凯末尔改革

凯末尔改革(土耳其语：Atatürk Devrimleri)是一系列试图将新生的土耳其共和国改造成一个世俗民族国家的政治，法律，文化，社会，和经济政策变化。在这样一个世俗国家里，在生活各个方面宗教的实行都被限制。这些改革是在凯末尔领导下，依据凯末尔主义实行。

改革肇始于国家机器的现代化，包括立新的1924年宪法，以及根据新共和国需要采取欧式法律与司法体系。接下来，行政系统被彻底世俗化和现代化了，特别是教育。政府实行进口替代战略，并且成立国企和国有银行来振兴产业。改革的中心思想是土耳其社会必须在文化上与政治上西化，这样才能实现现代化。

政治改革

参见：土耳其政治

1922年，奥斯曼帝国末代苏丹穆罕默德六世离开土耳其

一直到土耳其共和国正式宣告成立的那一刻，奥斯曼帝国的宗教权威与朝代权威遗产仍然存在。安卡拉政府废除了奥斯曼王朝，但是它的传统和文化象征性仍存于人民心中（虽然精英较少受其影响）。凯末尔的政治改革包括一些根本性的制度变化，终结了奥斯曼传统；精心设计的新系统替代了帝国几个世纪发展起来的错综复杂的老系统，以实现政治变化。

不仅土耳其社会的所有机构都被重组，国家的社会与政治价值观也被取代。 这个新的世俗国家意识形态将被称为凯末尔主义，凯末尔主义是民主的土耳其共和国的基础。自共和国成立以来军队视自己为凯末尔主义的卫士，并为此几度干涉土耳其政治，有时甚至通过军事政变推翻文官政府。这也许看上去于民主理想相悖，但是军事当局和世俗主义者认为这样做的必要性基于三点：1）土耳其历史背景，2）维持世俗政府的不断努力，3）以及改革是在军队占据全国16.9%专业岗位的时候进行的(现在军队只占据3%专业岗位)。

成立共和国

一次会议后，凯末尔总统离开安卡拉的土耳其国会。伊斯美总理在图左边

最根本的改革使得土耳其民族通过代议民主制得以实行人民主权。这包括解散两个声称凌驾于国民主权之上的职位：奥斯曼王朝于1922年9月1日，以及哈里发1924年3月3日。废除哈里发之后，苏丹及皇室被宣布成为不受欢迎人物并驱逐出境。

这些古老的机构被土耳其共和国("Türkiye Cumhuriyeti")取代，土耳其大国民议会于1923年10月29日立法宣布成立共和国，并采用一部宪法。奥斯曼两院制议会 — 包括由一个苏丹指定、由维齐尔们组成的上院，以及一个由两阶选举产生、由代表们组成的下院— 宣告解散。（帝国议会早在1920年协约国占领伊斯坦布尔就已经终止运作，大国民议会于同年宣告成立）。侧重国家独立于人民主权的新制度设立总统总理二职，司法权归于一院制的大国民议会。议会由直接选举通过比例代表制选出。

共和国的成立并不代表改革的结束，凯末尔以及他的'革命党人'们继续在大国民议会上提出他们的改革方案。

行政权立法过程中这样的参与也许与宪法精神或者宪法条文相悖，（权力分立的概念也该是代议制民主的一部分），但是选民对政府的持续支持合法化了政府的这一安排。通过这种过渡，民主在司法领域渐渐发展，一直到1946年真正的多党制选举发生为止。

世俗主义

参见：土耳其世俗主义

人民主权的建立涉及到与几百年的传统发生冲突。改革本身的进展是以进步与保守的不断斗争为特征的：一面是凯末尔和他心向改革的政治精英，另一面是没受过教育的饱受打中。

这些变化意味着划分宗教/民族社群的米利特制度彻底完结了。每一个米利特的人民传统上享有一定自治权，有自己的领导层，族群内各自收税，并根据自己的宗教/文化法律制度生活。 在凯末尔改革下，官方收回对奥斯曼帝国米利特的承认。取而代之的是一个全民世俗当局。一些家庭因此失去社群医院和社群学校这样的机构支持，经济条件恶化；许多宗教社群无法适应这种新制度，向外移民和贫穷更加剧他们的困境。

