遷徙新大陸模型
人类在何时以何种方式迁入美洲的问题成引发了人类学家和考古学家巨大的兴趣,并且成为几个世纪以来一直争论不休的话题。学术界给出了许多古印地安人在美洲定居的模型。现代生物化学技术和考古学的结合也极大地促进了人对于这个问题的认识。
目前,对于这个问题的解答工作主要涉及到以下四个互相关联的学科,考古学,人类体格学,DNA分析学以及语言学。目前,学界大体认可,美洲大陆第一批移民是自白令海峡迁徙而来的亚洲的族群。然而,移民的模式,时间,以及进入美洲的人为何种亚洲族群至今尚不明确。[1]
近年来,学术界不断用已经掌握的方法对一些已经建立起来的理论进行进一步证实或者是证伪,这些理论种较为出名的是认为克洛维斯人是第一个到达美洲的人类种群。[2] 随着发现的深入,过去的假设被重新审查并且新的理论随即被提出。考古证据表明,古印地安人大规模的扩张在上个冰河时期末期, 或者更精确地说,是末次冰盛期(Late Glacial Maixmum),也就是距今16,500–13,000年前。[3]
各派意见综述
迁徙模型在时间上大致分为两派。[4][5] 第一种叫做"短时理论"(short chronology theory),短时理论认为人类第一次从阿拉斯加迁徙至新大陆的发生晚于距今15,000 – 17,000年前,之后展开了波浪式的移民推进(waves of immigrants)。[6][7] 第二种叫做"长时理论"(long chronology theory)其认为,第一批人类到达美洲大陆所在的半球时间要远早于15,000 – 17,000年前,他们认为可能的时间为 21,000–40,000年前。[8][9] ,然后才是第二波巨大的移民潮。[10][11][12]
一个引发巨大争论的原因是,南部美洲和北部美洲的古印地安人定居点在考古证据上的不连续。一个大体上统一的考古学文化在北部和中部美洲被发现,距今至少有13,500年的历史,考古学家称之为克洛維斯文化。 [13] 然而,同一时代的南美洲的据点就缺乏这样的一致性,拥有更大的文化多样性。考古学家认为,"克洛维斯先至论"和古印地安人时间框架都不足以解释复杂的美洲石器时代(lithic stage)工具是如何在南美洲出现的。一些理论学家正在寻求一种可以整合南北美洲考古记录的新的殖民模型。
对美洲土著的基因研究发现,“殖民缔造人群”(colonizing founder)可能是单一祖先人群。基于Y染色体微卫星中的美洲单倍型类群Q1a3a(Y-DNA)分叉的时间推算,这个单一祖先人群出现在距今10,000到15,000年前。而这个单一祖先人群的很有可能来自白令海峡 [14][15][16][17][18] [5][19] 这一点仍然不足以说明,在此之前,抑或其他基因也曾试图在这片土地上繁衍并且以失败告终。因为基因测试只能基于现存人口的遗传信息进行。[5]
当白令大陆桥露出海平面的时候,从东北亚步行至阿拉斯加是相对容易的。然而从阿拉斯加到其他北美洲地区路途却十分艰难。我们猜测主要有两个可能的路径,沿大西洋海岸往南,或者是逻辑山脉东侧的内陆通道—麦肯锡走廊(Mackenzie Corridor)[17]。在Laurentide和Corilleran冰盖最大的时候,这两条道路都是极其容易的。Corilleran冰盖西起太平洋,东至Laurentide冰盖,也就是今天加拿大的不列颠-哥伦比亚省和阿尔伯塔省的交界。地理学证据证明,太平洋沿岸路保持畅通是在公元前21,000年之前和公元前13,000年之后。在上一个冰河时期中最冷的一千年,大致在距今23,000到19,000年之前,冰川是的道路充满危险。即使使用船只也十分困难,因为水体中到处都是冰山。况且尚无古代海岸线上有船只的考古证据。在这段时间以前,这些通路是没有结冰的。另外,当气候温暖的时候,土地上被植被覆盖,早期古印第安人可以在这里补充给养,缝补衣服帐篷,以及重置工具等等。[15]海岸线和船只理论有一个模糊的假设,那就是一个在北美大陆上的古印第安人可能已经不是纯粹的陆地狩猎者,而已经习惯于航海或者半航海的生活。[12]另外,”白令人”(北阿拉斯加人)甚至很有可能是由于被上一次冰河期的逼迫下,在20,000年前,向北美内陆和海岸线迁徙, [20] 并且留下占据某些特定局部区域的考古证据。然而,除非他们最终在最后一次冰期结束后仍然生存繁衍,不然他们就不能被当作是“缔造人群”(founding population)。[21]
陆桥论
也被称为白令海峡沿岸论(Bering Strait Theory)或者白令陆桥论(Beringia)。自从1930年起,陆桥论被广泛接受。而早在1590年,耶稣会学者José de Acosta就已经提出这样的初步假设。[22] 陆桥论主张,第一批美洲移民是从西伯利亚来到阿拉斯加。原因则很可能是追赶迁徙的牛群。我们可以通过收集氧的同位素深海泥土的取样发现,在最后一个更新世,也就是距今50,000-10,000年前,海平面比现在低60米左右。那样就有一段至少1000英里宽的大陆桥连接西伯利亚和阿拉斯加。也就是这段时间内,那些追逐大型猎物的猎人在距今大约12,000年前的时候通过大陆桥到达美洲,并且在距今11,000年前最终到达南美洲的最南端。
时间 公元前 B.C. | 白令路桥 "大陆桥" | 海岸线 | Mackenzie 走廊 |
---|---|---|---|
38,000–34,000 | 可通行 (开启) | 开启 | 关闭 |
34,000–30,000 | 淹没 (关闭) | 开启 | 开启 |
