID 21896736. doi:10.1073/pnas.1108312108.
- ^ Hönekopp, Johannes; Bartholdt, Luise; Beier, Lothar; Liebert, Andreas. Second to fourth digit length ratio (2D:4D) and adult sex hormone levels: New data and a meta-analytic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2007-01-01, 32 (4): 313–21. PMID 17400395. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.01.007.
- ^ Manning, John T. Digit Ratio: A Pointer to Fertility, Behavior, and Health. Rutgers University Press. 2002-01-01. ISBN 9780813530307.
- ^ Wlodarski, R.; Manning, J.; Dunbar, R. I. M. Stay or stray? Evidence for alternative mating strategy phenotypes in both men and women. Biology Letters. 4 February 2015, 11 (2): 20140977–20140977. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2014.0977.
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- ^ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Wilson, Glenn D. Finger-length as an index of assertiveness in women. Personality and Individual Differences. 1983, 4 (1): 111–2. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(83)90061-2.
- ^ Wilson, G. Fingers to feminism: The rise of 2D:4D. Quarterly Review. 2010, 4: 25–32.
- ^ Manning JT, Scutt D, Wilson J, Lewis-Jones DI; Scutt; Wilson; Lewis-Jones. The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length: a predictor of sperm numbers and concentrations of testosterone, luteinizing hormone and oestrogen. Hum Reprod. 1998, 13 (11): 3000–3004. PMID 9853845. doi:10.1093/humrep/13.11.3000.
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- ^ Zhengui Z., Cohn M. J.; Cohn. Developmental basis of sexually dimorphic digit ratios. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2011, 108 (39): 16289–16294. PMC 3182741 . PMID 21896736. doi:10.1073/pnas.1108312108.
- ^ Garn S. M., Burdi A. R., Babler W. J., Stinson S.; Burdi; Babler; Stinson. Early prenatal attainment of adult metacarpal-phalangeal rankings and proportions. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 1975, 43 (3): 327–332. PMID 1211429. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330430305.
- ^ van Anders SM, Vernon PA, Wilbur CJ; Vernon; Wilbur. Finger-length ratios show evidence of prenatal hormone-transfer between opposite-sex twins. Hormones and Behavior. 2006, 49 (3): 315–9. PMID 16143332. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.08.003.
- ^ 16.0 16.1 Hönekopp Johannes, Bartholdt Luise, Beier Lothar, Liebert Andreas; Bartholdt; Beier; Liebert. Second to fourth digit length ratio (2D:4D) and adult sex hormone levels: New data and a meta-analytic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2007, 32 (4): 313–321. PMID 17400395. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.01.007.
- ^ 17.0 17.1 Bailey AA, Hurd PL; Hurd. Finger length ratio (2D:4D) correlates with physical aggression in men but not in women. Biological Psychology. March 2005, 68 (3): 215–22. PMID 15620791. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.05.001. 简明摘要 – LiveScience (2 March 2005).
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- ^ Richard D. McAnulty, M. Michele Burnette (2006) Sex and sexuality, Volume 1, Greenwood Publishing Group, p.165
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- ^ McIntyre MH. The use of digit ratios as markers for perinatal androgen action. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology. 2006, 4: 10. PMC 1409789 . PMID 16504142. doi:10.1186/1477-7827-4-10.
- ^ Paul SN, Kato BS, Hunkin JL, Vivekanandan S, Spector TD; Kato; Hunkin; Vivekanandan; Spector. The Big Finger: the second to fourth digit ratio is a predictor of sporting ability in women. British Journal of Sports Medicine. December 2006, 40 (12): 981–3. PMC 2577466 . PMID 17008344. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2006.027193.
- ^ Gobrogge, K.L., S.M.Breedlove & K.L.Klump; Breedlove; Klump. Genetic and environmental influences on 2d:4d finger length ratios: a study of monozygotic and dizygotic male and female twins. Archives Sexual Behavior. 2008, 37 (1): 112–118. PMID 18074216. doi:10.1007/s10508-007-9272-2.