凯末尔主义的世俗主义并非是是反宗教或者反回教的。实际上，凯末尔主义下，国家对伊斯兰的支持体现在宗教事务管理局(土耳其语：Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı)的建立上。该局"处理关于伊斯兰信仰、礼拜和伦理的工作，在宗教事务上启蒙大众，管理神圣的礼拜场所。"其他宗教也如是管理。当局坚决地反对反宗教行为。政府维护所有土耳其公民在自己私人空间的的宗教平等和信仰自由。政府保护宗教自由，自己却超然任何一种宗教影响之外。凯末尔主义反对政治伊斯兰，因其威胁到政府的独立性，以及它对所有宗教一视同仁对待的能力。

The changes were both conceptually radical and culturally significant.这种变化不仅概念上激进，而且文化上重要。1924年3月3日，宗教教育系统为国民教育系统所取代，1517年以来就一直由奥斯曼帝国奥斯曼帝国皇帝兼任的哈里发职位于同日被废除。伊斯兰法庭和伊斯兰教法被基于瑞士民法典（Zivilgesetzbuch）的世俗法律结构所取代。

里程碑事件

• 1922年9月1日，废除奥斯曼帝国苏丹这一职务。
• 1923年10月29日，宣布成立共和国 - 土耳其共和国。
• 1924年3月废除奥斯曼帝国哈里发担任的哈里发一职。

社会改革

凯末尔主义改革在国立教育和女性选举权方面带来了有效的社会变化。可是，尝试改革奥斯曼帝国封建(土耳其语：Ağalık)系统的行为收到的反响并不怎么好。一部分社会机构有宗教背景，并对公共生活产生了绝大影响。

宗教徽标

参见：奥斯曼帝国服装

一名穿戴特殊头饰的伊斯兰学者，在1925年头饰法案之后就无法穿戴这种头饰了

The Ottoman Empire had a social system based on religious affiliation and religious insignia extended to every social function. It was common to wear clothing that identified the person with their own particular religious grouping and accompanied headgear which distinguish "rank", "profession" throughout the Ottoman Empire. The turbans, fezes, bonnets and head-dresses surmounting Ottoman styles show the "sex", "rank" and "profession" (both civil and military). These styles were accompanied with a strict regulation beginning with the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent. Sultan Mahmud II followed on the example of Peter the Great in Russia in modernizing the Empire and used the dress code of 1826 which developed the symbols (classifications) of feudalism among the public. Kemalist view of change, like that of Peter I of Russia or Sultan Mahmud II, was achieved through introduction of the progressive customs by decrees, while banning the traditional customs. The view of their social change proposed; if the permanence of secularism was to be assured by removal of persistence of traditional cultural values (the religious insignia), a considerable degree of cultural receptivity by the public to the further social change could be achieved. The "dress code" give a chance for removal of persistence of traditional values in the society.

Kemalists defined a non-civilized (non-scientific, non-positivist) person as one who functioned within the boundaries of superstition. The ulema was not a scientific group, and it was acting according to superstitions developed throughout centuries. Their name was "Gerici". On February 25, 1925 parliament passed a law stating that religion was not to be used as a tool in politics. The question became how this law could be brought to life in a country whose scholars are dominated by the ulema. Kemalist ideology waged a war against superstition by banning the practices of the ulema and promoting the civilized way ("westernization"), with establishing lawyers, teachers, doctors. The ban on the ulema's social existence came in the form of "dress code." The strategic goal was to change the large influence of the ulema over politics by removing them from the social arena. However, there was the danger of being perceived as anti-religious. Kemalists defended themselves by stating "Islam viewed all forms of superstition (non-scientific) nonreligious". The ulema's power was established during the Ottoman Empire with the conception that secular institutions were all subordinate to religion; the ulema were emblems of religious piety, and therefore rendering them powerful over state affairs. Kemalists claimed "the state will be ruled by positivism not superstition." A good example was the practice of medicine. Kemalists wanted to get rid of superstition extending to herbal medicine, potion, and religious therapy for mental illness, all of which were practised by the ulema. They excoriated those who used herbal medicine, potions, and balms, and instituted penalties against the religious men who claimed they have a say in health and medicine. On September 1, 1925, the first Turkish Medical Congress was assembled, which was only four days after Mustafa Kemal was seen on August 27 at Inebolu wearing a modern hat and one day after the Kastamonu speech on August 30.

