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警察国家：修订间差异

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== 类“警察国家”特性的例子 ==
== 类“警察国家”特性的例子 ==
[[Image:Policestate.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Most nations have police state-like attributes. This has led to public demonstrations in many countries.]]
As previously discussed, it is not possible to objectively determine whether a nation has become or is becoming a police state. As a consequence, to draw up an exhaustive list of police states would be inherently flawed. However, there are a few highly debated examples which serve to illustrate partial characteristics of a police state's structure. These examples are listed below.


如上述所讨论的，无法客观判定一个国家是否已经或正在成为警察国家。因而，列出一份穷尽所有警察国家的清单是本质上有问题的。但是，有若干激烈辩论的例子，以展示一个警察国家的结构的部分特征。这些例子如下：
The [[Apartheid|South African apartheid]] system is generally considered to have been a police state despite having been nominally a democracy (albeit with the native, Black African majority population excluded from the democracy).


[[种族隔离|南非種族隔離]]制度被普遍视为已经成为警察国家，虽然其已经名义上成为了民主制（却把土著的黑人多数人口排除于民主之外）。
[[Nazi Germany]], a dictatorship, was, at least initially, brought into being through a nominal democracy, yet exerted repressive controls over its people.

[[纳粹德国]]，一个专制政体，（至少在开始时）被通过名义上的民主制引入，但对其人民实行了镇压控制。

在[[古巴]]，22名试图发布非政府授权的新闻的记者被关押。


In [[Cuba]], 22 journalists who attempted to publicise non-government authorised news remain imprisoned. Arrested in March 2003, the journalists are serving prison terms of up to 27 years. It is also reported that journalists not in prison are frequently threatened with the same fate.<ref>{{cite news | title = Press Group Warns of Specious New Arrests of Cuban Journalists | url = http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2006/September/200609191047371xeneerg0.8746454.html | publisher = America.gov |date=2006-09-19 | accessdate = 2008-07-23}}</ref>
In [[Cuba]], 22 journalists who attempted to publicise non-government authorised news remain imprisoned. Arrested in March 2003, the journalists are serving prison terms of up to 27 years. It is also reported that journalists not in prison are frequently threatened with the same fate.<ref>{{cite news | title = Press Group Warns of Specious New Arrests of Cuban Journalists | url = http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2006/September/200609191047371xeneerg0.8746454.html | publisher = America.gov |date=2006-09-19 | accessdate = 2008-07-23}}</ref>
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Paris-based [[Reporters Without Borders]] ranked [[North Korea]] last out of 168 countries in a test of press freedom.<ref>{{cite news | title = North Korea Rated World's Worst Violator of Press Freedom | url = http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2006/October/200610251320011xeneerg0.7926294.html | publisher = America.gov |date=2006-10-25 | accessdate = 2008-07-23}}</ref> It has been reported that the only TV channel in North Korea predominately [[eulogy|eulogises]] the country's present leader [[Kim Jong Il]] and his father (and previous leader) [[Kim Il Sung]]. As a result, some locals in [[Pyongyang]] have been quoted as stating that their leaders are gods.<ref>{{cite news | title = Life in the secret state | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/1519045.stm | publisher = BBC News |date=2001-09-01 | accessdate = 2008-07-23}}</ref>
Paris-based [[Reporters Without Borders]] ranked [[North Korea]] last out of 168 countries in a test of press freedom.<ref>{{cite news | title = North Korea Rated World's Worst Violator of Press Freedom | url = http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2006/October/200610251320011xeneerg0.7926294.html | publisher = America.gov |date=2006-10-25 | accessdate = 2008-07-23}}</ref> It has been reported that the only TV channel in North Korea predominately [[eulogy|eulogises]] the country's present leader [[Kim Jong Il]] and his father (and previous leader) [[Kim Il Sung]]. As a result, some locals in [[Pyongyang]] have been quoted as stating that their leaders are gods.<ref>{{cite news | title = Life in the secret state | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/1519045.stm | publisher = BBC News |date=2001-09-01 | accessdate = 2008-07-23}}</ref>


