可萨犹太人阴谋论

可萨犹太人阴谋论是一套关于阿什肯纳兹犹太人历史起源的反犹太主义及反锡安主义阴谋论。该理论声称，大量可萨人曾皈依犹太教；可萨汗国灭亡后，可萨裔犹太人逃往东欧，成为东欧犹太人口的绝大多数^[1]；现今的阿什肯纳兹犹太人多为可萨人的后裔。信奉该理论的人士通常相信，“可萨犹太人”、共济会及锡安主义者之间存在“秘密联盟”，意图“统治世界”。

绝大多数历史学、系谱学及宗教学学者认为该理论缺乏事实基础及证据支持。遗传学研究结果亦与该假说相抵触。^[2]

可萨汗国

普遍认为，历史上可萨人主要由来自东方的铁勒部落以及一些讲波斯语的部落、北高加索人及斯拉夫人组成。

7至9世纪期间，拜占庭帝国试图强迫犹太人改宗基督教，许多犹太人故此从中东逃往北高加索。可萨汗国便位于此处。该国君主为可汗，通常居住在宫殿。该国尊重宗教信仰并给予所有宗教同等地位，同时允许国内不同宗教群体（包括犹太人、基督徒、穆斯林、腾格里信徒等）拥有自己的法官及独立法庭。

8世纪，以可汗为首的可萨贵族精英接受了犹太教。该国大多数民众对于犹太教仍是知之甚少。

10世纪，可萨汗国的势力因基辅罗斯人的攻击而削弱。最终，基辅罗斯夺取了可萨汗国的所有土地，可萨汗国灭亡。

理论产生

苏联曾盛行各种反犹太主义阴谋论，例如“犹太人控制世界”阴谋论及“犹太医生害死高官”阴谋论。

俄罗斯根深蒂固的反犹太主义在1960年演变为反锡安主义，指控“全球锡安主义者”试图接管世界。同时，苏联宣传人员认为“这种邪恶”是由美国及以色列引导的，只有苏联才能领导抵抗锡安主义并带领世界走向美好未来。施纳勒曼认为，反犹太主义在俄罗斯民族主义的形成中发挥了基础性作用。^[3]

20世纪70年代，“犹太人源于可萨人皈依”的理论开始在俄罗斯及东欧流行。后来俄罗斯东正教民族主义者及公共媒体开始担心该理论的传播，并试图否认可萨汗国的存在，因为他们忧虑该理论可能令俄罗斯犹太人有理由声索俄罗斯南部地区的主权。

世界传播

该理论在全球得到传播，在各国极端政治势力以及原教旨主义群体中尤为盛行，为新纳粹主义的兴起奠定了基础。

苏联反犹宣传家瓦列里·叶姆利亚诺夫将该理论与“世界锡安主义”阴谋论及“犹太共济会控制世界”阴谋论相结合，并以阿拉伯语传播，在阿拉伯国家及伊斯兰国家大受欢迎，对这些国家内反犹太主义及反锡安主义的发展产生了深远影响。叶姆利亚诺夫声称，弗拉基米尔一世是犹太人后裔，因此他故意抹去了俄罗斯雅利安人的历史、观念及文化，并引入基督教的历史、观念及文化以取代；锡安主义是“世界上一切邪恶的根源”，“只有透过雅利安人摧毁基督教才能够挫败锡安主义阴谋”。

中东地区文献开始将所谓“可萨犹太人”描绘成“伊斯兰教及阿拉伯人的敌人”（因可萨人为争夺高加索曾多次与阿拉伯人作战）。

至今仍有众多反锡安主义者使用该理论试图否定古以色列人与今犹太人之间的继承关系，尽管该理论并没有提到塞法迪犹太人及米兹拉希犹太人（共占以色列犹太人口约50%）^[4]。美国种族主义者（包括学者洛斯罗普·斯托达德及三K党分子）、俄罗斯民族主义者等群体中亦仍有不少人利用该理论传播反犹太主义。^[5]^[6]在阿拉伯世界，该理论一直游走在反锡安主义、反犹太主义及其相交地带。^[7]

近年来，社交媒体的普及进一步推动了该理论及其他反犹太阴谋论的传播。^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]

学术观点

学术上，“大多数犹太人源于可萨人皈依”的假说早已被否定，自20世纪50年代末期便不再被提起。

学者凯文·艾伦·布洛克认为该假说无法成立，并表示完全无法赞同该理论，其研究却经常被支持该理论的人士断章取义地引用。

在20世纪下半叶，以色列学者阿巴·埃文^[12]、彼得·戈尔登^[13]、劳埃德·加特纳^[14]、诺曼·戈卢布及奥姆利安·普里茨克^[15]认为，历史上确实可能有少数可萨人与犹太人通婚，并成为阿什肯纳兹犹太人的祖源的一小部分。

1987年，历史学者伯纳德·刘易斯指出，“欧洲犹太人不是古以色列人后裔，而是可萨人后裔”的假说没有任何证据支持，早已被所有严谨的学者放弃，包括阿拉伯学者^[16]^[17]；该理论只是偶尔出现在阿拉伯人反锡安主义的政治论战中。^[17]^[18]

