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沙克提派

维基百科，自由的百科全书

这是本页的一个历史版本，由137.132.3.6（留言）在2009年3月12日 (四) 14:15 （→主要神明）编辑。这可能和当前版本存在着巨大的差异。

性力派（梵語：शाक्तं，Śāktaṃ；字面意义为“力量之教条”或“女神之教条”）是印度教的一个支派，专于崇拜沙克提或提毗——印度教的圣母——作为绝对的，终极的神格。该派别同湿婆派、毗湿奴派并立为印度教三大派。

性力派认为提毗（字面意思为“女神”）是至高大梵天本身，“独一无二”，具有其他所有神的形式，无论其是女性或男性，都被认为是她的各种各样的显圣。在该派的哲学和实践的细节上，性力派模仿了湿婆派。然而“性力派教徒”（梵語：शक्त，Śakta），即性力派的践行者，大多或全部专注于崇拜沙克提为至高之神的多变的女性一面。湿婆，神的男性一面，仅被认为是超越物质世界的，而其崇拜通常被降低到辅助角色。[1]

性力派的根基深植于印度史前时期。从印度旧石器时代22,000年前的定居地已知最早的女神形象，到印度河谷文明时她的教派的改良，吠陀时期的部分衰落，之后在古典梵语传统的重新浮现和扩张，已表明在许多方面，“印度传统的历史可被视为这位女性的重现。”[2]

纵观其历史，性力派激发了梵语文学和印度哲学的杰作，今天还在继续影响广为流传的印度教。性力派在印度次大陆及以外，以坦陀罗和非坦陀罗的以无数形式广泛施行。而其最大的、最有影响力的两个派别是Srikula（字面意义，Sri家族）——在印度南部最为强大，和Kalikula（Kali家族）——在印度北部和东部盛行。[1]

概述

沙克提和湿婆

性力派信徒视女神为至高、终极的神格。她被认为是万物的起源，同时也是起源的化身和支配控制它的能量。有观察认为，“全世界信仰的历史上，没有其他任何地方经历过如我们这样如此完备的面向女性的系统。”[3]

性力派对女神的专注并不意味着其对男性或中性神明的拒绝。然而在沙克提存在中，两者被认为是不活跃的。如Adi Shankara的第一行的著名的性力派赞美诗美之波流(Saundaryalahari)所述(c. 800 CE)：“若湿婆与沙克提结合，他可以创造（生命）。若他不与沙克提结合，他连搅动一下都不可能。"[4]此为性力派之基本教义。”[5]正如广为人知的女神迦梨践踏于看似无生命的湿婆身躯之上的图画所强调的那样。[6]

湿婆和沙克提的半男半女形式Ardhanari。（象岛石窟，公元5世纪。印度孟买。）

宽泛的讲，认为沙克提是宇宙本身——她是能量和动力的具体化身，物质宇宙中所有行为和存在的背后推动力。湿婆是她卓越的男性一面，为神圣的土地提供一切存在。“无沙克提即无湿婆，无湿婆即无沙克提。两者[……]本身就是一体。”[7]

As expressed by the historian V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar (here referring to Shiva as Brahman)[8], "Shaktism is dynamic Hinduism. The excellence of Shaktism lies in its affirmation of Shakti as Consciousness and of the identity of Shakti and Brahman. In short, Brahman is static Shakti and Shakti is dynamic Brahman."[9] In religious art, this cosmic dynamic is powerfully expressed in the half-Shakti, half-Shiva deity known as Ardhanari.[10]

Shaktism views the Devi as the source, essence and substance of virtually everything in creation, seen or unseen, including Shiva himself. In the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, a central Shakta scripture, the Devi declares:

"I am Manifest Divinity, Unmanifest Divinity, and Transcendent Divinity. I am Brahma，Vishnu and Shiva, as well as Saraswati，Lakshmi and Parvati。I am the Sun and I am the Stars, and I am also the Moon. I am all animals and birds, and I am the outcaste as well, and the thief. I am the low person of dreadful deeds, and the great person of excellent deeds. I am Female, I am Male, and I am Neuter."[11]

The religious scholar C. MacKenzie Brown explains that Shaktism "clearly insists that, of the two genders, the feminine represents the dominant power in the universe. Yet both genders must be included in the ultimate if it is truly ultimate. The masculine and the feminine are aspects of the divine, transcendent reality, which goes beyond but still encompasses them. Devi, in her supreme form as consciousness thus transcends gender, but her transcendence is not apart from her immanence."[12]

Brown's analysis continues, "Indeed, this affirmation of the oneness of transcendence and immanence constitutes the very essence of the divine mother [and her] ultimate triumph. It is not, finally, that she is infinitely superior to the male gods – though she is that, according to [Shaktism] – but rather that she transcends her own feminine nature as Prakriti without denying it."[13]