- ^ Lutchmaya S., Baron-Cohen S., Raggatt P., Knickmeyer R., Manning J. T.; Baron-Cohen; Raggatt; Knickmeyer; Manning. 2nd To 4th Digit Ratios, Fetal Testosterone and Estradiol. Early human development. 2004, 77 (1–2): 23–8. PMID 15113628. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2003.12.002.
- ^ Dickman S. HOX gene links limb, genital defects. Science. Mar 1997, 275 (5306): 1568–9. PMID 9072822. doi:10.1126/science.275.5306.1568.
- ^ Honekopp J, Watson S; Watson. Meta-analysis of digit ratio 2D:4D shows greater sex difference in the right hand. American Journal of Human Biology. 2010, online (5): 619–30. PMID 20737609. doi:10.1002/ajhb.21054.
- ^ Manning, J. T.; Barley, L.; Walton, J.; et al. The 2nd:4th digit ratio, sexual dimorphism, population differences, and reproductive success. evidence for sexually antagonistic genes?. Evolution and Human Behavior. May 2000, 21 (3): 163–183. PMID 10828555. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00029-5.
- ^ Manning JT, Stewart A, Bundred PE, Trivers RL; Stewart; Bundred; Trivers. Sex and ethnic differences in 2nd to 4th digit ratio of children. Early Human Development. November 2004, 80 (2): 161–8. PMID 15500996. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2004.06.004.
- ^ Terrance, J.; Williams, Michelle E. Pepitone, Scott E. Christensen, Bradley M. Cooke, Andrew D. Huberman, Nicholas J. Breedlove, Tessa J. Breedlove, Cynthia L. Jordan and S. Marc Breedlove. Finger-length ratios and sexual orientation. Nature. 30 March 2000, 404 (6777): 455–456. PMID 10761903. doi:10.1038/35006555., available on-line at Finger-length ratios and sexual orientation. University of Nebraska-Lincoln. (quoted from New Scientist)
- ^ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Manning, John T. Digit Ratio: A Pointer To Fertility, Behavior And Health. New Brunswick: Rutger University Press. 2002: 65–68. ISBN 0813530296.
- ^ Sudhakar, Hanumanthaiah Honnamachanahalli; Manjunatha, Revanna; Madhusudhana, Heragu Rangegowda. Relationship Between Second to Fourth Digit Ratios and Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Aging Men. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research : JCDR. 2015-05-01, 9 (5): PC01–PC03. ISSN 2249-782X. PMC 4484107 . PMID 26155515. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2015/11992.5937.
- ^ 46.0 46.1 Manning, J. T.; Barley, L.; Walton, J.; Lewis-Jones, D. I.; Trivers, R. L.; Singh, D.; Thornhill, R.; Rohde, P.; Bereczkei, T. The 2nd:4th digit ratio, sexual dimorphism, population differences, and reproductive success: evidence for sexually antagonistic genes?. Evolution and Human Behavior. 2000-05-01, 21 (3): 163–183. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00029-5.
- ^ Manning JT, Scutt D, Wilson J, Lewis-Jones DI; Scutt; Wilson; Lewis-Jones. The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length: a predictor of sperm numbers and concentrations of testosterone, luteinizing hormone and oestrogen. Human Reproduction. November 1998, 13 (11): 3000–4. PMID 9853845. doi:10.1093/humrep/13.11.3000.
- ^ Manning JT, Bundred PE. The ratio of second to fourth digit length and age at first myocardial infarction in men: a link with testosterone?. British Journal of Cardiology. 2001, 8 (12): 720–3. ISSN 0969-6113.
- ^ Fink B, Manning JT, Neave N; Manning; Neave. The 2nd-4th digit ratio (2D:4D) and neck circumference: implications for risk factors in coronary heart disease. International Journal of Obesity. April 2006, 30 (4): 711–4. PMID 16261185. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803154.
- ^ Walsh, Fergus. Index finger length prostate cancer clue. BBC News. 1 December 2010 [1 December 2010].
- ^ Ronalds G, Phillips DIW, Godfrey KM, Manning JT. The ratio of second to fourth digit lengths: a marker of impaired fetal growth? Early Hum. Dev. 2002;68:21–6.
