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維基百科,自由的百科全書

這是本頁的一個歷史版本,由Tpoas對話 | 貢獻2021年2月5日 (五) 03:36 Clothing編輯。這可能和目前版本存在着巨大的差異。

基礎備份。

古典晚期羅馬軍隊
存在時期公元284年至480年 (西部) 或者是公元640年(東部)
解散The West Roman army disintegrated AD 425–470, whilst the East Roman army英語East Roman army continued until the Muslim conquests, after which the theme system was created.
國家或地區羅馬帝國
部門軍隊
規模大約在400,000–600,000左右
建制的單位類型御林軍英語Scholae, 羅馬中央軍英語Palatini (Roman military), 羅馬野戰軍英語Comitatenses, 羅馬邊防軍英語Limitanei, 蠻盟傭兵
參與戰役薩塔拉之戰英語Battle of Satala (298) (298), 斯特拉斯堡戰役英語Battle of Strasbourg (357), 泰西封戰役英語Battle of Ctesiphon (363) (363), 亞德里安堡戰役 (378) 和沙隆戰役 (451)
Venice聖馬可聖殿宗主教座堂反映四帝共治制的雕塑時期斑岩雕塑, 圖中顯示了戴克里先和他的三位同僚。在左邊的是戴克里先和馬克西米安,東西的兩位奧古斯都,即正皇帝; 在右邊的這是伽列里烏斯君士坦提烏斯一世,兩位凱撒,即副皇帝.請注意由於多瑙河伊利里亞人軍官習俗的影響,古典晚期軍官們普遍帶着羊毛制的潘諾尼亞帽(作戰用),以及帶着鷹頭劍柄的長劍

在現代學術中, 古典晚期羅馬軍隊說法始於284年即位的戴克里先,並於476年隨着羅慕路斯·奧古斯都的廢位而結束, 囊括了整個西帝國的多米那特製統治時期. 在395-476期間,羅馬帝國西半部的軍隊逐漸解體, 而東帝國,或者被稱為東羅馬軍隊英語East Roman army (或早期的拜占庭軍隊英語Byzantine army) 在規模和結構上基本保持完整,一直持續到查士丁尼統治的結束(公元527-565年).[1]

元首制軍隊(30 BC – 284 AD)由於混亂的3世紀而經歷了重大變革. 與元首制部隊不同,4世紀的軍隊嚴重依賴徵兵其士兵的報酬遠低於2世紀。 來自帝國以外的蠻族提供了比第一/二世紀軍隊更高比例的新兵,但幾乎沒有證據表明這對軍隊的作戰表現產生了不利影響。

學術上對4世紀軍隊規模的估計差異很大,範圍從大約400,000到超過100萬不等(與2世紀時期規模相似,或者大2至3倍).[2] 這是由於當時的參考依據過於碎片化,不像2世紀軍隊擁有完整的記錄文檔。

四帝共治下,與地方總督軍政合一的元首制不同,新制度是軍政分離的。

與2世紀軍隊相比,羅馬軍隊結構上的主要變化是建立了規模龐大的常規衛戍部隊(comitatus praesentales), 作為精銳的中央軍英語palatini (Roman military),其規模在2萬至3萬之間。他們通常駐紮於京畿: (東部是君士坦丁堡, 而西部則是米蘭),因此遠離帝國的邊疆。這些軍隊的主要功能是阻止 皇位的覬覦者英語usurper, 通常由皇帝親自指揮。軍團 被分成較小的單位,規模與元首制的輔助軍團英語Auxiliaries (Roman military)相當。步兵 採用了比元首制軍隊的騎兵更具保護性的裝備。

與元首制的軍隊相比,騎兵在後期軍隊中的作用似乎沒有明顯的加強。有證據表明,騎兵與二世紀時期的人數和比例大致相同,其戰術角色和聲望仍然相似。 然而,晚期羅馬軍隊的騎兵 衍生出更加專一化功能的單位, 例如(甲冑衝擊騎兵具裝衝擊騎兵英語clibanarii) 和弓騎兵[3]在4世紀後期,騎兵因其在三場重大戰役中的糟糕表現而獲得無能和怯懦的聲譽。相比之下,步兵保持其傳統的卓越聲譽。

3世紀和4世紀,許多現有的邊境堡壘得到了升級,使它們更具防禦性,並建造了具有更強防禦能力的新堡壘。對這一趨勢的解釋引發了一場持續的爭論,即軍隊是採用了 縱深防禦戰略英語defence-in-depth (Roman military) 還是繼續採用與早期元首制相同的「前瞻性防禦」姿態。 後期軍隊防禦姿態的許多因素與前線防禦相似,例如位於前沿位置的堡壘,頻繁的跨境行動以及同盟蠻族部落以作為外部緩衝區。無論防禦策略如何,它在防止日耳曼蠻族的入侵方面顯然不如1世紀和2世紀那麼成功。這可能是由於蠻族在邊境的壓力愈發加強,或者是為了將戰鬥力最強的部隊留在中央而使邊防部隊得不到足夠的支持所導致的。

古典晚期羅馬帝國軍隊的起源

我們關於4世紀軍隊部署的大部分證據都包含在一份文件中,即 羅馬百官志,記錄了395-420期間羅馬所有公共事務官員(軍事民政都囊括在內)的手冊。百官志的主要缺點是它缺乏任何人員數據,以以至於無法估計軍隊規模。它也是在4世紀末編制的;因此很難確定之前時間點的情況。然而,由於缺乏其他證據,百官志仍然是軍隊結構的核心來源。[4] 百官志也遭受了嚴重的資料缺失,並且在幾個世紀的謄寫抄錄中使得中間的問題激增。

4世紀軍隊的主要文學來源是阿米安努斯所撰寫的Res Gestae《歷史》,其倖存的書籍涵蓋353至378年期間的羅馬軍隊。瑪爾切利努斯本人是一名資深士兵,被學者視為可靠和寶貴的資源。但他在很大程度上無法彌補百官志在軍隊單位以及實力方面的數據缺失,因為他很少有具體數字在內。第三個主要來源是5至6世紀之間在東羅馬帝國下達的帝國法令的集合: 狄奧多西法典 (438)和民法大全 (528–39)。這些羅馬法律的匯編可以追溯到公元4世紀,其中包含許多與晚期帝國軍隊內對督查和管理的各類法規。

De re militari,即《軍事論》, 由4世紀晚期或5世紀初的作家維蓋提烏斯斯撰寫,其中包含有關晚期帝國軍隊的大量信息,儘管其重點全在共和制和元首制時期的軍隊上。然而,維吉蒂烏斯嚴重缺乏軍事經驗導致寫出來的東西極不可靠。例如,他說軍隊在4世紀晚期放棄了盔甲和頭盔(他提供荒謬的解釋,聲稱這些裝備太重了),這與雕塑和其他藝術上的證據相矛盾。[5] 一般來說,他的說法太過於天馬行空,除非能夠得到其他史料的證實。

與1世紀和2世紀相比,古典晚期帝國軍隊的研究者們必須面對3世紀之後關於軍隊的相關記錄嚴重缺失的問題。因為203年之後帝國不再向役滿到期的輔助軍團士兵發放證書英語Roman military diploma (因為來自於卡拉卡拉的「善意」當時幾乎所有人都已經是羅馬公民)。此外,羅馬軍人的墓碑英語Roman military tombstones,祭壇和其他神殿的數量大幅減少。建築材料(例如大理石磚上)上帶有軍隊士兵們的浮雕的現象也趨於絕跡。 但這種趨勢不應被視為軍隊在行政管理上走向簡單粗暴。來自埃及的莎草紙文稿證據表明,軍隊在4世紀仍保留詳細的書面記錄(其中大部分由於有機物分解而丟失)。最有可能的是,石制碑文的減少是由於當時風俗的變化,比如說受到蠻族兵員增加和興起的基督教的影響。[6] 石制碑文的缺乏給我們對晚期羅馬帝國的軍隊的研究留下了嚴重的史料缺失,並使得許多結論無法被確定。

A.H.M. Jones英語A.H.M. Jones所著的The Later Roman Empire, 284-602 (LRE)開創了全新的關於現代對古典晚期羅馬軍隊的研究 . 這本1964年出版的書因為其豐富的細節和文獻資料至今仍然是學者們極為重要的研究材料。當然這本書的問題在於其年代久遠,在出版之後的數十年間學術界已經出現了大量的考古工作以及相關的研究。

四世紀軍隊的發展

一切的基礎:元首制時期的羅馬軍隊

元首制正規軍由其創始人奧古斯都 (30 BC – 14 AD在位)建立並使之保留至3世紀末。 正規軍由兩種不同的軍團組成,兩個軍團主要依靠募兵。

作為精英的羅馬軍團是大型步兵編隊,數量在25到33之間。每個軍團有5,500名兵員(所有步兵軍團都保留了一支120人規模的小型騎兵部隊)只招收羅馬公民.[7] 輔助兵團英語Roman auxiliaries 由大約400個更小的單位(大隊)組成。每個大隊500人(少數可達1000人),分為大約100隊騎兵,100隊步兵和200隊混合騎兵/步兵部隊或者同規模部隊。[8] 一些輔助軍團被指定為「弓兵團」,這意味着它們專門用於對敵弓箭射擊。 因此,輔助軍團幾乎包含了所有羅馬軍隊的騎兵和弓箭手,以及(從1世紀後期開始)與軍團大致相同數量的步兵。[9]輔助步兵主要在自由民英語Peregrinus (Roman)'內招募,': 那些沒有公民權的非奴隸羅馬住民,但是同時也接收羅馬公民和住在帝國境外的巴巴里/蠻族。[10] 在那段時期,羅馬軍團和輔助軍團幾乎都部署在邊境省份。[11] 能直屬於皇帝並被皇帝在短時間內快速集結指揮的只有10000人左右的精英羅馬禁衛軍[12]

直到公元3世紀,軍隊的高級軍官幾乎都來自於意大利貴族。這些貴族被分為兩類,一類是正式的有身份的世襲貴族 (ordo senatorius), 由羅馬元老院的600名成員和他們的兒孫組成,以及數以千計的羅馬騎士們.

世襲元老和羅馬騎士將軍政服役結合,組成了具有羅馬特色的晉升體系, 通常從羅馬的一個初級行政職位開始,隨後在軍隊中任職5至10年,最後在羅馬或者各個行省擔任高階職務。[13] 這個由不到一萬人所組成的小型,緊密結合的統治寡頭集團在8000萬居民的帝國中壟斷了政治,軍事和經濟權力,並成功地穩定了整個帝國。 在其存在的最初200年(公元前30年 – 公元180年), 帝國只遭受了一次重大內亂(即四帝之年).其餘時間極少數圖謀不軌的行省總督的僭越行為都會被迅速鎮壓。

在軍中,世襲貴族 (senatorii)通常擔任以下職位:

(a) legatus Augusti pro praetore英語legatus Augusti pro praetore(邊境行省的總督,他是部署在那裏的軍隊的總司令,也同時是該地區民政部門的負責人)
(b) legatus legionis(羅馬軍團長)
(c) tribunus militum laticlavius (羅馬副軍團長)。[14]

羅馬騎士通常擔任以下職位:

(a) 埃及和一些非重要行省的總督
(b) praefecti praetorio英語praefectus praetorio (羅馬禁衛軍的指揮官,僅兩位)
(c) praefectus castrorum (軍團內的宿營長,軍團內的三把手)及軍團內其餘的五名tribuni militum (軍事保民官,高級參謀軍官)
(d) 輔助軍團的指揮官praefecti[15]

到了1世紀末,帝國內形成了一個特別的由非意大利人的軍人所組成的羅馬騎士階層,肇因起源於皇帝在他每一年執政結束時將每個軍團的primuspilus (首席百夫長)提升到騎士等級。這會使大約30名職業軍人,大多數是非意大利人,加入貴族階層。[16] 他們要比意大利的同僚們貧窮得多,畢竟這些意大利的同僚很多都仰賴於他們所憑依的家族。 其中突出的是羅馬化的伊利里亞人,是居住在帝國境內各省,例如潘諾尼亞 (今匈牙利/克羅地亞/斯洛文尼亞), 達爾馬提亞 (今克羅地亞/波斯尼亞)和 上默西亞 的(今塞爾維亞)伊利里亞語英語Illyrian language部落的後裔,以及鄰近的[默西亞 (羅馬行省)|下默西亞]] (保加利亞北部)和馬其頓 行省居住的色雷斯人。從圖密善時期(81–96在位)開始, 當超過一半的羅馬軍隊部署在多瑙河地區時,伊利里亞和色雷斯省成為最重要的輔助兵團募兵基地,後來也成為羅馬軍團的最重要的兵員來源。[17]

三世紀時期的發展

圖中是一位穿着典型的3世紀末步兵裝備的古羅馬軍裝愛好者。頭盔是Niederbieber式樣, 盔內側頂部有交叉狀的加強金屬脊,可以使護頰被扣在一起. 劍則是 羅馬長劍英語spatha (長度在 900 毫米/36 英寸上下), 在一至二世紀只有羅馬騎兵才會使用。這名士兵攜帶着 spiculum, 是一種羅馬重型標槍. 他還裝備着被稱為 (lorica hamata英語lorica hamata鎖子甲),還拿着橢圓形的盾牌。 他的服裝則包括了長袖的丘尼卡,長褲以及靴子。四世紀的步兵裝備與三世紀的非常相似, 但是重型標槍已經被另一種重型穿刺標槍(hasta英語hasta (spear))所替代,而頭盔則被"Intercisa英語Late Roman ridge helmet樣式的頭盔所代替。".[18]
羅馬邊境城市杜拉歐羅普斯的濕壁畫,時代可以追溯至公元250年. 中央是未穿裝備的輕騎兵在發起衝鋒, 上下則是步兵在使用羅馬長劍作戰; 他們穿着及膝長的鱗甲,有些甚至包括雙臂。

3世紀初軍隊的開創性發展是由 卡拉卡拉皇帝(211-18在位)頒佈的212年的安東尼努斯敕令所帶來。這賦予了帝國所有自由居民羅馬公民身份,結束了無公民權自由民的二等地位。[19] 這條法令打破了羅馬公民的羅馬軍團和自由民組成的輔助軍團之間的區別。在1世紀和2世紀,軍團是意大利「宗主國」在其藩屬中佔主導地位的象徵(和擔保人)。在3世紀,他們不再在社會上優於那些外來者們(儘管他們可能在軍事方面保留了他們的精英地位),同時軍團特殊的盔甲和裝備(比如說 羅馬環片甲英語lorica segmentata)也被逐步淘汰。[20]

因為意大利世襲貴族在軍隊中的高層逐漸被出身於自由民的前頭等百夫長所取代,高級文職和軍職之間交替任職的傳統晉升體系在2到3世紀的交際於是被逐漸廢棄。.[21]在公元3世紀,只有10%的輔助軍團的長官來自於意大利的羅馬騎士,而前兩個世紀的比例則是大多數。[22] 與此同時,壟斷軍方上層的世襲貴族也被羅馬騎士所取代。塞普蒂米烏斯·塞維魯 (197至211年間在位) 任命了三個出身於自由民的首席百夫長作為他所組建的三支新軍團的新長官,而加里恩努斯 (260–68)對所有其他軍團也如法炮製, 給予他們praefectus pro legato ("代行軍團長官")的頭銜.[23][24] 這些新晉的羅馬騎士團體的崛起為軍隊提供了更專業的將領,但卻促進了雄心勃勃的將軍的軍事叛亂的概率。 3世紀發生了無數次政變和內戰。很少有3世紀的皇帝能長留帝位或是壽終正寢。[25]

皇帝對頻繁產生的不安全狀況迅速做出了回應,他們逐漸建立了一支可以快速集結的部隊。這些被稱為 扈從軍 (原意"護衛", 之後衍生出英文單詞"committee",即委員會). 除了帝國禁衛軍的10,000名成員,塞普蒂米烏斯·塞維魯還設立了第二帕提亞軍團. 駐紮在羅馬附近的阿爾巴諾拉齊亞萊 , 這是自奧古斯都以來第一支駐紮在意大利的軍團。他從邊境駐紮的騎兵隊裏調劑人員,將equites singulares Augusti, 即帝國護衛騎兵的數量增加了一倍,使數量增加到了2000人。[26] 他的扈從軍規模因此達到了17000人,相當於31個步兵大隊和11個騎兵大隊。[27] 之後的皇帝們一直採取強化中央軍的政策,這個趨勢在君士坦丁一世(312–337年在位),他的扈從軍規模可能已有10萬人,達到了軍隊總數的四分之一。[28]

在加里恩努斯統治時期,一些高級軍官被他任命為 督軍 (複數形式: duces, 即中世紀公爵的起源), 以指揮所有的護衛騎兵。軍隊內包括了equites promoti (從軍團中分離的騎兵支隊),以及伊利里亞輕騎兵(equites Dalmatarum)和盟邦蠻族騎兵(equites foederati).[24] 在君士坦丁一世的統治下,騎兵的長官被封予騎兵長官的頭銜(magister equitum)magister equitum, 在共和國時期這一職責由狄克推多的副手擔任.[29] 但根據過去的學者們所描述,早期這個職位並未暗示那個時期有過一支獨立的純騎兵軍隊的存在。兩名騎兵長官麾下的軍隊混有步兵和騎兵,而且仍以步兵為主。[27]

3世紀軍團的規模逐漸縮小,甚至還有一些輔助單位夾雜其中。軍團被分解成較小的單位,這可以通過在英國遺留下來的傳統大型基地遺址來證明,他們的規模隨着時間逐漸縮小,最終被放棄使用。[30] 此外,從2世紀開始,一些從母單位內被分離出來的子單位最終形成了新的作戰單位, 例如2世紀初位於達契亞的伊利里亞騎兵分隊vexillatio equitum Illyricorum[31]和駐紮在英國的equites promoti[24]numerus Hnaufridi[32] 這導致了4世紀各種新單位類型的衍生,這些作戰單位的規模通常少於元首制時期的軍隊建制。 例如,在2世紀, 布旗隊vexillatio (衍生自 vexillum 即"軍旗"之意) 是從羅馬軍團/輔助軍團分離出的部隊單位,既可以是步兵也可以是騎兵。而在公元4世紀,它通常作為精英騎兵團的建制出現。[33]