1934年关于被禁止服饰的法案禁止穿戴宗教服饰如头巾

Official measures were gradually introduced to eliminate the wearing of religious clothing and other overt signs of religious affiliation. Beginning in 1923, a series of laws progressively limited the wearing of selected items of traditional clothing. Mustafa Kemal first made the hat compulsory to the civil servants. The guidelines for the proper dressing of students and state employees (public space controlled by state) was passed during his lifetime. After most of the relatively better educated civil servants adopted the hat with their own he gradually moved further. The Hat Law of 1925 introduced the use of Western style hats instead of the fez. Legislation did not explicitly prohibit veils or headscarves and focused instead on banning fezzes and turbans for men.

Another control on the dress was passed in 1934 with the law relating to the wearing of 'Prohibited Garments'. It banned religion-based clothing, such as the veil and turban, while actively promoting western-style attire.

修道院和苦行僧道堂

Social change also included centuries old religious social structures that has been deeply rooted within the society, some are established within the state organisation of the Ottoman Empire. The abolishment of caliphate position removed the highest religious-political position at the government level, but left the Muslim brotherhoods (Muslim associations for any purpose, working as a society of Muslim believers) who were institutionalized under convents and dervish lodges, which were the official establishment of the extension of political power among the society without any organizing structure. In 1925 , by enactment of the law related to religious covenants and dervish lodges, such institutions were declared totally illegal.

女权

一战后土耳其独立战争期间的安纳托利亚和土耳其人民

1935年大选后，十八名女性国会议员加入土耳其国会。当时许多其他欧洲国家的女性还没有选举权。在1993年坦苏·奇莱尔成为土耳其第一位女总理。

土耳其民法典的改革，包括关于女性选举权的改革，"不仅是伊斯兰世界的突破，也是西方世界的突破"。

随着一系列制度与规定的改变，两性平等的法律权利在1926到1934之间落实。女性第一次得到了许多权利，包括投票权。

土耳其女权运动者与他国的女权运动者不同，她们认识到自己最好的机会在于维护与宣扬鼓吹世俗价值和男女平权的凯末尔主义改革，而不需要直接去争取基本权利和平等。

在共和国初年的一次会议中，凯末尔宣称：

对女同胞: 为我们赢得教育之战的胜利，你们将会为国家做出的贡献会比我们以前所能取得的的成就都大。这就是我向你们呼吁的。.
对男同胞: 如若从今天起女性不再分担这个国家的社会生活，我们将永远无法达成我国的全面发展，我们将会不可弥补地落后，无法无法与西方文明并驾齐驱。.

里程碑事件

• 1925年9月25日：更换头饰与衣装
• 1925年9月30日：关闭宗教修道院和德尔维希道堂
• 1934年6月21日：土耳其姓名法案.
• 1934年9月26日：废除荣誉称号与又名。

司法改革

参见：土耳其司法系统、土耳其宪法和土耳其宪政史

凯末尔在[安卡拉

总统府的图书馆里]]

奥斯曼帝国是一个宗教帝国，各个宗教社群享有很大程度的自治权（参见米利特）。每一个米利特内部的统治都是基于宗教法，如宗教法， 天主教法典，或者犹太教[[哈拉卡]。

凯末尔在伊斯坦布尔大学，土耳其第一所现代大学

凯末尔最先着手的司法改革包括一步世俗的土耳其宪法(基于法国式的世俗主义)，达成了完全的政教分离，用基于《瑞士民法典》的世俗民法和基于意大利刑法的刑法典来代替伊斯兰法庭和伊斯兰教法。改革也建立了并且于1934年12月5日在许多欧洲国家之前实现了两性法律平等完全政治权利，

伊斯兰教法一直不包含管理人们在"政治机构"和"商业交易"关系的条款。奥斯曼帝国之所以解体不只是因为他的制度过时，而且是因为他的传统无法适用于当时的要求。例如，伊斯兰教法影响下关于"刑事案例"的规则无法充分防止犯罪。 到了十九世纪初，奥斯曼伊斯兰法典在处理概念更宽的社会系统时，法律条文总体上没有实用性。非穆斯林米利特受[[启蒙时代]现代化的基督教法律影响。伊斯兰教法与基督教法尽管奥斯曼法典en:Megelle盘根错节，一夫多妻在凯末尔改革之后就不能合法实行了。 There were thousands of articles in the Megelle which were not used due to their inapplicability.

