马来族:修订间差异
小 依來源不只單一方言撤销2001:B400:E35B:54AA:1860:D9FF:FE4F:ECA1(讨论)的版本77914434 标签:撤销 |
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另外,[[爪哇語|爪哇语]]中的“mlayu”来源于“mlaku”或马来语“melaju”,指的是该国人民的高流动性和迁徙性质,然而这说法虽然流行但没有确凿的证据。 |
另外,[[爪哇語|爪哇语]]中的“mlayu”来源于“mlaku”或马来语“melaju”,指的是该国人民的高流动性和迁徙性质,然而这说法虽然流行但没有确凿的证据。 |
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== 马来人的起源 == |
== 马来人的起源 == |
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===原马来人=== |
===原始马来人=== |
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[[原馬來人|原马来人]](马来文:Melayu Proto)是第一批到达南洋群岛的马来人, |
[[原馬來人|原马来人]](马来文:Melayu Proto)是第一批到达南洋群岛的马来人,目前使用的語言屬於[[南岛語系]],他们在[[新石器时代]]晚期迁徙至南洋群岛。书籍 ''The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Early History'' 指出了马来人起源的三大理论,但是[[历史学]]界尚无定论。 |
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值得注意的是,现今存在的[[原马来人]]依旧可见,他们包括了[[莫肯人]]、Orang Jakun、Orang Kuala、Orang Temuan和Orang Kanaq。[41] |
值得注意的是,现今存在的[[原马来人]]依旧可见,他们包括了[[莫肯人]]、Orang Jakun、Orang Kuala、Orang Temuan和Orang Kanaq。[41] |
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#马来族的风俗与[[阿萨姆]]地区类似(阿萨姆是印度与[[缅甸]]之间的地区)。 |
#马来族的风俗与[[阿萨姆]]地区类似(阿萨姆是印度与[[缅甸]]之间的地区)。 |
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#马来语与柬埔寨的[[高棉语]](属于[[南亚语系]])相似,而[[高棉人]]又被认为来自于南亚,当年他们沿着[[湄公河]]南下到柬埔寨。 |
#马来语与柬埔寨的[[高棉语]](属于[[南亚语系]])相似,而[[高棉人]]又被认为来自于南亚,当年他们沿着[[湄公河]]南下到柬埔寨。 |
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南亚起源说被广大人群所接受,马来西亚的[[中学]][[历史]][[課本|课本]]中都介绍马来人起源于南亚。 |
南亚起源说被广大人群所接受,马来西亚的[[中学]][[历史]][[課本|课本]]中都介绍马来人起源于南亚。但已被現代分子人類學(基因研究)否決。<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Dissecting the genetic structure and admixture of four geographical Malay populations|data=2015 Sep 23|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4585825/|access-date=2023-09-02|archive-date=2023-09-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902042800/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4585825/|dead-url=no}}</ref> |
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==== 马来群岛起源说 ==== |
==== 马来群岛起源说 ==== |
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==== 臺灣起源說 ==== |
==== 臺灣起源說 ==== |