2000年，科普作家尼古拉斯·韦德引用一篇关于德系犹太人Y染色体谱系的遗传学论文^[19]，驳斥“阿什肯纳兹犹太人大多数是皈依者或可萨人后裔”的理论。^[20]

2013年，多伦·贝哈尔等遗传学家研究认为，犹太人与可萨人之间基本上不可能有强联系；由于可萨人的现代后裔不明，“犹太可萨人”假说难以用遗传学方法检验；在阿什肯纳兹犹太人中没有发现任何遗传标记可将他们与高加索或可萨民族联系起来；相反，阿什肯纳兹犹太人在基因上最接近其他犹太群体以及非犹太中东及欧洲人群。^[2]

2022年，凯文·艾伦·布洛克出示证据表明，阿什肯纳兹犹太人约有50%的基因与中东地区有关。^[21]

基因研究的共识是，全球犹太人（包括阿什肯纳兹犹太人）拥有源自古代中东共同祖先的大量遗传基因，阿什肯纳兹犹太人没有可追溯至可萨人的遗传基因。^[2]

参见

参考

^ Venton 2013，第75页.
^ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 Behar & et al. 2013.
^ Shnirelman. 2002. Pp. 1-3
^ Statistical Abstract of Israel, 2009, CBS. Table 2.24 – Jews, by country of origin and age (PDF). [11 March 2019].
^ Barkun 2012:'Although the Khazar theory gets surprisingly little attention in scholarly histories of anti-Semitism, it has been an influential theme among American anti-Semites since the immigration restrictionists of the 1920s,'.
^ Goodrick-Clarke 2003.
^ Harkabi 1987: "Arab anti-Semitism might have been expected to be free from the idea of racial odium, since Jews and Arabs are both regarded by race theory as Semites, but the odium is directed, not against the Semitic race, but against the Jews as a historical group. The main idea is that the Jews, racially, are a mongrel community, most of them being not Semites, but of Khazar and European origin." This essay was translated from Harkabi Hebrew text 'Arab Antisemitism' in Shmuel Ettinger, Continuity and Discontinuity in Antisemitism (Hebrew), 1968, p.50.
^ One of the Jersey City Shooting Suspects Believed anti-Semitic Conspiracy Theory, ADL Says. Haaretz. [2022-12-07] （英语）.
^ Antisemitic Conspiracy Theories Abound Around Russian Assault on Ukraine | ADL. www.adl.org. [2022-12-07] （英语）.
^ Khazars | #TranslateHate | AJC. www.ajc.org. 2021-03-30 [2022-12-07] （英语）.
^ Khazars | Center on Extremism. extremismterms.adl.org. [2022-12-07] （英语）.
^ Abba Eban. My People: The Story of the Jews. Behrman House. 1968: 150 （英语）. It is likely too that some Khazar progeny reached the various Slavic lands where they helped to build the great Jewish centers of Eastern Europe.
^ Peter B. Golden. An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples. Otto Harrassowitz. 1992: 243–244. ISBN 9783447032742 （英语）. It is very likely that Judaized Khazar elements, especially those that had acculturated to the cities, contributed to the subsequently Slavic-speaking Jewish communities of Kievan Rus'. These were ultimately absorbed by Yiddish-speaking Jews entering the Ukraine and Belorussia from Poland and Central Europe.
^ Lloyd P. Gartner. History of the Jews in Modern Times. Oxford University Press. 2000: 19 （英语）.
^ Norman Golb; Omeljan Pritsak. Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century. Cornell University Press. 1982: xv. ISBN 9780801412219 （英语）.
^ Sand 2010
^ ^17.0 ^17.1 Lewis 1987:'Some limit this denial to European Jews and make use of the theory that the Jews of Europe are not of Israelite descent at all but are the offspring of a tribe of Central Asian Turks converted to Judaism, called the Khazars. This theory, first put forward by an Austrian anthropologist in the early years of this century, is supported by no evidence whatsoever. It has long since been abandoned by all serious scholars in the field, including those in Arab countries, where Khazar theory is little used except in occasional political polemics.' Assertions of this kind has been challenged by Paul WexlerWexler 2007 who also notes that the arguments on this issue are riven by contrasting ideological investments: "Most writers who have supported the Ashkenazi-Khazar hypothesis have not argued their claims in a convincing manner ... The opponents of the Khazar-Ashkenazi nexus are no less guilty of empty polemics and unconvincing arguments."(p.537).
^ Lewis, Bernard. Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Company. 1999. ISBN 9780393318395.
^ Hammer MF, Redd AJ, Wood ET, Bonner MR, Jarjanazi H, Karafet T, Santachiara-Benerecetti S, Oppenheim A, Jobling MA, Jenkins T, Ostrer H, Bonne-Tamir B. Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. June 2000, 97 (12): 6769–74. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.6769H. PMC 18733 . PMID 10801975. doi:10.1073/pnas.100115997 .
^ Wade, Nicholas. Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora. The New York Times. 9 May 2000 [8 June 2021].
^ Kevin Brook. The Maternal Genetic Lineages of Ashkenazic Jews. Academic Studies Press. 2022: 3. ISBN 978-1-64469-984-3. doi:10.2307/j.ctv33mgbcn （英语）.