与坦陀罗的联系

性力派广泛流传的一个误解是其与坦陀罗的紧密联系。坦陀罗是一个模棱两可的令人误解的概念，指称一切从南印度正统寺庙崇拜到北印度黑魔法和隐秘修行，到西方的仪式化的性行为（有时被称为Neotantra）。[14]事实上，并非所有形式的性力派本质上是坦陀罗，正如并非所有坦陀罗本质上是性力派一样。[15]

Sri Amritananda Natha Saraswathi, a Shakta adept and guru, performing the Navavarana Puja, a central ritual in Srividya Tantric Shaktism, at the Sahasrakshi Meru Temple at Devipuram，Andhra Pradesh，India，2005.

术语"坦陀罗"与正宗印度性力派相关时，它通常主要指一类宗教仪式用书，而更广泛的，是指一种秘传的专于女神的灵修方法（sadhana），涉及mantra，yantra，nyasa，mudra和传统的昆达利尼瑜伽的特定元素，所有修行都在合格的导师的指导下通过适当的启发（diksha）和口头指导以补充各种书面来源。[16]

在社会影响方面，坦陀罗“独立于各种种性与具体的偏见。女人或‘首陀罗’被授予[guru]的角色。所有的女性被视为沙克提显圣，因此她们是被尊敬和效忠的对象。侵犯她们的人招致伟大女神愤怒。每个男性备修生必须了解自身之中潜在的‘女性法则’，且仅以此‘成为女性’才能使他被授予膜拜至高存在的资格。”[17]

更具争议的仪轨，如“五个M”或“panchamakara”，则在某些特定环境下被一些坦陀罗的性力派宗派采用。 More controversial ritual practices, such as the "Five Ms" or panchamakara, are employed under certain circumstances by some Tantric Shakta sects. However, these elements tend to be overemphasized and sensationalized by commentators (both friendly and hostile) who are ill-informed regarding authentic doctrine and practice. Moreover, even within the tradition there are wide differences of opinion regarding the proper interpretation of the panchamakara, and some lineages reject them altogether.[18]

In sum, the complex social and historical interrelations of Tantric and non-Tantric elements in Shaktism – and Hinduism in general – are an extremely fraught and nuanced topic of discussion.[19] However, as a general rule:

"Ideas and practices that collectively characterize Tantrism pervade classical Hinduism [and] it would be an error to consider Tantrism apart from its complex interrelations with non-Tantric traditions. Literary history demonstrates that Vedic-oriented brahmins have been involved in Shakta Tantrism from its incipient stages of development, that is, from at least the sixth century. While Shakta Tantrism may have originated in [pre-Vedic, indigenous] goddess cults, any attempt to distance Shakta Tantrism from the Sanskritic Hindu traditions [...] will lead us astray."[20]

主要神明

性力派信徒可以接触以多种形态中的任意一种出现的提毗；但是，他们通常被认为不过是一个至高女神的不同方面。[21]

With the many names used to refer to her – Devī, Caṇḍikā, Ambikā, Kālī, and a profusion of others – it is easy to forget that the Devi is indeed one. [In the central Shakta scripture Devi Mahatmyam]，the Devi reveals that she is one without a second, saying, "I am alone here in the world. Who else is there besides me?" Following this proclamation of divine unity, which has been called the mahāvākya, or great dictum of Devīmāhātmya, she explains that all [other goddesses] are but projections of her power, as are all the other forms she inhabits.[22]

被性力派信徒膜拜的主要的提毗形态是男性的“ishta-deva”或女性的“ishta-devi”。神祀的选择取决于许多因素，包括家族传统，信仰实践，上师沿袭，个人共鸣等等。字面上，有数千种女神形态，许多与个别寺庙、地理特征或者甚至是与某个村庄有关。[23]

The Devi in her benign form as Parvati, suckling her son Ganesha。Opaque watercolor on paper. Jaipur，India，c. 1820. （Smithsonian Institution）

Nonetheless, several highly popular goddess forms are known and worshiped throughout the Hindu world, and virtually every female deity in Hinduism is believed to be a manifestation of one or more of these "basic" forms. The best-known benevolent goddesses of popular Hinduism include:[21]