The [[United Kingdom]] is felt by some to be moving in the direction of a police state,<ref>{{cite news | title = Britain 'sliding into police state'| url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2005/jan/28/terrorism.humanrights1 | publisher = The Guardian |date=2005-01-28 | accessdate = 2008-05-12}}</ref> with biometric identity cards,<ref>{{cite news | title = The introduction of ID Cards| url = http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/passports-and-immigration/id-cards/ | publisher = UK Government Home Office |date= | accessdate = 2008-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = NO2ID - UK Anti-ID Card Campaign| url = http://www.no2id.net/ | publisher = UK Government Home Office |date= | accessdate = 2008-08-15}}</ref> [[mass surveillance]] and [[Detention of suspects|detention without trial]] all having been introduced by the government. The UK has been described as "the most surveilled country".<ref>{{cite news | title = Britain is 'surveillance society'| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6108496.stm | publisher = BBC News |date=2006-11-02 | accessdate = 2008-08-14}}</ref> Protests within a half-mile radius of the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] are illegal in the UK unless authorised by the [[Metropolitan Police Service|Metropolitan Police]].<ref>{{cite news | title = Arrests at Parliament protest ban| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4742589.stm | publisher = BBC News |date=2005-08-07 | accessdate = 2008-08-14}}</ref> Leading politicians have been arrested under conditions of secrecy.<ref>{{cite news | title = Tories express fury with police over Damian Green arrest| url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/global/2008/nov/28/damian-green-arrest-conservatives | publisher = BBC News |date=2008-11-28 | accessdate = 2009-07-04}}</ref> Claims of police state behaviour have been dismissed by the UK government.<ref>{{cite news | title = No 10 rejects police state claim| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6342277.stm | publisher = BBC News |date=2007-02-08 | accessdate = 2008-05-12}}</ref>
在一些人的感觉里，英国使用了生物特征身份证<ref>{{cite news | title = The introduction of ID Cards| url = http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/passports-and-immigration/id-cards/ | publisher = UK Government Home Office |date= | accessdate = 2008-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = NO2ID - UK Anti-ID Card Campaign| url = http://www.no2id.net/ | publisher = UK Government Home Office |date= | accessdate = 2008-08-15}}</ref>大众监控系统和未经审判的拘押，正在移向警察国家的方向<ref>{{cite news | title = Britain 'sliding into police state'| url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2005/jan/28/terrorism.humanrights1 | publisher = The Guardian |date=2005-01-28 | accessdate = 2008-05-12}}</ref>，这些手段全系政府引进。英国已经被描述成“监控最严密的国家”。<ref>{{cite news | title = Britain is 'surveillance society'| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6108496.stm | publisher = BBC News |date=2006-11-02 | accessdate = 2008-08-14}}</ref> Protests within a half-mile radius of the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] are illegal in the UK unless authorised by the [[Metropolitan Police Service|Metropolitan Police]].<ref>{{cite news | title = Arrests at Parliament protest ban| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4742589.stm | publisher = BBC News |date=2005-08-07 | accessdate = 2008-08-14}}</ref> Leading politicians have been arrested under conditions of secrecy.<ref>{{cite news | title = Tories express fury with police over Damian Green arrest| url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/global/2008/nov/28/damian-green-arrest-conservatives | publisher = BBC News |date=2008-11-28 | accessdate = 2009-07-04}}</ref> Claims of police state behaviour have been dismissed by the UK government.<ref>{{cite news | title = No 10 rejects police state claim| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6342277.stm | publisher = BBC News |date=2007-02-08 | accessdate = 2008-05-12}}</ref>