来源

Aderet, Ofer. Jews are not descended from Khazars, Hebrew University historian says. Haaretz. 26 June 2014.
Atzmon, G.; Hao, L.; Pe'er, I.; Velez, C.; Pearlman, A.; Palamara, P. F.; Morrow, B.; Friedman, E; Oddoux, C.; Burns, E.; Ostrer, H. Abraham's children in the genome era: major Jewish diaspora populations comprise distinct genetic clusters with shared Middle Eastern Ancestry. American Journal of Human Genetics. June 2010, 86 (6): 850–9. PMC 3032072 . PMID 20560205. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015.
Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole. Israël chez les Nations (PDF) 11. Calman-Lévy. 1893.
Behar, Doron M.; Metspalu, Mait; Baran, Yael; Kopelman, Naama M.; Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Gladstein, Ariella; Tzur, Shay; Sahakyan, Havhannes; Bahmanimehr, Ardeshir; Yepiskoposyan, Levon; Tambets, Kristiina; Khusnutdinova, Elza K.; Kusniarevich, Aljona; Balanovsky, Oleg; Balanovsky, Elena; Kovacevic, Lejla; Marjanovic, Damir; Mihailov, Evelin; Kouvatsi, Anastasia; Traintaphyllidis, Costas; King, Roy J.; Semino, Ornella; Torroni, Antonio; Hammer, Michael F.; Metspalu, Ene; Skorecki, Karl; Rosset, Saharon; Halperin, Eran; Villems, Richard; Rosenberg, Noah A. No Evidence from Genome-Wide Data of a Khazar Origin for the Ashkenazi Jews. Human Biology. 2013, 85 (41): 859–900. doi:10.1353/hub.2013.a548065.
Beider, Alexander. Origins of Yiddish Dialects. Oxford University Press. 2015. ISBN 978-0-191-05981-0.
Dunlop, Douglas Morton. History of the Jewish Khazars. Schocken Books. 1954 [10 February 2013].
Efron, John M. Commentary: Jewish Genetic Origins in the Context of Past Historical and Anthropological Inquiries. Human Biology. December 2013, 85 (6): 901–918. JSTOR 10.13110/humanbiology.85.6.0901. PMID 25079124. doi:10.13110/humanbiology.85.6.0901.
Elhaik, Eran. The missing link of Jewish European ancestry: contrasting the Rhineland and the Khazarian hypotheses. Genome Biology and Evolution. 2013, 5 (1): 61–74. PMC 3595026 . PMID 23241444. doi:10.1093/gbe/evs119.
Epstein, Lawrence J. Converts to Judaism: Stories from Biblical Times to Today. Rowman & Littlefield. 2015. ISBN 978-1-442-23468-0.
Golden, Peter B. Khazar Studies: Achievements and Perspectives. Golden, Peter B.; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; Róna-Tas, András (编). The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Handbook of Oriental Studies 17. BRILL: 7–57. 2007a [13 February 2013]. ISBN 978-90-04-16042-2.
Golden, Peter B. The Conversion of the Khazars to Judaism. Golden, Peter B.; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; Róna-Tas, András (编). The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Handbook of Oriental Studies 17. BRILL: 123–162. 2007b [13 February 2013]. ISBN 978-90-04-16042-2.
Jacobs, Joseph. On the Racial Characteristics of Modern Jews. Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 1886, 15: 23–62. JSTOR 2841906. doi:10.2307/2841906.
Kizilov, Mikhail. National Inventions: The Imperial Emancipation of the Karaites from Jewishness. Cvetkovski, Roland; Hofmeister, Alexis (编). An Empire of Others: Creating Ethnographic Knowledge in Imperial Russia and the USSR. Central European University Press. 2014: 369–393. ISBN 978-6-155-22576-5.
Koestler, Arthur. The Thirteenth Tribe: The Khazar Empire and Its Heritage. Random House. 1976. ISBN 978-0-394-40284-0 （英语）.
Loeb, Isidore. Reflections on the Jews. Hart, Mitchell B. (编). Jews and Race: Writings on Identity and Difference, 1880-1940. Brandeis University Press. 2011: 12–20. ISBN 978-1-584-65717-0.
Neumann, Karl. Die Völker des südlichen Russlands in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung (PDF) 2. Teubner. 1855 [1847].
Raisin, Jacob S. The Haskalah Movement in Russia (PDF). The Jewish Publication Society of America. 1913.
Renan, Ernest. Le Judaïsme come race et comme religion. Roman, Joël (编). Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?. Presses Pocket. 1992: 200–220 [1883]. ISBN 2-266-05063-X.
Rossman, Vadim Joseph. Russian Intellectual Antisemitism in the Post-Communist Era. University of Nebraska Press. 2002. ISBN 978-0-803-23948-7.
Rossman, Vadim Joseph. Anti-Semitism in Eurasian Historiography: The Case of Lev Gumilev. Shlapentokh, Dmitry (编). Russia Between East and West: Scholarly Debates on Eurasianism. BRILL. 2007. ISBN 978-9-004-15415-5.
Schama, Simon. The Story of the Jews 1. Vintage Books. 2014 [2011]. ISBN 978-0-099-54668-9.
Scholz, Birgit. Von der Chronistik zur modernen Geschichtswissenschaft: die Warägerfrage in der russischen, deutschen und schwedischen Historiographie. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. 2000. ISBN 978-3-447-04342-7.
Schnirelmann, Victor A. The story of a euphemism: The Khazars in Russian Nationalist Literature 353-372. Golden, Peter B.; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; Róna-Tas, András (编). The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Handbook of Oriental Studies 17. BRILL: 353–372. 2007a. ISBN 978-90-04-16042-2.
Singerman, Robert. The Jew as Racial Alien:The Genetic Component of American Anti-Semitism. Gurock, Jeffrey S. (编). Anti-Semitism in America. American Jewish History. Taylor & Francis. 1998: 343–367 [13 January 2014]. ISBN 978-0-415-91929-6.
Singerman, Robert. Contemporary Racist and Judeophobic Ideology Discovers the Khazars, or, Who Really Are the Jews?. Rosaline and Myer Feinstein Lecture Series 2004. 2004 [1 March 2014].
Stampfer, Shaul. Did the Khazars Convert to Judaism? (PDF). Jewish Social Studies. Spring–Summer 2013, 19 (3): 1–72. S2CID 161320785. doi:10.2979/jewisocistud.19.3.1.
Thomsen, Vilhelm Ludvig Peter. The Relations Between Ancient Russia and Scandinavia, and the Origin of the Russian State: Three Lectures Delivered at the Taylor Institution. Oxford, in May, 1876'. Cambridge University Press. 2015 [2010]. ISBN 978-1-330-41418-7.
van Straten, Jits. The Origin of Ashkenazi Jewry: The Controversy Unravelled. Walter de Gruyter. 2011. ISBN 978-3-110-23605-7.
Venton, Danielle. Highlight: Out of Khazaria—Evidence for "Jewish Genome" Lacking. Genome Biology and Evolution. January 2013, 5 (1): 75–6. PMC 3595031 . PMID 23325386. doi:10.1093/gbe/evs129.