從3世紀開始軍隊內開始有記錄出現以蠻族部落的名字命名的正規小型部隊單位 (而不是以自由民英語Peregrinus (Roman)部落的名字為名). 這些部隊是蠻盟傭兵foederati (對羅馬有軍事義務的盟軍)轉化過來的正式部隊建制,這一趨勢將在4世紀越發明顯。[34] 駐紮在不列顛的第一薩爾馬提亞騎兵大隊, 可能是由馬可·奧勒留在175年送去駐紮哈德良長城的5,500名薩爾馬提亞騎兵俘虜中的一部分組成的。 [35] 當然至少在公元3世紀時期,還沒有史料充分證明非常規建制的蠻族民兵部隊成為了元首制時期羅馬軍隊的一部分。[36]

三世紀危機

(左側跪着的)瓦勒良被 (穿着盔甲的)薩珊沙阿 沙普爾一世在259年的埃德薩之戰英語Battle of Edessa中俘虜後跪着求饒 , 這是帝國在3世紀後期遭受的最屈辱的軍事災難。該岩石浮雕 位於設拉子附近地區Naqsh-e Rostam英語Naqsh-e Rostam

3世紀中葉,帝國陷入極為嚴重的軍事和經濟危機 251-271的一系列軍事上的災難表現使得高盧,阿爾卑斯地區和意大利,巴爾幹半島和東方地區被阿勒曼人,薩爾馬提亞人,哥特人和波斯人佔領,幾乎導致帝國解體。[37] 與此同時,羅馬軍隊還要努力應對毀滅性瘟疫的影響,現在該流行病被認為是天花, 251年始於塞浦路斯的塞浦路斯大瘟疫,並且在270年時仍然在肆虐,還可能帶走了克勞狄二世 皇帝的性命(268–270年間在位).[38] 而根據二世紀後期安敦尼疫病爆發時期所遺留下來的史料來看,極有可能就是天花,當時帝國內15%-30%的居民因此病歿。[39] 根據佐西穆斯的記載,實際情況可能遠糟於此。[40] 軍隊以及他們所居住的(同時主要是招募的來源地)邊境省份,因為他們人員集中且被頻繁調動,使得這些地區成為了瘟疫的重災區[41]

3世紀的危機開始了社會經濟影響的連鎖反應,這對古典晚期軍隊的發展具有決定性作用。由於瘟疫造成的嚴重破壞和稅基銳減的二者結合使得帝國政府破產,帝國中央決定生產大量成色低下的貨幣,比如安東尼尼安努斯,作為作為當時支付帝國軍隊薪水的銀幣, 在215年到該世紀的60年代的數十年裏成色降低了95%. 即使用相同質量的貴金屬可以製作20倍的硬幣。[42] 這導致價格瘋狂通脹:例如,戴克里先的小麥價格是元首制時期的67倍。[43] 貨幣經濟崩潰,軍隊不得不依靠徵收食品換取補給以維持。[44] 軍隊徵稅毫無公平可言,使得他們所駐紮的邊境省份遭到毀滅性的打擊。[45] 士兵的薪水毫無價值可言,這使得軍隊的新兵減少到僅能維持軍隊建制存在的水平。[46] 這樣的狀況使得境內的公民不願從軍,帝國政府被迫使用強制徵兵的手段[47] 而同時因為瘟疫又減少了大量的人口,帝國不得不大量招募蠻族進入軍隊。到4世紀中葉,蠻族兵員達到了新兵總數的四分之一(精英軍團內甚至超過三分之一),比1世紀和2世紀的比例都要高得多。[48]

多瑙河軍人集團

奧勒良270年在羅馬修建的奧勒良城牆。這是自公元前650年在高盧人洗劫羅馬而建造塞維安城牆之後的第一座新城牆,它象徵着3世紀時期帝國各處都存在的不安感。原始高度: 8米 (25 英尺). 之後在410羅馬被洗劫後增高到16米 (52 英尺)。 城牆和塔樓本都有圓形的城垛,不過只有極少部分留了下來,至今只有19公里留存

到了公元3世紀,羅馬化的伊利里亞人和色雷斯人, 大多來自羅馬騎士們及他們的後代,壟斷了軍隊的高級官員位置。[49] 直到最後,多瑙河軍事高官們奪取了對國家本身的控制權。268年加里恩努斯 (260–268年間在位) 被伊利里亞和達契亞的高級軍官組織的政變推翻,其中包括了他的繼任者克勞狄二世和奧勒良 (270–275年間在位).[50] 以及他們的繼任者普羅布斯 (276–282年間在位),戴克里先 (284–305年間在位)以及四帝共治的同僚們組成的永久性的軍政府。他們可以是出生在同一個省,(有些甚至出生在同一個城市,比如上默西亞的軍隊駐地西爾米烏姆英語Sirmium)的老鄉們,或者是曾在同一軍團中服役的同僚們。[17]

奧勒良即位後軍政府用一連串的勝利扭轉了251-71的軍事災難,其中最為出名的的是克勞狄二世在納伊蘇斯戰役 戰勝了規模極為龐大的哥特人部隊, 這對哥特人打擊甚大,以至於哥特人直到一個世紀之後的亞德里安堡戰役 (378)之後才再次嚴重威脅帝國。[51]

伊利里亞皇帝英語Illyrian emperors或多瑙河皇帝特別關注在危機期間由於瘟疫和蠻族入侵造成的邊境省份人口減少現象,因為這個問題在他們自己所在的多瑙河省份尤其嚴重。 因為缺乏人力,這些省份的耕地大量荒廢。[52] 因此,為了應對人口減少對軍隊招募和供應構成的嚴重威脅,伊利里亞軍政府採取了一項積極的政策,將被擊敗的蠻族部落居民大規模地重新安置在帝國領土上。 奧勒良在272年將大量卡爾皮人英語Carpi (Dacian tribe)遷了潘諾尼亞。[53] (此外,到275年,他撤銷了達契亞省, 將整個省人口遷移到了默西亞,動機與之前相同).[54] 記錄檔上有記載提到他的繼任者普羅布斯在279、280年將100,000名 巴斯塔奈人以及後來還有相當數量的格皮德人, 哥特人和薩爾馬提亞人遷移至默西亞.[55] 戴克里先之後持續地執行這項政策,根據維克多的記載,他轉移了297個大量的巴斯塔奈,薩爾馬提亞和卡爾皮的部落到邊境省份。[53][56] 雖然這些人在帝國定居的確切條件未知(說法多種多樣),但共同特徵是給予蠻族土地換來的就是兵役或者遠高於其他省份份額的徵兵名額。從羅馬政府的角度來看,這項政策有三重好處,即削弱敵對部落,重建受瘟疫蹂躪的邊境省份(將其廢棄的田地重新養護起來)並為軍隊提供一流的新兵。這也受到了蠻族囚犯的歡迎,他們對帝國可能會給予他們土地的政策感到高興。在4世紀,這些蠻族群體被稱為軍戶英語laeti.[34]

伊利里亞王朝出的皇帝統治帝國一個多世紀,直到379年才結束。事實上,直到363年,權力都一直由當初建立軍政團體的成員後代所掌握。君士坦丁一世的父親君士坦提烏斯在戴克里先的四帝共治政府中任職凱撒(西部的副皇帝).[57] 君士坦丁的孫子尤利安統治到363年。這些皇帝將軍隊成功地恢復到危機前的實力,但他們也只關心軍隊的需要和利益。他們也與擁有帝國的大部分土地的富裕羅馬元老們的家族脫節。這反過來又在羅馬貴族中產生了一種與軍隊疏遠的感覺,這種感覺使得從4世紀後期元老們開始抵制軍隊對帝國的無止境兵員和物資需求。[58]

戴克里先

戴克里先 (284–305年間在位)對羅馬軍隊和政府都做了大範圍的改革,這是其年間發行的銅幣福利斯

戴克里先被公認為最偉大的伊利里亞人皇帝。 戴克里先大規模在行政,經濟和軍事施行的改革旨在為軍隊提供足夠的人力,物資和軍事基礎設施。[59] 用一位歷史學家的話來說, "戴克里先......把整個帝國變成了一個有條不紊的後勤基地" (用以為軍隊提供補給)。[60]

戴克里先時期的軍事指揮結構

戴克里先的行政改革的雙重目標是確保政治穩定,並提供必要的官僚和基礎設施,以提高軍隊所需的新兵和兵役。在最高層,戴克里先設立了四帝共治制。這將帝國劃分為兩個部分,東部和西部,每個部分由奧古斯都(皇帝)統治。每個奧古斯都將依次任命一名名為凱撒的副手,他將作為他的執政夥伴(每個人都被分配到帝國的四分之一)並指定繼任者。因此,這個四人小組可以靈活地應對多重和同時的挑戰,並提供合法的繼承。[61]當然後者未能實現目標,在3世紀由於多次篡位而造成的災難性內戰仍然在四世紀重演。實際上,如果為每個篡位者提供潛在的大量的護衛部隊來強制執行他的主張,情況可能會變得更糟。戴克里先自己退休後就眼睜睜地看到他的繼任者為了權力而互相爭鬥。但是,將帝國劃分為東西兩半,同時認識到地理和文化現實,被證明是持久的;東西分治仍然使得帝國為一整體,不過在395之後便成為永久性的分裂。

戴克里先改革了省政府,建立了一個三層的省級層級,取代了以前的單層結構。最初的42個省份的數量幾乎增加了兩倍,大約在120上下。 [來源請求]這些省份歸屬於12個區域,被稱為管區,每個管區都有一名代理官, 然後再歸屬於4個近衛大區, 以對應於分配給四位君主(凱撒和奧古斯都)的轄區, 每個領土都由一名近衛司政官 (請勿與具有相同頭銜的羅馬禁衛軍長官的名稱混淆)。級政府這種分割的目的是通過減少他們各自控制的力量來減少地方總督軍事反叛的可能性。[62]

此外,為了提供更專業的軍事領導,戴克里先將軍隊體系從行省的民政機構中分離出來。邊境省份的省長被剝奪了駐紮在那裏的部隊的指揮權,轉而將這全力交給稱為 duces limitis ("邊防督軍"),在戴克里先時期可能任命了大約20個邊境督軍。[52] 大多數的督軍只指揮一個省份的駐軍,但少數幾個督軍控制了超過一個省份的督軍,例如第一潘諾尼亞和諾里奇行省督軍,即dux Pannoniae I et Norici.[63] 然而,在更高的層次上,軍事和行政指揮仍然統一在管區代理官和近衛司政官名下.[62] 此外,戴克里先還完成了對元老院階級的排擠,元老院階級仍以意大利貴族為主導,除意大利外,元老院貴族不得擔任一切高級軍事指揮和最高行政職務。[64]

人力

為確保軍隊獲得足夠的新兵,戴克里先施行了自[[羅馬共和國|羅馬共和國]時代以來首次對羅馬公民進行系統的年度徵兵制度。此外他可能頒發了一道最早記載於313年的法令,強制正在服役的士兵和退伍軍人的子弟入伍。[47]

戴克里先時期,軍團的數量,可能還有其他軍事單位建制,增加了一倍多。[65] 都增加了一倍多。 但軍隊的總體規模不可能增加得那麼多,因為單位兵力似乎減少了,在某些情況下還大大減少了。例如軍團編制,相比於元首制時期的5500人規模,戴克里先的新軍團只有1000人。也就是說,新軍團可能只增加了軍團總人數的15%左右。[66][67] 即便如此,學者們普遍認為戴克里先大幅增加了軍隊人數,至少增加了33%。[68]

補給

戴克里先主要關注的是將向軍隊提供糧食供應置於合理和可持續的基礎上。為此,皇帝結束了對軍隊能夠任意在當地徵收糧食稅(indictiones)的權利, 因為軍隊的負擔主要落在邊疆各省,這樣做會毀了當地的經濟。他建立了一種每年定期徵稅 indictiones ("稅款徵收")的制度,要求徵收的稅款預先設定為5年,並與各省的耕地數量有關,並以全帝國範圍內的土地、農民和牲畜的徹底普查為後盾。[69] 為了解決某些地區農村人口減少的問題(以及隨之而來的糧食減產),他下令在元首制時期可以自由遷徙的農民們,絕不能離開他們在普查中所登記的地方(法律術語稱'origo'). 這項措施將佃民及其後代捆綁在了他們的地主的莊園內。[70]

軍事基礎設施

在恢復軍隊規模的同時,戴克里先的努力和資源集中在沿着帝國所有邊界的防禦基礎設施進行大規模升級改造,包括新建堡壘和戰略性軍用道路。[71]

君士坦丁一世

君士坦丁一世 (312–337年在位),有史以來第一位建立了大規模的扈從軍 (帝國護衛軍)並將軍隊分為野戰軍(comitatenses)和邊防軍(limitanei) ,使羅馬後期的軍隊產生了百官志中所描述的結構. 圖為卡比托利歐博物館所展出的君士坦丁胸像的一部分

在312年擊敗馬克森提烏斯後,君士坦丁解散了羅馬禁衛軍,結束了後者長達300年的存在。[72]雖然當時的原因是禁衛軍支持他的競爭對手馬克森提烏斯,但因為皇帝現在很少居住在羅馬,駐紮在那兒的軍隊也就毫無意義了。原先護衛皇帝的禁軍騎兵,equites singulares Augusti,即羅馬禁衛軍附屬騎兵隊,也就被御林軍英語scholae所取代。這些精銳的騎兵團在君士坦丁即位時便存在,可能是由戴克里先創立的。[73]

君士坦丁將他的護衛軍隊拓展成一支佔有永久主導地位的軍事力量。他將邊境的部分軍力回收並創建了兩支新的部隊:更多的騎兵單位"布旗隊"和步兵單位"輔助步兵團"。擴大規模後的扈從軍由兩名新軍官指揮,一位步軍長官負責所有的步兵部隊,一位騎兵長官負責騎兵部隊。扈從軍被正式命名為野戰軍英語comitatenses 以區別於(邊防軍英語limitanei).[62] 君士坦丁的扈從軍規模不詳,但根據佐西穆斯的說法,君士坦丁在對馬克森提烏斯的戰爭中動員了98,000名士兵。[28] 很有可能軍隊中的大多數士兵都直接來於他的扈從軍.[29] 如果接受君士坦丁軍隊人數約為40萬的說法,那麼這些士兵約佔正規軍總數的四分之一。[74] 當世學者們一直在討論為何君士坦丁要保留如此龐大規模的扈從軍,一般傳統觀點認為,君士坦丁將其認作一種戰略儲備以用於對抗大規模入侵帝國腹地的蠻族軍隊,或者作為跨越邊界征討蠻族的大型遠征軍的主力。但更多的近代學者則認為其主要功能是為了防止潛在的篡位者而做的保險措施。[27] (請參照下面會論及的古典晚期羅馬軍隊的戰略英語Late Roman army#Strategy).

君士坦丁一世完成了軍事機構與行政結構的分離。管區代理官近衛司政官失去了他們的戰地指揮權,成為了純粹的行政官員。然而他們在軍隊事務中發揮了核心作用,因為他們仍然負責部隊兵員招募,軍餉以及最重要的提供補給。[75] 但是當時的邊區督軍究竟是直接匯報給皇帝,還是扈從軍的兩位長官,到現在仍然未知。

此外,君士坦丁似乎重新組織了多瑙河沿岸的邊防部隊,分別用新的騎兵連「cunei」和輔助軍團「auxilia」代替原來的騎兵大隊「alae」和步兵大隊「cohortes」[62] 目前還不清楚新式部隊與舊式部隊有何不同,但駐紮在邊境的部隊 (相比於扈從軍內的建制)要小上許多,只為原來的一半左右。[76] 但除了多瑙河/伊利里亞以外的地區還是得以保留了舊的建制。[77]

5世紀的歷史學家佐西穆斯強烈批評他建立過於龐大的扈從軍的做法,指責君士坦丁破壞了他的前任戴克里先的加強邊防的工作: "由於戴克里先的遠見卓識,羅馬帝國的邊境到處都是城市、堡壘和塔樓... 整個軍隊都駐紮在邊境,所以蠻族不可能突破...但君士坦丁把大部分軍隊從邊境撤走,駐紮在不需要保護的城市裏,從而毀掉了這一防禦體系。"[78] 佐西穆斯的批評可能是過分的,因為在戴克里先時代扈從軍就已經存在,君士坦丁做的無非是為了擴張扈從軍組建了全新的軍團並合併了舊有的建制[79] 然而君士坦丁的扈從軍的主要來源便是從邊境調動回來的邊防軍人們[66] 撤回大批的邊防部隊的行為終究還是提高了蠻族大規模突破邊境進入帝國腹地的風險。[80]

四世紀後期

隨着337年君士坦丁的去世,他的三個兒子君士坦丁二世, 君士坦斯一世 and 君士坦提烏斯二世,將帝國三分,分別統治西部(高盧,英國和西班牙),中部(意大利,非洲和巴爾幹半島)和東部。他們每個人都接收了他們父親的扈從軍的一部分.到了353年,只有君士坦提烏斯存活下來, 但這三支扈從軍永久性地駐紮了下來,分別在高盧,伊利里亞和東部。 到了四世紀六十年代,邊境督軍都直接向當地的中央扈從軍長官直接匯報工作。[72] 然而除了地區性的扈從軍外, 君士坦提烏斯還保留了一支隨時可動用的部隊, 被稱之為 常備扈從軍 (Comitatus Praesentalis).[81] 而三個扈從軍所在的地區的扈從軍的數量卻在不斷增加,直到百官志 ( 約公元400年),西部有6支野戰軍,而東部則有3支。[62] 這些對應於西部的邊境管區,在西部則對應不列顛,三部高盧(阿基坦高盧,盧格敦高盧和比利時高盧),伊利里亞西部(潘諾尼亞),阿非利加和西班牙; 在東部則對應着: 伊利里亞東部(達契亞), 色雷斯和東方。相對的扈從軍指揮官開始對口於行政部門的長官管區代理官,控制着管區內的所有部隊,其中包括了邊區督軍.[1][82]因此,在這一時間點上,平行的軍事/民事行政結構可歸納如下:

395年古典晚期羅馬帝國的行省行政結構
層級 軍事長官 民政長官
行省 邊區督軍 督查官
管區 大元帥 (東部)/野戰軍司令 (西部) 管區代理官
近衛大區 奧古斯都/凱撒 近衛司政官

區域性的扈從軍的產生是對君士坦丁強幹政策的部分逆轉,實際上證明了佐西穆斯對君士坦丁批判,邊防軍 缺乏中央對此的有效支持。[83]

儘管地區性的扈從軍數量激增,不過帝國中央的扈從軍仍然存在,在百官志撰寫時期有三支常備扈從軍的存在, 每支定員20000-30000上下,總計仍有75000人.[84] 如果接受當時軍隊人數約為35萬的說法,扈從軍仍佔總軍隊規模的20-25%。不晚於365年且仍然能留在扈從軍中的軍事單位,一概被統稱為中央軍英語Palatini (Roman military) (直譯為"來自宮中), 是所謂野戰軍的高級形式。[81] 於是軍隊內的部隊單位被分為四個等級,代表着不同的質量,聲望與薪酬。以降序排列的話便是御林軍, 中央軍, 野戰軍邊防軍[85]

軍隊規模

由於當時留存相當多詳細可究的證據,現代學者對公元1世紀和2世紀羅馬軍隊的規模有廣泛的學術共識。然而,關於4世紀陸軍的規模,眾人對此莫衷一是。由於缺乏關於編制人數的證據,導致對陸軍後期力量的估計大相逕庭, 範圍從約400000 (與2世紀大致相同)到100萬以上。 主流學者主要分歧在於有些人認為實際是400000的"較低值"以及600000的較高值。[來源請求]

龐大的軍隊規模假說

一些傳統的學者觀點認為,4世紀的軍隊比2世紀的軍隊大得多,規模應該是原來的兩倍。6世紀後期的作家阿伽提烏斯英語Agathias給出了645,000的數字,推測是君士坦丁一世時期的巔峰值。[86] 這個數字可能包括艦隊的海軍士兵,那陸軍人數大致在600,000左右。佐西穆斯將312年包括君士坦丁皇帝在內的所有皇帝的軍隊總數相加,於是得出了581,000的總數. A.H.M. Jones英語A.H.M. Jones' 所撰寫的古典晚期帝國 (1964), 包含了對羅馬古典晚期的軍隊各類的基礎研究,。他以自己對建制兵力的估算方法應用在百官志的所列的單位上,從而得出了600,000的總數。 (海軍除外)[87]

然而,瓊斯的600,000的數字是基於對邊防軍人數的估算,可能遠高於實際值。瓊斯根據戴克里先時期使用的莎草紙所寫的工資支給文件證據證明計算了埃及的建制人數。但R. Duncan-Jones對史料進行嚴格的重新評估後得出的結論是,瓊斯的建制人數高估了2-6倍。[88] 例如,瓊斯估計邊境的軍團編制在3000人左右,而其他的單位大致有500人上下。[89] 但Duncan-Jones的修訂發現,邊境駐紮的軍團規模僅為500人, 騎兵大隊只有160人,騎兵隊只有80人即使考慮到其中一些單位可能是某個大單位的分隊,戴克里先的單位兵力很可能遠低於早期[90]

特里高德在對拜占庭的軍力考察上認可了大規模的古典晚期軍隊的說法。特里高德認為呂底亞的約安尼斯英語John Lydus所給出的389,704人的數據對應的是戴克里先剛繼位的285年,[91] 佐西穆斯所給出的581,000人對應的則是312年的數據.[92] Treadgold估計軍隊的規模在235-285年保持不變,在285-305年迅速增加了50%,在之後的90年間(305-395)大致保持不變[93]

但是特里高德的分析在以下幾個方面受到批評:

  1. 軍隊規模在235和285之間保持不變的結論似乎難以置信,因為這一時期出現了三世紀危機,在此期間,塞浦路斯大瘟疫的影響,無數的內戰和毀滅性的蠻族入侵嚴重削弱了軍隊的招募能力。
  2. 如果呂底亞的約安尼斯給出的39萬的數字如果是戴克里先剛開始統治的兵力的話,那麼這個數字是值得懷疑的,根據學界的研究,這個數字更像是戴克里先擴員成功後的最高兵力。
  3. 特里高德聲稱戴克里先將軍隊數量增加了50%以上,被另外一名學者希瑟認為難以置信,他指出即使增加三分之一的人力也要付出極大的努力。[94]
  4. 特里高德的估計是根據佐西穆斯提供的君士坦丁軍隊的數據得出的, 而佐西穆斯是一個著名的不靠譜的編年史學家[95][96] 無論是在一般情況下,還是在具體數字方面:例如,他報告說,在357年的斯特拉斯堡戰役英語Battle of Strasbourg中,有6萬名阿勒曼尼人,相比於被當代史學家認為是可靠的馬爾切利努斯所給出的6000人的數據,佐西穆斯所給的數據出現了極為明顯的誇大。[97]

小型的的軍隊規模假說

傳統的4世紀軍隊規模大得多的觀點在近代已經不受一些歷史學家的青睞,因為現有的證據被重新評估,新的證據被發現。修正主義的觀點認為,4世紀的軍隊在高峰期時,其規模與2世紀的軍隊大致相同,並且在4世紀後期大幅度縮水。 阿伽提亞斯和佐西穆斯的統計數字,如果他們的說法是有效的,那也只可能代表君士坦丁時期的官方預計,而遠非實際的力量。微不足道的證據是,後期的部隊往往兵力嚴重不足,實際也許只有官方的三分之二左右。[98] 因此,阿嘉西亞斯在紙面上的600,000可能只不過有400,000左右。後者這個規模與六世紀的呂底亞的約安尼斯英語John Lydus所提供的戴克里先時期除去海軍水兵的軍隊總數389,704是吻合的。Lydus的數字比Agathias的數字更可信,因為它的精確性(它是在一份官方文件中發現的),並且它被歸於一個特定的時期[2]。[99] 來自帝國邊界所出土的考古學證據表明,晚期堡壘的設計目的是為了容納比其過於元首制時期更少的守軍。如果可以使用百官志中列出的堡壘識別此類場地,這些堡壘內部所能容納的駐軍編制人數也同期縮水。可以以戴克里先創建的Legio II Herculia, 第二赫丘利軍團為例。比起元首制時期的軍團駐地,堡壘只有其七分之一左右,從此可以推斷這個軍團大概只有750人左右。在多瑙河畔的阿布西納(Abusina),Cohors III Brittonum,第三不列顛騎兵大隊,所駐紮的堡壘只有過去圖拉真時期的堡壘的十分之一大小,也由此推斷這支大隊只有50人左右。必須謹慎對待這些證據,因為在《百官志》中對帶有地名的考古遺址的鑑定往往是試探性的,而且有關單位可能是某大單位的分隊(《百官志》經常出現同一單位同時出現在兩個或三個不同的地點) 不過一般來講考古學者都從保守角度起見來估計,所以他們一般都會選擇保守的角度來對邊防軍的軍事單位規模進行估算。[100] 因此,考古學上發現的證據表明,公元400年的時候,駐紮在不列顛的守軍僅有公元200年元首制時期的三分之一(200年時期是55000人左右,400年時期只有17500上下)。[76]

同時,更多的最新研究表明,2世紀的正規軍數量比傳統上預估的約30萬人要高得多。這是因為2世紀的輔助軍團人數不僅與1世紀初的羅馬軍團人數相等,甚至有的時候還會比預估的數字大上50%左右。[8] 甚至有的時候還會比預估的數字大上50%左右。在2世紀末,元首制的軍隊可能達到近45萬的高峰(不包括海軍官兵和盟邦的傭兵)。[101] 此外,有證據表明,2世紀部隊的實際兵力通常比4世紀部隊更接近官方實際數據(約85%)[102]

對整個帝國各個時期的陸軍兵力的估計可歸納如下:

公元24-420年的羅馬軍隊規模
Army corps 提比略
24
哈德良
約130年
賽維魯
211
戴克里先
284年開始統治時
戴克里先
305年退位時
君士坦丁一世
337年
百官志
(東部約395年,西部約420年)
羅馬軍團 125,000[103] 155,000[104] 182,000[105]
輔助步兵 125,000[106] 218,000[8] 250,000[107]
羅馬近衛軍 ~~5,000[108] ~~8,000[109] ~15,000[109]
羅馬軍隊總數 255,000[110] 381,000[111] 447,000[112] 保守估計: 260,000?[113]
特里高德: 389,704[114]
保守估計: 389,704[115]
特里高德: 581,000[116]
埃爾頓: 410,000[74]
特里高德: 581,000[117]
保守估計: 350,000?[118]
特里高德: 514,500[119]

NOTE: 僅計算常規部隊: 蠻盟傭兵和(元首制時期有4-5萬規模的)羅馬海軍不納入計算

軍隊結構

4世紀軍隊包含三種類型的軍隊: (a) 常備扈從軍 (comitatus praesentales)。這些通常是靠近帝國首都(西方的米蘭,東方的君士坦丁堡),通常陪同皇帝對外出征。 (b) 管區扈從軍 (comitatus) 這些都位於邊境或附近的戰略地區。 (c) 邊防軍 (exercitus limitanei).[120]

類型(a)和(b)經常被定義為"機動野戰軍"。這是因為,與邊防軍單位不同的是,他們的行動不局限於一個行省。他們畢竟職責不同,這些扈從軍是皇帝用來阻止帝國內潛在的篡位者的最終保險: 這樣一支強大部隊的存在本身就會威懾許多潛在的對手,如果沒有,僅靠扈從軍往往就足以打敗他們.[27] 他們的次要作用是陪同皇帝對外遠征,如對外戰爭或擊退大規模的蠻族入侵。[121] 另外一方面,管區的扈從軍負責的是在重大入侵的時候支援本地的邊防軍[122]

高層的指揮架構

帝國東部的指揮結構

公元395年的東羅馬軍隊的高層指揮架構。 指揮官和軍隊規模都是基於 百官志 關於東部的材料.[123] 東部的大元帥,掌管着扈從軍, 向上直接對皇帝本人負責。根據Jones和Elton的研究,督軍則直接向管區所在大元帥匯報工作。所給出的地點表示這一時期軍隊的冬季駐紮地。
約410-425年西羅馬軍隊的高層指揮架構。指揮官和軍隊規模都是基於 百官志關於西部的材料。督軍野戰軍司令之間的關係類似於東部督軍大元帥之間的關係,即督軍直接向管區所在的高層軍官負責(然而百官志把所有的軍事單位全置於兩軍大元帥的指揮下).[124]所給出的地點表示這一時期軍隊的冬季駐紮地。

百官志對於東帝國的描述要追溯於狄奧多西一世去世時的395年.此時,根據百官志的說法,在東方有2支中央扈從軍 (comitatus praesentales),每支軍隊都是由常備軍大元帥英語magister militum praesentalis指揮, 軍方的最高層的一部分,直接對皇帝負責。這兩支軍隊都被算作是中央軍。此外在東伊利里亞,色雷斯和東部三個管區還有3支扈從軍,這三支軍隊被算作野戰軍。也各有一名大元帥統領, 也直接對皇帝本人負責。[125]

帝國東部有13個邊區督軍直接向他們所在管區所在的大元帥負責: 伊利里亞東部(2名督軍), 色雷斯管區(2), 本都管區(1), 東方管區(6)和埃及管區(2).[82][125][126][127]

百官志所呈現的東帝國的軍隊結構直到查士丁尼統治時期 (525-565年間在位)基本保持不變。[1]

帝國西部的指揮結構

對帝國西部的軍隊結構的記載的完成時間要遠晚於帝國東部。大概425年的時候,西部大多地區失陷於日耳曼蠻族[128] 然而,西部的部分在約400-425年間出現了多次修改:例如,不列顛的軍隊部署應該是在410年之前,因為羅馬軍隊就是在那個時候明確從不列顛撤出的。[124]這反映了當時的混亂,軍隊和指揮官的部署不斷地變化,反映出了當時的需要。Heather對帝國西部軍隊中各單位的分析,就說明了這一時期混亂的規模。425年存在的181個扈從軍的軍團里,只有84個在395年之前就存在,許多 扈從軍的軍團也僅僅是升級的邊防軍單位,在395-425的30年間有76個軍團在這段時間被解散,[129]直到460年,西部軍隊幾乎完全解體。

因此,百官志所記載的395年的西部部分並不能準確地代表西部軍隊的結構(相比而言東部的軍事指揮體系更為準確)。

西部結構與東部大不相同。在帝國西部,395年之後,皇帝沒有辦法直接指揮駐紮在各個管區的扈從軍的長官,這些長官們則向類似於日本幕府的將軍)述職。 這種不正常的結構是由於半汪達爾血統的軍事強人斯提里科(395–408掌控國政)造成的,他是狄奧多西指派作為他的兒子霍諾留的監護人,後來霍諾留繼任羅馬西部的皇帝。在斯提里科在408年死後,接連不斷的弱小皇帝確保了這一職位的存在,成為了斯提里科的後繼者的專用職位(尤其是埃提烏斯李希梅爾),直到476年帝國西部徹底解體為止。[130] 這個大元帥的位置一般被叫做兩軍大元帥 (簡稱為MVM, 名義上便是"兩軍之長官",兩軍則指的是騎兵和步兵). 他直接指揮着駐紮在米蘭附近的單一且規模龐大的帝國西部的中央扈從軍。

隸屬於兩軍大元帥的是地方的野戰軍司令,他們都統領着這些地區的駐軍: 高盧,不列顛,西伊利里亞,阿非利加,廷吉塔納(今北非摩洛哥丹吉爾地區)和西班牙。與他們在東部同行不同的是, 東部的同行被稱為各管區的 大元帥,西部管區的扈從軍的長官都被任命為低一層級的野戰軍司令,只有高盧地區的高盧騎兵元帥是例外。這大概是因為除了高盧管區的扈從軍之外,其餘的野戰軍司令所指揮的士兵數目都遠小於 大元帥所理應有的20,000–30,000人的規模。

根據百官志的記載, 全部的12名在西部的督軍中有兩位督軍直接對兩軍大元帥而非他們所在區域的野戰軍司令負責。[124][131] 這與東方的情況不一致,可能也不能反映395年的情況。

御林軍

無論帝國的東西政府,御林軍通常都作為皇帝護衛騎兵部隊,游離於軍隊指揮系統之外。根據百官志的說法,御林軍的指揮官保民官通常都對民政部門首腦國務總理大臣英語magister officiorum直接負責。[132] 但這可能只是出於行政目的。在作戰時,御林軍保民官 直接向皇帝本人報告。[73]

軍隊駐地

野戰軍和邊防軍的部隊對他們的駐紮地有不同的安排。野戰軍隊的部隊經常駐紮在市井居民區,而邊防軍的部隊則有固定基地。

大多數邊防軍都駐留在元首制時期的軍團和輔助單位所駐紮的​​基地[133]一些編制較大的邊防軍單位(軍團布旗隊)駐紮於城市,可能會有永久性的營房。[134] 由於邊防軍在同一個地區活動,有自己的營地,而且往往從同一地區招募,因此他們往往與當地人保持較好的關係,這與經常被調往其他地區的野戰軍和中央軍不同, 他們經常被安置在平民家中。[135][136]

野戰的部隊,包括中央軍,野戰軍,有時甚至是偽野戰軍,通常宿於非戰區的城市內,在戰時則宿於臨時營地。但通常不會像邊防軍那樣在單個城市內的永久基地長期駐紮。從法律證據上看,他們通常被強制性地安置在私人住宅中 (hospitalitas).[137] 這是因為他們經常在不同的省份過冬。常備扈從軍陪着皇帝四處征戰, 而地區的扈從軍 則根據作戰需求改變駐紮地。然而在五世紀時期皇帝鮮少直接參與戰事,因此在冬季常備常備扈從軍的冬季基地變得更加固定。[138] 西部的常備扈從軍通常駐紮在Mediolanum (米蘭)而東部的兩支常備扈從軍駐紮在君士坦丁堡附近。[138]

軍團的變革

四世紀時期對於軍隊建制最大的改變就是減少了單一單位的規模而增加了單位的數量,比起過去的軍團/輔助軍的二元制度而言增加了新的建制類型和等級使得這一系統更為複雜。[139]

軍事單位的建制規模

395年東羅馬帝國英語East Roman army中央第二常備軍大元帥麾下軍團的盾徽。摘自反映羅馬軍隊指揮架構的百官志的中世紀晚期抄本

古典晚期的帝國軍隊單位兵力的相關史料非常零散,而且模稜兩可[140] 下表按單位類型和等級給出了一些單位兵力估計:

四世紀羅馬陸軍單位建制規模[141]
騎兵
單位
野戰軍
(包括中央軍)
邊防軍 XXXXX 步兵
單位
野戰軍
(包括中央軍)
邊防軍
邊防騎兵大隊 120–500 輔助步兵團 400–1,200
邊防騎兵連 200–300 邊防步兵大隊 160–500
邊防騎兵隊 80–300 軍團 800–1,200 500–1,000
教導團* 500 邊防步兵隊 200–300
布旗隊** 400–600 邊防民兵團 200–300

*教導團 不適用於 野戰軍編制,他是御林軍的編制

** 布旗隊有時也被叫做"騎兵隊",比如說侍衛騎兵隊英語Equites Stablesiani

很多不確定因素仍然存在,特別是關於邊防軍軍團的編制,其基礎編制規模的估算上下差非常大.在4世紀的過程中,單位兵力也有可能發生變化。例如,瓦倫提尼安一世似乎與他的兄弟和共治皇帝瓦倫斯一起拆分了大約150個扈從軍單位。由此產生的部隊可能只有母部隊的一半兵力(除非舉行了一次大規模的徵兵活動,使他們全部達到原來的兵力)。[140]

教導團根據六世紀的參考資料,其編制在500人左右。[67]

扈從軍中,人們一致認為布旗隊的規模在500人左右,而軍團則為1000人. 最大的不確定因素是最初由君士坦丁組建的輔助宮廷衛軍英語auxilia palatina編制。相關史料是矛盾的,表明這些部隊可能是約500人,也可能是約1000人,或者介於兩者之間。[142][143] 如果較高的1000人的規模是真的,那麼輔助步兵團和軍團就別無二致,這是支持輔助步兵團為500人最有力的論據。