- ^ Klimek M, Galbarczyk A, Nenko I, Alvarado LC, Jasienska G.; Galbarczyk; Nenko; Alvarado; Jasienska. Digit ratio (2D:4D)as an indicator of body size, testosterone concentration and number of children in human males. Ann Hum Biol. 2014, 41: 1. PMID 24766144. doi:10.3109/03014460.2014.902993.
- ^ McFadden, D., Westhafer, J.G., Pasanen, E.G., Carlson, C.L., and Tucker, D.M. Physiological evidence of hypermasculinization in boys with the inattentive subtype of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Clinical Neuroscience Research. 2005, 5 (5–6): 233–245. doi:10.1016/j.cnr.2005.09.004.
- ^ Stevenson JC, Everson PM, Williams DC, Hipskind G, Grimes M, Mahoney ER.; Everson; Williams; Hipskind; Grimes; Mahoney. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and digit ratios in a college sample. Am J Hum Biol. 2007, 19 (1): 41–50. PMID 17160985. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20571.
- ^ Martel, M.M, K.L.Gobrogge, S.M.Breedlove & J.T.Nigg; Gobrogge; Breedlove; Nigg. Masculinized Finger-Length Ratios of Boys, but Not Girls, Are Associated With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Behavioral Neuroscience. 2008, 122 (2): 273–281. PMC 2902868 . PMID 18410167. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.122.2.273.
- ^ Martel, M.M. Conscientiousness as a mediator of the association between masculinized finger-length ratios and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009, 50 (7): 790–798. PMID 19298468. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02065.x.
- ^ Manning JT, Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Sanders G; Baron-Cohen; Wheelwright; Sanders. The 2nd to 4th digit ratio and autism. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. March 2001, 43 (3): 160–4. PMID 11263685. doi:10.1017/S0012162201000317.
- ^ 58.0 58.1 Quinton, Stephanie Jane; Smith, April Rose; Joiner, Thomas. The 2nd to 4th digit ratio (2D:4D) and eating disorder diagnosis in women. Personality and individual differences. 2011-09-01, 51 (4): 402–405. ISSN 0191-8869. PMC 3134962 . PMID 21765573. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.024.
- ^ 59.0 59.1 Quinton, Stephanie Jane; Smith, April Rose; Joiner, Thomas. The 2 to 4 digit ratio (2D:4D) and eating disorder diagnosis in women. Personality and Individual Differences. 2011-09-01, 51 (4): 402–405. ISSN 0191-8869. PMC 3134962 . PMID 21765573. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.024.
- ^ 60.0 60.1 Carré, Justin M.; Ortiz, Triana L.; Labine, Brandy; Moreau, Benjamin J. P.; Viding, Essi; Neumann, Craig S.; Goldfarb, Bernard. Digit ratio (2D:4D) and psychopathic traits moderate the effect of exogenous testosterone on socio-cognitive processes in men. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2015-12-01, 62: 319–326. ISSN 1873-3360. PMID 26356040. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.08.023.
- ^ Kornhuber, Johannes; Erhard, Gabriele; Lenz, Bernd; Kraus, Thomas; Sperling, Wolfgang; Bayerlein, Kristina; Biermann, Teresa; Stoessel, Christina. Low Digit Ratio 2D∶4D in Alcohol Dependent Patients. PLoS ONE. 2011-04-25, 6 (4): e19332. PMC 3081847 . PMID 21547078. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019332.
- ^ Bailey, A. & Hurd, P., Allison A.; Hurd, Peter L. Depression in men is associated with more feminine finger length ratios. Personality and Individual Differences. 2005, 39 (4): 829–836. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.12.017.
- ^ Arató M, Frecska E, Beck C, An M, Kiss H; Frecska; Beck; An; Kiss. Digit length pattern in schizophrenia suggests disturbed prenatal hemispheric lateralization. Progress in Neuro-psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry. January 2004, 28 (1): 191–4. PMID 14687873. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2003.09.020.
- ^ Blanchard, A.; Lyons, M. An Investigation into the Relationship between Digit Length Ratio and Psychopathy. British Journal of Forensic Practice. May 2010, 12 (2): 23–31. doi:10.5042/bjfp.2010.0183.