von Kutschera, Hugo Freiherrn. Die Chasaren. Historische Studie (PDF). Vienna: Adolf Holzhausen. 1909.
Vucinich, Alexander. 'Science in Russian Culture: A History to 1860' 1. Stanford University Press. 1963. ISBN 978-0-804-70157-0.
Weinreich, Max. Glasser, Paul , 编. History of the Yiddish language 1. YIVO Institute for Jewish Research. 2008 [1980]. ISBN 978-0-300-10960-3.
Weissenberg, Samuel. Die südrussischen Juden: Eine anthropometrische Studie mit Berücksichtigung der allgemeinen Entwickelungsgesetze (PDF). Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn. 1895.
Wexler, Paul. Explorations in Judeo-Slavic Linguistics. BRILLl. 1987. ISBN 978-9-004-07656-3.
Xue, J.; Lencz, T.; Darvasi, A.; Pe'er, I.; Carmi, S. The time and place of European admixture in Ashkenazi Jewish history. PLOS Genetics. April 2017, 13 (4): e1006644. PMC 5380316 . PMID 28376121. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1006644 .
Zhivkov, Boris. Khazaria in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. BRILL. 2015. ISBN 978-9-004-29448-6.
Zubok, Vladislav. Zhivago's Children. Harvard University Press. 2009. ISBN 978-0-674-03344-3.
Barkun, Michael. Religion and the Racist Right: The Origins of the Christian Identity Movement. UNC Press. 1997 [26 July 2013]. ISBN 978-0-8078-4638-4.
Barkun, Michael. Anti-Semitism from Outer Space: The Protocols in the UFO Subculture. Landes, Richard Allen; Katz, Steven T. (编). The Paranoid Apocalypse: A Hundred-year Retrospective on the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. NYU Press. 2012: 163–171 [1 September 2013]. ISBN 978-0-8147-4945-6.
Baron, Salo Wittmayer. A Social and Religious History of the Jews 3 2. Columbia University Press. 1957 [12 February 2013].
Behar DM, Thomas MG, Skorecki K, Hammer MF, Bulygina E, Rosengarten D, Jones AL, Held K, Moses V, Goldstein D, Bradman N, Weale ME. Multiple origins of Ashkenazi Levites: Y chromosome evidence for both Near Eastern and European ancestries. American Journal of Human Genetics. October 2003, 73 (4): 768–79. PMC 1180600 . PMID 13680527. doi:10.1086/378506.
Boller, Paul F. Memoirs of an Obscure Professor: And Other Essays. TCU Press. 2013 [1992] [26 July 2013]. ISBN 978-0-875-65557-4.
Brook, Kevin Alan. The Jews of Khazaria 1st. Jason Aronson. 1999. ISBN 0-7657-6032-0.
Brook, Kevin Alan. The Jews of Khazaria 2nd. Rowman & Littlefield. 2009 [2006] [10 February 2013]. ISBN 978-0-7425-4982-1.
Brook, Kevin Alan. The Jews of Khazaria 3rd. Rowman & Littlefield. 2018. ISBN 978-1-5381-0342-5.
Costa MD, Pereira JB, Pala M, Fernandes V, Olivieri A, Achilli A, Perego UA, Rychkov S, Naumova O, Hatina J, Woodward SR, Eng KK, Macaulay V, Carr M, Soares P, Pereira L, Richards MB. A substantial prehistoric European ancestry amongst Ashkenazi maternal lineages. Nature Communications. 8 October 2013, 4: 2543. Bibcode:2013NatCo...4.2543C. PMC 3806353 . PMID 24104924. doi:10.1038/ncomms3543.
Falk, Raphael. Zionism and the Biology of Jews. Springer. 2017. ISBN 978-3-319-57345-8.
Freedman, Benjamin. Facts Are Facts: The Truth about the Khazars. Princeton University Press. 1954 [10 April 2014]. ISBN 978-0-945-00180-5.
Gilman, Sander L. Freud, Race, and Gender. Princeton University Press. 1995 [13 January 2014]. ISBN 978-0-691-02586-5.
Gardell, Matthias. Black and White Unite in Fight?. Kaplan, Jeffrey; Lööw, Heléne (编). The Cultic Milieu: Oppositional Subcultures in an Age of Globalization. Rowman Altamira. 2002: 152–192 [13 January 2014]. ISBN 978-0-759-10204-0.
Goldstein, Eric L. The Price of Whiteness: Jews, Race, and American Identity. Princeton University Press. 2006 [26 July 2013]. ISBN 0691121052.
Goldstein, David B. Jacob's Legacy: A Genetic View of Jewish History. Yale University Press. 2008 [11 November 2013]. ISBN 978-0-300-12583-2.
Goodman, David G.; Miyazawa, Masanori. Jews in the Japanese Mind: The History and Uses of a Cultural Stereotype. Lexington Books. 2000 [1995] [26 July 2013]. ISBN 978-0-7391-0167-4.
Gow, Andrew Colin. The " Red Jews": Antisemitism in the Apocalyptic Age 1200–1600. BRILL. 1995 [26 July 2013]. ISBN 978-90-04-10255-2.
Harkabi, Yehoshafat. Contemporary Arab Anti-Semitism: its Causes and Roots. Fein, Helen (编). The Persisting Question: Sociological Perspectives and Social Contexts of Modern Antisemitism. Walter de Gruyter. 1987: 412–427 [1968]. ISBN 978-3-11-010170-6.
Kizilov, Mikhail. The Karaites of Galicia: An Ethnoreligious Minority Among the Ashkenazim, the Turks, and the Slavs, 1772-1945. BRILL. 2009 [13 January 2014]. ISBN 978-9-004-16602-8.