邊防軍的單位建制眾說紛紜。Jones和Elton根據少量而模稜兩可的史料認為,邊境的軍團的編制在1000人上下而同地區的其他單位只有500員的編制。[89][144] 另一些人則根據紙莎草紙和最近的考古證據,認為邊防軍的平均兵力可能是Jones/Elton所聲稱的一半,即軍團只有500人而其他的單位甚至只有250人的編制。[76][145]

不同等級的作戰單位

御林軍

儘管從4世紀初該單位便已存在,但現有的唯一一份完整的御林軍的清單則記載在成書於四世紀晚期到五世紀初期百官志中。。那時候一共有12支教導團,西帝國有5支分隊而剩下7支在東帝國。這些護衛騎兵總計有6000人,相比於2世紀後期只有2000人的奧古斯都獨屬騎兵隊equites singulares Augusti,編制增加為原來的三倍。[12] 12支教導團中有10支是所謂羅馬的"傳統"騎兵,和元首制時期的大隊騎兵的裝備類似,下轄則有名為scutarii ("盾騎兵"), armaturae ("裝甲騎兵") or gentiles ("異族騎兵")。然這些名字早已沒有字面上的含義,已經成為了單純的一種尊稱,儘管他們最初可能表示由特殊的裝備或種族組成的部隊(gentiles意為被吸納入境內服兵役的異族的部落民)。只有東部的兩支教導團,是極為特殊的建制: 一支教導團名為clibanarii (具裝衝擊騎兵,或者是重具裝衝擊騎兵),還有一支則是具裝弓騎兵(sagittarii).[146][147] 40 select troops from the scholae,而從御林軍中被選出的40名因其白色制服而被命名的candidati,是皇帝的私人保鏢[73]

中央軍和野戰軍

中央軍和野戰軍的基礎騎兵分隊被稱作中央軍布旗隊野戰軍布旗隊;同樣基礎的步兵分隊被稱作中央軍軍團, 中央軍輔助步兵團, 野戰軍軍團偽野戰步兵團.[98][148] 只有中央軍會有輔助步兵團, 以強調其精英地位, 而軍團在中央軍和野戰軍都有。[124]

扈從軍的騎兵的大多數(61%)一直保持着半具裝的類型,與元首制時期的騎兵大隊類似,通常在戰場上被用於近戰。 這些軍團具有各種頭銜: 野戰騎兵團comites,盾騎兵團equites scutarii,侍衛騎兵團英語Equites Stablesiani或萬用騎兵團equites promoti。同樣,這些頭銜可能純粹僅是遵照舊日傳統,並不表示不同的部隊類型或職能。[20] 24%的騎兵軍團是無裝甲輕騎兵,例如達爾馬提亞騎兵隊英語equites Dalmatae, 毛里人騎兵隊 or 弓騎兵部隊,他們適合騷擾和追擊敵軍。 毛里人英語Mauri (people)自500年前的第二次布匿戰爭以來一直存在於帝國的輔助騎兵的行列。 達爾馬提亞騎兵英語Equites Dalmatae,則是自三世紀開始出現在羅馬軍隊內。 扈從軍的15%的騎兵部隊則是重裝甲的甲冑衝擊騎兵英語cataphractarii or 具裝衝擊騎兵英語clibanarii, 用於衝擊敵軍陣列[149]

至於步兵和元首制時期並未有什麼不同,與2世紀的輔助兵團的裝備別無二致,唯有輕微的調整 (請參看下面的Equipment).[20]

邊防軍

邊防軍里, 什麼上述的單位編制幾乎都有,步兵包括了邊防步兵隊, 邊防民兵團以及輔助步兵團,或者還有些元首制時期遺留下來的軍團大隊建制。騎兵建制的話則包含了邊防騎兵隊, 邊防騎兵連和 元首制時期遺留下來的騎兵大隊.[144]

野戰軍的實力要強於邊防軍的證據多且充分,但是差距並非天差地別。有說法指出邊防軍的組成大多來源於地方農民的民兵,因此作戰能力遠不是職業軍人的對手。[150]這種觀點被許多現代學者所否定。[144][151][152]史料中證明邊防軍實際上都是全職的職業軍人。[153] 他們負責打擊小規模劫掠的蠻族,這是帝國持久的安全問題。[154]因此,他們的戰鬥準備和經驗很可能是很高的。這一點在阿米達圍城戰(359年)中表現得淋漓盡致,被圍困的邊防軍團以高超的技巧和頑強的意志抵抗了波斯人的進攻。雖然波斯人的規模優勢要遠高於守城的羅馬守軍和援軍(12萬人對5萬),波斯人取得了勝利並絞死了當時的守城指揮官,但是波斯人也付出了超過3萬人的重大損失,而羅馬方面僅犧牲了絕大多數的守軍和城外的流民,援軍並未遭到重創。[155] 埃爾頓認為,資料中沒有提到少於400人的蠻族入侵,這意味着這種情況通常由邊防軍處理,而不需要扈從軍的協助。'.[156] 邊防軍同時也經常陪同扈從軍以作為特定戰役的輔軍,之後也會長期跟隨扈從軍並被稱為偽野戰軍英語pseudocomitatenses,對其戰鬥力的認可不言而喻。[153]

特殊建制
伊朗克爾曼沙汗省「花園拱門」的薩珊王朝的重甲騎兵浮雕。他身穿的可能是帶護臉的鎖子甲。 這可能是羅馬人所說的clibanarius英語clibanarii盔甲, 暗示穿着如此全具甲的人在甲內如同呆在烤爐內一般熱。此處要注意的是,騎兵的馬匹也是有盔甲的。
外部圖片連結
image icon Roman cataphract cavalryman[157]

羅馬晚期的軍隊中有大量的重裝甲騎兵,被稱為cataphractarii英語Equites cataphractarii (來自於希臘語κατάφρακτος/kataphraktos,意思是全身被包覆着的).騎兵從脖子到腳包覆着層狀的鱗甲 或者軀幹四肢穿着札甲(可以參照臂甲英語Manica (armguard)),他們的馬匹通常也包覆着盔甲。 具甲騎兵持有名為contus英語contus的重型長槍,長約3.65米(12英尺),需要雙手抓持,部分人還佩帶弓箭。[158] 具甲騎兵主要負責衝擊敵陣,通過集中壓倒性的兵力攻擊敵方陣線的某一特定地段來打破敵方陣線。在4世紀的記錄中,還出現了一種被稱為 具裝衝擊騎兵英語clibanarii的衝擊騎兵,這個詞源於希臘語的κλίβανοςklibanos (即麵包的烘焙爐)當然也有說法是起源於波斯語. 也許就是甲冑衝擊騎兵的代稱,也或者是這其中的一種。[20] 這種騎兵的原型公元前六世紀便存在在歐亞大草原斯基泰人和他們的同族[[薩爾馬提亞人|薩爾馬提亞人|]的部落中。公元前1世紀,安息帝國便採用了這種軍種。再至公元一世紀時期,為了對抗東方波斯人和北方多瑙河流域的游牧薩爾馬提亞人的威脅,鐵甲騎兵成為羅馬人的軍隊的一部分。[159] 通過考古發掘最早的鐵甲騎兵部隊來自於2世紀時開始存在的高盧-潘諾尼亞甲冑騎兵大隊,當時駐紮在潘諾尼亞,即現在的匈牙利[160] 羅馬帝國境內的甲冑騎兵存在已久,但再帝國的後期規模才開始大規模增加,帝國大多數的甲冑騎兵軍團就駐紮在東部地區。[161] 不過,在駐紮在東部軍隊的兵團中,有幾個兵團的名稱是高盧語,很顯然起名的根源起於帝國的西部。[162]

弓箭手部隊在百官志中以equites sagittarii (弓騎兵)以及sagittarii (弓箭手,詞源sagitta意為"羽箭").與元首制時期類似,許多非sagittarii命名的軍團也可能包含一些弓箭手。弓騎兵似乎只出現在輕騎兵部隊中。[20] 弓箭手和弓騎兵同時都被存在於扈從軍中。[163] 而邊防軍只會有弓騎兵的編制,因為步兵裏面已經混入了步兵弓箭手。[164]

古典晚期的帝國軍隊的一個顯著特點是出現了獨立的炮兵部隊,在元首制時期這些部隊似乎是軍團的組成部分。他們一般被稱之為弩炮部隊ballistarii (來源於Ballista即投射器的意思), 百官志內一共有七個基礎單位編制,不過只有一個歸屬於中央軍編制下。但也有一些被標明為'偽野戰軍,意味着它們原本屬於邊防部隊。獨立炮兵部隊的目的大概是為了大量集中火力,尤其是對圍攻有用。然而,許多普通的軍團很可能繼續擁有integral artillery, 尤其是邊防部隊。[165]

百官志當初還列出了一系列疑似特殊功能的輕步兵單位: superventorespraeventores (阻擊隊) exculcatores (追蹤隊), exploratores (斥候隊).[166]但是同時期記敘此事的阿米安努斯用了多種不同術語來描述這些部隊: velites'(輕裝遠程投擲隊), leves armaturae(投石者部隊), exculcatores(追蹤隊), expediti(探查隊). 即使百官志內證實阿米安努斯所說的這些部隊是獨立部隊單位,目前為止尚不清楚這些部隊中是否有任何一支是獨立的部隊,或者實際上只是為某一特定行動而專門武裝的普通部隊的小分隊。[167]

部曲

布塞拉里亞Bucellarii (拉丁文複數為bucellarius;字面意義是"食餅乾者",[168] 希臘語βουκελλάριοι)是晚期Roman 和[東羅馬帝國|Byzantine Empire]]時期出現的職業士兵的稱呼,這些部隊不由國家直接支持,通常都由個人所僱傭並效忠於其僱主,不過他們也宣誓服從在位皇帝。這些 "家丁部隊 "的僱主通常是著名的將軍或高級文官僚。這些部隊的單位一般都很小,但是,特別是在許多內戰期間,他們可以發展到幾千人。實際上, 因為部曲是受僱傭的小規模的個人部隊,所以他們的裝備通常要好很多,訓練也相當充分,戰鬥力要優於正規軍。他們最早出現於四世紀後期,隨着時間的流逝他們逐漸成為戰鬥部隊中的中流砥柱,尤其是遠征軍。著名的部曲僱主包括了作為軍方大元帥的 斯提里科埃提烏斯,還有大區司政官魯菲努斯英語Rufinus (consul).[169]

蠻盟傭兵

在正規軍之外帝國僱傭了大量的從羅馬帝國境外的部隊,通常被稱為蠻盟 (該詞源於foedus 即"條約"之意)傭兵,或者在東方他們被稱為symmachi。T這些部隊的人員通常都來自於蠻族酋長們的土地,他們的部落領主與帝國簽訂條約dediticii而為帝國四處征戰。[170] 羅馬人在整個帝國史上都在使用這些部隊,比如說圖拉真柱所刻畫的戰爭場景上,蠻盟傭兵在達契亞戰爭中立下了汗馬功勞。 (101–6).[171]

在四世紀元首制式微之後,隨着越來越多的蠻族進入羅馬帝國正規部隊,蠻盟傭兵的編制和所屬越來越難以界定,他們根據他們所屬的族群被編在一起,成為被稱為」Numeri」的部隊。(該詞即部隊之意, 雖然numerus也是正規步兵建制的名稱).[172]他們在特定戰役期間或特定時期與正規軍一起服役。通常他們的服役範圍僅限於部落所居住的地區,但有時也可以部署到其他地方。[173] 他們由自己的領袖指揮。目前還不清楚他們使用的是自己的武器和盔甲還是羅馬軍隊的標準裝備。在晚期軍隊中,比較有戰鬥力的和在軍中長期服役的numeri似乎被吸收到晚期的正規軍中,迅速變得與其他部隊沒有區別。[174]

兵員的徵募

於羅馬人

元首制時期,大多數的羅馬軍團和輔助軍團的新兵都是志願兵(voluntarii)。當然強制徵兵(dilectus)並未被完全廢除,但僅僅會在緊急情況或者中大作戰需要大量補充兵員的情況才會用到。[175] 與此形成明顯對比的是,古典晚期的軍隊對羅馬公民的招募主要依靠強制徵兵。首先,法律規定現役軍人或老兵的兒子必須入伍。其次,根據indictio(土地稅評估)每年定期進行徵收。土地所有者(或土地所有者的組織)要根據其莊園應繳納的地稅數額,向軍隊提供相應數量的新兵。自然,地主們有強烈的動機留住自己最優秀的年輕人在自己的莊園裏工作,而把那些體質較差或不可靠的人送去服兵役。還有證據表明,他們試圖通過提供士兵(無論如何都有可能服役)和流浪漢(vagi)的兒子來完成他們的配額來欺騙徵兵。[47]

然而,徵兵制實際上並不普遍。首先,以土地為基礎的徵兵意味着徵兵對象完全是農民的兒子,而不是城鎮居民。[47] 因此,帝國約有20%的人口被排除在外。[176] 在元首制時期類似,奴隸是不可徵召的,自由民里的某些職業從業者例如麵包師和旅館老闆也不在徵兵之列。此外,省級官員和curiales(市議會議員)也不能被徵兵。這些規定只有在緊急情況下才會放寬,如在405-406年的軍事危機期間(拉達蓋蘇斯英語Radagaisus' 率領大量蠻族入侵高盧和北意大利)。[177]最重要的是,徵兵要求往往折算成現金徵收,按每一個應徵者的固定比率徵收。這在某些省份、某些年份是這樣做的,不過具體細節基本不詳。從現有的極少證據來看,徵兵並非在各省均勻實施,而是主要集中在軍隊的傳統徵兵地區,類似高盧英語Roman Gaul (萊茵河沿岸的兩個日耳曼日亞行省)和多瑙河沿岸省(例如潘諾尼亞,默西亞和色雷斯), 其他地區大概也經常折算。對350-476年間已知的野戰軍兵員的來源進行分析,在帝國西部政府的軍隊中,伊利利里亞和高盧管區共提供了52%的新兵。儘管全帝國12個管區里多瑙河的沿岸管區只有3個,但這三個管區提供了全軍接近一半的兵員,這與元首制時期極為相似。[178] This picture is much in line with the 2nd-century position.[179]

准新兵必須接受身體檢查。新兵必須年齡在20-25歲之間,這個範圍在4世紀後期延伸到19-35歲。新兵必須要身體健康,必須要滿6 羅馬尺英語Roman foot (5 ft 10in, 178 cm)而到了367年,這個標準到367年被降低至5尺3 英語Ancient Roman units of measurements (5 ft 7in, 170 cm).[180] 維蓋提烏斯暗示,在帝國很晚期(約公元400年),甚至這一身高要求可能已經放寬,因為"... 如果有需求的話,與其說考慮身材,不如考慮力量。即使荷馬本人也不需要見證者,因為他記載堤丟斯英語Tydeus泰德烏斯身材矮小,但卻是一個強壯的戰士"。[181]

一旦新兵被錄取,他就會在手臂上打上 "標記",多半是紋身或烙印,以便在他試圖開小差時被識別出來。 [182] 然後,新兵會被發放一個身份識別盤(戴在脖子上)和一份入伍證書(probatoria)。然後,他會被分配到一個軍團.375年的一項法律規定,身體素質較好的人必須被分配到野戰軍中.[183] 在4世紀,最低服役年限為20年(邊防軍則是24年).[184] 相比之下,在元首制時期,羅馬軍團和輔助兵團士兵的服役年限均為25年。

廣泛採用徵兵制、強制徵召士兵的兒子、放寬年齡和身高要求以及給新兵打上烙印,所有這些都表明,軍隊在尋找和留住足夠的新兵方面存在嚴重困難。[185] Recruitment difficulties are confirmed in 徵兵困難在法典證據中得到了證實:對於為逃避兵役而自殘的情況(如砍掉大拇指),有一些處理措施,包括386年的一項極端法令,要求將這些人活活燒死。[184] 逃兵顯然是一個嚴重的問題,而且可能比元首制時期嚴重得多,因為後者主要是志願役。這一點可以從准予休假 (commeatus)的規定變得更為嚴格得到佐證。在2世紀,士兵的休假由其團長酌情批准,而在4世紀,休假只能由高級軍官(督軍,野戰軍司令,大元帥)進行批准。[186][187] 此外,扈從軍部隊似乎在一般狀態下都會缺員三分之一。[98] 官方與實際兵力之間的巨大差距是招募問題的有力證據。對此,Elton認為,後期軍隊並不存在嚴重的徵兵問題,其依據是大量人免於徵兵。[188]

於蠻族

(追溯至約390年的)出現在Constantinople狄奧多西方尖碑基座浮雕後排的古典晚期羅馬軍隊,他們可能出身與蠻族。這些軍隊歸屬於中央軍英語Palatini (Roman military),負責保護皇帝。當時中央軍中超過三分之一的士兵是出身於蠻族的。請注意帶有軍團吊墜的項鍊和長發,這是蠻族新兵帶來的風格,與元首制時期保持短髮的傳統截然不同。

Barbari ("蠻族")通常被羅馬人用來形容帝國境外的住民,這個詞來源於希臘語,用以指代喋喋不休說着難以理解語言的外人。

大多數學者認為,在整個元首制時期,絕大多數的蠻族 barbari'都招入了輔助軍團 (因為羅馬軍團僅招募羅馬公民).[184][189] 然而,在3世紀之前幾乎沒有史料證明這一點。當然也有稀少的證據表明,如果不是全部,輔助軍團的絕大多數兵員也是來自於 羅馬的自由民英語Peregrinus (Roman) 或者羅馬公民。[190] 4世紀的軍隊可能比兩三百年前的元首制部隊更依賴於對蠻族的招募,而其中的依據如下:

  1. 《百官志》內列出了帝國境內的一些蠻族軍事定居點,他們被稱為軍戶英語laeti或者異邦人gentiles,這些蠻族定居者都是軍隊招募新兵的重點對象。 日耳曼或薩爾馬提亞部落的人獲得帝國賜予的土地,作為交換他們將為帝國服兵役。有可能每個部落都有條約義務,每年向軍隊提供一定數量的兵員[184] 蠻族部落居民在帝國內重新定居以換取兵役,在4世紀並不是一個新的現象:它可以追溯到奧古斯都時代。[191] 只不過四世紀開始這種現象的規模開始擴展,而做法開始系統化。[192]
  2. 百官志內的單位有許多擁有蠻族的命名,因為他們是跟着本族長官一起作為非正規軍的蠻盟傭兵(被稱為sociifoederati) 轉正成為了帝國的常備軍的結果。在元首制時期,帶有蠻族名字的正規軍單位名字直到3世紀開始才有記載,但仍然極少。比如說第一薩爾馬提亞騎兵大隊ala I Sarmatarum便在3世紀英格蘭被證實在那駐紮,無疑是175年派駐在那裏的薩爾馬提亞騎兵的后羿。[193]
  3. 正規軍中出現了相當數量的帶有蠻族姓名的高級軍官,並最終出現在軍方頂層. 5世紀初期,西帝國的軍隊常由蠻族出身或者蠻族血統的將軍所把持,比如阿波加斯特,斯提里科以及李希梅爾.[194]
  4. 4世紀的軍隊採用蠻族(尤其是日耳曼人)的服飾、習俗和文化,意味着蠻族的影響增強。比如說羅馬軍隊的一部分單位採用仿蠻族的命名,如角盔Cornuti英語Cornuti,指的是德國人在頭盔上用角做裝飾的習俗, 還有 barritus,是日耳曼人的戰吼。在中央軍軍團內,因為蠻族兵員愈發見多,日耳曼人傳統的留長髮習慣成為了一種風俗。[195]

對4世紀軍隊中出身於蠻族的兵員比例的量化是高度推測出來的結果。Elton基於少量的史料基礎上進行了最詳細的分析。根據這一分析,在350-400年期間,樣本部隊中大約四分之一的軍官出身於蠻族。以每十年進行的分析表明,這一比例在這一時期沒有增加,實際上在5世紀初也沒有增加。後一種趨勢意味着基層軍官中蠻族的比例並沒有增加多少,否則蠻族軍官的比例會隨着時間的推移而增加,以反映這一點[196]

如果蠻族在軍中的比例在四分之一上下, 那麼這個比例也比二世紀時期的正規軍要高。假設將這個比例的兵員全部編入輔助軍團的話,在輔助兵團占元首制軍隊的比例60%的情況下,那麼超過40%的新兵將會是蠻族出身的。[11] 不曾有過史料表明2世紀對蠻族如此之大的招募.[36] 非羅馬名字的士兵裏面,75%是日耳曼人: 在百官志的建制中證實了這些人來自於法蘭克人, 阿勒曼人, 薩克遜人, 哥特人,以及汪達爾人[197] 其他重要的新兵來源是來自多瑙河地區的薩爾馬提亞人;亞美尼亞人 以及出身高加索地區的伊比利亞人.[198]

與羅馬新兵相反,絕大多數蠻族新兵可能是自願入伍的,他們被服役條件和職業前景所吸引,與他們在家鄉的生活條件相比,這些條件和前景可能顯得很理想。只有少數的蠻族軍人作為過去的dediticii (向羅馬帝國投降的降兵,或者是逃避與其他部落衝突而投靠帝國的軍人)而被強行徵召的,作為和平條件,他們不得不承諾每年提供一定數量的新兵。蠻族可以直接招募,作為個體加入正規軍,也可以被間接招募,作為非正規的附屬部隊的成員轉為正規軍。[199]

軍階,薪酬以及福利

普通士兵

在軍銜金字塔的底部是普通士兵: pedes (步兵) and eques (騎兵).與2世紀的同行不同,4世紀士兵的食物和裝備並不從他的軍餉(stipendium)中扣除,而是免費提供的。[200] 這是因為支付給士兵的軍餉的第納里烏斯銀幣,在戴克里先時期的價值遠低於2世紀。在君士坦丁時期,它失去了剩餘價值,在4世紀中葉停止定期支付。[201]

士兵唯一的可支配收入來自捐獻金donativa, 即皇帝定期發放的現金紅利,因為這些紅利是以從未貶值的金幣solidi或者純銀的方式進行發放。奧古斯都在位期間,每5年定期發放5枚蘇勒德斯 。同時當奧古斯都即位之時,士兵們會被一次性再發放5枚蘇勒德斯以及一磅純銀 (一磅純銀可以換算成4枚蘇勒德斯,根據推算士兵一次性可以獲得等同9枚蘇勒德斯當量的獎金。帝國西部從284年到395年經歷了12位奧古斯都,每個平均任期都有9年,這些士兵的捐獻金平均下來為每年1枚蘇勒德斯金幣。故士兵的可支配收入平均每年至少有2個蘇勒德斯。當然同時期也可能不僅會有來自新即位的奧古斯都的獎金,還會有來自新繼位的凱撒的獎金。[202] 而2枚蘇勒德斯的年收入相比於元首制的二世紀時期而言,只有可憐的四分之一 (二世紀時期的士兵年收入換算成蘇勒德斯大約在8枚左右).[203] 同時帝國後期士兵們退役後的各類補償(其中包括土地補償)也遠遜於過去,僅為元首制時期的十分之一。[204][205]

儘管與元首制時期有差距,Jones和Elton認為與大多數新兵的農民家庭不得不忍受的溫飽水平的艱難現實相比,4世紀的薪酬還是很有吸引力的。[206]與此相對應的是,兵役顯然不受歡迎。

然而,在等級更高的部隊中,薪酬會更有吸引力。薪酬金字塔的頂端是御林軍英語Scholae Palatinae 的士兵們。再接着是中央軍Palatini,然而是野戰軍Comitatenses,而邊防軍Limitanei則位居最後。關於各等級之間的薪資差異的史料很少,但它們是相當大的,這可以從一個例子中看出:一個扈從軍軍團的書記官英語actuarius (軍中的軍需官)就比准野戰軍的軍需官的工資高了50%。[207]

軍團級軍官

舊建制軍團級軍官(羅馬軍團, 騎兵大隊步兵大隊)在元首制時期保持不變,其中包括了百夫長十夫長英語decurion (military)。然而在改革後的新建制中,(例如布旗隊, 輔助步兵團之類), 已有史料證實出現了多個不同的軍階,似乎是仿照地方當局官僚的頭銜而設立的。[208] 眾人對這些軍銜知之甚少,以至於無法確定地將其與傳統軍銜等同起來。維蓋提烏斯聲稱兩百夫長ducenarius, 顧名思義,指揮200人。如果是這樣的話,4世紀的百夫長可能仍相當於舊式部隊中的百夫長。[209] 如下是當前最準確的薪金等級表:

四世紀的軍團級軍官[210]
薪金等級
(多少倍於基層士兵的收入)
2世紀的大隊(升序) 四世紀的同類型建制)
1 步兵

(pedes)

步兵

(pedes)

1.5 口令官
(tesserarius)
士官長
(semissalis)
2 百人隊布旗手
(signifer)
副百夫長
(optio)
步兵大隊布旗手
(vexillarius)
十夫長
(騎兵的為circitor)
(步兵的為biarchus)
2.5 to 5 百夫長
centenarius (2.5)
兩百夫長
ducenarius (3.5)
軍團參謀
senator (4)
副軍團長英語primicerius (5)
Over 5 百夫長
centurio
首席百夫長
centurio princeps

副大隊長
beneficiarius

注: 軍階僅針對於薪金的高低,與在軍隊中的職能並不完全相關

該表顯示,4世紀兵團高級軍官得到的的薪資差額遠小於2世紀的同行,在4世紀高級的行政系統官員也出現了同樣的現象。

軍團及軍隊級指揮官

四世紀軍團及軍隊級指揮官薪金表[211]
薪金等級
(多少倍於基層士兵的收入)
等級
(升序)
官位數目
(Notitia)
職責描述
12 預備役軍官
Protector
數百人
(尤利安時期為200人左右)
預備役軍團指揮官
未知 軍事保民官
Tribunus
(也可以稱praefectus)
約800人 軍團長官
未知 侍衛保民官
Tribunus comes
數量未知 (i) 皇帝貼身侍衛長官
(ii) 兩個軍團的長官
(iii) 御林軍下分支教導團長官(類比Domesticus)
(iv) 皇帝或軍方高層下的副官
100 邊防督軍
Dux(極少的會被稱為comes)
27 邊區軍隊的總長官
未知 野戰軍司令
Comes rei militaris
7 (i) 管區的小型扈從軍總長官
未知 大元帥
Magister militum
(西部稱為騎兵元帥magister equitum)
4 各管區的大型扈從軍總長官
未知 常備軍大元帥
Magister militum praesentalis
(西部稱為騎兵元帥magister utriusque militiae)
3 中央常備軍總長官

上表顯示了持有委任狀(sacra epistula, 字面意莊嚴之信)的軍階,而委任狀會由皇帝在專門的儀式上親自頒發給被委任者。[212]

在西西里島皮亞扎阿爾梅里納的一副表現了狩獵場景的四世紀馬賽克壁畫。畫中出現的可能是穿着非戰鬥制服的羅馬軍官 (沒有穿着盔甲與頭盔,但是持有盾牌與長矛) 。而貫穿整個帝國時代,士兵都是以非戰鬥形象出現的。[213] 注意灰白色的丘尼卡。左邊外衣上繡的卍字符號,可能源於印歐英語Proto-Indo-European society人的傳統, 代表宇宙,羅馬人常將其作為裝飾圖案。同時也要注意他們披着的斗篷(chlamys)和穿着的褲子。他們盾牌上的圖案表示持盾者的軍團。同時也請注意袖子和肩膀上刺繡的帶子。

預備役軍團長官(預備役軍官protectores)

4世紀的一項重大創新是預備役軍團,其中包括預備役軍團的高級軍官。按理預備役軍團長本應是歷經百戰的老兵所擔任, 但從軍隊外招收軍方相關年輕人(往往是高級軍官家族子弟)已成為一種普遍做法。預備役軍官組成的團體既可以培訓軍官,也可以提供為大元帥或皇帝執行特殊任務的參謀人才。隸屬於皇帝的預備役軍官被稱作宮內侍衛官英語protectores domestici,分成四個教導團並由侍衛保民官英語comes domesticorum指揮。軍中效力數年之後, 他們會被皇帝授予委任狀, 並被安排指揮一個軍團。[214]

軍團長官(軍事保民官tribuni)

軍團指揮官可以被稱為三種頭銜中的任意一個: tribunus (對應扈從軍軍團或者邊區的大隊), praefectus (通常是邊防軍的軍團)或者praepositus (指揮邊防步兵隊和蠻盟傭兵).[215][216] 然而tribunus被通俗地用來表示任何軍團的指揮官。雖然大多數tribuni 是從預備役軍官團體中進行任命, 但也有少數人,同樣主要是以高級現役軍官的子弟為主,他們直接空降到軍團內成為麾下士兵的長官。[217] 軍團指揮官的地位因其部隊的等級不同而有很大的差別。在最高端,御林軍的指揮官會被授予夥友comes的榮銜, ,這種做法在公元400年後成為標準流程。[218]

高階軍團長官(侍衛保民官tribuni comites)

comitiva,亦稱御用夥友,是君士坦丁一世為表彰高級行政和軍事官員,特別是皇帝的隨從設立的榮銜。它與已有的元老院和騎士的榮銜有部分重疊,因為它可以授予前兩者集團其中之一的成員(當然也可以授予這兩者之外的外人)。 夥友可以分為三級, 由於過度授予,只有第一等級的夥友, comes primi ordinis (直譯為第一等級的夥友,只授予元老院成員), 在450年以後還保留着價值。在許多情況下,這個頭銜是依職權授予的,可以說是純粹的榮譽性頭銜。[219]

在軍方,comes primi ordinis的頭銜會授予那些資深軍事保民官。比如說(1) 宮內侍衛官的頭領侍衛保民官,這個頭銜在350年的時候被稱為comes domesticorum;[220] (2) 御林軍的保民官: 在公元400年後御林軍指揮官也常被授予這個頭銜[221] (3) 同時指揮兩個扈從軍軍團的長官 (指常常成對出動的軍團,例如朱庇特軍團英語Ioviani赫拉克勒軍團英語Herculiani);[222] (4) 一些為皇帝和元帥效勞但沒有軍團指揮權的護民官 (tribuni vacantes), .[221]但是,以上這些官員在等級上終究和指揮管區小型扈從軍的野戰軍司令不同,後者可以指揮管區的小規模的扈從軍,而不僅僅是一到兩個軍團。

軍方高層(督軍,野戰軍司令,大元帥)

由數個軍團組成的大兵團的指揮官,依照實力大小,稱為:邊區督軍,野戰軍司令和大元帥.這些軍官的軍銜相當於現代軍隊中的將軍元帥

邊區督軍(少數會稱為司令),負責指揮邊境省份的軍隊以及邊區河道內的船隊。直到君士坦丁一世時期, 邊區督軍向所屬管區的代理官匯報工作。360年之後,督軍則對當地駐紮的扈從軍指揮官,例如大元帥或野戰軍司令負責。[72] 不過,他們有權直接向皇帝報告,這個可以從皇帝敕令英語rescript中可以看得出來。少量的邊防軍長官也被稱為司令,比如駐紮在不列顛沿海的comes litoris Saxonici (薩克森海岸邊防軍司令")。[223]

野戰軍司令一般指揮一個較小規模的管區扈從軍(規模通常在10000人左右)。在百官志成書時期,野戰軍司令通常出現在帝國西部,因為西部的扈從軍被分割成數個小型野戰軍。而在東部就只有兩位野戰軍司令, 負責指揮埃及和伊蘇利亞的軍隊,但這些人只指揮邊防軍的軍團。這是因為他們在百官志成書時期,直接向皇帝本人匯報工作(當然之後他們則對東方野戰軍元帥負責了)。[124] 管區的野戰軍司令還負責指揮管區內的邊防督軍。

大元帥統領着大規模的管區扈從軍(規模通常在20000-30000兵員之間)。與西部的野戰軍司令一樣,東部的大元帥們也能夠指揮其管區下所有的邊防督軍。

常備軍大元帥是中央扈從軍的總指揮(規模通常在20000-30000兵員之間)。和西部的兩軍大元帥,騎兵統帥和步兵統帥同等級。

從中基層升到兵團指揮官的比例已不得而知,不過多半可能性很小,因為大多數人在被授予一個軍團的指揮權時已經接近退休年齡。[224]相反的是,直接被皇帝委任的預備役軍官和軍事保民官把持了上升的渠道,因為他們常常是年輕人。對於這些人來說,晉升為軍方高層的速度可以很快。例如狄奧多西,28歲便做了邊區督軍。[225] 而且晉升也可以適當略過一些軍階,比如說御林軍的長官享有直接接觸皇帝機會, 比其他人更容易成為大元帥: 比如說出身蠻族的阿吉洛英語Agilo 在360年直接從御林軍的軍事保民官直接越過邊區督軍的階段,直接晉升成為大元帥。[221]

裝備

羅馬君士坦丁凱旋門底部的橫型浮雕展現了君士坦丁一世的騎兵在312年的米爾維安大橋戰役中將馬克森提烏斯的部隊趕入台伯河的場景。 圖上顯示四世紀的士兵穿着金屬制的盔甲(馬克森提烏斯的士兵身着鎖子甲或者鱗甲)。而君士坦丁的騎兵顯然沒有穿着任何盔甲的,推測可能是出身於伊利里亞的達爾馬提亞輕騎兵(equites Dalmatae)和弓騎兵。
收藏於伊斯坦布爾考古博物館的君士坦丁堡狄奧多西柱的浮雕細節,時間可以追溯至390年,顯示着在行動中的羅馬士兵。請注意這些士兵穿着Intercisa式的附有鐵製的脊盔(也許意味着軍人的軍階)並且穿着鎖子甲或者鱗甲,這證明了維蓋提烏斯聲稱4世紀羅馬步兵放棄了頭盔和盔甲的說法是錯誤的。
晚期羅馬頭盔,也被稱為Deurne式的頭盔。表面覆銀,上面刻着歸屬於侍衛騎兵大隊英語Equites Stablesiani的騎兵的身份.

四世紀的步兵裝備與他們二世紀的前輩們基本相同: 金屬盔甲、金屬頭盔、盾牌和劍。[226] 但是從三世紀開始這些裝備逐漸開始變化,比如說衣物比起過去的要更為暖和;軍團內的羅馬環片甲,羅馬短劍,羅馬重標槍和其餘軍團時期獨特的制式武器也退出舞台; 步兵採用了早期騎兵使用的裝備;對於具裝甲冑騎兵也開始大規模使用。.

衣物

一至二世紀時期,羅馬士兵身上多穿着單層的短袖丘尼卡,腳上則穿着帶鞋釘的羅馬涼鞋Caligae。這種裸露胳膊和腿的裝束是在地中海氣候下演變而來的,不適合天氣寒冷的北歐。在北歐,從1世紀開始,長袖外衣、長褲(bracae)、襪子(穿在caligae內)和系帶靴是冬季常見的服裝。這類保暖的裝備在三世紀時期被大規模普及,連地中海地區的士兵都仿效。[227]然而,很可能在溫暖的天氣里,長褲被取消,而穿的是caligae,而不是襪子和靴子。[228] 羅馬後期的衣物經常藻飾華麗,男女老少會在他們的丘尼卡或者袍子繡上或者纏着編織或者刺繡的條紋, 比如說骨螺紫染色的絲帶clavi,,同心圓的圖案,以及帶有各類圖案的圓標orbiculi,或者方標tabulae。這些附飾通常會有幾何圖案或者植物狀的花紋,有些也會是人或動物的形象。[229] 士兵們的服飾相對會比較獨特, 儘管非軍事官僚似乎也有佩戴, 他們會戴一種圓形無邊帽,名為潘諾尼亞帽(pileus pannonicus)。[230]

Armour

Legionary soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries had use of the lorica segmentata英語lorica segmentata, or laminated-strip cuirass, as well as mail (lorica hamata英語lorica hamata) and scale armour (lorica squamata英語lorica squamata). Testing of modern copies have demonstrated that segmentata was impenetrable to most direct and missile strikes. It was, however, uncomfortable: reenactors have discovered that chafing renders it painful to wear for longer than a few hours at a time, and it was also expensive to produce and difficult to maintain.[231] In the 3rd century, the segmentata appears to have fallen out of use and troops were depicted wearing mail or scale.

