凱末爾改革

凱末爾改革(土耳其語：Atatürk Devrimleri)是一系列試圖將新生的土耳其共和國改造成一個世俗民族國家的政治，法律，文化，社會，和經濟政策變化。在這樣一個世俗國家里，在生活各個方面宗教的實行都被限制。這些改革是在凱末爾領導下，依據凱末爾主義實行。

改革肇始於國家機器的現代化，包括立新的1924年憲法，以及根據新共和國需要採取歐式法律與司法體系。接下來，行政系統被徹底世俗化和現代化了，特別是教育。政府實行進口替代戰略，並且成立國企和國有銀行來振興產業。改革的中心思想是土耳其社會必須在文化上與政治上西化，這樣才能實現現代化。

政治改革

参见：土耳其政治

1922年，奧斯曼帝國末代蘇丹穆罕默德六世離開土耳其

一直到土耳其共和國正式宣告成立的那一刻，奧斯曼帝國的宗教權威與朝代權威遺產仍然存在。安卡拉政府廢除了奧斯曼王朝，但是它的傳統和文化象徵性仍存於人民心中（雖然精英較少受其影響）。凱末爾的政治改革包括一些根本性的制度變化，終結了奧斯曼傳統；精心設計的新系統替代了帝國幾個世紀發展起來的錯綜複雜的老系統，以實現政治變化。

不僅土耳其社會的所有機構都被重組，國家的社會與政治價值觀也被取代。 這個新的世俗國家意識形態將被稱為凱末爾主義，凱末爾主義是民主的土耳其共和國的基礎。自共和國成立以來軍隊視自己為凱末爾主義的衛士，並為此幾度干涉土耳其政治，有時甚至通過軍事政變推翻文官政府。這也許看上去於民主理想相悖，但是軍事當局和世俗主義者認為這樣做的必要性基於三點：1）土耳其歷史背景，2）維持世俗政府的不斷努力，3）以及改革是在軍隊佔據全國16.9%專業崗位的時候進行的(現在軍隊只佔據3%專業崗位)。

成立共和國

一次會議後，凱末爾總統離開安卡拉的土耳其國會。伊斯美總理在圖左邊

最根本的改革使得土耳其民族通過代議民主制得以實行人民主權。這包括解散兩個聲稱淩駕於國民主權之上的職位：奥斯曼王朝于1922年9月1日，以及哈裏發1924年3月3日。廢除哈裏發之後，蘇丹及皇室被宣佈成為不受歡迎人物並驅逐出境。

這些古老的機構被土耳其共和國("Türkiye Cumhuriyeti")取代，土耳其大國民議會於1923年10月29日立法宣佈成立共和國，並採用一部憲法。奧斯曼兩院制議會 — 包括由一個蘇丹指定、由維齊爾們組成的上院，以及一個由兩階選舉產生、由代表們組成的下院— 宣告解散。（帝國議會早在1920年協約國佔領伊斯坦布爾就已經終止運作，大國民議會於同年宣告成立）。側重國家獨立於人民主權的新制度設立總統總理二職，司法權歸於一院制的大國民議會。議會由直接選舉通過比例代表制選出。

共和國的成立並不代表改革的結束，凱末爾以及他的'革命黨人'們繼續在大國民議會上提出他們的改革方案。

行政權立法過程中這樣的參與也許與憲法精神或者憲法條文相悖，（權力分立的概念也該是代議制民主的一部分），但是選民對政府的持續支持合法化了政府的這一安排。通過這種過渡，民主在司法領域漸漸發展，一直到1946年真正的多黨制選舉發生為止。

世俗主義

参见：土耳其世俗主義

人民主權的建立涉及到與幾百年的傳統發生衝突。改革本身的進展是以進步與保守的不斷鬥爭為特徵的：一面是凱末爾和他心向改革的政治精英，另一面是沒受過教育的飽受打中。

這些變化意味著劃分宗教/民族社群的米利特制度徹底完結了。每一個米利特的人民傳統上享有一定自治權，有自己的領導層，族群內各自收稅，並根據自己的宗教/文化法律制度生活。 在凱末爾改革下，官方收回對奧斯曼帝國米利特的承認。取而代之的是一個全民世俗當局。一些家庭因此失去社群醫院和社群學校這樣的機構支持，經濟條件惡化；許多宗教社群無法適應這種新制度，向外移民和貧窮更加劇他們的困境。