Lewis, Bernard. Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 1987 [1986] [10 February 2013]. ISBN 978-0-393-30420-6.
Liberles, Robert. Salo Wittmayer Baron:Architect of Jewish History Robert Liberles. New York University Press. 1995 [11 November 2013]. ISBN 978-0-814-75088-9.
Litman, Jacob. The Economic Role of Jews in Medieval Poland: The Contribution of Yitzhak Schipper. University Press of America. 1984 [26 July 2013]. ISBN 9780819142443.
Luttwak, Edward N. The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Harvard University Press. 2009 [10 February 2013]. ISBN 978-0-674-03519-5.
Malkiel, David. Reconstructing Ashkenaz: The Human Face of Franco-German Jewry, 1000–1250. Stanford University Press. 2008 [21 August 2013]. ISBN 978-0-8047-8684-3.
Morris, Benny. The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews. I. B. Tauris. 2003 [2002] [1 March 2014]. ISBN 978-1-860-64989-9.
Nathans, Benjamin. On Russian- Jewish Historiography. Sanders, Thomas (编). Historiography of Imperial Russia: The Profession and Writing of History in a Multinational State. M. E. Sharpe. 1999: 397–432 [13 January 2014]. ISBN 978-1-563-24684-5.
Nebel A, Filon D, Brinkmann B, Majumder PP, Faerman M, Oppenheim A. The Y chromosome pool of Jews as part of the genetic landscape of the Middle East. American Journal of Human Genetics. November 2001, 69 (5): 1095–112. PMC 1274378 . PMID 11573163. doi:10.1086/324070.
Nebel A, Filon D, Faerman M, Soodyall H, Oppenheim A. Y chromosome evidence for a founder effect in Ashkenazi Jews. European Journal of Human Genetics. March 2005, 13 (3): 388–91. PMID 15523495. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201319 .
Ostrer, Harry. Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People. Oxford University Press. 2012 [12 February 2013]. ISBN 978-0-199-97638-6.
Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-semitism: From the time of Christ to the court Jews. University of Pennsylvania Press. 2005 [1955/1975] [20 October 2013]. ISBN 978-0-8122-1863-3.
Polonsky, Antony; Basista, Jakub; Link-Lenczowski, Andrzej (编). The Jews in Old Poland: 1000–1795. I. B. Tauris. 1993. ISBN 978-1-85043-342-2.
Pound, Ezra; Zukofsky, Louis. Ahearn, Barry , 编. Pound/Zukofsky: Selected Letters of Ezra Pound and Louis Zukofsky. New Directions. 1987 [10 April 2014]. ISBN 978-0-811-21013-3.
Réthelyi, Mari. Hungarian Jewish Stories of Origin: Samuel Kohn, the Khazar Connection and the Conquest of Hungary. Hungarian Cultural Studies: e-Journal of the American Hungarian Educators Association. 2021, 14: 52–64.
Sand, Shlomo. The Invention of the Jewish People. London: Verso Books. 2010 [2009] [10 February 2013]. ISBN 978-1-84467-623-1.
Shnirelman, Victor A. The Story of a Euphemism:The Khazars in Russian Nationalist Literature. Golden, Peter B.; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; Róna-Tas, András (编). The World of the Khazars:New Perspectives. Handbuch der Orientalistik: Handbook of Uralic studies 17. BRILL. 2007: 353–372. ISBN 978-90-04-16042-2.
Spolsky, Bernard. The Languages of the Jews;A Sociolinguistic History. Cambridge University Press. 2014 [10 May 2016]. ISBN 9781139917148.
Toch, Michael. The Economic History of European Jews: Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages. Études sur le Judaïsme Médiéval 56. Leiden: BRILL. 2012 [10 February 2013]. ISBN 978-90-04-23534-2.
Wade, Nicholas. YChromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora. New York Times. 9 May 2000 [11 November 2013].
Wade, Nicholas. In DNA, New Clues to Jewish Roots. New York Times. 14 May 2002 [11 November 2013].
Wald, James. The New Replacement Theory: Anti-Zionism, Antisemitism, and the Denial of History. Rosenfeld, Alvin H. (编). 'Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism: The Dynamics of Delegitimization. Indiana University Press. 2019: 3–29 [27 May 2021]. ISBN 978-0-253-03874-6.
Wells, H. G. The Outline of History: The Roman Empire to the Great War 2. Barnes & Noble. 1973 [1921]. ISBN 978-0-7607-5867-0.
Wexler, Paul. Yiddish Evidence for the Khazar Component in the Ashkenazic ethnogenesis. Golden, Peter B.; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; Róna-Tas, András (编). The World of the Khazars:New Perspectives. Handbuch der Orientalistik: Handbook of Uralic studies 17. BRILL. 2007: 387–398 [19 October 2013]. ISBN 978-90-04-16042-2.