  1. Adi Parashakti: The Goddess as Original, Transcendent Source of the Universe.
  2. Durga (Amba, Ambika): The Goddess as Mahadevi，Supreme Divinity.
  3. Sri-Lakshmi: The Goddess of Material Fulfillment (wealth, health, fortune, love, beauty, fertility, etc.); consort（shakti）of Vishnu
  4. Parvati (Gauri, Uma): The Goddess of Spiritual Fulfillment, Divine Love and sagun form of Adi-Parashakti; consort (shakti) of Shiva
  5. Saraswati: The Goddess of Cultural Fulfillment (knowledge/education, music, arts and sciences, etc.); consort (shakti) of Brahma; identified with the Saraswati River
  6. Gayatri: The Goddess as Mother of Mantras
  7. Ganga: The Goddess as Divine River; identified with the Ganges River
  8. Sita: The Goddess as Rama's consort
  9. Radha: The Goddess as Krishna's consort
  10. Sati: The Goddess of Marital Relations; original consort (shakti) of Shiva

坦陀罗神明

Goddess groups – such as the "Nine Durgas" (Navadurga), "Eight Lakshmis" (Ashta-Lakshmi) or the "Fifteen Nityas" – are very common in Hinduism. But perhaps no group reveals the elements of Shaktism better than the Ten Mahavidyas (Dasamahavidya). Through them, Shaktas believe, "the one Truth is sensed in ten different facets; the Divine Mother is adored and approached as ten cosmic personalities."[24] The Mahavidyas are considered Tantric in nature, and are usually identified as:[25]

女神迦梨，立于湿婆的胸口。(1770) Richard B. Godfrey (1728 - N/A)。身为迦梨的提毗，性力派的神学中, 此造型标志了沙克提作为至高神的活动的一方面而湿婆则为其静止的一方面。两者如缺乏任一方，则都不完整。
  1. 迦梨: The Goddess as Cosmic Destruction, Death or "Devourer of Time" (Supreme Deity of Kalikula systems)
  2. Tara: The Goddess as Guide and Protector, or Who Saves
  3. Lalita-Tripurasundari (Shodashi): The Goddess Who is "Beautiful in the Three Worlds" (Supreme Deity of Srikula systems); the "Tantric Parvati"
  4. Bhuvaneshvari: The Goddess as World Mother, or Whose Body is the Cosmos
  5. Bhairavi: The Fierce Goddess
  6. Chhinnamasta: The Self-Decapitated Goddess
  7. Dhumavati: The Widow Goddess
  8. Bagalamukhi: The Goddess Who Paralyzes Enemies
  9. Matangi: The Outcaste Goddess (in Kalikula systems); the Prime Minister of Lalita (in Srikula systems); the "Tantric Saraswati"
  10. Kamala: The Lotus Goddess; the "Tantric Lakshmi"

Other major goddess groups include the Sapta-Matrika ("Seven Little Mothers"), "who are the energies of different major gods, and described as assisting the great Shakta Devi in her fight with demons", and the 64 Yoginis. [26]

历史的、哲学的发展

主条目：History of Shaktism

The beginnings of Shaktism are shrouded in the mists of prehistory. The earliest Mother Goddess figurine unearthed in India, belonging to the Upper Paleolithic，has been carbon-dated to approximately 20,000 BCE.[27] Thousands of female statuettes dated as early as c. 5500 BCE have been recovered at Mehrgarh，one of the most important Neolithic sites in world archaeology.[28] While it is impossible to reconstruct the spiritual beliefs of a civilization so distantly removed in time, current archaeological and anthropological evidence suggests that the religion of the great Indus Valley Civilization is probably a direct predecessor of modern Shaktism.[29]

Devi portrayed as Mahishasura Mardini, Slayer of the Buffalo Demon – a central episode of the Devi Mahatmya, and one of the most famous in all of Hindu mythology.

As the Indus Valley Civilization slowly declined and dispersed, its peoples mixed with other groups to eventually give rise to Vedic Civilization (c. 1500 - 600 BCE). Shaktism as it exists today began with the literature of the Vedic Age; further evolved during the formative period of the Hindu epics; reached its full flower during the Gupta Age (300-700 CE), and continued to expand and develop thereafter.[30]

The most central and pivotal text in Shaktism is the Devi Mahatmya (also known as the Durga Saptashati, Chandi or Chandi-Path), composed some 1,600 years ago. Here, for the first time, "the various mythic, cultic and theological elements relating to diverse female divinities were brought together in what has been called the 'crystallization of the Goddess tradition.'"[31]

Other important texts include the canonical Shakta Upanishads,[32] as well as Shakta-oriented Puranic literature such as the Devi Purana and Kalika Purana,[33] the Lalita Sahasranama (from the Brahmanda Purana),[34] the Devi Gita (from the Devi-Bhagavata Purana),[35] Adi Shankara's Saundaryalahari[36] and the Tantras.[37]

Elements of Shaktism – most notably, the ubiquity of goddess worship in some form – has infused popular Hinduism.[38] Its pervasive influence on the religion is also reflected in the Hindu adage, "When in public, be a Vaishnava. When among friends, be a Shaiva. But in private, always be a Shakta."[39]