凱末爾主義的世俗主義並非是是反宗教或者反回教的。實際上，凱末爾主義下，國家對伊斯蘭的支持體現在宗教事務管理局(土耳其語：Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı)的建立上。該局"處理關於伊斯蘭信仰、禮拜和倫理的工作，在宗教事務上啟蒙大眾，管理神聖的禮拜場所。"其他宗教也如是管理。當局堅決地反對反宗教行為。政府維護所有土耳其公民在自己私人空間的的宗教平等和信仰自由。政府保護宗教自由，自己卻超然任何一種宗教影響之外。凱末爾主義反對政治伊斯蘭，因其威脅到政府的獨立性，以及它對所有宗教一視同仁對待的能力。

The changes were both conceptually radical and culturally significant.這種變化不僅概念上激進，而且文化上重要。1924年3月3日，宗教教育系統為國民教育系統所取代，1517年以來就一直由奧斯曼帝國奧斯曼帝國皇帝兼任的哈裏發職位於同日被廢除。伊斯蘭法庭和伊斯蘭教法被基於瑞士民法典（Zivilgesetzbuch）的世俗法律結構所取代。

里程碑事件

• 1922年9月1日，廢除奧斯曼帝國蘇丹這一職務。
• 1923年10月29日，宣佈成立共和國 - 土耳其共和國。
• 1924年3月廢除奧斯曼帝國哈里發擔任的哈裏發一職。

社會改革

凱末爾主義改革在國立教育和女性選舉權方面帶來了有效的社會變化。可是，嘗試改革奧斯曼帝國封建(土耳其語：Ağalık)系統的行為收到的反響並不怎麼好。一部分社會機構有宗教背景，並對公共生活產生了絕大影響。

宗教徽標

参见：奧斯曼帝國服裝

一名穿戴特殊頭飾的伊斯蘭學者，在1925年頭飾法案之後就無法穿戴這種頭飾了

The Ottoman Empire had a social system based on religious affiliation and religious insignia extended to every social function. It was common to wear clothing that identified the person with their own particular religious grouping and accompanied headgear which distinguish "rank", "profession" throughout the Ottoman Empire. The turbans, fezes, bonnets and head-dresses surmounting Ottoman styles show the "sex", "rank" and "profession" (both civil and military). These styles were accompanied with a strict regulation beginning with the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent. Sultan Mahmud II followed on the example of Peter the Great in Russia in modernizing the Empire and used the dress code of 1826 which developed the symbols (classifications) of feudalism among the public. Kemalist view of change, like that of Peter I of Russia or Sultan Mahmud II, was achieved through introduction of the progressive customs by decrees, while banning the traditional customs. The view of their social change proposed; if the permanence of secularism was to be assured by removal of persistence of traditional cultural values (the religious insignia), a considerable degree of cultural receptivity by the public to the further social change could be achieved. The "dress code" give a chance for removal of persistence of traditional values in the society.

Kemalists defined a non-civilized (non-scientific, non-positivist) person as one who functioned within the boundaries of superstition. The ulema was not a scientific group, and it was acting according to superstitions developed throughout centuries. Their name was "Gerici". On February 25, 1925 parliament passed a law stating that religion was not to be used as a tool in politics. The question became how this law could be brought to life in a country whose scholars are dominated by the ulema. Kemalist ideology waged a war against superstition by banning the practices of the ulema and promoting the civilized way ("westernization"), with establishing lawyers, teachers, doctors. The ban on the ulema's social existence came in the form of "dress code." The strategic goal was to change the large influence of the ulema over politics by removing them from the social arena. However, there was the danger of being perceived as anti-religious. Kemalists defended themselves by stating "Islam viewed all forms of superstition (non-scientific) nonreligious". The ulema's power was established during the Ottoman Empire with the conception that secular institutions were all subordinate to religion; the ulema were emblems of religious piety, and therefore rendering them powerful over state affairs. Kemalists claimed "the state will be ruled by positivism not superstition." A good example was the practice of medicine. Kemalists wanted to get rid of superstition extending to herbal medicine, potion, and religious therapy for mental illness, all of which were practised by the ulema. They excoriated those who used herbal medicine, potions, and balms, and instituted penalties against the religious men who claimed they have a say in health and medicine. On September 1, 1925, the first Turkish Medical Congress was assembled, which was only four days after Mustafa Kemal was seen on August 27 at Inebolu wearing a modern hat and one day after the Kastamonu speech on August 30.