延伸阅读

Victor Shnirelman. 2002. The Myth of the Khzazrs and Intellectual Antisemitisem in Russia, 1970s-1990s. The Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemetism, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

外部链接

Rory Miller(2020) The anti-Zionist 'Jewish Khazar' syndrome in the official British mind
Fishberg, Maurice (1911): The Jews: A Study of Race and Environment.
The Kievan Letter scan in the Cambridge University Library collection.
Khazaria.com
Resources - Medieval Jewish History - The Khazars The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Khazar Historic Maps
The Kitab al-Khazari of Judah Hallevi, full English translation at sacred-texts.com
Ancient lost capital of the Khazar kingdom found

[FOOTNOTEVenton201375-1] Venton 2013，第75页.

[FOOTNOTEBeharet_al.2013-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 Behar & et al. 2013.

[3] Shnirelman. 2002. Pp. 1-3

[CBS_2008_jews_origin-4] Statistical Abstract of Israel, 2009, CBS. Table 2.24 – Jews, by country of origin and age (PDF). [11 March 2019].

[5] Barkun 2012:'Although the Khazar theory gets surprisingly little attention in scholarly histories of anti-Semitism, it has been an influential theme among American anti-Semites since the immigration restrictionists of the 1920s,'.

[6] Goodrick-Clarke 2003.

[7] Harkabi 1987: "Arab anti-Semitism might have been expected to be free from the idea of racial odium, since Jews and Arabs are both regarded by race theory as Semites, but the odium is directed, not against the Semitic race, but against the Jews as a historical group. The main idea is that the Jews, racially, are a mongrel community, most of them being not Semites, but of Khazar and European origin." This essay was translated from Harkabi Hebrew text 'Arab Antisemitism' in Shmuel Ettinger, Continuity and Discontinuity in Antisemitism (Hebrew), 1968, p.50.