美国也被描绘为正在向警察国家方向移动。
The [[United States]] has also been characterized as moving towards a police state. On [[June 27]], [[2002]] U.S. Congressman [[Ron Paul]] said in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]: <blockquote>"...'Is America a Police State?' My answer is: 'Maybe not yet, but it is fast approaching.'"<ref>{{cite news | title = Is America a Police State?| url = http://www.house.gov/paul/congrec/congrec2002/cr062702.htm | publisher = US House of Representatives |date=2002-06-27 | accessdate = 2008-05-12}}</ref></blockquote>
The [[United States]] has also been characterized as moving towards a police state. On [[June 27]], [[2002]] U.S. Congressman [[Ron Paul]] said in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]: <blockquote>"...'Is America a Police State?' My answer is: 'Maybe not yet, but it is fast approaching.'"<ref>{{cite news | title = Is America a Police State?| url = http://www.house.gov/paul/congrec/congrec2002/cr062702.htm | publisher = US House of Representatives |date=2002-06-27 | accessdate = 2008-05-12}}</ref></blockquote>
There has also been criticism of the US over the use of [[Mass surveillance#United States|mass surveillance]]. Compulsory vaccinations are also in use and it has been argued that this constitutes an infringement of individual liberties.<ref>{{cite news | title = CRS Report for Congress - Mandatory Vaccinations: Precedent and Current Laws| url = http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/RS21414.pdf |format=PDF| publisher = Federation of American Scientists|date=2005-01-18 | accessdate = 2008-08-15}}</ref><ref>"Public health strategy and the police powers of the state.", Galva, J. E., Atchison, C., Levey, S., Public Health Rep. 2005;120 Suppl 1:20-7.</ref><ref>"Bioterrorism Defense: Are State Mandated Compulsory Vaccination Programs an Infringement upon a Citizen's Constitutional Rights?", Kohrs, B., Journal of Law and Health, Vol. 17, (2002).</ref>
There has also been criticism of the US over the use of [[Mass surveillance#United States|mass surveillance]]. Compulsory vaccinations are also in use and it has been argued that this constitutes an infringement of individual liberties.<ref>{{cite news | title = CRS Report for Congress - Mandatory Vaccinations: Precedent and Current Laws| url = http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/RS21414.pdf |format=PDF| publisher = Federation of American Scientists|date=2005-01-18 | accessdate = 2008-08-15}}</ref><ref>"Public health strategy and the police powers of the state.", Galva, J. E., Atchison, C., Levey, S., Public Health Rep. 2005;120 Suppl 1:20-7.</ref><ref>"Bioterrorism Defense: Are State Mandated Compulsory Vaccination Programs an Infringement upon a Citizen's Constitutional Rights?", Kohrs, B., Journal of Law and Health, Vol. 17, (2002).</ref>

2009年7月19日 (日) 08:17的版本

朝鲜具有严格的防止人民外逃的政策。（图为朝鲜军官监视）

警察国家这一术语描述了一种国家，其政府对人民的社会、经济和政治生活实行严密和镇压性的控制。一个警察国家常典型的表露出集权主义和社会控制的要素，通常很少或没有区分法律和行政部门对政治权力的履行。

警察国家的居民受到行动上的限制，自由表达或沟通政治观点或其他的观点的限制，这些观点都受警察监督或强制。政治控制可以由在宪政国家一般强制的边界之外运作的秘密警察部队的手段来加以执行。[1]

历史

“警察国家”这一术语首次使用于1865年，指代在奥地利为了维持秩序而对国家警察部队的使用。[2]

事实上，即使在地方范围上，使用警察部队在紧急情况之外积极的维持秩序，在此之前几乎未有所闻。

美国首次使用国家警察部队也在同一年──1865年，一只警察队伍在马萨诸塞州建立起来。[3]

Up to this time, order in most societies was maintained spontaneously, on a local level, with some weak constabulary like a sheriff (shire reeve) being called into action for specific incidents. As the maintenance of a standing police force became common in the late 19th and early 20th century, the term "police state" came to be used more commonly to refer only to when a police force was used "too" strenuously, in a "rigid and repressive" way, as with Fascism, Communism, and in retroactive application to oppressive/repressive historic incidents like the French Revolution and the Roman Empire.[4][5]

警察国家的分类

对一个国家或政权进行警察国家的分类通常具有争议。因为这一术语所具的贬义，很少会有国家愿意将自身定义为警察国家。分类常由国内的揭发者或国外的批评家或激进团体确立。该术语的使用是出于回应法律、警察和政权的行动做出的反应，经常被用作贬义的描述政权的社会契约、人权和类似事务的概念。