In either the 390s[232] or the 430s[233][234]), Vegetius reports that soldiers no longer wore armour:

From the foundation of the city till the reign of the Emperor Gratian, the foot wore cuirasses and helmets. But negligence and sloth having by degrees introduced a total relaxation of discipline, the soldiers began to think their armor too heavy, as they seldom put it on. They first requested leave from the Emperor to lay aside the cuirass and afterwards the helmet. In consequence of this, our troops in their engagements with the Goths were often overwhelmed with their showers of arrows. Nor was the necessity of obliging the infantry to resume their cuirasses and helmets discovered, notwithstanding such repeated defeats, which brought on the destruction of so many great cities. Troops, defenseless and exposed to all the weapons of the enemy, are more disposed to fly than fight. What can be expected from a foot-archer without cuirass or helmet, who cannot hold at once his bow and shield; or from the ensigns whose bodies are naked, and who cannot at the same time carry a shield and the colors? The foot soldier finds the weight of a cuirass and even of a helmet intolerable. This is because he is so seldom exercised and rarely puts them on.[235]

It is possible that Vegetius' statements about the abandonment of armour were a misinterpretation by him of sources mentioning Roman soldiers fighting without armour in more open formations during the Gothic wars of the 370s.[236] Evidence that armour continued to be worn by Roman soldiers, including infantry, throughout the period is widespread.[237]

The artistic record shows most late Roman soldiers wearing metal armour. For example, illustrations in the Notitia Dignitatum, compiled after the reign of Gratian, indicate that the army's fabricae (arms factories) were producing mail armour at the end of the 4th century.[238] The Vatican Virgil manuscript, early 5th century, and the Column of Arcadius, reigned 395 to 408, both show armoured soldiers.[239] Actual examples of quite large sections of mail have been recovered, at Trier (with a section of scale), Independența, and Weiler-la-Tour, within a late 4th-century context.[240] Officers and some soldiers may have worn muscle cuirasses, together with decorative pteruges英語pteruges.[241] In contrast to the earlier segmentata plate armour, which afforded no protection for the arms or below the hips, some pictorial and sculptural representations of Late Roman soldiers show mail or scale armours giving more extensive protection. These armours had full-length sleeves and were long enough to protect the thighs.[242]

The catafractarii and clibanarii cavalry, from limited pictorial evidence and especially from the description of these troops by Ammianus, may have worn specialised forms of armour. In particular their limbs were protected by laminated defences, made up of curved and overlapping metal segments: "Laminarum circuli tenues apti corporis flexibus ambiebant per omnia membra diducti" (Thin circles of iron plates, fitted to the curves of their bodies, completely covered their limbs).[243] Such laminated defences are attested by a fragment of manica found at Bowes Moor, dating to the late 4th century.[244]

Helmets

In general, Roman cavalry helmets had enhanced protection, in the form of wider cheek-guards and deeper neck-guards, for the sides and back of the head than infantry helmets. Infantry were less vulnerable in those parts due to their tighter formation when fighting.[245] During the 3rd century, infantry helmets tended to adopt the more protective features of Principate cavalry helmets. Cheek-guards could often be fastened together over the chin to protect the face, and covered the ears save for a slit to permit hearing e.g. the "Auxiliary E" type or its Niederbieber variant. Cavalry helmets became even more enclosed e.g. the "Heddernheim英語Heddernheim" type, which is close to the medieval great helm, but at the cost much reduced vision and hearing.[246]

In the late 3rd century a complete break in Roman helmet design occurred. Previous Roman helmet types, based ultimately on Celtic designs, were replaced by new forms derived from helmets developed in the Sassanid Empire. The new helmet types were characterised by a skull constructed from multiple elements united by a medial ridge, and are referred to as "ridge helmets"英語Late Roman ridge helmet. They are divided into two sub-groups, the "Intercisa" and "Berkasovo" types.[247] The "Intercisa" design had a two-piece skull, it left the face unobstructed and had ear-holes in the join between the small cheek-guards and bowl to allow good hearing. It was simpler and cheaper to manufacture, and therefore probably by far the most common type, but structurally weaker and therefore offered less effective protection.[248] The "Berkasovo" type was a more sturdy and protective ridge helmet. This type of helmet usually has 4 to 6 skull elements (and the characteristic median ridge), a nasal (nose-guard), a deep brow piece riveted inside the skull elements and large cheekpieces. Unusually the helmet discovered at Burgh Castle英語Burgh Castle, in England, is of the Berkasovo method of construction, but has cheekpieces with earholes. Face-guards of mail or in the form of metal 'anthropomorphic masks' with eye-holes were often added to the helmets of the heaviest forms of cavalry, especially catafractarii or clibanarii.[249][250]

Despite the apparent cheapness of manufacture of their basic components, many surviving examples of Late Roman helmets, including the Intercisa type, show evidence of expensive decoration in the form of silver or silver-gilt英語silver-gilt sheathing.[251][252] A possible explanation is that most of the surviving exemplars may have belonged to officers and that silver- or gold-plating denoted rank; and, in the case of mounted gemstones, high rank.[209] Other academics, in contrast, consider that silver-sheathed helmets may have been widely worn by comitatenses soldiers, given as a form of pay or reward.[253] Roman law indicates that all helmets of this construction were supposed to be sheathed in a specific amount of gold or silver.[254]

Shields

The classic legionary scutum英語scutum (shield), a convex rectangular shield, also disappeared during the 3rd century. All troops except archers adopted large, wide, usually dished, ovoid (or sometimes round) shields. These shields were still called Scuta or Clipei, despite the difference in shape.[255][256] Shields, from examples found at Dura Europos and Nydam, were of vertical plank construction, the planks glued, and mostly faced inside and out with painted leather. The edges of the shield were bound with stitched rawhide, which shrank as it dried improving structural cohesion.[257]

Hand weapons

The gladius英語gladius, a short (median length: 460 mm/18 inches) stabbing-sword that was designed for close-quarters fighting, and was standard for the infantry of the Principate (both legionary and auxiliary), also was phased out during the 3rd century. The infantry adopted the spatha英語spatha, a longer (median length: 760 mm/30 in) sword that during the earlier centuries was used by the cavalry only.[20] In addition, Vegetius mentions the use of a shorter-bladed sword termed a semispatha.[258] At the same time, infantry acquired a thrusting-spear (hasta英語Hasta (spear)) which became the main close order combat weapon to replace the gladius. These trends imply a greater emphasis on fighting the enemy "at arm's length".[259] In the 4th century, there is no archaeological or artistic evidence of the pugio (Roman military dagger), which is attested until the 3rd century. 4th-century graves have yielded short, single-edged knives in conjunction with military belt fittings.[260]

Missiles

In addition to his thrusting-spear, a late foot soldier might carry a spiculum, a kind of pilum, similar to an angon英語angon. Alternatively, he may have been armed with short javelins (verruta or lanceae). Late Roman infantrymen often carried half a dozen lead-weighted throwing-darts called plumbata英語plumbatae (from plumbum = "lead"), with an effective range of c. 30米(98英尺), well beyond that of a javelin. The darts were carried clipped to the back of the shield or in a quiver.[261] The late foot soldier thus had greater missile capability than his predecessor from the Principate, who was often limited to just two pila.[262] Late Roman archers continued to use the recurved composite bow as their principal weapon. This was a sophisticated, compact and powerful weapon, suitable for mounted and foot archers alike. A small number of archers may have been armed with crossbows (manuballistae).[263]

Supply infrastructure

The products of the fabricae, from the Notitia dignitatum. The illustration includes: helmets, shields, mail coats, cuirasses and laminated limb defences, plus various weapons.
Full-scale reconstruction of a 4th-century Roman river patrol-boat (lusoria), probably under the command of the dux of Germania I province. It is based on the remains of one of five late Roman river boats discovered at Moguntiacum in the early 1980s. The boat above, denoted Mainz Type A, had a long (22 m) and narrow (2.8 m) shape for speed and rounded keel to allow access to shallows. It could carry 32 marines, who rowed the boat fully armed (32 oars, 16 on each side). Whilst on board, the soldiers would hang their shields on stands fixed to the gunwales so as to provide cover from missiles launched from the riverbanks. Museum für Antike Schifffahrt, Mainz, Germany

A critical advantage enjoyed by the late army over all its foreign enemies except the Persians was a highly sophisticated organisation to ensure that the army was properly equipped and supplied on campaign. Like their enemies, the late army could rely on foraging for supplies when campaigning on enemy soil. But this was obviously undesirable on Roman territory and impractical in winter, or in spring before the harvest.[264][265] The empire's complex supply organisation enabled the army to campaign in all seasons and in areas where the enemy employed a "scorched earth" policy.

Supply organisation

The responsibility for supplying the army rested with the praefectus praetorio of the operational sector. He in turn controlled a hierarchy of civilian authorities (diocesan vicarii and provincial governors), whose agents collected, stored and delivered supplies to the troops directly or to predetermined fortified points.[266] The quantities involved were enormous and would require lengthy and elaborate planning for major campaigns. A late legion of 1,000 men would require a minimum of 2.3 tonnes of grain-equivalent every day.[267] An imperial escort army of 25,000 men would thus require around 5,000 tonnes of grain-equivalent for three months' campaigning (plus fodder for the horses and pack animals).

Supply transport

Such vast cargoes would be carried by boat as far as possible, by sea and/or river, and only the shortest possible distance overland. That is because transport on water was far more economical than on land (as it remains today, although the differential is smaller).

Land transport of military supplies on the cursus publicus英語cursus publicus (imperial transport service) was typically by wagons (angariae), with a maximum legal load of 1,500 lbs (680 kg), drawn by two pairs of oxen.[268] The payload capacity of most Roman freighter-ships of the period was in the range of 10,000–20,000 modii英語modius (unit) (70–140 tonnes) although many of the grain freighters supplying Rome were much larger up 350 tonnes and a few giants which could load 1200 like the Isis which Lucian saw in Athens circa 180 A.D.[269] Thus, a vessel of median capacity of 100 tonnes, with a 20-man crew, could carry the same load as c. 150 wagons (which required 150 drivers and 600 oxen, plus pay for the former and fodder for the animals). A merchant ship would also, with a favourable wind, typically travel three times faster than the typical 3 km/h(2 mph) achieved by the wagons and for as long as there was daylight, whereas oxen could only haul for at most 5 hours per day. Thus freighters could easily cover 100 km(62 mi) per day, compared to c. 15 km(9 mi) by the wagons.[270][271] Against this must be set the fact that most freighters of this capacity were propelled by square sails only (and no oars). They could only progress if there was a following wind, and could spend many days in port waiting for one. (However, smaller coastal and fluvial freighters called actuariae combined oars with sail and had more flexibility). Maritime transport was also completely suspended for at least four months in the winter (as stormy weather made it too hazardous) and even during the rest of the year, shipwrecks were common.[272] Nevertheless, the surviving shipping-rates show that it was cheaper to transport a cargo of grain by sea from Syria to Lusitania (i.e. the entire length of the Mediterranean – and a ways beyond – c. 5,000 km) than just 110 km(68 mi) overland.[270]

On rivers, actuariae could operate year-round, except during periods when the rivers were ice-bound or of high water (after heavy rains or thaw), when the river-current was dangerously strong. It is likely that the establishment of the empire's frontier on the Rhine-Danube line was dictated by the logistical need for large rivers to accommodate supply ships more than by defensibility. These rivers were dotted with purpose-built military docks (portus exceptionales).[273] The protection of supply convoys on the rivers was the responsibility of the fluvial flotillas (classes) under the command of the riverine duces. The Notitia gives no information about the Rhine flotillas (as the Rhine frontier had collapsed by the time the Western section was compiled), but mentions 4 classes Histricae (Danube flotillas) and 8 other classes in tributaries of the Danube. Each flotilla was commanded by a praefectus classis who reported to the local dux. It appears that each dux on the Danube disposed of at least one flotilla (one, the dux Pannoniae, controlled three).[274]

Weapons manufacture

In the 4th century, the production of weapons and equipment was highly centralised (and presumably standardised) in a number of major state-run arms factories, or fabricae, documented in the Notitia. It is unknown when these were first established, but they certainly existed by the time of Diocletian.[275] In the 2nd century, there is evidence of fabricae inside legionary bases and even in the much smaller auxiliary forts, staffed by the soldiers themselves.[276] But there is no evidence, literary or archaeological, of fabricae outside military bases and staffed by civilians during the Principate (although their existence cannot be excluded, as no archaeological evidence has been found for the late fabricae either). Late fabricae were located in border provinces and dioceses.[277] Some were general manufacturers producing both armour and weapons (fabrica scutaria et armorum) or just one of the two. Others were specialised in one or more of the following: fabrica spatharia (sword manufacture), lanciaria (spears), arcuaria (bows), sagittaria (arrows), loricaria (body armour), clibanaria (cataphract armour), and ballistaria (catapults).[278]

Fortifications

The Walls of Theodosius II at Constantinople, built 408–413, to increase the area of land protected by the original Constantinian walls. Note the massive crenellated towers and surviving sections of wall. The walls actually consisted of a triple curtain, each one overlooking the other. They proved impregnable to even the largest armies until the introduction of explosive artillery in the later Middle Ages
An example of late Roman fortification. Note the protruding towers to allow enfilading fire. The original height of both walls and towers was clearly greater than today, and the crenellations are not the original ones, but crudely cut from the curtain wall itself in the medieval period. The church visible inside the walls was built in the 12th century by the Normans. Portchester Castle, England. 3rd century
Relief with the liberation of a besieged city; Western Roman Empire, early 5th century, Museum of Byzantine Art (inv. 4782), Bode Museum, Berlin. Both cavalry and infantry are shown wearing body armour.

Compared to the 1st and 2nd centuries, the 3rd and 4th centuries saw much greater fortification activity, with many new forts built.[142] Later Roman fortifications, both new and upgraded old ones, contained much stronger defensive features than their earlier counterparts. In addition, the late 3rd/4th centuries saw the fortification of many towns and cities including the City of Rome itself and its eastern sister, Constantinople.[279]

According to Luttwak, Roman forts of the 1st/2nd centuries, whether castra legionaria (inaccurately translated as legionary "fortresses") or auxiliary forts, were clearly residential bases that were not designed to withstand assault. The typical rectangular "playing-card" shape, the long, thin and low walls and shallow ditch and the unfortified gates were not defensible features and their purpose was delimitation and keeping out individual intruders.[280] This view is too extreme, as all the evidence suggests that such forts, even the more rudimentary earlier type based on the design of marching-camps (ditch, earth rampart and wooden palisade), afforded a significant level of protection. The latter is exemplified by the siege of the legionary camp at Castra Vetera (Xanten) during the revolt of the Batavi英語revolt of the Batavi in 69–70 AD. 5,000 legionaries succeeded in holding out for several months against vastly superior numbers of rebel Batavi and their allies under the renegade auxiliary officer Civilis英語Gaius Julius Civilis, despite the latter disposing of c. 8,000 Roman-trained and equipped auxiliary troops and deploying Roman-style siege engines. (The Romans were eventually forced to surrender the fort by starvation).[281]

Nevertheless, later forts were undoubtedly built to much higher defensive specifications than their 2nd-century predecessors, including the following features:

  1. Deeper (average: 3 m) and much wider (av. 10 m) perimeter ditches (fossae). These would have flat floors rather than the traditional V-shape.[142] Such ditches would make it difficult to bring siege equipment (ladders, rams, and other engines) to the walls. It would also concentrate attackers in an enclosed area where they would be exposed to missile fire from the walls.[282]
  2. Higher (av. 9 m) and thicker (av. 3 m) walls. Walls were made of stone or stone facing with rubble core. The greater thickness would protect the wall from enemy mining. The height of the walls would force attackers to use scaling-ladders. The parapet of the rampart would have crenellations to provide protection from missiles for defenders.[283]
  3. Higher (av. 17.5 m) and projecting corner and interval towers. These would enable enfilading fire on attackers. Towers were normally round or half-round, and only rarely square as the latter were less defensible. Towers would be normally be spaced at 30米(98英尺) intervals on circuit walls.[284]
  4. Gate towers, one on each side of the gate and projecting out from the gate to allow defenders to shoot into the area in front of the entrance. The gates themselves were normally wooden with metal covering plates to prevent destruction by fire. Some gates had portcullises英語portcullises. Postern gates were built into towers or near them to allow sorties.[285]

More numerous than new-build forts were old forts upgraded to higher defensive specifications. Thus the two parallel ditches common around earlier forts could be joined by excavating the ground between them. Projecting towers were added. Gates were either rebuilt with projecting towers or sealed off by constructing a large rectangular bastion. The walls were strengthened by doubling the old thickness. Upgraded forts were generally much larger than new-build. New forts were rarely over one hectare in size and were normally placed to fill gaps between old forts and towns.[286] However, not all of the old forts that continued to be used in the 4th century were upgraded e.g. the forts on Hadrian's Wall and some other forts in Britannia were not significantly modified.[287]

The main features of late Roman fortification clearly presage those of medieval castles. But the defensibility of late Roman forts must not be exaggerated. Late Roman forts were not always located on defensible sites, such as hilltops and they were not designed as independent logistic facilities where the garrison could survive for years on internal supplies (water in cisterns or from wells and stored food). They remained bases for troops that would sally out and engage the enemy in the field.[288]

Nevertheless, the benefits of more defensible forts are evident: they could act as temporary refuges for overwhelmed local troops during barbarian incursions, while they waited for reinforcements. The forts were difficult for the barbarians to take by assault, as they generally lacked the necessary equipment. The forts could store sufficient supplies to enable the defenders to hold out for a few weeks, and to supply relieving troops. They could also act as bases from which defenders could make sorties against isolated groups of barbarians and to cooperate with relieving forces.[289]