30,000–22,000 | 可通行 (开启) | 关闭 | 开启 |
22,000–15,000 | 可通行 (开启) | 开启 | 关闭 |
15,000–today | 淹没 (关闭) | 开启 | 开启 |
Clovis culture
This big game-hunting culture has been labeled the Clovis culture, and is primarily identified by its artifacts of fluted projectile points. The culture received its name from artifacts found near Clovis, New Mexico, the first evidence of this tool complex, excavated in 1932. The Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and appeared in South America. The culture is identified by distinctive "Clovis point", a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute by which it was inserted into a shaft; it could be removed from the shaft for traveling. This flute is one characteristic that defines the Clovis point complex.
Dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B.P. (before present). This evidence suggests that the culture flowered somewhat later and for a shorter period of time than previously believed. Michael R. Waters of Texas A&M University in College Station and Thomas W. Stafford Jr., proprietor of a private-sector laboratory in Lafayette, Colorado and an expert in radiocarbon dating, attempted to determine the dates of the Clovis period. The heyday of Clovis technology has typically been set between 11,500 and 10,900 radiocarbon years B.P. (The radiocarbon calibration is disputed for this period, but the widely used IntCal04 calibration puts the dates at 13,300 to 12,800 calendar years B.P.). In a controversial move, Waters and Stafford conclude that no fewer than 11 of the 22 Clovis sites with radiocarbon dates are "problematic" and should be disregarded—including the type site in Clovis, New Mexico. They argue that the datable samples could have been contaminated by earlier material. This contention was considered highly controversial by many in the archaeological community.
Clovis-type artifacts seem to disappear from the archaeological record after the hypothesized Younger Dryas impact event, roughly 12,900 years before the present. The effects of the event possibly caused a decline in post-Clovis human populations and shifts in culture and behavior patterns.[24]
水路移民论
arlier finds have led to a pre-Clovis culture theory encompassing different migration models with an expanded chronology to supersede the "Clovis-first" theory.