- ^ Kornhuber J, Erhard G, Lenz B, Kraus T, Sperling W, Bayerlein K, Biermann T, Stoessel C; Erhard; Lenz; Kraus; Sperling; Bayerlein; Biermann; Stoessel. Zhang, Xiang Yang , 编. Low Digit Ratio 2D∶4D in Alcohol Dependent Patients. PLoS ONE. April 2011, 6 (4): e19332. PMC 3081847 . PMID 21547078. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019332.
- ^ J. Kornhuber, EM Zenses, B Lenz, C Stoessel, P Bouna-Pyrrou, F Rehbein, S Kliem, T Mößle (2013): Low digit ratio 2D:4D associated with video game addiction. PLoS ONE 2013; Vol. 8, Nr. 11: e79539
- ^ Evardone & Alexander, Milagros; Alexander, Gerianne M. Anxiety, Sex-linked Behavior, and Digit Ratios. Arch Sex Behav. 2009, 38 (3): 442–55. PMC 2768336 . PMID 17943431. doi:10.1007/s10508-007-9260-6.
- ^ Mailhos, Alvaro; Buunk, Abraham P.; del Arca, Denise; Tutte, Verónica. Soccer players awarded one or more red cards exhibit lower 2D:4D ratios. Aggressive Behavior. 2015-12-01: n/a–n/a. ISSN 1098-2337. doi:10.1002/ab.21638 （英语）.
- ^ Manning JT, Taylor RP; Taylor. Second to fourth digit ratio and male ability in sport: implications for sexual selection in humans. Evolution and Human Behavior. January 2001, 22 (1): 61–69. PMID 11182575. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00063-5.
- ^ Coates JM, Gurnell M, Rustichini A; Gurnell; Rustichini. Second-to-fourth digit ratio predicts success among high-frequency financial traders. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. January 2009, 106 (2): 623–8. PMC 2626753 . PMID 19139402. doi:10.1073/pnas.0810907106. 简明摘要 – 時代 (雜誌) (12 January 2009).
- ^ Fink B, Manning JT, Neave N, Tan U; Manning; Neave; Tan. Second to fourth digit ratio and hand skill in Austrian children. Biological Psychology. November 2004, 67 (3): 375–84. PMID 15294393. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.03.012.
- ^ Titus-Ernstoff. Psychosexual Characteristics of Men and Women Exposed Prenatally to Diethylstilbestrol. CDC. 2003.
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- ^ Liu, Jianghong; Portnoy, Jill; Raine, Adrian. Association between a marker for prenatal testosterone exposure and externalizing behavior problems in children. Development and Psychopathology. 2012-08-01, 24 (3): 771–782. ISSN 0954-5794. PMC 4247331 . PMID 22781854. doi:10.1017/S0954579412000363.
- ^ Butovskaya, Marina; Burkova, Valentina; Karelin, Dmitry; Fink, Bernhard. Digit ratio (2D:4D), aggression, and dominance in the Hadza and the Datoga of Tanzania. American Journal of Human Biology. 2015-10-01, 27 (5): 620–627. ISSN 1520-6300. PMID 25824265. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22718.
- ^ Joyce, C. W.; Kelly, J. C.; Chan, J. C.; Colgan, G.; O'Briain, D.; Mc Cabe, J. P.; Curtin, W. Second to fourth digit ratio confirms aggressive tendencies in patients with boxers fractures. Injury. 2013-11-01, 44 (11): 1636–1639. ISSN 1879-0267. PMID 23972912. doi:10.1016/j.injury.2013.07.018.
- ^ Beech, John R.; MacKintosh, Isla C. Do differences in sex hormones affect handwriting style? Evidence from digit ratio and sex role identity as determinants of the sex of handwriting. Personality and Individual Differences. July 2005, 39 (2): 459–68. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.01.024.
- ^ Neave N, Laing S, Fink B, Manning JT; Laing; Fink; Manning. Second to fourth digit ratio, testosterone and perceived male dominance. 皇家學會報告. October 2003, 270 (1529): 2167–72. PMC 1691489 . PMID 14561281. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2502.
- ^ Burriss RP, Little AC, Nelson EC; Little; Nelson. 2D:4D and sexually dimorphic facial characteristics. Archives of Sexual Behavior. June 2007, 36 (3): 377–84. PMID 17203400. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9136-1.