The question arises as to why the 4th-century army needed forts with enhanced defensive features whereas the 2nd-century army apparently did not. Luttwak argues that defensible forts were an integral feature of a 4th-century defence-in-depth "grand strategy", while in the 2nd century "preclusive defence" rendered such forts unnecessary . But the existence of such a "strategy" is strongly disputed by several scholars, as many elements of the late Roman army's posture were consistent with continued forward defence.[290] An alternative explanation is that preclusive defence was still in effect but was not working as well as previously and barbarian raids were penetrating the empire more frequently.(see Strategy, below)

Strategy and tactics

Strategy

Edward Luttwak英語Edward Luttwak's Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire (1976) re-launched the thesis of Theodor Mommsen that in the 3rd and early 4th centuries, the empire's defence strategy mutated from "forward defence" (or "preclusive defence") in the Principate to "defence-in-depth" in the 4th century. According to Luttwak, the army of the Principate had relied on neutralising imminent barbarian incursions before they reached the imperial borders. This was achieved by stationing units (both legions and auxiliary regiments) right on the border and establishing and garrisoning strategic salients beyond the borders. The response to any threat would thus be a pincer movement into barbarian territory: large infantry and cavalry forces from the border bases would immediately cross the border to intercept the coalescing enemy army.[291]

According to Luttwak, the forward defence system was always vulnerable to unusually large barbarian concentrations of forces, as the Roman army was too thinly spread along the enormous borders to deal with such threats. In addition, the lack of any reserves to the rear of the border entailed that a barbarian force that successfully penetrated the perimeter defences would have unchallenged ability to rampage deep into the empire before Roman reinforcements from other border garrisons could arrive to intercept them.[292]

The essential feature of defence-in-depth, according to Luttwak, was an acceptance that the Roman frontier provinces themselves would become the main combat-zone in operations against barbarian threats, rather than the barbarian lands across the border. Under this strategy, border-forces (limitanei) would not attempt to repel a large incursion. Instead, they would retreat into fortified strongholds and wait for mobile forces (comitatenses) to arrive and intercept the invaders. Border-forces would be substantially weaker than under forward defence, but their reduction in numbers (and quality) would be compensated by the establishment of much stronger fortifications to protect themselves.[293]

But the validity of Luttwak's thesis has been strongly contested by a number of scholars, especially in a powerful critique by B. Isaac, the author of a leading study of the Roman army in the East (1992).[294][295][296] Isaac claims that the empire did not have the intelligence capacity or centralised military planning to sustain a grand strategy e.g. there was no equivalent to a modern army's general staff.[297] In any case, claims Isaac, the empire was not interested in "defence" at all: it was fundamentally aggressive both in ideology and military posture, up to and including the 4th century.[298]

Furthermore, there is a lack of substantial archaeological or literary evidence to support the defence-in-depth theory.[299] J.C. Mann points out that there is no evidence, either in the Notitia Dignitatum or in the archaeological record, that units along the Rhine or Danube were stationed in the border hinterlands.[300] On the contrary, virtually all forts identified as built or occupied in the 4th century on the Danube lay on, very near or even beyond the river, strikingly similar to the 2nd-century distribution.[301][302]

Another supposed element of "defence-in-depth" were the comitatus praesentales (imperial escort-armies) stationed in the interior of the empire. A traditional view is that the escort-armies' role was precisely as a strategic reserve of last resort that could intercept really large barbarian invasions that succeeded in penetrating deep into the empire (such as the invasions of the late 3rd century). But these large comitatus were not established before 312, by which time there had not been a successful barbarian invasion for c. 40 years. Also Luttwak himself admits that they were too distant from the frontier to be of much value in intercepting barbarian incursions.[303] Their arrival in theatre could take weeks, if not months.[304] Although the comitatus praesentales are often described as "mobile field-armies", in this context "immobile" would be a more accurate description. Hence the mainstream modern view that the central role of comitatus praesentales was to provide emperors with insurance against usurpers.[27]

Luttwak terminates his analysis at the end of Constantine's reign, before the establishment of the diocesan comitatus. Unlike the imperial escort-armies, these were close enough to the theatre of operations to succour the border troops. But their stationing may have differed little from the location of legions in the 2nd century, even though they apparently wintered inside cities, rather than in purpose-built legionary bases.[305] For example, the two comitatus of Illyricum (East and West) are documented as wintering in Sirmium, which was the site of a major legionary base in the Principate.[306]

Furthermore, the late empire maintained a central feature of the forward defence of the Principate: a system of treaties of mutual assistance with tribes living on the imperial frontiers. The Romans would promise to defend the ally from attack by its neighbours. In return, the ally would promise to refrain from raiding imperial territory, and prevent neighbouring tribes from doing the same. Although the allies would officially be denoted tributarii (i.e. subject to paying tribute to Rome, in cash or in kind), in practice the loyalty of the ally was often secured by gifts or regular subsidies from Rome. This practice was applied on all the frontiers.[170] The Romans continued to assist the client tribes to defend themselves in the 4th century. For example, Constantine I's army constructed two massive lines of defensive earthworks, 100–250 km beyond the Danube, totalling c. 1,500 km(932 mi) in length, the Devil's Dykes英語Devil's Dykes in Hungary/Romania and the Brazda lui Novac de Nord英語Brazda lui Novac de Nord in Romania. Garrisoned by a mix of Roman and native troops, their purpose was to protect Dacian and Sarmatian tributary tribes of the Tisza and Wallachian plains against Gothic incursions. This created a Transdanubian buffer zone, extending from Aquincum (Budapest) all the way to the Danube delta, obviously contradicting the proposition that the empire's Danubian border provinces were themselves envisaged as buffer zones.[307] This was especially unlikely in the case of these regions, as the Illyrian emperors and officer class that dominated the late army would hardly relish seeing their native provinces reduced to combat zones.

Late Roman emperors continued major and frequent offensive operations beyond the imperial borders throughout the 4th century. These were strikingly similar to the pincer movements described by Luttwak as being characteristic of forward defence in the early Principate. For example, Valentinian I's campaign against the Quadi英語Quadi in 375.[308] Julian in 356–60 and Valentinian I in 368–74 carried out several operations across the Rhine and Danube designed to force the submission of local tribes and their acceptance of tributarii status.[309]

The late army's "defence" posture thus contains many elements that are similar to that of the army of the Principate, raising the question of whether defence-in-depth was ever in reality contemplated (or implemented) as a strategy. But the debate about defence-in-depth is still very much alive in academic circles.

Role of cavalry

Late Roman cavalry officers (bottom right) in a hunting scene. In combat, most cavalrymen would, like infantry, wear a mail shirt and helmet. Mosaic from Piazza Armerina, Sicily. 4th century

A traditional thesis is that cavalry assumed a much greater importance in the 4th-century army than it enjoyed in the 2nd century. According to this view, cavalry increased significantly as a proportion of the total forces and took over the leading tactical role from the infantry. It also enjoyed much higher status than in the 2nd century. At the same time, the infantry declined in efficiency and value in operations, leaving the cavalry as the effective arm. In fact, there is no good evidence to support this view, and plenty of evidence against it.[161]

As regards numbers, the mid-2nd-century army contained c. 80,000 cavalry out of c. 385,000 total effectives i.e. cavalry constituted c. 21% of the total forces.[8] For the late army, about one third of the army units in the Notitia are cavalry, but in numbers cavalry were a smaller proportion of the total because cavalry units were on average smaller than infantry units. For example, in the comitatus, cavalry vexillationes were probably half the size of infantry legiones. Overall, the available evidence suggests that the proportion of cavalry was much the same as in the 2nd century. Examples: in 478, a comitatus of 38,000 men contained 8,000 cavalry (21%). In 357, the comitatus of Gaul, 13–15,000 strong, contained an estimated 3,000 cavalry (20–23%).[310]

As a consequence, most battles in the 4th century were, as in previous centuries, primarily infantry encounters, with cavalry playing a supporting role. The main qualification is that on the Eastern frontier, cavalry played a more prominent role, due to the Persian reliance on cavalry as their main arm. This obliged the Romans to strengthen their own cavalry element, in particular by increasing the number of cataphracti.[20]

The supposedly higher status of cavalry in the 4th century is also open to doubt. This view is largely based on underestimating the importance of cavalry in the 2nd century.[161] Cavalry always had higher status than infantry in the Principate: in the time of Domitian (r. 81–96), auxiliary cavalry was paid 20–40% more than auxiliary infantry.[311]

The view of some modern scholars that the 4th-century cavalry was a more efficient service than the infantry was certainly not shared by Ammianus and his contemporaries. Ammianus describes three major battles which were actually or nearly lost due to the incompetence or cowardice of the Roman cavalry.[312] (1) The Battle of Strasbourg英語Battle of Strasbourg (357), where the cavalry, including cataphracts, were routed by their German counterparts at an early stage, leaving the Roman infantry right wing dangerously exposed. After fleeing behind the infantry lines, it took the personal intervention of Julian to rally them and persuade them to return to the fight. (The cataphracts were later ordered to wear female clothes by Julian as punishment).[313] (2) During his Persian campaign (363), Julian was obliged to sanction two cavalry units for fleeing when caught by surprise attacks (one unit was decimated, the other dismounted). Later, the Tertiaci cavalry regiment was ordered to march with the camp followers for deserting the field just as the infantry was on the point of breaking the Persian line. (3) At the Battle of Adrianople (378), the Roman cavalry was largely responsible for the catastrophic defeat. Scholae units started the battle by an unauthorised attack on the enemy wagon circle, at a moment when their emperor Valens was still trying to negotiate a truce with the Goths. The attack failed, and when the Gothic cavalry appeared, the Roman cavalry fled, leaving the Roman infantry left wing exposed. The Gothic cavalry then routed the Roman left wing, and the battle was as good as lost.[314]

In contrast, the excellent performance of the infantry, both comitatenses and limitanei, is a recurrent feature of Ammianus' history. At the Persian siege of Amida, Ammianus' eye-witness account describes the city's defence by limitanei units as skilful and tenacious, if ultimately unsuccessful.[315] At Strasbourg (357), the infantry showed remarkable skill, discipline and resilience throughout, saving the day at two critical moments.(see Battle of Strasbourg英語Battle of Strasbourg for a detailed account).[316] Even at the disaster of Adrianople, the Roman infantry fought on, despite being abandoned by their cavalry and surrounded on three sides by overwhelmingly superior numbers of Goths.[317]

Tactics

Just as the armour and weapons of the late army were fundamentally similar to those of earlier eras, so the army's tactics were based on traditional principles. The key elements of systematic scouting, marching formation, battle array, fortified camping, and siegecraft were all followed intact in the late period.[318] This section examines aspects of late tactics that differed significantly from tactics of the Principate.

One striking difference was that late army doctrine (and practice) aimed at avoiding open battle with the enemy if possible, unlike the early doctrine from the Principate of seeking to bring the enemy to battle as often and as quickly as possible.[319][320] The main motivation was likely not a reduced ability to win such encounters. The late army continued to win the great majority of its battles with barbarians.[321] Rather, the primary concern seemed to be the need to minimise casualties.[319] Pitched battles generally resulted in heavy losses of high-grade comitatenses troops, which could not be easily replaced. This in turn supports the hypothesis that the late army had greater difficulty than the Principate in finding sufficient recruits, and especially high-quality recruits. The late army preferred to attack the enemy by stealth or stratagem: ambushes, surprise attacks, harassment and manoeuvres to corner the enemy in zones where they could not access supplies and from which they could not escape (e.g. by blocking mountain passes or river crossings).[322]

Where battle could not be avoided, the late army broadly followed traditional practice as regards array. Heavy infantry would be drawn up in a main line, normally straight and several ranks deep. Mounted archers were stationed, together with light-armed slingers, in front of the main infantry line. Cavalry would be posted on the wings (light cavalry on the outside). Foot archers would form the rear rank(s) of the main infantry line.[323] There would be a reserve line of infantry and cavalry of variable strength, to the rear of the main line, in order to deal with breaches in the main line and to exploit opportunities. At a distance of a mile or so to the rear of the army, its fortified camp of the previous night would contain its assistants and baggage, guarded by a small garrison. The camp could act as a refuge if the army was put to flight. Roman armies in the field never camped overnight without constructing defences. A ditch would be dug around the perimeter of the camp, and the spoil used to erect a rampart, which would then be topped with a palisade of sharpened wooden stakes arranged cross-hatched to form an impenetrable screen. Such defences, systematically patrolled, effectively precluded surprise attacks and enabled the troops to get a good night's sleep.[324]

Where the late army appears to have evolved to some extent is in battle tactics. The older army of the Principate had relied on a barrage of heavy javelins (pila) followed by an infantry charge, which was often sufficient to shatter, or at least disorganise, the barbarian line. After that, legionaries were trained to engage in aggressive hand-to-hand combat, using the gladius short-sword to execute quick thrusts at the abdomen of their enemies, in a similar manner to more recent bayonet drill.[325] In close combat, the Romans had the crucial advantage of superior armour, and such tactics very often resulted in the rout of the less well-equipped and trained barbarian foe.[161] The mounted archers, and slingers on foot, in front of the main infantry line would loose their missiles on the enemy before the infantry lines engaged and then withdraw behind their own infantry line. Along with the foot archers already there, they would continue to rain arrows and sling projectiles on the enemy foot by shooting over the heads of their own infantry.[326] The cavalry's task on each wing was to scatter the enemy cavalry facing them and then, if possible, to encircle the main body of enemy infantry and attack them from the flanks and rear.

In the late army, while the role of archers and cavalry remained similar, the infantry's tactics were less aggressive, relying less on the charge and often waiting for the enemy to charge.[262] During the battle, the Roman line would exert steady pressure in close formation. The thrusting-spear (2–2.5 m long) had replaced the gladius (just 0.5米(1英尺8英寸) long) as the primary mêlée weapon.[327] The extended reach of the thrusting-spear, combined with the adoption of oval or round shields, permitted a battle array where shields were interlocked to form a "shield wall", with spears protruding through the 'V' shaped gaps formed between overlapping shields.[328][329] The late army also relied more heavily on missiles, replacing the single volley of pila with a more prolonged discharge of javelins and darts英語Plumbata.[262]

This kind of combat was consistent with the aim of minimising casualties and its efficacy is illustrated by the Battle of Strasbourg英語Battle of Strasbourg. The battle was primarily a struggle of attrition where steady pressure on the barbarians resulted in their eventual rout. Despite a long and hard-fought struggle, Roman casualties were negligible in comparison to the losses sustained by the defeated army.[330]

The barbarisation theory

Drawing of Flavius Stilicho, the half-Vandal general who was magister utriusque militiae (commander-in-chief) of West Roman forces 395–408. The general is depicted without armour, wearing a chlamys (military cloak) over his tunic and carrying a heavy thrusting-spear and oval shield. He was made a scapegoat for the barbarian invasions of 405–6, although in reality his military skill may have saved the West from early collapse. Derived (1848) from an ivory diptych at Monza, Italy

The barbarisation theory, ultimately derived from Edward Gibbon's 18th-century magnum opus, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, contains two propositions. (1) That the late army recruited much greater numbers of barbarian-born troops than the army of the Principate; and (2) that the greater number of barbarian recruits resulted in a major decline of the army's effectiveness and was a leading factor in the collapse of the Western Roman empire. As discussed above, proposition (1) is probably correct, although it should be borne in mind that probably about three-quarters of the late army's recruits remained Roman-born. This section considers proposition (2).

According to this view, the barbarian officers and men recruited by the late army, coming from tribes that were traditional enemies of Rome, had no real loyalty to Rome and often betrayed her interests, colluding with invading barbarian tribes, especially if those tribes were their own. At the same time, the spread of barbarian customs and culture led to a decline in traditional military discipline, and internal army disunity due to friction between Romans and barbarians. Ultimately, the army degenerated into just a collection of foreign mercenary bands that were incapable of defending the empire effectively.[184]

According to the historian A.D. Lee, there is little evidence to support this view and compelling reasons to reject it. Firstly, the late army clearly was not, and did not become, ineffective. The regular army in the West remained a formidable force until the political disintegration of the West in mid-5th century and continued to win most of its major encounters with barbarian forces e.g. the defeat of Radagaisus英語Radagaisus in 405.[331] In any case, the Eastern empire did not collapse, even though its army probably contained at least the same proportion of barbarians as the West, if not greater. An analysis of the ethnicity of Roman army officers named in the sources shows that in the period 350–99, 23% were probably barbarian-born. The same figure for period 449–76 officers, virtually all Easterners (as the Western army had largely dissolved) was 31%.[332] In the Notitia, 55 Eastern regiments carry barbarian names, compared with 25 in the Western army.[333]

There is a tendency by some modern scholars to ascribe to ancient barbarians a degree of ethnic solidarity that did not exist, according to A.H.M. Jones. Germanic tribes were constantly fighting each other and even within such tribal confederations as the Franks or Alamanni there were bitter feuds between the constituent tribes and clans. Indeed, a primary reason why many tribal sub-groups surrendered to the Roman authorities (dediticii) and sought to settle in the empire as laeti was in order to escape pressure from their neighbours.[34] The few known conflicts of loyalty only arose when the Roman army was campaigning against a barbarian-born soldier's own specific clan.[334] Ammianus himself never characterises barbarian-born troops as unreliable.[335] On the contrary, his evidence is that barbarian soldiers were as loyal, and fought as hard, as Roman ones.[336]

An indication of the army's high esteem for barbarian-born troops is that they appear to have been preferentially recruited to the elite units of the late imperial era's armies. In the auxilia palatina infantry regiments, the proportion of barbarians in the ranks appears to have numbered anywhere between a third and a half of effectives (compared to a quarter in the army as a whole).[337] From the late 3rd century onwards, barbarian recruitment became crucial to the army's continued existence, by providing a much-needed source of first-rate recruits.[338][339][340][341]

The former Oxford University historian Adrian Goldsworthy英語Adrian Goldsworthy has argued that the cause of the fall of the Roman Empire in the West should not be blamed on barbarization of the late Roman Army, but on its recurrent civil wars, which seriously weakened its ability to repel or defeat invasions from outside its frontiers. The East Roman or Byzantine empire on the other hand had fewer civil wars to contend with in the years from 383-432 A.D.[342]