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发表于1997年。一般認為是在[[公元前]]4,000年左右,在[[東亞]]大陸南部與[[中南半島]]一帶的原住民族,移居臺灣,之後由臺灣開始向外拓展,形成[[南島民族]]。包括[[賈德·戴蒙]]在內的一些學者依據[[歷史語言學]]的證據,支持臺灣起源說,這是因為南島語言在臺灣有最高的多樣性:據[[白樂思]]的研究,南島語言的十大語支有九支都在臺灣。另外張至善等人分析南島民族傳統作物[[構樹]]的基因多樣性後,認為南島民族的祖先應是自東亞大陸南部將構樹帶到臺灣,再從臺灣傳至各太平洋島嶼<ref>{{cite news|url=http://pansci.asia/archives/86574|title=民俗植物訴說的「出臺灣說」?台灣是太平洋構樹的原鄉|first=|date=2015-10-10|work=|publisher=[[PanSci 泛科學]]|accessdate=|author=鍾國芳|access-date=2017-01-09|archive-date=2020-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130110642/https://pansci.asia/archives/86574|dead-url=no}}</ref>。 |
发表于1997年。一般認為是在[[公元前]]4,000年左右,在[[東亞]]大陸南部與[[中南半島]]一帶的原住民族,移居[[臺灣]],之後由臺灣開始向外拓展,形成[[南島民族]]。包括[[賈德·戴蒙]]在內的一些學者依據[[歷史語言學]]的證據,支持臺灣起源說,這是因為南島語言在臺灣有最高的多樣性:據[[白樂思]]的研究,南島語言的十大語支有九支都在臺灣。另外張至善等人分析南島民族傳統作物[[構樹]]的基因多樣性後,認為南島民族的祖先應是自東亞大陸南部將構樹帶到臺灣,再從臺灣傳至各太平洋島嶼<ref>{{cite news|url=http://pansci.asia/archives/86574|title=民俗植物訴說的「出臺灣說」?台灣是太平洋構樹的原鄉|first=|date=2015-10-10|work=|publisher=[[PanSci 泛科學]]|accessdate=|author=鍾國芳|access-date=2017-01-09|archive-date=2020-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130110642/https://pansci.asia/archives/86574|dead-url=no}}</ref>。 |
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===混血马来人=== |
===混血马来人=== |
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=== 遗传史 === |
=== 遗传史 === |
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[[File:41598 2015 Article BFsrep14375 Fig3 HTML.jpg|350px|thumb|一個2015年的研究,透過常染色體分析,顯示出馬來人主要是由[[南亞語系]]人群相關成分(紅色)與[[南島語系]]人群相關成分(藍色)混合形成,另受到[[印度人]]基因的影響。與馬來半島早期的[[矮黑人]]族群(MY-KS;MY-NGO)有明顯差異。而原始馬來人(MY-PML)則是有較高的南亞語相關血統(紅色)。<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Dissecting the genetic structure and admixture of four geographical Malay populations|data=2015 Sep 23|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4585825/}}</ref> |
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马来人是东南亚岛屿和马来半岛的一个讲南岛语的族群。 2021/2022 年的一项研究得出结论,一个独特的东亚祖先血统(有时称为“东亚和东南亚血统”(ESEA))起源于东南亚大陆,大约在公元前 50,000 年,并在多个波浪中分别向南和向北扩展.这个人口是现代安爬曼矮黑人、东亚和东南亚人、波利尼西亚人和西伯利亚人的祖先,但与欧洲人或澳大利亚原住民不同。 |