Recent developments related to Shaktism include the emergence of Bharat Mata ("Mother India") symbolism, the increasing visibility of Hindu female saints and gurus,[40] and the prodigious rise of the "new" goddess Santoshi Mata following release of the Indian film Jai Santoshi Maa ("Hail to the Mother of Satisfaction") in 1975.[41] A modern commentator notes:

"Today just as 10,000 years ago, images of the Goddess are everywhere in India. You'll find them painted on the sides of trucks, pasted to the dashboards of taxis, postered on the walls of shops. You'll often see a color painting of the Goddess prominently displayed in Hindu homes. Usually the picture is hung high on the wall so you have to crane your neck backward, looking up toward her feet. [...] In India, Goddess worship is not a 'cult,' it's a religion, [...] an extraordinarily spiritually and psychologically mature tradition. Millions of people turn every day with heartfelt yearning to the Mother of the Universe."[42]

崇拜

Shaktism encompasses a nearly endless variety of beliefs and practices – from animism to philosophical speculation of the highest order – that seek to access the Shakti (Divine Energy or Power) that is believed to be the Devi's nature and form.[1] Its two largest and most visible schools are the Srikula (family of Sri), strongest in South India，and the Kalikula (family of Kali), which prevails in northern and eastern India.[1]

Srikula: Family of Sri

The Srikula (family of Sri) tradition (sampradaya) focuses worship on Devi in the form of the goddess Lalita-Tripurasundari, who is regarded as the Great Goddess (Mahadevi). Rooted in first-millennium Kashmir, Srikula became a force in South India no later than the seventh century, and is today the prevalent form of Shaktism practiced in South Indian regions such as Andhra Pradesh，Karnataka，Kerala，Tamil Nadu and Tamil areas of Sri Lanka.[43]

Sri Chaitanyananda Natha Saraswathi (far right) of the Sri Rajarajeshwari Peetam, a Shakta temple in Rush, N.Y., leads devotees in performing the Tantric ritual known as Kamakhya Puja, 2007.

The Srikula's best-known school is Srividya，"one of Shakta Tantrism's most influential and theologically sophisticated movements." Its central image, the Sri Chakra, is probably the most famous visual image in all of Hindu Tantric tradition. Its literature and practice is perhaps more systematic than that of any other Shakta sect.[44]

Srividya largely views the Goddess as "benign [saumya] and beautiful [saundarya]" (in contrast to Kalikula's focus on "terrifying [ugra] and horrifying [ghora] goddess forms such as Kali or Durga). In Srikula practice, moreover, every aspect of the Goddess – whether malignant or gentle – is identified with Lalita. [45]

Srikula adepts most often worship Lalita using the abstract Sri Chakra diagram, which is regarded as her subtle form. The Sri Chakra can be visually rendered either as a two-dimensional diagram (whether drawn temporarily as part of the worship ritual, or permanently engraved in metal) or in the three-dimensional, pyramidal form known as the Sri Meru. It is not uncommon to find a Sri Chakra or Sri Meru installed in South Indian temples, because – as modern practitioners assert – "there is no disputing that this is the highest form of Devi and that some of the practice can be done openly. But what you see in the temples is not the srichakra worship you see when it is done privately."[46]

A modern Kaula Srividya adept performs Tantric puja at his home altar. Kerala，India，2006.

The Srividya paramparas can be further broadly subdivided into two streams, the Kaula (a vamamarga practice) and the Samaya (a dakshinamarga practice). The Kaula or Kaulachara, first appeared as a coherent ritual system in the eighth century in central India,[47] and its most revered theorist is the 18th-century philosopher Bhaskararaya，widely considered "the best exponent of Shakta philosophy."[48]

The Samaya or Samayacharya finds its roots in the work of the 16th-century commentator Lakshmidhara, and is "fiercely puritanical [in its] attempts to reform Tantric practice in ways that bring it in line with high-caste brahmanical norms."[49] Many Samaya practitioners explicitly deny being either Shakta or Tantric, though scholars argues that their cult remains technically both.[49] The Samaya-Kaula division marks "an old dispute within Hindu Tantrism,"[49] and one that is vigorously debated to this day.[50]

Kalikula: Family of Kali

The Kalikula (family of Kali) form of Shaktism is most dominant in northern and eastern India, and is most widely prevalent in West Bengal，Assam，Bihar and Orissa，as well as parts of Maharashtra and Bangladesh. Kalikula lineages focus upon the Devi as the source of wisdom (vidya) and liberation (moksha). They generally stand "in opposition to the brahmanic tradition," which they view as "overly conservative and denying the experiential part of religion."[51]

The Devi as Durga，in her form as Mahishasura Mardini, "Slayer of the Buffalo Demon, Mahisha. Photographed at a pandal (temporary shrine) in Cossipore, North Calcutta, on October 17, 2004, during Durga Puja.