Legal reforms of Kemal could be perceived as the last step of a failed history of modernization in Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire tried to modernize the code with the reforms of 1839 (Hatt-i Sharif). Hatt-i Sharif tried to end the confusion in the judicial sphere by extending the legal equality to all citizens. In 1841 a criminal code was drawn up. When the Empire dissolved, there was still no legislation with regard to family and marital relationships. The adaptation of laws relating to family and marital relationships is an important step which is attributed to Mustafa Kemal.

里程碑事件

• March 1, 1926: Introduction of the new penal law modeled after the Italian penal code.
• October 4, 1926: Introduction of the new civil code modeled after the Swiss civil code.
• December 5, 1934: Full political rights to women, to vote and be elected.
• February 5, 1937: The inclusion of the principle of laïcité in the constitution.

教育改革

Literacy of Turkish people in 1924

Mustafa Kemal visited a maths class of Izmir High School for Boys, February 1, 1931.

Atatürk introducing the new Turkish alphabet at the central Anatolian city of Kayseri on September 20, 1928

参见：Education in Turkey

The educational reforms combined with the opening of People's Houses throughout the country and the active encouragement of people by Atatürk himself with many trips to the countryside teaching the new alphabet. However, "its effect on the struggle against illiteracy was disappointing".

The literacy reform was also supported by strengthening the private publishing sector with a new Law on Copyrights and congresses for discussing the issues of copyright, public education and scientific publishing.

教育统一

The unification of education had two important features. The first one was the democratization and the second one was to activate secularism in the field of education. Unification came with the Law on Unification of National Education, which introduced three regulations: First, all medreses and schools administered by private foundations or the Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı (Presidency for Religious Affairs) were connected to the Ministry of National Education. Second, the money allocated to schools and medreses from the budget of the Diyanet was transferred to the education budget. Third, the Ministry of Education had to open a religious faculty for training higher religious experts within the system of higher education, and separate schools for training imams and hatips.

With the unification of education, along with the closure of the old-style universities, applied a large-scale program of science transfer from Europe. One of the cornerstone of educational institutions, the University of Istanbul, accepted German and Austrian scientists who the National Socialist regime in Germany had considered 'racially' or politically undesirable. This political decision was accepted as the building the nucleus of science as a modern institution in Turkey. The reform aimed to break away the traditional dependency [since the Ottoman Empire] on the transfer of science and technology by foreign experts.

语言改革

On November 1, 1928, the new Turkish alphabet was introduced by the Language Commission at the initiative of Atatürk, replacing the previously used Perso-Arabic script. The adoption of the Latin alphabet and the purging of foreign loanwords was part of Mustafa Kemal's program of modernization.

The removal of Arabic script was defended on the ground that it was not appropriate for the authentic Turkish phonology, which needs a new set of symbols to be correctly represented. The Ottoman Perso-Arabic script was an abjad, which made it too ambiguous for the Turkish language, in which vowels are far more important than in Arabic. A well-known example of the deficiency of the Arabic script is the phrase محمد پاشا اولدو, which can represent either Mehmet Paşa oldu (Muhammad became a Pasha) or Mehmet Paşa öldü (Muhammad Pasha died). Ottoman writers had to work around such ambiguities via circumlocutions, usually of Persian or Arabic origin.

The abandonment of the Arabic script was not merely a symbolic expression of secularization by breaking the link to Ottoman Islamic texts to which only a minor group of ulema had access; but also Latin script would make reading and writing easier to learn and consequently improve the literacy rate.

Adaptation of technical vocabulary was another step of modernization, which was tried thoroughly. Non-technical Turkish was vernacularized and simplified on the ground that the language of Turkish people should be comprehensible by the people. A good example is the Turkish word "Bilgisayar" (bilgi = "information", sayar = "counter"), which was adapted for the word "Computer".

Another important part of Atatürk's reforms encompassed his emphasis on the Turkish language and history, leading to the establishment of Turkish Language Association and Turkish Historical Society for research on Turkish language and history, during the years 1931–2.

里程碑事件

• March 3, 1924: The unification of education
• January 1, 1928: Establishment of Turkish Education Association for supporting children in financial need and contributing to the educational life.
• November 1, 1928: Adoption of the new Turkish alphabet
• 1931: Establishment of Turkish Historical Society for research on history
• July 12, 1932: Establishment of Turkish Language Association for regulating the Turkish language
• May 31, 1933: Regulation of the university education

经济改革

参见：Economic history of Turkey和Economy of Turkey

Atatürk visiting a model farm, probably the AOÇ near Ankara

Economic reforms included the establishment of many state-owned factories throughout the country for the agriculture, machine making and textile industries.