Pacific coastal models
Pacific models propose that people first reached the Americas via water travel, following coastlines from northeast Asia into the Americas. Coastlines are unusually productive environments because they provide humans with access to a diverse array of plants and animals from both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. While not exclusive of land-based migrations, the Pacific 'coastal migration theory' helps explain how early colonists reached areas extremely distant from the Bering Strait region, including sites such as Monte Verde in southern Chile and Taima-Taima in western Venezuela. Two cultural components were discovered at Monte Verde near the Pacific Coast of Chile. The youngest layer is radiocarbon dated at 12,500 radiocarbon years (~14,000 cal BP) [來源請求] and has produced the remains of several types of seaweeds collected from coastal habitats. The older and more controversial component may date back as far as 33,000 years, but few scholars currently accept this very early component.[來源請求]
Other coastal models, dealing specifically with the peopling of the Pacific Northwest and California coasts, have been advocated by archaeologists Knut Fladmark, Roy Carlson, James Dixon, Jon Erlandson, Ruth Gruhn, and Daryl Fedje. In a 2007 article in the Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, Erlandson and his colleagues proposed a corollary to the coastal migration theory—the "kelp highway hypothesis"—arguing that productive kelp forests supporting similar suites of plants and animals would have existed near the end of the Pleistocene around much of the Pacific Rim from Japan to Beringia, the Pacific Northwest, and California, as well as the Andean Coast of South America. Once the coastlines of Alaska and British Columbia had deglaciated about 16,000 years ago, these kelp forest (along with estuarine, mangrove, and coral reef) habitats would have provided an ecologically similar migration corridor, entirely at sea level, and essentially unobstructed.
Southeast Asians: Paleoindians of the Coast
The boat-builders from Southeast Asia may have been one of the earliest groups to reach the shores of North America.[來源請求] One theory suggests people in boats followed the coastline from the Kurile Islands to Alaska down the coasts of North and South America as far as Chile [2 62; 7 54, 57]. The Haida nation on the Queen Charlotte Islands off the coast of British Columbia may have originated from these early Asian mariners between 25,000 and 12,000.[來源請求] Early watercraft migration would also explain the habitation of coastal sites in South America such as Pikimachay Cave in Peru by 20,000 years ago and Monte Verde in Chile by 13,000 years ago [6 30; 8 383].
- "'There was boat use in Japan 20,000 years ago,' says Jon Erlandson, a University of Oregon anthropologist. 'The Kurile Islands (north of Japan) are like stepping stones to Beringia,' the then continuous land bridging the Bering Strait. Migrants, he said, could have then skirted the tidewater glaciers in Canada right on down the coast." [7 64]'
Atlantic coastal model
Archaeologists Dennis Stanford and Bruce Bradley champion the coastal Atlantic route. Their Solutrean Hypothesis is also based on evidence from the Clovis complex, but instead traces the origins of the Clovis toolmaking style to the Solutrean culture of Ice Age Western Europe.[25] The theory suggests that early European people (or peoples) may have been among the earliest settlers of the Americas.[26][27] Citing evidence that the Solutrean culture of prehistoric Europe may have provided the basis for the tool-making of the Clovis culture in the Americas, the theory suggests that Ice Age Europeans migrated to North America by using skills similar to those possessed by the modern Inuit peoples and followed the edge of the ice sheet that spanned the Atlantic. The hypothesis rests upon particular similarities in Solutrean and Clovis technology that have no known counterparts in Eastern Asia, Siberia or Beringia, areas from which, or through which, early Americans are known to have migrated. The theory is largely discounted by most professionals for a variety of reasons, including the fact that the differences between the two tool-making traditions far outweigh the similarities, the several thousand miles of the Atlantic Ocean to be crossed, and the 5,000-year-span that separate the two different cultures.[28][29] Genetic studies of Native American populations have also shown the Solutrean theory to be unlikely, showing instead that the five main mtDNA haplogroups found in the Americas were all part of one gene pool migration from Asia.[30]
Problems with evaluating coastal migration models
The coastal migration models provide a different perspective on migration to the New World, but they are not without their own problems. One of the biggest problems is that global sea levels have risen over 100 metres since the end of the last glacial period, and this has submerged the ancient coastlines which maritime people would have followed into the Americas. Finding sites associated with early coastal migrations is extremely difficult—and systematic excavation of any sites found in deeper waters is challenging and expensive. If there was an early pre-Clovis coastal migration, there is always the possibility of a "failed colonization." Another problem that arises is the lack of hard evidence found for a "long chronology" theory. No sites have yet produced a consistent chronology older than about 12,500 radiocarbon years (~14,500 calendar years) [來源請求], but research has been limited in South America related to the possibility of early coastal migrations.