The main deities of Kalikula are Kali, Chandi and Durga. Other goddesses that enjoy veneration are Tara and the all other Mahavidyas as well as regional goddesses such as Manasa, the snake goddess, and Sitala, the smallpox goddess – all of them, again, considered aspects of the Divine Mother. [51]

Two major centers of Shaktism in West Bengal are Kalighat in Calcutta and Tarapith in Birbhum district. In Calcutta, emphasis is on devotion (bhakti) to the goddess as Kali:

She is "the loving mother who protects her children and whose fierceness guards them. She is outwardly frightening – with dark skin, pointed teeth, and a necklace of skulls – but inwardly beautiful. She can guarantee a good rebirth or great religious insight, and her worship is often communal – especially at festivals, such as Kali Puja and Durga Puja. Worship may involve contemplation of the devotee's union with or love of the goddess, visualization of her form, chanting [of her] mantras, prayer before her image or yantra, and giving [of] offerings."[51]

Shakta Hindus in Dhaka，Bangladesh, pray to the goddess during Durga Puja, October 2003. Author: Hasan Iqbal Wamy from Dhaka, Bangladesh

At Tarapith, Devi's manifestation as Tara ("She Who Saves") or Ugratara ("Fierce Tara") is ascendant, as the goddess who gives liberation (kaivalyadayini). [...] The forms of sadhana performed here are more yogic and tantric than devotional, and they often involve sitting alone at the [cremation] ground, surrounded by ash and bone. There are shamanic elements associated with the Tarapith tradition, including 'conquest of the goddess', exorcism, trance, and control of spirits."[51]

The philosophical and devotional underpinning of all such ritual, however, remains a pervasive vision of the Devi as supreme, absolute divinity. As expressed by the nineteenth-century saint Ramakrishna，one of the most influential figures in modern Bengali Shaktism:

"Kali is none other than Brahman. That which is called Brahman is really Kali. She is the Primal Energy. When that Energy remains inactive, I call It Brahman, and when It creates, preserves, or destroys, I call It Shakti or Kali. What you call Brahman I call Kali. Brahman and Kali are not different. They are like fire and its power to burn: if one thinks of fire one must think of its power to burn. If one recognizes Kali one must also recognize Brahman; again, if one recognizes Brahman one must recognize Kali. Brahman and Its Power are identical. It is Brahman whom I address as Shakti or Kali."[52]

节日

性力派信徒庆祝大多数印度教节日，以及庞杂的本地的、特点寺庙或特定神祀的仪式。以下为一些较重要的事件：[53]

难近母节

最重要的性力派节日是难近母节（Navratri，字面意义为“九夜之节”），因其处在印度历Sharad月份（10/11月），亦作“Sharad Navratri”。此节日经常与其后第10天——“Dusshera”或“Vijayadashami”一起，庆祝《女神颂》（Devi Mahatmya）中女神难近母(Durga)对抗一系列强大罗刹的胜利。[54] In Bengal，the last four days of Navaratri are called Durga Puja，and mark one episode in paticular: Durga's iconic slaying of Mahishasura (lit., the "Buffalo Demon"). [55]

While Hindus of all denominations celebrate the autumn Navratri festival, Shaktas also celebrate two additional Navratris – one in the spring and one in the summer. The spring festival is known as Vasanta Navaratri or Chaitra Navatri, and celebrated in the Hindu month of Chaitra (March/April). Srividya lineages dedicate this festival to Devi's form as the goddess Lalita。The summer festival is called Ashada Navaratri, as it is held during the Hindu month of Ashadha (June/July). The hugely popular Vaishno Devi temple in Jammu observes its major Navaratri celebration during this period.[56] Ashada Navaratri, on the other hand, is considered particularly auspicious for devotees of the boar-headed goddess Varahi, one of the seven Matrikas named in the Devi Mahatmya.[57]

排灯节及其他

主条目：Diwali

Lakshmi Puja is observed by Shaktas and many other Hindus on the full moon night following the autumn Durga Puja.[58]

File:Diwalipuja.jpg
Oil lamps are lit in honor of the goddess Lakshmi (right) - along with Ganesha (left) - on the occasion of Diwali, the "Festival of Lights," usually held in October or November.