Many of these grew into successful enterprises and were privatized during the latter part of 20th century.

Atatürk considered the development of a national rail network as another important step for industrialization. In 1927 he established the Turkish State Railways, developing an extensive rail network in a relatively short timespan.

里程碑事件

• July 24, 1923: Abolition of the capitulations with the Treaty of Lausanne
• 1924: The Weekend Act (Workweek: Monday to Friday become work days)
• 1925: Establishment of model farms; Atatürk Orman Çiftliği
• 1925: The International Time and Calendar System (Gregorian calendar, Time zone)
• 1926: The Obligation Law
• 1926: The Commercial Law
• May 31, 1927: Establishment of the Turkish State Railways
• 1933: The System of Measures (International System of Units)
• December 1, 1933: First Five Year Development Plan (Planned economy)
• 1937: Second Five Year Development Plan (Planned economy)

批评

改革的指导思想

The reforms were guided by educational and scientific progress, and based on the principles of positivist and rationalist enlightenment. Members of Republican People's Party, mostly graduates of the 'modern schools' that were established during Tanzimat era, applied their western-inspired modernization to all areas of government.

改革的有效性

Some people thought that the pace of change under Atatürk was too rapid as, in his quest to modernize Turkey, he effectively abolished centuries-old traditions. Nevertheless, the bulk of the population willingly accepted the reforms, even though some were seen as reflecting the views of the urban elites at the expense of the generally illiterate inhabitants of the rural countryside, where religious sentiments and customary norms tended to be stronger.

Probably the most controversial area of reform was that of religion. The policy of state secularism ("active neutrality") met with opposition at the time and it continues to generate a considerable degree of social and political tension. However, any political movement that attempts to harness religious sentiment at the expense of Turkish secularism is likely to face the opposition of the armed forces, which has always regarded itself as the principal and most faithful guardian of secularism. Some assert that a historical example is the case of Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, who was overthrown by the military in 1960. He and two of his Ministers were hanged by the Military Tribunal. However, their charges were not for being anti-secular. Although Menderes did relax some restrictions on religion he also banned the millet party which was avowedly Islamist. Further, the charges at the Military Tribunal did not involve antisecular activities and it can be concluded that Menderes was overall in favour of the secular system.

改革亦或革命

The Turkish name for Atatürk's Reforms literally means "Atatürk's Revolutions", as, strictly speaking, the changes were too profound to be described as mere 'reforms'. It also reflects the belief that those changes, implemented as they were during the Single-Party period, were more in keeping with the attitudes of the country's progressive elite than with a general populace accustomed to centuries of Ottoman stability – an attempt to convince a people so-conditioned of the merits of such far-reaching changes would test the political courage of any government subject to multi-party conditions.

又见

• 凯末尔
• 土耳其共和国历史
• 土耳其历史时间表
• 现代化

拓展阅读

• Bein, Amit. Ottoman Ulema, Turkish Republic: Agents of Change and Guardians of Tradition (2011) Amazon.com
• Ergin, Murat. "Cultural encounters in the social sciences and humanities: western émigré scholars in Turkey," History of the Human Sciences, Feb 2009, Vol. 22 Issue 1, pp 105-130
• Hansen, Craig C. "Are We Doing Theory Ethnocentrically? A Comparison of Modernization Theory and Kemalism," Journal of Developing Societies (0169796X), 1989, Vol. 5 Issue 2, pp 175-187
• Hanioglu, M. Sukru. Ataturk: An intellectual biography (2011) Amazon.com
• Kazancigil, Ali and Ergun Özbudun. Ataturk: Founder of a Modern State (1982) 243pp
• Ward, Robert, and Dankwart Rustow, eds. Political Modernization in Japan and Turkey (1964).
• Yavuz, M. Hakan. Islamic Political Identity in Turkey (2003) Amazon.com
• Zurcher, Erik. Turkey: A Modern History (2004) Amazon.com

外部链接

维基共享资源上的相关多媒体资源：凯末尔改革

• Ministry of National Education and Culture, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus （土耳其文）