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⚫ | 早期东亚血统(以[[安達曼人|安達曼矮黑人]]為代表),以及后来的[[南亚語系]]稻作人群,在[[南岛語系]]人群扩张之前就已经扩散到东南亚沿海地区。南岛语使用者本身被认为是在公元前 10,000 至 7,000 年间从中国南部沿海抵达台湾和菲律宾北部,并从那里传播到整个东南亚岛屿。作者得出的结论是,现代说南岛语的民族,如马来人,其祖先主要来自早期东亚人、来自[[中南半島]]的说[[南亞語系|南亞語]]的移民以及来自[[菲律宾]]的说南岛语的人群混合而形成。<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8020671/|last=Larena|first=Maximilian|last2=Sanchez-Quinto|first2=Federico|date=2021-03-30|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|issue=13|doi=10.1073/pnas.2026132118|volume=118|pages=e2026132118|issn=0027-8424|pmc=8020671|pmid=33753512|last3=Sjödin|first3=Per|last4=McKenna|first4=James|last5=Ebeo|first5=Carlo|last6=Reyes|first6=Rebecca|last7=Casel|first7=Ophelia|last8=Huang|first8=Jin-Yuan|last9=Hagada|first9=Kim Pullupul|access-date=2022-04-16|archive-date=2022-05-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220505162825/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8020671/|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia|url=http://www.pivotscipub.com/hpgg/2/1/0001/html|last=Yang|first=Melinda A.|date=2022-01-06|journal=Human Population Genetics and Genomics|issue=1|doi=10.47248/hpgg2202010001|volume=2|language=en|issn=2770-5005|access-date=2022-04-16|archive-date=2022-05-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516110501/http://www.pivotscipub.com/hpgg/2/1/0001/html|dead-url=no}}</ref>。 |
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== 馬來人與馬來西亞人兩名詞的分別 == |
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如:大马本土华人可以被称为“马来西亚华人”、「马国华人」或“大马华人” 。 |
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根據2016年最新論文,一例距今四千多年前的[[馬來半島]]古人考古樣本,其基因不含南島血統,也與現代馬來人差距甚遠,性質更接近[[安達曼人|安達曼矮黑人]]。<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The prehistoric peopling of Southeast Asia|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326216679_The_prehistoric_peopling_of_Southeast_Asia|access-date=2023-09-02|archive-date=2023-08-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829170944/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326216679_The_prehistoric_peopling_of_Southeast_Asia|dead-url=no}}</ref> |
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==体质特征== |
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马来人大多数有着浅棕色的皮肤、头发略卷、额头偏窄、眉骨高而突出、鼻根中等或低、眼窝略深、体毛稀少,身高偏矮。 |
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== 注释 == |
== 注释 == |