Lakshmi's biggest festival, however, is Diwali (or Deepavali; the "Festival of Lights"), a major Hindu holiday celebrated across India. In North India, Diwali marks the beginning of the traditional New Year, and is held on the night of the new moon in the Hindu month of Kartik (usually October or November). Shaktas (and many non-Shaktas) celebrate it as another Lakshmi Puja, placing small oil lamps outside their homes and praying for the goddess's blessings.[59] Diwali coincides with the celebration of Kali Puja, popular in Bengal, and some Shakta traditions focus their worship on Devi as Kali rather than Lakshmi. [60]

Jagaddhatri Puja is celebrated on the last four days of the Navaratis, following Kali Puja. It is very similar to Durga Puja in its details and observance, and is especially popular in Bengal and some other parts of Eastern India.

Gauri Puja is performed on the fifth day after Ganesh Chaturthi，during Ganesha Puja in Western India, to celebrate the arrival of Gauri，Mother of Ganesha, to come and bring her son back home.

There are variant dates for Saraswati Puja, depending upon region and local tradition. Commonly, on the fifth day of the Hindu month of Phalguna (January-February), students offer their books and musical instruments to Saraswati and pray for her blessings in their studies. In some parts of India, Saraswati Puja is celebrated in the month of Magh; in others, during the final three days of Navratri。[61]

A gopuram (tower) of the Meenakshi Amman Temple, a Shakta temple at Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India，which was nominated in the "New Seven Wonders of the World" competition in 2004.

Major Shakta temple festivals are Meenakshi Kalyanam and Ambubachi Mela. Meenakshi Kalyanam observes the auspicious occasion of Devi's（as Meenakshi）marriage to Lord Sundareshwara（Shiva）is centered around the Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai，Tamil Nadu。It runs for 12 days, counting from the second day of the lunar month of Chaitra，in April or May.[62] Ambubachi Mela is a celebration of the yearly menstruation of the goddess, held in June/July (during the monsoon season) at Kamakhya Temple，Guwahati, Assam. Here the Devi is worshiped in the form of a yoni-like stone over which a naturally red-tinted spring flows. [63]

寺庙

更多信息：[[:List of Shakti Temples and Shakti Peethas]]

There are thousands of Shakti temples；vast or tiny, famous or obscure. Moreover, countless cities, towns, villages and geographic landmarks are named for various forms of the Devi.[64] "In this vast country, holy resorts of the goddess are innumerable and the popularity of her cult is proved even in the place-names of India."[65]

At various times, different writers have attempted to organize some of these into lists of "Shakti Peethas"; literally "Seats of the Devi", or more broadly, "Places of Power". Numbering anywhere from four to 51 (in the most famous list, found in the Tantra Cudamani), "the peethas [became] a popular theme of the medieval writers, many of whom took the greatest liberty in fabricating the place names, the goddesses and their bhairavas [consorts]."[66]

批评与滥用

性力派曾被当作迷信、受黑魔法侵蚀的很难称得上真正信仰的行为，被数度解散。印度学者在1920年代曾经广泛发出过类似批评：

"The Hindoo Goddess Karle", an illustration from Dr. Scudder's Tales for Little Readers About the Heathen, by Dr. John Scudder (London, 1849)。

“坦陀罗是性力派的圣经，……认为所有力量都有女性为主的本质，” "The Tantras are the bible of Shaktism, [...] identifying all Force with the female principle in nature and teaching an undue adoration of the wives of Shiva and Vishnu to the neglect of their male counterparts. [...] It is certain that a vast number of the inhabitants of India are guided in their daily life by Tantrik teaching, and are in bondage to the gross superstitions inculcated in these writings. And indeed it can scarcely be doubted that Shaktism is Hinduism arrived at its worst and most corrupt stage of development."[67]

类似言论被认为是基于外接观察者的无知、误解和偏见，以及参与者的一些不审慎的行为。“只是在这种语境下，印度的许多印度教徒今天否认坦陀罗和他们的信仰曾经与现存的联系，认定他们所称的‘tantra-mantra’只是如是胡诌。”（"It is in this context that many Hindus in India today deny the relevance of Tantra to their tradition, past or present, identifying what they call tantra-mantra as so much mumbo-jumbo."）[68]

Further muddying the waters, "a number of Indian and Western spiritual entrepreneurs have been offering 'Tantric Sex' to a mainly American and European clientele for the past several decades. Presenting the entire history of Tantra as a unified, monolithic 'cult of ecstasy' and assuming that all that has smacked of eroticism in Indian culture is by definition Tantric, New Age Tantra eclectically blends together Indian erotics, techniques of massage, Ayurveda，and yoga into a single invented tradition [...] pitched at a leisured populace of seekers who treat 'Tantric sex' as a consumer product."[69]