See also

Citations

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Jones (1964) 609
  2. ^ Treadgold 43-60
  3. ^ Elton (1994) 106–107
  4. ^ Lee (1997) 212
  5. ^ Elton (1996) 110–5
  6. ^ Mattingly (2006) 247–8
  7. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 50, 78
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Holder (2003) 120
  9. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 56–8
  10. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 80
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Holder (2003) 145
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 Goldsworthy (2003) 58
  13. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 60, 66
  14. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 60
  15. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 64–5
  16. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 65–6
  17. ^ 17.0 17.1 Tomlin (1988) 109
  18. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 123, 209
  19. ^ The Roman Law Library Constitutio Antoniniana de Civitate
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 Goldsworthy (2003) 205
  21. ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 164–65
  22. ^ Holder (1982) 65
  23. ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 164
  24. ^ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Tomlin (1988) 108
  25. ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 164–5
  26. ^ Tomlin (1988) 107
  27. ^ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 Goldsworthy (2000) 170
  28. ^ 28.0 28.1 Zosimus II.43
  29. ^ 29.0 29.1 Jones (1964) 97
  30. ^ Mattingly (2006) 244
  31. ^ Holder (2003) 133
  32. ^ Mattingly (2006) 223
  33. ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 219
  34. ^ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Jones (1964) 620
  35. ^ 卡西烏斯·狄奧 LXXI.16
  36. ^ 36.0 36.1 Holder (1980) 109–24
  37. ^ Jones (1964)25
  38. ^ Zosimus I.24
  39. ^ D. Ch. Stathakopoulos Famine and Pestilence in the late Roman and early Byzantine Empire (2007) 95
  40. ^ Zosimus I.16
  41. ^ Zosimus I.20
  42. ^ J. Kent The Monetary System in Wacher (1988) 576–7.
  43. ^ Duncan-Jones (1990) 115
  44. ^ Tomlin (1988) 110
  45. ^ Jones (1964) 32
  46. ^ Jones (1964) 29
  47. ^ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 Jones (1964) 615
  48. ^ Elton (1996) 148–52
  49. ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 165
  50. ^ Zosimus I.22
  51. ^ Zosimus I.23
  52. ^ 52.0 52.1 Jones (1964)
  53. ^ 53.0 53.1 Victor 39.43
  54. ^ Eutropius IX.15
  55. ^ Hist. Aug. Probus 18
  56. ^ Eutropius IX.25
  57. ^ Zosimus II.40
  58. ^ Lee (1997) 221 (note 58)
  59. ^ Luttwak (1977) 177
  60. ^ Luttwak (1976) 177
  61. ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 166
  62. ^ 62.0 62.1 62.2 62.3 62.4 Jones (1964) 608
  63. ^ Notitia Occidens Title XXXIV
  64. ^ Jones (1964) 50
  65. ^ Jones (1964) 17
  66. ^ 66.0 66.1 Tomlin (1988) 111
  67. ^ 67.0 67.1 Jones (1964) 681
  68. ^ Heather (2005)
  69. ^ Jones (1964) 61–2
  70. ^ Jones (1964) 68
  71. ^ Jones (1964) 55–6
  72. ^ 72.0 72.1 72.2 Jones (1964) 100
  73. ^ 73.0 73.1 73.2 Jones (1964) 613
  74. ^ 74.0 74.1 Elton (1996) 120
  75. ^ Jones (1964) 100-1, 606, 627
  76. ^ 76.0 76.1 76.2 Mattingly (2006) 239
  77. ^ Jones (1964) 58
  78. ^ Zosimus II.54–5 (Translation in Jones (1964) 52)
  79. ^ Jones (1964) 52
  80. ^ Luttwak (1976) 179
  81. ^ 81.0 81.1 Jones (1964) 125
  82. ^ 82.0 82.1 Elton (1996) 201
  83. ^ Lee (1997) 216
  84. ^ Treadgold (1995) 45
  85. ^ Elton (1996) 94–5
  86. ^ Agathias英語Agathias History V.13.7–8; Jones (1964) 680
  87. ^ Jones (1964) 683
  88. ^ Duncan-Jones (1990) 105–17
  89. ^ 89.0 89.1 Jones (1964) 681–2
  90. ^ Duncan-Jones (1990,) 117
  91. ^ Treadgold (1995) 44-45
  92. ^ Treadgold (1995) 49-59
  93. ^ Treadgold (1995) 59
  94. ^ Heather (1995)
  95. ^ Thompson (1982) 446
  96. ^ Cameron (1969) 247
  97. ^ Zosimus III
  98. ^ 98.0 98.1 98.2 Elton (1996) 89
  99. ^ Heather (1995) 63
  100. ^ Coello (1996) 51
  101. ^ MacMullen (1979) 454
  102. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 144–5
  103. ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 124–5 (map)(25支羅馬軍團 每支軍團定員5000人)
  104. ^ Holder (2003) 120 (28支羅馬軍團 每支軍團定員5500人: 自一世紀末開始,軍團中的第一大隊的定員翻倍,是其他大隊定員數的兩倍)
  105. ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 152–3 (map) (33支羅馬軍團 每支軍團定員5500人)
  106. ^ Tacitus Annales IV.5
  107. ^ Assuming that auxilia would be expanded by the same amount as legions. J. C. Spaul ALA (1996) 257–60 and COHORS 2 (2000) 523–7 identify 4 alae and 20–30 cohortes raised in the late 2nd/early 3rd centuries
  108. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 58: 9支大隊,每支定員480人,此外在加上日耳曼人貼身保鏢
  109. ^ 109.0 109.1 Rankov (1994) 8
  110. ^ Implied by Tacitus Annales IV.5
  111. ^ Hassall (2000) 320
  112. ^ MacMullen How Big was the Roman Army? in KLIO (1979) 454 estimates 438,000
  113. ^ On assumption Diocletian increased numbers by 33% (Heather 1995)
  114. ^ Treadgold (1995) 44
  115. ^ John Lydus De Mensibus I.47
  116. ^ Treadgold (1995) 53,55
  117. ^ Treadgold (1995) 53, 55
  118. ^ Applying mid-point unit size estimates to Notitia units
  119. ^ Treadgold (1995) 55
  120. ^ Lee (1997) 215–6
  121. ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 171
  122. ^ Elton (1996) 214–5
  123. ^ Notitia Oriens Title I: List of duces
  124. ^ 124.0 124.1 124.2 124.3 124.4 Jones (1964) 610
  125. ^ 125.0 125.1 Notitia Oriens Title I
  126. ^ Ammianus XVIII.7.3
  127. ^ Jones (1964) 609 (note 4)
  128. ^ Heather (2005) 246
  129. ^ Heather (2007) 247
  130. ^ Jones (1964) 609–10
  131. ^ Notitia Occidens Title V
  132. ^ Notitia Dignitatum Titles IX and XI
  133. ^ Mattingly (2006) 245
  134. ^ Jones (1964) 631
  135. ^ Lee 2007, p. 175.
  136. ^ Southern & Dixon, 1996, pp. 169-170, 171-174.
  137. ^ Jones (1964) 631–2
  138. ^ 138.0 138.1 Elton (1996) 208
  139. ^ Lee (1997) 214
  140. ^ 140.0 140.1 Tomlin (1988) 113
  141. ^ Data from: Duncan-Jones (1990) 105–17; Elton (1996) 89; Goldsworthy (2003) 206; Mattingly (2006) 239
  142. ^ 142.0 142.1 142.2 Goldsworthy (2003) 206
  143. ^ Jones (1964) 684
  144. ^ 144.0 144.1 144.2 Elton (1996) 99
  145. ^ Duncan-Jones (1990) 105–70
  146. ^ Woods (1996) 368–9
  147. ^ Barlow & Brennan (2001) 240–1
  148. ^ The Notitia Dignitatum.
  149. ^ Elton (1996) 106
  150. ^ Luttwak (1976) 173
  151. ^ Jones (1964) 649–51
  152. ^ Lee (1997) 234
  153. ^ 153.0 153.1 Goldsworthy (2000) 172
  154. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 203
  155. ^ Tomlin (1988) 112
  156. ^ Elton (1996) 206
  157. ^ http://www.le.ac.uk/ar/stj/ Retrieved 7 February 2008
  158. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 139
  159. ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 213
  160. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 138
  161. ^ 161.0 161.1 161.2 161.3 Goldsworthy (2000) 169
  162. ^ Elton (1996), p. 106
  163. ^ Notitia Oriens.V
  164. ^ e.g. Notitia Oriens.XXXI
  165. ^ Elton (1996) 105
  166. ^ Rance (2014) 475-6
  167. ^ Elton (1996) 104
  168. ^ Foundations of Society (Origins of Feudalism) by Paul Vinogradoff, 1913
  169. ^ Southern and Dixon (1996), p. 72
  170. ^ 170.0 170.1 Jones (1964) 611
  171. ^ Rossi (1971) 104
  172. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 204
  173. ^ Jones (1964) 611–2
  174. ^ Elton (1996) 92
  175. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 77
  176. ^ Mattingly (2006) 356
  177. ^ Jones (1964) 614
  178. ^ Elton (1996) 134
  179. ^ Roman Diplomas Online Introduction
  180. ^ Jones (1964) 614, 616
  181. ^ Milner, N. P. Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science. Liverpool: University of Liverpool Press. 1993: 6. ISBN 0853232288. 
  182. ^ Codex Theodosianus for December 398 (Cod. Theod. X 22,4)
  183. ^ Jones (1964) 617
  184. ^ 184.0 184.1 184.2 184.3 184.4 Goldsworthy (2003) 208
  185. ^ Lee (1997) 221–2
  186. ^ Vindolanda Tablets英語Vindolanda Tablets 166–77
  187. ^ Jones (1964) 633
  188. ^ Elton (1996) 154
  189. ^ Heather (2005) 119
  190. ^ Roman Military Diplomas Vols IV and V: Personnel tables
  191. ^ Tacitus, Germania 28; Dio Cassius, LXXI.11
  192. ^ Lee (1997) 222–3
  193. ^ http://www.roman-britain.org Table of auxiliary regiments
  194. ^ Zosimus books IV, V
  195. ^ Elton (1996) 144–5
  196. ^ Elton (1996) 148–9
  197. ^ Elton (1996) 136
  198. ^ Jones (1964) 619
  199. ^ Jones (1964) 619–20
  200. ^ Elton (1996) 121–2
  201. ^ Jones (1964) 623
  202. ^ Elton (1996) 120–1
  203. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 94
  204. ^ Jones (1964) 31
  205. ^ Duncan-Jones (1990) 35
  206. ^ Jones (1964) 647
  207. ^ Jones (1964) 626, 647
  208. ^ Jones (1964) 634
  209. ^ 209.0 209.1 Goldsworthy (2003) 202
  210. ^ Based on: Jones (1964) 634; Goldsworthy (1995) 202; Holder (1980) 90–6
  211. ^ Jones (1964) 640, 643
  212. ^ Jones (1964) 636
  213. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 118
  214. ^ Jones (1964) 636–40
  215. ^ Jones (1964) 640
  216. ^ Elton (1996) 101
  217. ^ Jones (1964) 642
  218. ^ Jones (1964) 640–1
  219. ^ Jones (1964) 526
  220. ^ Jones (1964) 105
  221. ^ 221.0 221.1 221.2 Jones (1964) 641
  222. ^ Elton (1996) 91
  223. ^ Notitia Occidens Title
  224. ^ Tomlin (1988) 115
  225. ^ Jones (1964) 639
  226. ^ Elton (1996) 107
  227. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 120, 127
  228. ^ Mosaic from Piazza Armerina
  229. ^ Sumner and D'Amato, 7–9
  230. ^ Sumner and D'Amato, 37
  231. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 129
  232. ^ Milner NP. Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, second edition, Liverpool University Press, 1996. pp. xxxvii ff
  233. ^ Rosenbaum, S; "Who was Vegetius?" published on Academia.edu 2015 https://www.academia.edu/5496690/Who_was_Vegetius
  234. ^ Seeck O.英語Otto Seeck Die Zeit des Vegetius. Hermes 1876 vol.11 pp. 61–83. As quoted in Milner NP. Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, second edition, Liverpool University Press, 1996. pp. xxxvii ff
  235. ^ De Re Militari. Flavius Vegetius Renatus. Translated by Lieutenant John Clarke 1767. Etext version by Mads Brevik (2001) http://www.pvv.ntnu.no/~madsb/home/war/vegetius/dere03.php
  236. ^ Elton (1996) 110
  237. ^ Elton (1996) 111
  238. ^ Notitia Oriens.XI
  239. ^ Elton (1996) 112
  240. ^ Bishop and Coulston (2006) 208
  241. ^ Elton (1996) 111
  242. ^ Coulston (1990) 142-143
  243. ^ Ammianus, XVI 10
  244. ^ Symonds, Matthew. Fourth Century Fortlets in Britain: Sophisticated Systems or Desperate Measures?. Roman Military Architecture on the Frontiers: Armies and Their Architecturue in Late Antiquity. 2015: 56. 
  245. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 137
  246. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 126
  247. ^ Southern and Dixon, pp. 94-95
  248. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 123, 126
  249. ^ Southern and Dixon, pp. 92-94
  250. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 123, 205
  251. ^ Southern & Dixon (1996) 92–93
  252. ^ Bishop & Coulston (2006) 210–213
  253. ^ Bishop & Coulston (2006) 214–5.
  254. ^ Codex Theodosianus 10.22.I (11 March, 374)
  255. ^ Elton (1996) 115
  256. ^ The Strategikon book 1, sections 2 and 8, book 3, section 1, book 12B, section 5. Although this covers a later period, going by George Dennis's translation, most horse archers did not carry shields, and the foot archers carried small shields.
  257. ^ Bishop & Coulston (2006) 217
  258. ^ Bishop & Coulston (2006) 202
  259. ^ Elton (1996) 110
  260. ^ Bishop & Coulston (2006) 205
  261. ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 167; (2003) 205; Dennis, "Maurice's Strategikon," 139.
  262. ^ 262.0 262.1 262.2 Goldsworthy (2000) 168
  263. ^ Elton (1996) 108
  264. ^ Jonathan Roth, The Logistics of the Roman Army at War (264 BC - AD 235), although covering an earlier period, discusses the same constraint on pp. 137 and 139.
  265. ^ Ammianus, book 17, chapter 8.
  266. ^ Elton (1996) 236
  267. ^ Elton (1996) 237
  268. ^ Jones (1964) 831
  269. ^ Jones (1964) 843, 868
  270. ^ 270.0 270.1 Jones (1964) 842
  271. ^ http://www.2.rgzm.de 互聯網檔案館存檔,存檔日期2013-08-13. Merchant Vessels and Maritime Commerce in Roman Times
  272. ^ Jones (1964) 843
  273. ^ Jones (1964) 844
  274. ^ Notitia Oriens Titles XXXIX to XLII and Occidens Titles XXXII to XXXIV
  275. ^ Jones (1964) 834
  276. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 88, 149
  277. ^ Elton (1996) 116
  278. ^ Notitia Titles Oriens XI, Occidens IX
  279. ^ Elton (1996) 161–71
  280. ^ Luttwak (1976) 134–5
  281. ^ Tacitus Historiae IV.22, 23, 29, 30, 60
  282. ^ Elton (1996) 161
  283. ^ Elton (1996) 163
  284. ^ Elton (1996) 162–3
  285. ^ Elton (1996) 164
  286. ^ Elton (1996) 165–7
  287. ^ Elton (1996) 167
  288. ^ Isaac (1992) 198
  289. ^ Luttwak (1976) 132–4
  290. ^ Mann (1979) 175–83
  291. ^ Luttwak (1976) Fig.3.3
  292. ^ Luttwak (1976) 136
  293. ^ Luttwak (1976) 132
  294. ^ J. C. Mann in Journal of Roman Studies 69 (1979)
  295. ^ F. Miller in Britannia 13 (1982)
  296. ^ Isaac (1992) 372–418
  297. ^ Isaac (1992) 378, 383, 401–6
  298. ^ Isaac (1992) 387–93
  299. ^ Mann (1979) 180–1
  300. ^ Mann (1979) 180
  301. ^ C. Scarre Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome (1995) 87 (map)
  302. ^ Elton (1996) 157, 159 (Fig 13)
  303. ^ Luttwak (1976) 190
  304. ^ Elton (1996) 215
  305. ^ Mann (1979) 181
  306. ^ Elton (1996) 209
  307. ^ Scarre Atlas 87
  308. ^ Ammianus XVI.11
  309. ^ Ammianus XXVII.10, XXVIII.2, XXIX.4, XXX.5,6
  310. ^ Elton (1996) 105–6
  311. ^ Hassall (2000) 336
  312. ^ Tomlin (1998) 117–8
  313. ^ Ammianus XVI.12
  314. ^ Ammianus XXXI
  315. ^ Ammianus XIX.1–8
  316. ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 176–7
  317. ^ Ammianus XXXI.13
  318. ^ Elton (1996) 243–63
  319. ^ 319.0 319.1 Goldsworthy (2000) 182
  320. ^ Elton (1996) 216
  321. ^ Elton (1996) 218
  322. ^ Elton (1996) 216, 218–9
  323. ^ Arrian Acies contra Alanos
  324. ^ Elton (1996) 251–2
  325. ^ Webster G. (1998), p. 129
  326. ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 137
  327. ^ Elton (1996) 109
  328. ^ Ammianus XVI.12 (para. 44)
  329. ^ Lendon (2005) 261–268
  330. ^ Goldsworthy (2000)
  331. ^ Lee (1997) 233
  332. ^ Elton (1996) 148
  333. ^ Notitia Dignitatum passim
  334. ^ Jones (1964) 622
  335. ^ Jones (1964) 621–2
  336. ^ Elton (1996) 138
  337. ^ Elton (1996) 151
  338. ^ Jones (1964) 621
  339. ^ Elton (1996) 152
  340. ^ Lee (1997) 223–4
  341. ^ Goldsworthy (2003) 209
  342. ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian, The Fall of the West: The Slow Death of the Roman Superpower, Great Britain, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, paperback edition by Orion Books Ltd, London, 2010. Published in the U.S.A. as How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower.

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Category:Late Roman military英語Category:Late Roman military Category:Diocletian英語Category:Diocletian