- ^ Sluming, Vanessa A.; Manning, John T. Second to fourth digit ratio in elite musicians Evidence for musical ability as an honest signal of male fitness. Evolution and Human Behavior. January 2000, 21 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(99)00026-4.
- ^ Nye, John V. C.; Androuschak, Gregory; Desierto, Desirée; Jones, Garett; Yudkevich, Maria. 2D:4D Asymmetry and Gender Differences in Academic Performance. PLoS ONE. 2012, 7 (10): e46319 [2014-09-20]. PMID 23056282. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0046319.
- ^ Finger Ratio Predicts Maths Ability?. http://ibmathsresources.com/. [2014-09-20].
- ^ Austin, Elizabeth J.; Manning, John T.; McInroy, Katherine; Mathews, Elizabeth. A preliminary investigation of the associations between personality, cognitive ability and digit ratio. Personality and Individual Differences. November 2002, 33 (7): 1115–24. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00002-8.
- ^ Fink et al. 2004which one?? there are two in the reference section! [查证请求]
- ^ Luxen, Marc F.; Buunk, Bram P. Second-to-fourth digit ratio related to Verbal and Numerical Intelligence and the Big Five. Personality and Individual Differences. October 2005, 39 (5): 959–66. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.03.016.
- ^ Voracek, M. Who wants to believe? Associations between digit ratio (2D:4D) and paranormal and superstitious beliefs. Personality and Individual Differences. July 2009, 47 (2): 105–109. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.01.051.
- ^ Brosnan MJ. Digit ratio as an indicator of numeracy relative to literacy in 7-year-old British schoolchildren. British Journal of Psychology. February 2008, 99 (Pt 1): 75–85. PMID 17535470. doi:10.1348/000712607X197406. 简明摘要 – LiveScience (22 May 2007).
- ^ Fink, Bernhard; Manning, John T; Neave, Nick. Second to fourth digit ratio and the ‘big five’ personality factors. Personality and Individual Differences: 495–503. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2003.09.018.
- ^ Borniger, Jeremy C.; Chaudhry, Adeel; Muehlenbein, Michael P. Relationships among Musical Aptitude, Digit Ratio and Testosterone in Men and Women. PLoS ONE. 2013-03-08, 8 (3). ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3592910 . PMID 23520475. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057637.
- ^ Poulin, Mary; O'Connell, Rachael L; Freeman, Louise M. Picture recall skills correlate with 2D:4D ratio in women but not men. Evolution and Human Behavior. 2004-05-01, 25 (3): 174–181. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.03.004.
- ^ Derval, Diana. The Right Sensory Mix: Targeting Consumer Product Development Scientifically. Springer, 2010, p. 129-130.
- ^ Derval, Diana. The Right Sensory Mix: Targeting Consumer Product Development Scientifically. Springer, 2010, p. 129-135.
- ^ Derval, Diana. The Right Sensory Mix: Targeting Consumer Product Development Scientifically. Springer, 2010, p. 62-67.
- ^ Derval, Diana. The Right Sensory Mix: Targeting Consumer Product Development Scientifically. Springer, 2010, p. 112-122.
- ^ Derval, Diana (2011). "Hormonal Quotient and tactile sensitivity: a segmentation model to understand and predict individuals' texture preferences based on prenatal exposure to hormones". Proceedings of Society for Behavioral Neuroendocrinology 15th Annual Meeting, Queretaro, Mexico, p.125.
- ^ 96.0 96.1 Csathó A, Osváth A, Bicsák E, Karádi K, Manning J, Kállai J; Osváth; Bicsák; Karádi; Manning; Kállai. Sex role identity related to the ratio of second to fourth digit length in women. Biological Psychology. February 2003, 62 (2): 147–56. PMID 12581689. doi:10.1016/S0301-0511(02)00127-8.
- ^ 97.0 97.1 Williams TJ; Pepitone ME; Christensen SE; et al. Finger-length ratios and sexual orientation (PDF). Nature. March 2000, 404 (6777): 455–6. PMID 10761903. doi:10.1038/35006555.