1934年關於被禁止服飾的法案禁止穿戴宗教服飾如頭巾

Official measures were gradually introduced to eliminate the wearing of religious clothing and other overt signs of religious affiliation. Beginning in 1923, a series of laws progressively limited the wearing of selected items of traditional clothing. Mustafa Kemal first made the hat compulsory to the civil servants. The guidelines for the proper dressing of students and state employees (public space controlled by state) was passed during his lifetime. After most of the relatively better educated civil servants adopted the hat with their own he gradually moved further. The Hat Law of 1925 introduced the use of Western style hats instead of the fez. Legislation did not explicitly prohibit veils or headscarves and focused instead on banning fezzes and turbans for men.

Another control on the dress was passed in 1934 with the law relating to the wearing of 'Prohibited Garments'. It banned religion-based clothing, such as the veil and turban, while actively promoting western-style attire.

修道院和苦行僧道堂

Social change also included centuries old religious social structures that has been deeply rooted within the society, some are established within the state organisation of the Ottoman Empire. The abolishment of caliphate position removed the highest religious-political position at the government level, but left the Muslim brotherhoods (Muslim associations for any purpose, working as a society of Muslim believers) who were institutionalized under convents and dervish lodges, which were the official establishment of the extension of political power among the society without any organizing structure. In 1925 , by enactment of the law related to religious covenants and dervish lodges, such institutions were declared totally illegal.

女權

一戰後土耳其獨立戰爭期間的安納托利亞和土耳其人民

1935年大選後，十八名女性國會議員加入土耳其國會。當時許多其他歐洲國家的女性還沒有選舉權。在1993年坦苏·奇莱尔成為土耳其第一位女總理。

土耳其民法典的改革，包括關於女性選舉權的改革，"不僅是伊斯蘭世界的突破，也是西方世界的突破"。

隨著一系列制度與規定的改變，兩性平等的法律權利在1926到1934之間落實。女性第一次得到了許多權利，包括投票權。

土耳其女權運動者與他國的女权运动者不同，她們認識到自己最好的機會在於維護與宣揚鼓吹世俗價值和男女平權的凱末爾主義改革，而不需要直接去爭取基本權利和平等。

在共和國初年的一次會議中，凱末爾宣稱：

對女同胞: 為我們贏得教育之戰的勝利，你們將會為國家做出的貢獻會比我們以前所能取得的的成就都大。這就是我向你們呼籲的。.
對男同胞: 如若從今天起女性不再分擔這個國家的社會生活，我們將永遠無法達成我國的全面發展，我們將會不可彌補地落後，無法無法與西方文明並駕齊驅。.

里程碑事件

• 1925年9月25日：更換頭飾與衣裝
• 1925年9月30日：關閉宗教修道院和德爾維希道堂
• 1934年6月21日：土耳其姓名法案.
• 1934年9月26日：廢除榮譽稱號與又名。

司法改革

参见：土耳其司法系統、土耳其憲法和土耳其憲政史

凱末爾在[安卡拉

總統府的圖書館裏]]

奧斯曼帝國是一個宗教帝國，各個宗教社群享有很大程度的自治權（參見米利特）。每一個米利特內部的統治都是基於宗教法，如宗教法， 天主教法典，或者猶太教[[哈拉卡]。

凱末爾在伊斯坦布爾大學，土耳其第一所現代大學

凱末爾最先著手的司法改革包括一步世俗的土耳其憲法(基於法國式的世俗主義)，達成了完全的政教分離，用基於《瑞士民法典》的世俗民法和基於義大利刑法的刑法典來代替伊斯蘭法庭和伊斯蘭教法。改革也建立了並且於1934年12月5日在許多歐洲國家之前實現了兩性法律平等完全政治權利，

伊斯蘭教法一直不包含管理人們在"政治機構"和"商業交易"關係的條款。奧斯曼帝國之所以解體不只是因為他的制度過時，而且是因為他的傳統無法適用於當時的要求。例如，伊斯蘭教法影響下關於"刑事案例"的規則無法充分防止犯罪。 到了十九世紀初，奧斯曼伊斯蘭法典在處理概念更寬的社會系統時，法律條文總體上沒有實用性。非穆斯林米利特受[[啟蒙時代]現代化的基督教法律影響。伊斯蘭教法與基督教法儘管奧斯曼法典en:Megelle盤根錯節，一夫多妻在凱末爾改革之後就不能合法實行了。 There were thousands of articles in the Megelle which were not used due to their inapplicability.