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#{{note|0}}「巫来由」,闽南语白话字:{{lang|nan|Bû-lâi-iû}},耶鲁粤语拼音:{{lang|yue|Mòuh-lòih-yàuh}},客语白话字:{{lang|hak|Mù-lòi-yù}}。 |
#{{note|0}}「巫来由」,[[闽南语]][[白话字]]:{{lang|nan|Bû-lâi-iû}},[[耶鲁粤语拼音]]:{{lang|yue|Mòuh-lòih-yàuh}},[[客语白话字]]:{{lang|hak|Mù-lòi-yù}}。 |
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#{{note|1}}“末罗瑜”最初是唐朝僧人[[义净]]《大唐西域求法高僧传》对[[苏门达腊]]某地的译名,到了《[[元史]]》则称[[马来半岛]]为“麻里予”。 |
#{{note|1}}“末罗瑜”最初是唐朝僧人[[义净]]《大唐西域求法高僧传》对[[苏门达腊]]某地的译名,到了《[[元史]]》则称[[马来半岛]]为“麻里予”。 |
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#{{note|2}}河流名称马来文Sungai Batang Hari。 |
#{{note|2}}河流名称马来文Sungai Batang Hari。 |
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* [[印尼語]] |
* [[印尼語]] |
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* [[马来西亚马来人]] |
* [[马来西亚马来人]] |
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* [[马来人种]] |
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{{commons category|Malay people}} |
{{commons category|Malay people}} |
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第1,260行: | 第1,262行: | ||
[[Category:马来西亚族群]] |
[[Category:马来西亚族群]] |
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[[Category:菲律宾族群]] |
[[Category:菲律宾族群]] |
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[[Category:新加坡 |
[[Category:新加坡馬來人| ]] |
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[[Category:亚洲穆斯林社区]] |
[[Category:亚洲穆斯林社区]] |
2024年6月2日 (日) 02:25的最新版本
馬來族 Orang Melayu أورڠ ملايو | |
---|---|
總人口 | |
约3000 萬 | |
分佈地區 | |
馬來西亞: 15,479,600[1] 汶萊: 261,902 | |
起源地 | . |
印尼 | 5,365,399[2] |
泰國 | 1,964,384[3] |
新加坡 | 653,449[4] |
緬甸 | ~27,000[5] |
海外分佈 | . |
南非 | ~200,000[6] |
斯里蘭卡 | 40,189[7] |
澳大利亞 | 33,183[8] |
英國 | ~33,000[9] |
語言 | |
作為官方語言: 马来语群语言: 其他語言: | |
宗教信仰 | |
伊斯蘭教 | |
註釋 | |
^ note: Highly naturalised population of mixed origins, but using the 'Malay' identity |
马来族(马来语:Etnik Melayu;英语:Malays),习惯上多称为马来人,旧时又译为巫来由人 ,故当地华语常以巫为族名简称,分布于东南亚。马来族有狭义和广义之分,前者指分布于马来半岛南部及苏门答腊东南部的一个民族,该民族在马来半島人口最多。而广义上,马来族有时候也用来指馬來語(印尼語)族群甚至整个南島語系族群。[10]
从15世纪馬六甲蘇丹王朝始,大量马来人由古代佛教、印度教转為皈依伊斯蘭教,主要分布于东南亚的马来半岛、圣诞岛、科科斯(基林)群岛、印度尼西亚、新加坡、文莱、菲律賓和大洋洲等。
马来人名称由来
[编辑]这名称可能来自苏门答腊岛上一个约1500年前由印度人所建立的古国——末罗瑜(马来文亦是Melayu )。末罗瑜遗址位于现苏门答腊岛上一条河流 上游的支流巫来由河(Sungai Melayu) 附近。后来末罗瑜被苏门答腊岛上的另一个著名古国三佛齐所并吞。