- ^ 98.0 98.1 Tortorice JL. Written on the body: butch vs. femme lesbian gender identity and biological correlates of low digit ratio. Rutgers University. 2002. OCLC 80234273.
- ^ 99.0 99.1 99.2 McFadden D, Shubel E; Shubel. Relative lengths of fingers and toes in human males and females. Hormones and Behavior. December 2002, 42 (4): 492–500. PMID 12488115. doi:10.1006/hbeh.2002.1833.
- ^ 100.0 100.1 Hall LS, Love CT; Love. Finger-length ratios in female monozygotic twins discordant for sexual orientation. Archives of Sexual Behavior. February 2003, 32 (1): 23–8. PMID 12597269. doi:10.1023/A:1021837211630.
- ^ 101.0 101.1 Rahman Q, Wilson GD; Wilson. Sexual orientation and the 2nd to 4th finger length ratio: evidence for organising effects of sex hormones or developmental instability?. Psychoneuroendocrinology. April 2003, 28 (3): 288–303. PMID 12573297. doi:10.1016/S0306-4530(02)00022-7.
- ^ Putz, David A.; Gaulin, Steven J. C.; Sporter, Robert J.; McBurney, Donald H. Sex hormones and finger length: What does 2D:4D indicate? (PDF). Evolution and Human Behavior. May 2004, 25 (3): 182–99. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.03.005.
- ^ 103.0 103.1 Rahman Q. Fluctuating asymmetry, second to fourth finger length ratios and human sexual orientation. Psychoneuroendocrinology. May 2005, 30 (4): 382–91. PMID 15694118. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2004.10.006.
- ^ 104.0 104.1 Kraemer B, Noll T, Delsignore A, Milos G, Schnyder U, Hepp U; Noll; Delsignore; Milos; Schnyder; Hepp. Finger length ratio (2D:4D) and dimensions of sexual orientation. Neuropsychobiology. 2006, 53 (4): 210–4. PMID 16874008. doi:10.1159/000094730.
- ^ 105.0 105.1 Wallien MS, Zucker KJ, Steensma TD, Cohen-Kettenis PT; Zucker; Steensma; Cohen-Kettenis. 2D:4D finger-length ratios in children and adults with gender identity disorder. Hormones and Behavior. August 2008, 54 (3): 450–4. PMID 18585715. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.05.002.
- ^ 106.0 106.1 Grimbos T, Dawood K, Burriss RP, Zucker KJ, Puts DA; Dawood; Burriss; Zucker; Puts. Sexual orientation and the second to fourth finger length ratio: a meta-analysis in men and women. Behav Neurosci. 2010, 124 (2): 278–287. PMID 20364887. doi:10.1037/a0018764.
- ^ 107.0 107.1 Hirashi K, Sasaki S, Shikishima C, Ando J; Sasaki; Shikishima; Ando. The second to fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) in a Japanese twin sample: heritability, prenatal hormone transfer, and association with sexual orientation. Arch Sex Behav. Jun 2012, 41 (3): 711–24. PMID 22270254. doi:10.1007/s10508-011-9889-z.
- ^ 108.0 108.1 S.J. Robinson, J.T. Manning; Manning. The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length and male homosexuality. Evolution and Human Behavior. 2000, 21 (5): 333–345. PMID 11053694. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00052-0.
- ^ McIntyre MH. Digit ratios, childhood gender role behavior, and erotic role preferences of gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior. December 2003, 32 (6): 495–6. PMID 14627046. doi:10.1023/A:1026054625638.
- ^ Brown WM, Finn CJ, Cooke BM, Breedlove SM; Finn; Cooke; Breedlove. Differences in finger length ratios between self-identified 'butch' and 'femme' lesbians (PDF). Archives of Sexual Behavior. February 2002, 31 (1): 123–7. PMID 11910785. doi:10.1023/A:1014091420590.
- ^ Hiraishi K, Sasaki S, Shikishima C, Ando J.; Sasaki; Shikishima; Ando. The second to fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) in a Japanese twin sample: heritability, prenatal hormone transfer, and association with sexual orientation. Archives of Sexual Behavior. 2012, 41 (3): 711–24. PMID 22270254. doi:10.1007/s10508-011-9889-z.