基因与血型
学界早在1920年代就指出,在哥伦布到达新大陆前,美洲的绝大部分人口为O型血以及很小部分在北方的A型人口。之后,由Cavalli-Sforza为先驱,开始通过对更早的历史人口迁徙记录更深入的统计学和基因学基因学研究。Jacob Bronowski在The Ascent of Men(1973)中这样说道,
"我们没有理由不相信,第一批来到美洲的一些是来自一个较小且具有亲属关系的O型血人群,然后他们在美洲大陆上繁衍生息,并且向南扩张。之后到来的,同样是一个较小的人群,但是混合了A型和O型血,来到北美洲。"[31]
现代美洲基因学则主要研究人类Y染色体DNA单倍型类群和人类粒线体单倍群。基因图谱显示两种迥然不同的基因(genetic episodes),也就是美洲土著和欧洲殖民者的基因。决定前者的基因谱数的是合子的突变和基本单倍型。[5][32][33] [32]由此说明,新大陆上的居民由小部分基础人群(found population)一开始从白令路桥一步步繁衍而来。[5][16][21]微卫星在南美洲的多样性和Y种系特异性基因的分布表明,一个特定印地安人在迁徙在美洲的一开始就被孤立起来。[34] ,其中就包括 Na-Dené, 因纽特人 以及 阿拉斯加土著。在这些人群中发生了和其他美洲土著人群完全不同的基因突变。前者出现了haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations,而后者则多为mtDNA 和atDNA突变。[35][36][37] 这也就暗示了那些最早到达美洲大陆最北端和格林兰的人群恰恰后来的移民而非一开始到达美洲的人群。[38][39]
考古,地理和基因学证据选录
40,000 B.C. – 25,000 B.C. | |
30,000–20,000 years ago:
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23,000–16,500 years ago:
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16,500–13,000 years ago:
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15,000–13,000 years ago:
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13,500–12,000 years ago:
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12,000–10,000 years ago:
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9,000–8,000 years ago:
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參見
参考文献
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- ^ Gremillion, David H. Archaeolog: Pre Siberian Human Migration to America: Possible validation by HTLV-1 mutation analysis. Traumwerk.stanford.edu. 2008-09-25 [2010-10-12]. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000078.
- ^ Bonatto, Sandro L.; Salzano, Francisco M. A single and early migration for the peopling of the Americas supported by mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 1997, 94: 1866–1871. PMC 20009 . PMID 9050871. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.5.1866.
- ^ Phillip M. White. American Indian chronology: chronologies of the American mosaic. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2006: 1 [29 November 2011]. ISBN 978-0-313-33820-5.
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Canada's oldest known home is a cave in Yukon occupied not 12,000 years ago like the U.S. sites, but at least 20,000 years ago
- ^ Pleistocene Archaeology of the Old Crow Flats. Vuntut National Park of Canada. 2008 [2010-01-10].
However, despite the lack of this conclusive and widespread evidence, there are suggestions of human occupation in the northern Yukon about 24,000 years ago, and hints of the presence of humans in the Old Crow Basin as far back as about 40,000 years ago.
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- ^ First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover - Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News. [2009-10-05].
- ^ (2003) "Y-Chromosome Evidence for Differing Ancient Demographic Histories in the Americas," (pdf) Maria-Catira Bortolini, Francisco M. Salzano, Mark G. Thomas, Steven Stuart, Selja P. K. Nasanen, Claiton H. D. Bau, Mara H. Hutz, Zulay Layrisse, Maria L. Petzl-Erler, Luiza T. Tsuneto, Kim Hill, Ana M. Hurtado, Dinorah Castro-de-Guerra, Maria M. Torres, Helena Groot, Roman Michalski, Pagbajabyn Nymadawa, Gabriel Bedoya, Neil Bradman, Damian Labuda, Andres Ruiz-Linares. Department of Biology, University College, London; Departamento de Genética, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Caracas, Venezuela; Departamento de Genética, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil; 5Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque; 6Laboratorio de Genética Humana, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá; Victoria Hospital, Prince Albert, Canada; Subassembly of Medical Sciences, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia; Laboratorio de Genética Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia; Université de Montréal, Montreal. 73:524-539. Retrieved 2010-01-22.