另一种说法是「Melayu」这名词来自印度的梵文中一读音为Malaya 的词。这梵文词的意思为山或高处。
马来文学作品《马来纪年》将“Melayu”的词源与印尼苏门答腊的巫来由河(Sungai Melayu)联系在一起。这个词被认为是由马来语“melaju”衍生而来的,“melaju”是一个词前缀“me”和词根“laju”的组合,意思是“加速”,用来描述河流加速的强劲水流。[11]
“Melayu”用来指称一个明显包含不同的民族的群体被认为在15世纪时,马六甲王国作为马来群岛的区域力量整合的结果。它是马六甲王国人民对国外人士,特别是爪哇人和泰国人的一种社会偏见。[12] 这一点从16世纪早期由参与麦哲伦环球航行探险家安东尼奥·皮加费塔所列出的马来单词列表就可以看出,它提到了马来方式(chiara Malaiu)在海洋东南亚的应用,指代说马六甲语(al parlare de Malaea)。[13]
马来语原词“Melayu”,在葡萄牙语中被用成“Malaio”,后来成为在荷兰语中“Malayo”,最终再成为英语中的“Malay”。在15世纪之前,“Melayu”及其发音相似的变体一般是指马六甲海峡地区的一个古老地名。[14]
- Malaya Dwipa:在《伐由往世书》第48章中被提及是东海一个充满金银财宝的省份。一些学者将此词等同于苏门答腊岛[15],但一些印度学者认为这个词应该指的是多山的马来半岛而素万那普才是指苏门答腊岛。[16][17][18][19][20]
- Maleu-kolon - 在托勒密作品《地理学指南》中指的黄金半岛位置。[21]
- 末罗瑜:唐代僧人义净在其《大唐西域求法高僧传》和《南海寄归内法传》提及的古国。根据作品内容,末罗瑜坐落的地点从室利佛逝国的首府巨港坐船航行15日可达,从末罗瑜出发到羯荼国也需要15日。所以可以推测末罗瑜位置介于两者之间。[22] 一个著名的理论将末罗瑜和占碑关联起来[23],但依据义净的作品占碑是坐落在羯荼与巨港之间一半路程。在后来的元朝(1271–1368年)与明朝(1368–1644年),也有不少作品提及末罗瑜国,但称呼不一样,比如:木剌由、麻里予儿、巫来由、無来由等。
- Malayur:被刻在印度泰米尔纳德邦的布里哈迪希瓦拉神庙的南墙上。它被描述是一个在马来半岛拥有坚固的山的王国,在11世纪落入了朱罗王朝皇帝罗贞陀罗·朱罗一世(Rajendra Chola I)的手中。
- Bhūmi Mālayu:Bhūmi 是“...之地”之意,该词在年份为1286年的巴当洛克基石(Prasasti Padang Roco)铭文中被提及。[24]该词和德哈马斯拉雅(Dharmasraya)王国关联。
- 麻里予儿:在元朝纪传体史书《元史》中提及的一个面临素可泰王国兰甘亨大帝时期南扩威胁的马来半岛王国。[25]该作品写道“以暹人与麻里予儿旧相仇杀”,为此中国使者在1295年前往暹罗,旨谕暹人“勿伤麻里予儿,以践尔言”。[26]
- Malauir:在马可波罗的记述中提到的一个位于马来半岛的王国[27][28],可能与《元史》中提及的是同一个王国。
另外,爪哇语中的“mlayu”来源于“mlaku”或马来语“melaju”,指的是该国人民的高流动性和迁徙性质,然而这说法虽然流行但没有确凿的证据。 有些人,特別是漢語地區的漢語使用者,誤將马来人当成马来西亚人的简称,向他们自认是马来西亚人就会被误解是在自认是马来人。其实马来人只是马来西亚的民族之一,马来西亚人不等于马来人。而马来西亚人指的是拥有马来西亚国籍的人士,包括马来人、华人、印度人三大民族及各少数民族。马来西亚人的简称可用大马/马国人。如:大马本土华人可以被称为“马来西亚华人”、「马国华人」或“大马华人” 。
马来人的起源
[编辑]原始马来人
[编辑]原马来人(马来文:Melayu Proto)是第一批到达南洋群岛的马来人,目前使用的語言屬於南岛語系,他们在新石器时代晚期迁徙至南洋群岛。书籍 The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Early History 指出了马来人起源的三大理论,但是历史学界尚无定论。 值得注意的是,现今存在的原马来人依旧可见,他们包括了莫肯人、Orang Jakun、Orang Kuala、Orang Temuan和Orang Kanaq。[41]
南亚起源说
[编辑]发表于1889年,主要的支持者有R.H Geldern, J.H.C Kern, J.R Foster, J.R Logen, Slametmuljana 和Asmah Haji Omar等。南亚起源说的依据如下:
- 在马来群岛发现的古老斧头,与南亚的某些地区类似,说明有南亚居民移民马来群岛。
- 马来族的风俗与阿萨姆地区类似(阿萨姆是印度与缅甸之间的地区)。
- 马来语与柬埔寨的高棉语(属于南亚语系)相似,而高棉人又被认为来自于南亚,当年他们沿着湄公河南下到柬埔寨。
南亚起源说被广大人群所接受,马来西亚的中学历史课本中都介绍马来人起源于南亚。但已被現代分子人類學(基因研究)否決。[29]
马来群岛起源说