- ^ Churchchill AJG, Manning JT, Peters M; Manning; Reimers. The effects of sex, ethnicity, and sexual orientation on self-measured digit ratio (2D:4D). Archives of Sexual Behavior. 2007, 36 (2): 251–260. PMID 17394056. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9166-8.
- ^ Yule MA, Brotto LA, Gorzalka BB. Biological markers of asexuality: Handedness, birth order, and finger length ratios in self-identified asexual men and women.. Arch Sex Behav. 2014 [2014].
- ^ M.V. Voracek, J.T. Manning & I. Ponocny; Manning; Ponocny. Digit ratio (2D:4D) in homosexual and heterosexual men from Austria. Archives of Sexual Behaviour. 2005, 34 (3): 335–340. PMID 15971016. doi:10.1007/s10508-005-3122-x.
- ^ Teresa Grimbos; Kenneth Zucker; Khytam Dawood; Robert P. Burriss. Sexual Orientation and the Second to Fourth Finger Length Ratio: A Meta-Analysis in Men and Women (PDF). Behavioral Neuroscience. 2010, 124 (2): 278 –287. PMID 20364887. doi:10.1037/a0018764.
- ^ Schneider HJ, Pickel J, Stalla GK; Pickel; Stalla. Typical female 2nd-4th finger length (2D:4D) ratios in male-to-female transsexuals-possible implications for prenatal androgen exposure. Psychoneuroendocrinology. February 2006, 31 (2): 265–9. PMID 16140461. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.07.005.
- ^ Ronalds, G; Phillips, DI; Godfrey, KM; Manning, JT. The ratio of second to fourth digit lengths: A marker of impaired fetal growth?. Early human development. 2002, 68 (1): 21–6. PMID 12191526. doi:10.1016/s0378-3782(02)00009-9.
- ^ Fink B; Grammer K; Mitteroecker P; et al. Second to fourth digit ratio and face shape. 皇家學會報告. October 2005, 272 (1576): 1995–2001. PMC 1559906 . PMID 16191608. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3179.
- ^ Fink, Bernhard; Manning, John T.; Neave, Nick; Grammer, Karl. Second to fourth digit ratio and facial asymmetry. Evolution and Human Behavior. March 2004, 25 (2): 125–32. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(03)00084-9.
- ^ Snow, Dean R. Sexual dimorphism in Upper Palaeolithic hand stencils. Antiquity. 2006, 80 (308): 390–404.
- ^ Chazine, Jean-Michel; Noury, Arnaud. Sexual Determination of Hand Stencils at the Masri II Cave. Inora Newsletter. 2006, 44: 21–6.
- ^ Nelson, Emma C.; Manning, John T.; Sinclair, Anthony G. M. Using the length of the 2nd to 4th digit ratio (2D:4D) to sex cave art hand stencils: factors to consider (PDF). Before Farming. 2006, 1 (6): 1–7.
- ^ Nelson, Emma. Investigating relationships between the second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D), social and bonding behaviours in non-human anthropoids. [29 October 2009]. （原始内容存档于8 November 2011）.[自述来源]
- ^ Talarovičová A, Kršková L, Blažeková J; Krsková; Blazeková. Testosterone enhancement during pregnancy influences the 2D:4D ratio and open field motor activity of rat siblings in adulthood. Hormones and Behavior. January 2009, 55 (1): 235–9. PMID 19022257. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.10.010.
- ^ Yan RH, Malisch JL, Hannon RM, Hurd PL, Garland T; Malisch; Hannon; Hurd; Garland Jr. Svensson, Erik I. , 编. Selective Breeding for a Behavioral Trait Changes Digit Ratio. PLoS ONE. 2008, 3 (9): e3216. PMC 2528935 . PMID 18797502. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003216.
外部連結
[编辑]
维基共享资源上的相关多媒体资源：ElaineYuYC/沙盒
- PubMed listing of papers on digit ratios
- Mills, Michael E. Review of Digit Ratio: A Pointer to Fertility, Behavior and Health by John T. Manning. Human Nature Review. October 2002, 2: 418–23.