Legal reforms of Kemal could be perceived as the last step of a failed history of modernization in Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire tried to modernize the code with the reforms of 1839 (Hatt-i Sharif). Hatt-i Sharif tried to end the confusion in the judicial sphere by extending the legal equality to all citizens. In 1841 a criminal code was drawn up. When the Empire dissolved, there was still no legislation with regard to family and marital relationships. The adaptation of laws relating to family and marital relationships is an important step which is attributed to Mustafa Kemal.

里程碑事件

• March 1, 1926: Introduction of the new penal law modeled after the Italian penal code.
• October 4, 1926: Introduction of the new civil code modeled after the Swiss civil code.
• December 5, 1934: Full political rights to women, to vote and be elected.
• February 5, 1937: The inclusion of the principle of laïcité in the constitution.

教育改革

Literacy of Turkish people in 1924

Mustafa Kemal visited a maths class of Izmir High School for Boys, February 1, 1931.

Atatürk introducing the new Turkish alphabet at the central Anatolian city of Kayseri on September 20, 1928

参见：Education in Turkey

The educational reforms combined with the opening of People's Houses throughout the country and the active encouragement of people by Atatürk himself with many trips to the countryside teaching the new alphabet. However, "its effect on the struggle against illiteracy was disappointing".

The literacy reform was also supported by strengthening the private publishing sector with a new Law on Copyrights and congresses for discussing the issues of copyright, public education and scientific publishing.

教育統一

The unification of education had two important features. The first one was the democratization and the second one was to activate secularism in the field of education. Unification came with the Law on Unification of National Education, which introduced three regulations: First, all medreses and schools administered by private foundations or the Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı (Presidency for Religious Affairs) were connected to the Ministry of National Education. Second, the money allocated to schools and medreses from the budget of the Diyanet was transferred to the education budget. Third, the Ministry of Education had to open a religious faculty for training higher religious experts within the system of higher education, and separate schools for training imams and hatips.

With the unification of education, along with the closure of the old-style universities, applied a large-scale program of science transfer from Europe. One of the cornerstone of educational institutions, the University of Istanbul, accepted German and Austrian scientists who the National Socialist regime in Germany had considered 'racially' or politically undesirable. This political decision was accepted as the building the nucleus of science as a modern institution in Turkey. The reform aimed to break away the traditional dependency [since the Ottoman Empire] on the transfer of science and technology by foreign experts.

語言改革

On November 1, 1928, the new Turkish alphabet was introduced by the Language Commission at the initiative of Atatürk, replacing the previously used Perso-Arabic script. The adoption of the Latin alphabet and the purging of foreign loanwords was part of Mustafa Kemal's program of modernization.

The removal of Arabic script was defended on the ground that it was not appropriate for the authentic Turkish phonology, which needs a new set of symbols to be correctly represented. The Ottoman Perso-Arabic script was an abjad, which made it too ambiguous for the Turkish language, in which vowels are far more important than in Arabic. A well-known example of the deficiency of the Arabic script is the phrase محمد پاشا اولدو, which can represent either Mehmet Paşa oldu (Muhammad became a Pasha) or Mehmet Paşa öldü (Muhammad Pasha died). Ottoman writers had to work around such ambiguities via circumlocutions, usually of Persian or Arabic origin.

The abandonment of the Arabic script was not merely a symbolic expression of secularization by breaking the link to Ottoman Islamic texts to which only a minor group of ulema had access; but also Latin script would make reading and writing easier to learn and consequently improve the literacy rate.

Adaptation of technical vocabulary was another step of modernization, which was tried thoroughly. Non-technical Turkish was vernacularized and simplified on the ground that the language of Turkish people should be comprehensible by the people. A good example is the Turkish word "Bilgisayar" (bilgi = "information", sayar = "counter"), which was adapted for the word "Computer".

Another important part of Atatürk's reforms encompassed his emphasis on the Turkish language and history, leading to the establishment of Turkish Language Association and Turkish Historical Society for research on Turkish language and history, during the years 1931–2.