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- ^ 21.0 21.1 First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover - Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News. [2009-11-18].
Archaeological evidence, in fact, recognizes that people started to leave Beringia for the New World around 40,000 years ago, but rapid expansion into North America didn't occur until about 15,000 years ago, when the ice had literally broken
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- ^ Jordan, David K. Prehistoric Beringia. University of California-San Diego. 2009 [2010-04-15].
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Bradley and Stanford (2004) have raised now, in several instances, the claim that European Upper Paleolithic Solutrean peoples colonized North America, and gave rise to the archaeological complex known as Clovis. They do so in the face of some obvious challenges – notably the several thousand miles of ocean and the 5000 radiocarbon years that separate the two. And yet they argue in their recent paper that the archaeological evidence in support of a historical connection is ‘overwhelming’. We are profoundly skeptical of this claim; we believe that the many differences between Solutrean and Clovis are far more significant than the few similarities, the latter being readily explained by the well-known phenomenon of technological convergence or parallelism. The origin and arrival time of the first Americans remain uncertain, but not so uncertain that we need to look elsewhere other than north-east Asia.
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Our results strongly support the hypothesis that haplogroup X, together with the other four main mtDNA haplogroups, was part of the gene pool of a single Native American founding population; therefore they do not support models that propose haplogroup-independent migrations, such as the migration from Europe posed by the Solutrean hypothesis.
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) (帮助) - ^ Zegura SL, Karafet TM, Zhivotovsky LA, Hammer MF. High-resolution SNPs and microsatellite haplotypes point to a single, recent entry of Native American Y chromosomes into the Americas. Molecular Biology and Evolution. 2004, 21 (1): 164–75. PMID 14595095. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh009. 已忽略未知参数
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) (帮助) - ^ mtDNA Variation among Greenland Eskimos. The Edge of the Beringian Expansion. Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research,University of Cambridge, Cambridge, University of Hamburg, Hamburg. 2000 [2009-11-22]. doi:10.1086/303038. Authors list列表中的
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(帮助) - ^ The peopling of the New World - Perspectives from Molecular Anthropology. Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania (Annual Review of Anthropology). 2004: Vol. 33, 551–583 [2010-02-03]. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143932.
- ^ Native American Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Indicates That the Amerind and the Nadene Populations Were Founded by Two Independent Migrations. Center for Genetics and Molecular Medicine and Departments of Biochemistry and Anthropology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia. Genetics Society of America. Vol 130, 153-162. [2009-11-28]. Authors list列表中的
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(帮助) - ^ Marder, William. Indians in the Americas: the untold story. By William Marder. 2005-04. ISBN 978-1-58509-104-1.
- ^ Norman Herz; Ervan G. Garrison. Geological methods for archaeology. Oxford University Press. 1998: 125 [29 November 2011]. ISBN 978-0-19-509024-6.
- ^ Palaeo-Indian archaeology. Canadian Studies Program, Canadian Heritage.
- ^ 43.0 43.1 The Topper Site in South Carolina. Ohio Archaeological Inventor.
- ^ Gibbon, Guy E; Ames, Kenneth M. Archaeology of Prehistoric Native America: An Encyclopedia. By Guy E. Gibbon, Kenneth M. Ames (1998). 1998. ISBN 978-0-8153-0725-9.
- ^ Dickason, Olive. Canada's First Nations: A History of the Founding Peoples from the Earliest Times. 2nd edition. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1997.
- ^ Alberta History pre 1800 - Jasper Alberta. AlbertaJasper.com.
- ^ pre glaciology in Alberta (PDF). Calgary university.
- ^ An mtDNA view of the peopling of the world by Homo sapiens. Cambridge DNA Services. 2007 [2011-06-01].