[编辑]发表于1965年,支持者有J.Crawfurd、K.Himly、Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana和Gorys Keraf等。马来群岛起源说的的依据如下:
- K.Himly不同意马来语与高棉语相似。认为二语相似只是表面印象,没有足够理据。
- 爪哇岛发现的爪哇猿人(学名:Homo erectus erectus)、梭罗猿人 (学名:Homo erectus soloensis)和维杰人 (学名:Homo wajakensis)化石表明马来人是马来群岛起源,可能马来人就是来自爪哇岛。
- 马来群岛各族的语言与南亚属于印欧语系的语言有异。
马来群岛起源论在马来西亚只得到极少数人的支持。
臺灣起源說
[编辑]发表于1997年。一般認為是在公元前4,000年左右,在東亞大陸南部與中南半島一帶的原住民族,移居臺灣,之後由臺灣開始向外拓展,形成南島民族。包括賈德·戴蒙在內的一些學者依據歷史語言學的證據,支持臺灣起源說,這是因為南島語言在臺灣有最高的多樣性:據白樂思的研究,南島語言的十大語支有九支都在臺灣。另外張至善等人分析南島民族傳統作物構樹的基因多樣性後,認為南島民族的祖先應是自東亞大陸南部將構樹帶到臺灣,再從臺灣傳至各太平洋島嶼[30]。
混血马来人
[编辑]混血马来人(马来文:Melayu Deutro)是铁器时代的人,从属于南岛民族。 混血马来人和原马来人相比,拥有更先进的耕作技术和对金属的认识。[31]他们更加蒙古人種化,与原马来人相比具有较小的身躯、较暗的皮肤、卷发的出现频率较高,头型狭长的百分比高得多,并且拥有内眦赘皮的可能性明显较低。[31]相比之下,混血马来人较倾向于定居者而不是游牧者,他们定居并建立了“甘榜”(马来语:kampung,意为马来人村庄)作为社会主要单位。这些甘榜通常位于河岸或沿海地区,在食物和其他必需品中自给自足。在公元前上个世纪末,这些甘榜开始与外界进行一些贸易。[32]混血马来人被认为是当今马来西亚马来人的直接祖先。[33] 一些学者将原马来人及混血马来人又合称南岛人(英文:Austronesian ),二者的文化为新石器时代的文化。南岛人其实是最后移入马来群岛的人群。之前迁入的有澳大利亞人種(英文:Australoid),矮黑人(英文:Negrito)和美拉尼西亚人(英文:Melanesoid)。
遗传史
[编辑]马来人是东南亚岛屿和马来半岛的一个讲南岛语的族群。 2021/2022 年的一项研究得出结论,一个独特的东亚祖先血统(有时称为“东亚和东南亚血统”(ESEA))起源于东南亚大陆,大约在公元前 50,000 年,并在多个波浪中分别向南和向北扩展.这个人口是现代安爬曼矮黑人、东亚和东南亚人、波利尼西亚人和西伯利亚人的祖先,但与欧洲人或澳大利亚原住民不同。
早期东亚血统(以安達曼矮黑人為代表),以及后来的南亚語系稻作人群,在南岛語系人群扩张之前就已经扩散到东南亚沿海地区。南岛语使用者本身被认为是在公元前 10,000 至 7,000 年间从中国南部沿海抵达台湾和菲律宾北部,并从那里传播到整个东南亚岛屿。作者得出的结论是,现代说南岛语的民族,如马来人,其祖先主要来自早期东亚人、来自中南半島的说南亞語的移民以及来自菲律宾的说南岛语的人群混合而形成。[35][36]。
根據2016年最新論文,一例距今四千多年前的馬來半島古人考古樣本,其基因不含南島血統,也與現代馬來人差距甚遠,性質更接近安達曼矮黑人。[37]
注释
[编辑]- ^ 「巫来由」,闽南语白话字:Bû-lâi-iû,耶鲁粤语拼音:Mòuh-lòih-yàuh,客语白话字:Mù-lòi-yù。
- ^ “末罗瑜”最初是唐朝僧人义净《大唐西域求法高僧传》对苏门达腊某地的译名,到了《元史》则称马来半岛为“麻里予”。
- ^ 河流名称马来文Sungai Batang Hari。
- ^ Sungai Melayu无中文译名,Sungai在马来文中即是「河流」之意,Sungai Melayu或可译为“末罗瑜河”。
- ^ 例如喜馬拉雅山脈,梵文是Himalaya。Hima是雪、寒冷的意思;Malaya是山、山脈,Himalaya在梵文中乃雪山之意。
- ^ 马来文Indonesian亦是现代印尼人的称呼,而南岛人是马来西亚华人的官方中文译名。以区别二不同之Indonesian而如此译。
- ^ 梭罗猿人的化石于爪哇岛上梭罗河(马来文:Sungai Solo〕附近发现,因而得名。梭罗猿人直立,但没脱离猿人阶段。
- ^ 维杰人的化石于爪哇岛南岸维杰(马来文:Wajak)地方发现。是东南亚发现的最早真人化石。约生存于1万2千年前。
- ^ 「巫裔」多用來專指馬來西亞的馬來人。
参考文献
[编辑]引注
[编辑]- ^ Economic Planning Unit (Malaysia) 2010
- ^ Badan Pusat Statistika Indonesia 2010,第9頁
- ^ World Population Review 2015
- ^ CIA World Factbook 2012
- ^ Malay in Myanmar - Joshua Project. [2017-08-11]. (原始内容存档于2022-08-22).