[8] One of the Jersey City Shooting Suspects Believed anti-Semitic Conspiracy Theory, ADL Says. Haaretz. [2022-12-07] （英语）.

[9] Antisemitic Conspiracy Theories Abound Around Russian Assault on Ukraine | ADL. www.adl.org. [2022-12-07] （英语）.

[10] Khazars | #TranslateHate | AJC. www.ajc.org. 2021-03-30 [2022-12-07] （英语）.

[11] Khazars | Center on Extremism. extremismterms.adl.org. [2022-12-07] （英语）.

[12] Abba Eban. My People: The Story of the Jews. Behrman House. 1968: 150 （英语）. It is likely too that some Khazar progeny reached the various Slavic lands where they helped to build the great Jewish centers of Eastern Europe.

[13] Peter B. Golden. An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples. Otto Harrassowitz. 1992: 243–244. ISBN 9783447032742 （英语）. It is very likely that Judaized Khazar elements, especially those that had acculturated to the cities, contributed to the subsequently Slavic-speaking Jewish communities of Kievan Rus'. These were ultimately absorbed by Yiddish-speaking Jews entering the Ukraine and Belorussia from Poland and Central Europe.

[14] Lloyd P. Gartner. History of the Jews in Modern Times. Oxford University Press. 2000: 19 （英语）.

[15] Norman Golb; Omeljan Pritsak. Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century. Cornell University Press. 1982: xv. ISBN 9780801412219 （英语）.

[Sand240-16] Sand 2010

[:0-17] 17.0 ^17.1 Lewis 1987:'Some limit this denial to European Jews and make use of the theory that the Jews of Europe are not of Israelite descent at all but are the offspring of a tribe of Central Asian Turks converted to Judaism, called the Khazars. This theory, first put forward by an Austrian anthropologist in the early years of this century, is supported by no evidence whatsoever. It has long since been abandoned by all serious scholars in the field, including those in Arab countries, where Khazar theory is little used except in occasional political polemics.' Assertions of this kind has been challenged by Paul WexlerWexler 2007 who also notes that the arguments on this issue are riven by contrasting ideological investments: "Most writers who have supported the Ashkenazi-Khazar hypothesis have not argued their claims in a convincing manner ... The opponents of the Khazar-Ashkenazi nexus are no less guilty of empty polemics and unconvincing arguments."(p.537).

[Lewis-18] Lewis, Bernard. Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Company. 1999. ISBN 9780393318395.

[pnas-19] Hammer MF, Redd AJ, Wood ET, Bonner MR, Jarjanazi H, Karafet T, Santachiara-Benerecetti S, Oppenheim A, Jobling MA, Jenkins T, Ostrer H, Bonne-Tamir B. Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. June 2000, 97 (12): 6769–74. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.6769H. PMC 18733 . PMID 10801975. doi:10.1073/pnas.100115997 .

[NYTbear-20] Wade, Nicholas. Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora. The New York Times. 9 May 2000 [8 June 2021].

[21] Kevin Brook. The Maternal Genetic Lineages of Ashkenazic Jews. Academic Studies Press. 2022: 3. ISBN 978-1-64469-984-3. doi:10.2307/j.ctv33mgbcn （英语）.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