- ^ Richmond, G.M.; Fullerton, D.S. Summation of Quaternary glaciations in the United States of America. Quaternary Science Reviews. 1986, 5: 183–196. doi:10.1016/0277-3791(86)90184-8. 已忽略未知参数
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(帮助) - ^ Tamm E, Kivisild T, Reidla M; et al. Beringian Standstill and Spread of Native American Founders. PLoS ONE. 2007, 2 (9): e829. PMC 1952074 . PMID 17786201. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000829.
- ^ 51.0 51.1 Beginnings to 1500 C.E.. Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples.
- ^ Fagundes, Nelson J.R.; Ricardo Kanitz, Roberta Eckert, Ana C.S. Valls, Mauricio R. Bogo, Francisco M. Salzano, David Glenn Smith, Wilson A. Silva, Marco A. Zago, Andrea K. Ribeiro-dos-Santos, Sidney E.B. Santos, Maria Luiza Petzl-Erler, and Sandro L. Bonatto. Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas. American Journal of Human Genetics. 2008, 82 (3): 583–592. PMC 2427228 . PMID 18313026. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.11.013.
- ^ Vertebrate paleontology and the alleged ice-free corridor: The meat of the matter. ScienceDirect a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V.
- ^ # Martin, Paul S. (2005): Twilight of the mammoths: Ice Age extinctions and the rewilding of America. University of California Press, Berkeley. ISBN 0-520-23141-4
- ^ Fiedal, Stuart. Sudden Deaths: The Chronology of Terminal Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinction. Haynes, Gary (编). American Megafaunal Extinctions at the End of the Pleistocene. Springer. 2009: 21–37. ISBN 978-1-4020-8792-9. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8793-6_2.
- ^ Meadowcroft Rockshelter, Pennsylvania.. Bradshaw Foundation.
- ^ 57.0 57.1 Chilean Field Yields New Clues to Peopling of Americas. The New York Times. By John Noble Wilford.
- ^ Cactus Hill Update. Archaeological Institute of America.
- ^ Taimataima site. Dr. José R. Oliver.
- ^ Connor, Steve. Does skull prove that the first Americans came from Europe?. The Independent (London). 3 December 2002 [23 June 2011].
- ^ George Weber. Tibito and El Abra sites (Colombia ). The Andaman Association.
- ^ 62.0 62.1 Evidence Supports Earlier Date for People in North America. New York Times. 2008-04-04 [2010-05-13].
- ^ Worldwide glacier retreat. RealClimate.
- ^ First Americans. National Geographic society.
- ^ Jaguay and Tacahuay sites (Arequipa and Tacna, Peru). Vantage World Travel.
- ^ Early North American Cultures. Minnesota State University.
- ^ Debert Palaeo-Indian Site. Nova Scotia Museum.
- ^ 68.0 68.1 68.2 Lagoa Santa sites (Minas Gerais, Brazil). Andaman Association.
- ^ Oldest North American Mummy. Archaeological Institute of America.
- ^ On Your Knees Cave. Timothy H. Heaton. The University of South Dakota. 2002 [2009-11-21].
The American Journal of Physical Anthropolog reports new DNA-based research that links the DNA retrieved from a 10,000-year-old fossilized tooth from an Alaskan island, with specific coastal tribes in Tierra del Fuego, Ecuador, Mexico and California. Unique markers found in DNA recovered from the Alaskan tooth were found in these specific coastal tribes, and were rare in any of the other indigenous peoples in the Americas. This finding lends substantial credence to a migration theory that at least one set of early peoples moved south along the west coast of the Americas in boats. A previous study showed that mtDNA (human mitochondrial DNA) from indigenous populations in coastal British Columbia showed similarities to coastal populations in Southern California, while inland populations in both localities differed markedly. Dates of 9,730 and 9,880 years BP were obtained on the human remains, making them the oldest ever found in Alaska or Canada. The associated bone tool was dated to 10,300 years old
- ^ Custred, Glynn. The Forbidden Discovery of Kennewick Man. Academic Questions. 2000, 13 (3): 12–30. doi:10.1007/s12129-000-1034-8.
- ^ America: 8000 to 5000 B.C.. Rice University.