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- ^ Malay in United Kingdom - Joshua Project. [2017-08-11]. (原始内容存档于2022-09-25).
- ^ 马来人的起源与演变 - 广义的马来人. [2018-06-11]. (原始内容存档于2019-05-02).
- ^ Abdul Rashid Melebek & Amat Juhari Moain 2006,第9–10頁
- ^ Barnard 2004,第4頁.
- ^ Milner 2010,第22頁
- ^ Barnard 2004,第3頁
- ^ Deka 2007,第57頁
- ^ Pande 2005,第266頁
- ^ Gopal 2000,第139頁
- ^ Ahir 1995,第612頁
- ^ Mukerjee 1984,第212頁
- ^ Sarkar 1970,第8頁
- ^ Gerini 1974,第101頁
- ^ I Ching 2005,第xl-xli頁
- ^ Melayu Online 2005
- ^ Muljana 1981,第223頁
- ^ Guoxue 2003
- ^ Hall 1981,第190頁
- ^ Cordier 2009,第105頁
- ^ Wright 2004,第364–365頁
- ^ Dissecting the genetic structure and admixture of four geographical Malay populations. [2023-09-02]. (原始内容存档于2023-09-02). 已忽略未知参数
|data=
(帮助) - ^ 鍾國芳. 民俗植物訴說的「出臺灣說」?台灣是太平洋構樹的原鄉. PanSci 泛科學. 2015-10-10 [2017-01-09]. (原始内容存档于2020-11-30).
- ^ 31.0 31.1 Murdock 1969,第278頁
- ^ Jamil Abu Bakar 2002,第39頁
- ^ TED 1999
- ^ Dissecting the genetic structure and admixture of four geographical Malay populations. 已忽略未知参数
|data=
(帮助) - ^ Larena, Maximilian; Sanchez-Quinto, Federico; Sjödin, Per; McKenna, James; Ebeo, Carlo; Reyes, Rebecca; Casel, Ophelia; Huang, Jin-Yuan; Hagada, Kim Pullupul. Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2021-03-30, 118 (13): e2026132118 [2022-04-16]. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 8020671 . PMID 33753512. doi:10.1073/pnas.2026132118. (原始内容存档于2022-05-05).
- ^ Yang, Melinda A. A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia. Human Population Genetics and Genomics. 2022-01-06, 2 (1) [2022-04-16]. ISSN 2770-5005. doi:10.47248/hpgg2202010001. (原始内容存档于2022-05-16) (英语).
- ^ The prehistoric peopling of Southeast Asia. [2023-09-02]. (原始内容存档于2023-08-29).
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[编辑]- Abd. Rahman Ismail, Seni Silat Melayu: Sejarah, Perkembangan dan Budaya, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 2008, ISBN 978-983-62-9934-5
- Abdulla, M. A. Mapping Human Genetic Diversity in Asia. Science. December 2009, 326 (5959): 1541–1545. Bibcode:2009Sci...326.1541.. PMID 20007900. S2CID 34341816. doi:10.1126/science.1177074. 已忽略未知参数
|collaboration=
(帮助) - Abu Talib Ahmad; Tan, Liok Ee, New terrains in Southeast Asian history, Singapore: Ohio University press, 2003, ISBN 978-9971-69-269-8
- Ahir, Diwan Chand, A Panorama of Indian Buddhism: Selections from the Maha Bodhi journal, 1892–1992, Sri Satguru Publications, 1995, ISBN 978-81-7030-462-3
- Ahmad Salehuddin, Serampang dua belas, Tari Tradisional Kesultanan Serdang, 2009 [2012-06-15], (原始内容存档于2012-06-15)
- Alexander, James, Malaysia Brunei & Singapore, New Holland Publishers, 2006, ISBN 978-1-86011-309-3
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