Even among serious Hindu practitioners, it is not uncommon to encounter assertions that the Shaiva and Vaishnava schools of Hinduism lead to moksha, or spiritual liberation, whereas Shaktism leads merely to siddhis (occult powers) and bhukti (material enjoyments) – or, at best, to Shaivism。For example, the late Shaiva leader Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami taught that worship of the feminine manifest is merely a vehicle for reaching the masculine unmanifest, or Parasiva.[1] As recently as July 2008, Subramuniya's successor, Satguru Bodhinatha Veylanswami，published an essay on the various Hindu approaches to God that ignored Shaktism altogether.[70]

Such slights and misperceptions, however, are given little weight by serious Shakta theologians, who teach that each of the Divine Mother's forms is a Brahma Vidya, or path to supreme wisdom. The sadhaka of any one of these goddess forms "attains ultimately, if his aspiration is such, the supreme purpose of life – Self-realisation and God-realisation."[71] Mataji Devi Vanamali of the Vanamali ashram in Rishikesh summarizes the Shakta position as follows:

"In her transcendental aspect she is Prakriti，the form of the absolute Brahman. Therefore, when we worship the Divine Mother, we are not only offering adoration to the supreme in its aspect of motherhood but also adoring the supreme absolute. She is that aspect of the supreme power by whose grace alone we shall ultimately released from the darkness of ignorance and the bondage of maya and taken to the abode of immortal knowledge, immortality, and bliss."[72]

南亚之外的扩张

The practice of Shaktism is no longer confined to South Asia. Traditional Shakta temples have sprung up across Southeast Asia，the Americas，Europe，Australia and elsewhere – some enthusiastically attended by non-Indian as well as Indian diaspora Hindus. Examples in the United States include the Kali Mandir in Laguna Beach, California；[73] and Sri Rajarajeshwari Peetam,[74] a Srividya Shakta temple in rural Rush, New York。The Rush temple was, in fact, recently the subject an in-depth academic study exploring the "dynamics of diaspora Hinduism," including the serious entry and involvement of non-Indians in traditional Hindu religious practice.[75]

Shaktism has also become a focus of some Western spiritual seekers attempting to construct new Goddess-centered faiths.[76] An academic study of Western Kali enthusiasts noted that, "as shown in the histories of all cross-cultural religious transplants, Kali devotionalism in the West must take on its own indigenous forms if it is to adapt to its new environment."[77] However, these East-West fusions can also raise complex and troubling issues of cultural appropriation。

Writers and thinkers, "notably feminists and participants in New Age spirituality who are attracted to goddess worship", have explored Kali in new light. She is considered as a "symbol of wholeness and healing, associated especially with repressed female power and sexuality." These new interpretations have originated from "feminist sources,almost none of which base their interpretations on a close reading of Kali's Indian background". "It is hard to import the worship of a goddess from another culture: religious associations and connotations have to be learned, imagined or intuited when the deep symbolic meanings embedded in the native culture are not available." [78]

A powerful motivation behind Western interest is that many central concepts of Shaktism – including aspects of kundalini yoga as well as goddess worship – were once "common to the Hindu, Chaldean，Greek and Roman civilizations," but were largely lost to the West, as well as the Near and Middle East, with the rise of the Abrahamic religions:

"Of these four great ancient civilizations, working knowledge of the inner forces of enlightenment has survived on a mass scale only in India. Only in India has the inner tradition of the Goddess endured. This is the reason the teachings of India are so precious. They offer us a glimpse of what our own ancient wisdom must have been. The Indians have preserved our lost heritage. [...] Today it is up to us to locate and restore the tradition of the living Goddess. We would do well to begin our search in India, where for not one moment in all of human history have the children of the living Goddess forgotten their Divine Mother."[79]