纯粹的警察国家是基本上权威主义的，经常是独裁统治。但是政府镇压的程度随社会的不同而变化很大。大多数政权介于极端的公民自由意志论和集权主义之间。

在国家紧急状态或战争时，通常存在于自由和国家安全的平衡往往偏向于安全一边。这种转换可能会引发该国家已经或正在成为一个警察国家的指控。

因为各种政治见解对于什么才是个人自由和国家安全之间的恰当的平衡并不一致，没有明确的客观标准可以决定“警察国家”这一词汇对某一个特定国家在某一个具体时间点是否适用。因此，很难客观评估关于一个国家就是或正在成为一个警察国家的指控的真相。有一种审视警察国家和自由国家的概念的方法，是通过一种天平或刻度的手段，其中任何着重于去除自由的法律被视为天平向警察国家方向移动，而任何着重于限制政府监控的法律则被视为向自由国家移动。[6]

战争经常在虚构作品中被描绘成建立警察国家的一个完美的先导步骤，因公民较平时更加依赖政府和警察以维护安全（参见下文虚构的警察国家 ）。

开明专治（开明的绝对主义）

在开明专治的政治模式中，统治者是"最高公仆"，执行绝对的权利以提供给全民普遍福利。这一模式的政府提出所有的国家权力必须被导向一极，拒绝成文法对统治者绝对权利的限制。诸如托马斯·霍布斯之类的思想家支持这类绝对主义政府。

由于开明的绝对统治者被宣称是承担了公共利益，依任免权，是暗示了绝对正确的。即使是尖锐的针对于执政党的忠实反对，也构成了危害国家罪。忠实反对派的概念对于此类政治无法兼容。而公开的异议被禁止，故而无可避免的成为机密，这又反过来使其被秘密警察的方式的政治镇压而反制。

强调法治的自由民主制关注的是警察国家不服从于法律。最先将法治引入德国法学的罗伯特·冯·莫尔将法制国家与贵族制的警察国家对立起来。 [7]

类“警察国家”特性的例子

如上述所讨论的，无法客观判定一个国家是否已经或正在成为警察国家。因而，列出一份穷尽所有警察国家的清单是本质上有问题的。但是，有若干激烈辩论的例子，以展示一个警察国家的结构的部分特征。这些例子如下：

南非種族隔離制度被普遍视为已经成为警察国家，虽然其已经名义上成为了民主制（却把土著的黑人多数人口排除于民主之外）。

纳粹德国，一个专制政体，（至少在开始时）被通过名义上的民主制引入，但对其人民实行了镇压控制。

在古巴，22名试图发布非政府授权的新闻的记者被关押。

In Cuba, 22 journalists who attempted to publicise non-government authorised news remain imprisoned. Arrested in March 2003, the journalists are serving prison terms of up to 27 years. It is also reported that journalists not in prison are frequently threatened with the same fate.[8]

Paris-based Reporters Without Borders ranked North Korea last out of 168 countries in a test of press freedom.[9] It has been reported that the only TV channel in North Korea predominately eulogises the country's present leader Kim Jong Il and his father (and previous leader) Kim Il Sung. As a result, some locals in Pyongyang have been quoted as stating that their leaders are gods.[10]

在一些人的感觉里，英国使用了生物特征身份证[11][12]大众监控系统和未经审判的拘押，正在移向警察国家的方向[13]，这些手段全系政府引进。英国已经被描述成“监控最严密的国家”。[14] Protests within a half-mile radius of the Houses of Parliament are illegal in the UK unless authorised by the Metropolitan Police.[15] Leading politicians have been arrested under conditions of secrecy.[16] Claims of police state behaviour have been dismissed by the UK government.[17]

美国也被描绘为正在向警察国家方向移动。

The United States has also been characterized as moving towards a police state. On June 27, 2002 U.S. Congressman Ron Paul said in the House of Representatives:

"...'Is America a Police State?' My answer is: 'Maybe not yet, but it is fast approaching.'"[18]

There has also been criticism of the US over the use of mass surveillance. Compulsory vaccinations are also in use and it has been argued that this constitutes an infringement of individual liberties.[19][20][21]