查论编反犹太主义
核心	反犹主义谣言（英语：Antisemitic canard）经济反犹太主义（英语：Economic antisemitism）反犹太主义的地理（英语：Geography of antisemitism）反犹太主义的历史（英语：History of antisemitism）宗教反犹太主义（英语：Religious antisemitism）迫害犹太人（英语：Persecution of Jews）纳粹主义阿道夫·希特勒美洲的纳粹主义（英语：Nazism in the Americas）纳粹德国政治宣传新反犹太主义反犹太主义的三D 反犹太主义的现行定义种族反犹太主义（英语：Racial antisemitism）无根世界主义者（英语：Rootless cosmopolitan）二级反犹太主义（英语：Secondary antisemitism）犹太人的刻板印象（英语：Stereotypes of Jews）反犹太主义时间表（英语：Timeline of antisemitism） 19世纪反犹太主义时间表（英语：Timeline of antisemitism in the 19th century） 20世纪反犹太主义时间表（英语：Timeline of antisemitism in the 20th century） 21世纪反犹太主义时间表（英语：Timeline of antisemitism in the 21st century）
反犹主义	基督教的反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in Christianity）反犹太主义与新约（英语：Antisemitism and the New Testament）伊斯兰教的反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in Islam）中世纪的反犹太主义（英语：Medieval antisemitism）伊斯兰民族与反犹太主义（英语：Nation of Islam and antisemitism）奥运会的反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in the Olympic Games）苏联数学的反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in Soviet mathematics）大学与反犹太主义（英语：Universities and antisemitism）
相关话题	反锡安主义基督徒身份（英语：Christian Identity）文化马克思主义阴谋论双重种族灭绝论（英语：Double genocide theory）国际犹太人阴谋（英语：International Jewish conspiracy）《国际犹太人（英语：The International Jew）》犹太布尔什维主义日多科穆纳（英语：Żydokomuna）可萨犹太人阴谋论 3K党《我的奋斗》阿拉伯语版（英语：Mein Kampf in Arabic）英语版（英语：Mein Kampf in English）黑死病期间对犹太人的迫害（英语：Persecution of Jews during the Black Death）《关于犹太人与他们的谎言（英语：On the Jews and Their Lies）》哲学犹太主义（英语：Philo-Semitism）《锡安长老会纪要》对当代的影响（英语：Contemporary imprints of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion）《黑人与犹太人之间的秘密关系（英语：The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews）》自我憎恨的犹太人（英语：Self-hating Jew）仇外心理白人种族灭绝阴谋论锡安主义反犹太主义（英语：Zionist antisemitism）
宗教反犹太主义（英语：Religious antisemitism）	反犹太教弑神指控（英语：Jewish deicide）宗教裁判所葡萄牙宗教裁判所（英语：Portuguese Inquisition）罗马宗教裁判所（英语：Roman Inquisition）西班牙宗教裁判所莱茵兰大屠杀马丁路德与反犹太主义（英语：Martin Luther and antisemitism）鲜血诅咒（英语：Blood curse）血祭诽谤亵渎圣体（英语：Host desecration）犹太人的母猪反犹骚乱
反犹主义的法律、政策、政府行为	贫民窟长椅（英语：Ghetto benches） Hep-Hep骚乱（英语：Hep-Hep riots）反犹骚乱五月法则（英语：May Laws） 1968年波兰政治危机（英语：1968 Polish political crisis）犹太反犹太复国主义联盟（英语：Jewish Anti-Zionist League）里奥·弗兰克（英语：Leo Frank）德雷福斯事件梅纳赫姆·门德尔·贝利斯法胡德伊拉克反犹太复国主义联盟（英语：Anti-Zionist League in Iraq）第11号总令（英语：General Order No. 11 (1862)）纳粹德国的种族政策（英语：Racial policy of Nazi Germany）最终解决方案纳粹大屠杀反世界主义运动犹太人反法西斯委员会案件斯兰斯基审判（英语：Slánský trial）医生案件纳粹大屠杀否认论犹太星被锡安主义者控制的政府阴谋论
反犹网站	圣经信徒（英语：Bible Believers）每日风暴（英语：The Daily Stormer）历史评论研究所（英语：Institute for Historical Review）犹太人观察（英语：Jew Watch） Metapedia 克雷格·科布（英语：Craig Cobb）伊斯兰电台（英语：Radio Islam）红色观察（英语：Redwatch）正确的东西（英语：The Right Stuff (blog)） Stormfront
迫害犹太人（英语：Persecution of Jews）	莱茵兰大屠杀黑死病期间对犹太人的迫害（英语：Persecution of Jews during the Black Death）反犹抵制（英语：Anti-Jewish boycotts）犹太人的驱逐与流亡（英语：Expulsions and exoduses of Jews）犹太区欧洲的犹太人聚居区（英语：Jewish ghettos in Europe）迈拉赫（英语：Mellah）纳粹大屠杀犹太帽（英语：Jewish hat）犹太人配额（英语：Jewish quota）犹太人的母猪犹太教中的殉难（英语：Martyrdom in Judaism）纽伦堡法案栅栏区反犹骚乱雷富尼克（英语：Refusenik）宗教隔离西班牙宗教裁判所从西班牙驱逐犹太人（英语：Expulsion of Jews from Spain）犹太星
反反犹组织	反诽谤联盟湾区大屠杀口述历史项目（英语：Bay Area Holocaust Oral History Project）社区安全信托（英语：Community Security Trust）中东媒体研究所（英语：Middle East Media Research Institute）西蒙·维森塔尔中心南方贫困法律中心斯蒂芬罗斯研究所（英语：Stephen Roth Institute）以色列犹太大屠杀纪念馆
按地区	阿拉伯世界反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in the Arab world）沙特阿拉伯反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in Saudi Arabia）阿根廷反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in Argentina）加拿大反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in Canada）中国反犹太主义智利反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in Chile）哥斯达黎加反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in Costa Rica）欧洲反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in Europe）当代奥地利反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in contemporary Austria）当代比利时反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in contemporary Belgium）法国反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in France） 21世纪法国反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in 21st-century France） 21世纪德国反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in 21st-century Germany）希腊反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in Greece）当代匈牙利反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in contemporary Hungary） 21世纪意大利反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in 21st-century Italy）当代挪威反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in contemporary Norway）俄罗斯反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in Russia）俄罗斯帝国反犹太主义苏联反犹太主义西班牙反犹主义瑞典反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in Sweden）乌克兰反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in Ukraine）英国反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in the United Kingdom）英国保守党反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in the UK Conservative Party）英国工党反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in the UK Labour Party）日本反犹太主义（英语：Antisemitism in Japan）巴勒斯坦反犹太主义（英语：Racism in the State of Palestine#Antisemitism）