注释

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Subramuniyaswami, p. 1211.
  2. ^ Hawley. p. 2.
  3. ^ Bhattacharyya(a), p. 1.
  4. ^ Subramanian, p. 1.
  5. ^ Dikshitar, p. 85.
  6. ^ "Bengali Shakta."
  7. ^ Subramanian, p. ix.
  8. ^ V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar (1896-1953) was in the 1920s-1940s a professor of Indian History at St. Joseph's College, Bangalore; then (from the mid-1940s onward) Lecturer, later Reader, and finally Professorial Chair of the Department of Indian History and Archaeology at the University of Madras. He was also Honorary Reader in Politics and Public Administration at the same institution, and General Editor of the Madras University Historical Series. A posthumous bio notes that he belonged to a group of "avant-garde historians who introduced a new methodology into the study of Indian history"; he contributed "innumerable" articles on "various dimensions of Indian history" to scholarly journals both in India and abroad, including "original treatises, translations, and volumes edited by him."
  9. ^ Dikshitar, p. 77-78.
  10. ^ See, Yadav.
  11. ^ Srimad Devi Bhagavatam, VII.33.13-15, cited in Brown(a), p. 186.
  12. ^ Brown(a), p. 217.
  13. ^ Brown(a), p. 218.
  14. ^ Mohan's World.
  15. ^ Brooks(a), p. 48.
  16. ^ Brooks(a), pp. 47-72.
  17. ^ Bhattacharyya(a), p. 131.
  18. ^ Woodroffe, pp. 376-412.
  19. ^ Hauser, Scott, "Rediscovering a Lost Spiritual 'Book'," Rochester Review，Spring 2006, Vol. 68, No. 3.
  20. ^ Brooks(a), p. xii.
  21. ^ 21.0 21.1 See Kinsley(a).
  22. ^ Kali, p.149.
  23. ^ 见Kinsley(a).
  24. ^ Shankarnarayanan(a), pp. 4, 5.
  25. ^ See Kinsley(b).
  26. ^ Bhattacharyya(a), p. 126.
  27. ^ Joshi, M. C., "Historical and Iconographical Aspects of Shakta Tantrism," in Harper, p. 39.
  28. ^ Bhattacharyya(b), p. 148.
  29. ^ Bhattacharyya(a), p. 6.
  30. ^ See Bhattacharrya(a).
  31. ^ Brown(a), p. ix.
  32. ^ Krishna Warrier, pp. ix-x.
  33. ^ Bhattacharyya(a), p. 164.
  34. ^ See Dikshitar, Ch. I and II.
  35. ^ Brown(b), pp. 8, 17, 10, 21, 320.
  36. ^ Bhattacharyya(a), p. 124.
  37. ^ Bhattacharyya(a), p. 154.
  38. ^ Bhattacharyya(a), pp. 203-204.
  39. ^ Johnsen(a), p. 202.
  40. ^ Pechilis, pp. 3.
  41. ^ Hawley, John, "The Goddess in India," in Hawley, p. 4.
  42. ^ Johnsen(b), p. 11, 13, 19.
  43. ^ Brooks(b), back cover.
  44. ^ Brooks(a), p. xiii.
  45. ^ Brooks(b), pp. 59-60.
  46. ^ A senior member of Guru Mandali, Madurai, November 1984, cited in Brooks(b), p. 56.
  47. ^ White, p. 219.
  48. ^ (a)Bhattacharyya, p. 209.
  49. ^ 49.0 49.1 49.2 Brooks(a), p. 28.
  50. ^ Active (and non-commercial) discussions of Samaya theory can be found at the Sri Rajarajeshwari Kripa，while lively (and also non-commercial) Kaula discussions take place at the Shakti Sadhana website and its associated mailing list.
  51. ^ 51.0 51.1 51.2 51.3 "Bengali Shakta."
  52. ^ Nikhilananda, p. 734.
  53. ^ Pattanaik, pp. 103-109.
  54. ^ "5 Things You Need to Know About Navratri: The 9 Divine Nights," About Hinduism.
  55. ^ "Durga Puja," DurgaPuja.org.
  56. ^ "About Vasanta Navratri," About Hinduism.
  57. ^ "Regaling Varahi with different 'alankarams' in 'Ashada Navaratri'," July 24, 2007, The Hindu.
  58. ^ "Lakshmi: Goddess of Wealth & Beauty! What You Need to Know," About Hinduism.
  59. ^ "Diwali Festival", DiwaliFestival.org.
  60. ^ "Kali Pooja in Bengal," Diwali Festival.org.
  61. ^ "Saraswati Pooja," Saraswati Pooja.
  62. ^ "Celebrate Meenakshi Kalyanam", BlessingsontheNet.com
  63. ^ "Celebrating the Divine Female Principle." Boloji.com
  64. ^ Pattanaik, pp. 110-114.
  65. ^ Bhattacharyya(a), p. 172.
  66. ^ Bhattacharyya(a), p. 171.
  67. ^ Kapoor, p. 157.
  68. ^ White, p. 262. See also Urban.
  69. ^ White, pp. xii - xiii.
  70. ^ Satguru Bodhinatha Veylanswami, "Who Is the Greatest God?," Hinduism Today.
  71. ^ Shankarnarayanan(a), p. 5.
  72. ^ Vanamali, p. 10.
  73. ^ Kali Mandir
  74. ^ Sri Rajarajeshwari Peetham
  75. ^ See Dempsey.
  76. ^ For example, "Shakti Wicca" and Sha'can
  77. ^ Fell McDermett, Rachel, "The Western Kali," in Hawley, p. 305.
  78. ^ Fell in Hawley, pp. 281-305.
  79. ^ Johnsen(b), pp. 176, 181.

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