虚构的警察国家

乔治·奥威尔的小说《一九八四》描述了处于一个不断挑起并创造了一场持续战争的社会主义集权统治下的不列颠。这场持续战争被用作使人民服从于全民监视和警方突击搜查的借口。国家不仅摧毁了代表着“思想的自由”的词汇表示的行为和思想的自由一词，还摧毁了思想自由一词本身。

叶夫根尼·扎米亚京的小说《我们》刻画了一个反乌托邦，其中墙壁由玻璃制成，唯一的信息获取方式是国家保证，而想像则被从人民身上强行移除。

Sinclair Lewis' It Can't Happen Here satirically details the rise of fascism in the 1930s United States.

The ten-part graphic novel V for Vendetta, by Alan Moore and David Lloyd, tells the story of a masked freedom fighter's efforts to subvert the fascist Norsefire Party that has gained control of the United Kingdom. (See also the film of the same name.)

Battle Royale, a Japanese novel by Koushun Takami, describes an alternate timeline Japan as being in a police state. This Japan is known as the Republic of Greater East Asia (大東亜共和国 Dai Tōa Kyōwakoku).

In the Honorverse series of novels, the People's Republic of Haven is a classic (quasi-Communist) police state until the end of the ninth novel of the series, titled Ashes of Victory. Also, in more recent novels and stories of the series (and its spinoffs), the Solarian League, despite being outwardly a democracy, manifests many typical traits of a police state, especially in its outer territories (which are administered by the Office of Frontier Security).

参见

注释

  1. ^ A Dictionary of World History, Market House Books, Oxford University Press, 2000.
  2. ^ http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=police
  3. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=M2NgAj4nFOwC&pg=PA406&lpg=PA406
  4. ^ http://www.flowofhistory.com/units/eme/16/FC105
  5. ^ http://pages.interlog.com/~gilgames/empire.htm
  6. ^ Police State (Key Concepts in Political Science), Brian Chapman, Macmillan, 1971.
  7. ^ The Police State, Chapman, B., Government and Opposition, Vol.3:4, 428-440, (2007). Accessible online at http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119912141/abstract, retrieved 15th August 2008.
  8. ^ Press Group Warns of Specious New Arrests of Cuban Journalists. America.gov. 2006-09-19 [2008-07-23]. 
  9. ^ North Korea Rated World's Worst Violator of Press Freedom. America.gov. 2006-10-25 [2008-07-23]. 
  10. ^ Life in the secret state. BBC News. 2001-09-01 [2008-07-23]. 
  11. ^ The introduction of ID Cards. UK Government Home Office. [2008-08-15]. 
  12. ^ NO2ID - UK Anti-ID Card Campaign. UK Government Home Office. [2008-08-15]. 
  13. ^ Britain 'sliding into police state'. The Guardian. 2005-01-28 [2008-05-12]. 
  14. ^ Britain is 'surveillance society'. BBC News. 2006-11-02 [2008-08-14]. 
  15. ^ Arrests at Parliament protest ban. BBC News. 2005-08-07 [2008-08-14]. 
  16. ^ Tories express fury with police over Damian Green arrest. BBC News. 2008-11-28 [2009-07-04]. 
  17. ^ No 10 rejects police state claim. BBC News. 2007-02-08 [2008-05-12]. 
  18. ^ Is America a Police State?. US House of Representatives. 2002-06-27 [2008-05-12]. 
  19. ^ CRS Report for Congress - Mandatory Vaccinations: Precedent and Current Laws (PDF). Federation of American Scientists. 2005-01-18 [2008-08-15]. 
  20. ^ "Public health strategy and the police powers of the state.", Galva, J. E., Atchison, C., Levey, S., Public Health Rep. 2005;120 Suppl 1:20-7.
  21. ^ "Bioterrorism Defense: Are State Mandated Compulsory Vaccination Programs an Infringement upon a Citizen's Constitutional Rights?", Kohrs, B., Journal of Law and Health, Vol. 17, (2002).
检索自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/zhwiki/w/index.php?title=警察国家&oldid=10644720”