里程碑事件

• March 3, 1924: The unification of education
• January 1, 1928: Establishment of Turkish Education Association for supporting children in financial need and contributing to the educational life.
• November 1, 1928: Adoption of the new Turkish alphabet
• 1931: Establishment of Turkish Historical Society for research on history
• July 12, 1932: Establishment of Turkish Language Association for regulating the Turkish language
• May 31, 1933: Regulation of the university education

經濟改革

参见：Economic history of Turkey和Economy of Turkey

Atatürk visiting a model farm, probably the AOÇ near Ankara

Economic reforms included the establishment of many state-owned factories throughout the country for the agriculture, machine making and textile industries.

Many of these grew into successful enterprises and were privatized during the latter part of 20th century.

Atatürk considered the development of a national rail network as another important step for industrialization. In 1927 he established the Turkish State Railways, developing an extensive rail network in a relatively short timespan.

里程碑事件

• July 24, 1923: Abolition of the capitulations with the Treaty of Lausanne
• 1924: The Weekend Act (Workweek: Monday to Friday become work days)
• 1925: Establishment of model farms; Atatürk Orman Çiftliği
• 1925: The International Time and Calendar System (Gregorian calendar, Time zone)
• 1926: The Obligation Law
• 1926: The Commercial Law
• May 31, 1927: Establishment of the Turkish State Railways
• 1933: The System of Measures (International System of Units)
• December 1, 1933: First Five Year Development Plan (Planned economy)
• 1937: Second Five Year Development Plan (Planned economy)

批評

改革的指導思想

The reforms were guided by educational and scientific progress, and based on the principles of positivist and rationalist enlightenment. Members of Republican People's Party, mostly graduates of the 'modern schools' that were established during Tanzimat era, applied their western-inspired modernization to all areas of government.

改革的有效性

Some people thought that the pace of change under Atatürk was too rapid as, in his quest to modernize Turkey, he effectively abolished centuries-old traditions. Nevertheless, the bulk of the population willingly accepted the reforms, even though some were seen as reflecting the views of the urban elites at the expense of the generally illiterate inhabitants of the rural countryside, where religious sentiments and customary norms tended to be stronger.

Probably the most controversial area of reform was that of religion. The policy of state secularism ("active neutrality") met with opposition at the time and it continues to generate a considerable degree of social and political tension. However, any political movement that attempts to harness religious sentiment at the expense of Turkish secularism is likely to face the opposition of the armed forces, which has always regarded itself as the principal and most faithful guardian of secularism. Some assert that a historical example is the case of Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, who was overthrown by the military in 1960. He and two of his Ministers were hanged by the Military Tribunal. However, their charges were not for being anti-secular. Although Menderes did relax some restrictions on religion he also banned the millet party which was avowedly Islamist. Further, the charges at the Military Tribunal did not involve antisecular activities and it can be concluded that Menderes was overall in favour of the secular system.

改革亦或革命

The Turkish name for Atatürk's Reforms literally means "Atatürk's Revolutions", as, strictly speaking, the changes were too profound to be described as mere 'reforms'. It also reflects the belief that those changes, implemented as they were during the Single-Party period, were more in keeping with the attitudes of the country's progressive elite than with a general populace accustomed to centuries of Ottoman stability – an attempt to convince a people so-conditioned of the merits of such far-reaching changes would test the political courage of any government subject to multi-party conditions.

又見

• 凱末爾
• 土耳其共和國歷史
• 土耳其歷史時間表
• 現代化

拓展閱讀

• Bein, Amit. Ottoman Ulema, Turkish Republic: Agents of Change and Guardians of Tradition (2011) Amazon.com
• Ergin, Murat. "Cultural encounters in the social sciences and humanities: western émigré scholars in Turkey," History of the Human Sciences, Feb 2009, Vol. 22 Issue 1, pp 105-130
• Hansen, Craig C. "Are We Doing Theory Ethnocentrically? A Comparison of Modernization Theory and Kemalism," Journal of Developing Societies (0169796X), 1989, Vol. 5 Issue 2, pp 175-187
• Hanioglu, M. Sukru. Ataturk: An intellectual biography (2011) Amazon.com
• Kazancigil, Ali and Ergun Özbudun. Ataturk: Founder of a Modern State (1982) 243pp
• Ward, Robert, and Dankwart Rustow, eds. Political Modernization in Japan and Turkey (1964).
• Yavuz, M. Hakan. Islamic Political Identity in Turkey (2003) Amazon.com
• Zurcher, Erik. Turkey: A Modern History (2004) Amazon.com

外部鏈接

维基共享资源上的相關多媒體資源：凱末爾改革

• Ministry of National Education and Culture, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus （土耳其文）