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密特拉教

维基百科，自由的百科全书

这是本页的一个历史版本，由漢唐風華（留言 | 贡献）在2017年6月25日 (日) 10:01 （→從岩石之中誕生像）编辑。这可能和当前版本存在着巨大的差异。

「密特拉斯」重定向至此。关于其他用法，请见「密特拉斯 (消歧义)」。
密特拉信仰的兩種形象。羅馬，西元二世紀到三世紀。（羅浮宮博物館）

密特拉教（Mithraism），也被稱為密特拉密教（Mithraic mysteries），是一支以主神密特拉斯（Mithras）為信仰中心的秘密宗教，大約西元一世紀至西元四世紀盛行於羅馬帝國境內。宗教靈感來自波斯人對主神密特拉（Mithra，原始印度-伊朗語寫法為Mitra）的敬拜，雖然希臘的密特拉斯（Mithras）是與一個新的和獨特的（宗教）形象／意象聯繫著，並且在波斯與希腊罗马之間信仰傳播的连续性階段是被（學者）所讨论著。[1]這支秘密宗教在羅馬軍隊（英语：Imperial Roman army）中很受到歡迎。[2]

密特拉斯的崇拜者有一套（深奧）難解的七等級啟蒙（英语：initiation）與公共儀式的膳食制度體系。（密特拉教的）同修稱他們自己為syndexioi（音譯：辛德希歐耶），意即“藉著握手／交握而團結（united by the handshake）”。[3]他們的集會是在地下的神廟（英语：Roman temple）進行，乃名為密特拉寺（Mithraeum，拉丁文複數寫作Mithraea），而且有許多座的密特拉寺都有被留存著。這支宗教信仰似乎在羅馬有一個屬於他們的中心。[4]

許多的考古發現，包括集會地點、宗教遺跡／遺址和文物，貫穿整個羅馬帝國自始至終都貢獻了現代有關於密特拉教的學問／知識。[5]密特拉斯的聖像場景（英语：iconography）顯示出祂是從岩石中出生、屠殺公牛，以及與索爾神（Sol，太陽神）一起共享宴會等等的宗教形象。大約有420處場址已給予了與這項信仰有關的史料。發掘的文物項目當中約有1000個碑文、700個屠牛場景（屠牛像〔tauroctony〕）的例證，還有大約400個（密特拉教）其他古迹。[6]據估計在羅馬至少會有680座密特拉寺。[7]然而，並沒有來自這支宗教的書面記述或是神學理論留存下來；而有限的知識／見聞／學問可以從希臘文和拉丁文書籍中的碑文和摘要／節錄或是信息傳遞的參考文獻中獲得。而實體證據上的解讀仍然存在著問題和議論。[8]

羅馬人將這支秘密宗教視為具有波斯人或是瑣羅亞斯德教徒的淵源。自從1970年代初以來占有主導地位的學術研究單位已經注意到波斯人的密特拉崇拜儀式和羅馬人的密特拉密教之間的差異了。在這方面，密特拉教有時被認為是與早期基督教媲美、相對等的宗教[9]連帶著具有著相似性，譬如解放者－救世主（liberator-saviour）、神職人員的等級制度（主教、長老、執事）、（宗教性）聚餐以及善與惡間的艱苦搏鬥（屠殺公牛／受難）。

密特拉斯屠牛像，請注意此宗教意涵乃是代表一种自我救赎和牺牲。現今珍藏於羅浮宮朗斯分館（Louvre-Lens）。
從岩石出生的密特拉斯以及密特拉教的文物。戴克里先浴场博物館（Diocletian Baths Museum）。
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名號

“Mithraism（密特拉教）”是一個現代（學術）規範的一個專有名詞。羅馬時代的作家通過諸如“Mithraic mysteries（密特拉密教）”、“mysteries of Mithras（密特拉斯的秘密宗教）”或是“mysteries of the Persians（波斯人的祕密宗教）”等短语／叙述提到祂。[1][10]現代資料有時將希臘羅馬（密特拉）宗教稱為“Roman Mithraism（羅馬密特拉教）”或是“Western Mithraism（西方密特拉教）”以區別來自於波斯人的密特拉崇拜／信仰。[1][11][12]

密特拉斯的詞源

主条目：密特拉斯 (名號)
密特拉密教的屠牛像之淺浮雕，位於法國梅斯（Metz）。

英文文獻中Mithras（密特拉斯，為拉丁文，等同於希臘文的“Μίθρας”，[13]後來轉入英文。）的名号是Mithra（密特拉）名號的另一種形式的寫法，這乃為古波斯神祇的名號[14][15] – 自從弗朗茨·庫蒙（英语：Franz Cumont）（Franz Cumont）的時期以來透過研究密特拉教的學者即是以這樣關係聯繫所做出的理解。[16]這名號的一個早期希臘文型態之例證是藉由西元前四世紀色諾芬的著作，即為《居魯士之教育》（Cyropaedia）一書中所得知而來的，這是一部撰述著波斯君王居魯士大帝（Cyrus the Great）的傳記。[17]

拉丁文或者是古典希臘文字形的確切型態是由於語法的變格過程而讓字彙呈現了變化。有考古學的證據表明著在拉丁民族的崇拜者／信徒中將神祇名號的主格型態写為“Mithras”。然而，在這波菲利（Porphyry）希臘文本De Abstinentia（為拉丁文寫法；希臘文：«Περὶ ἀποχῆς ἐμψύχων»；漢譯：《禁慾》）的著作之中，即有提到了現今已經失落的一段以歐布洛斯（Euboulus）和帕拉斯（Pallas）為依据的密特拉密教佚史，這些的纂輯意味著這些作者將“Mithra”這個名號視為一個不变化的外來語詞彙。[18]

在其他的語言中有關於密特拉神的名號還有包括著：

伊朗文的“Mithra”以及梵文的“Mitra”被認為是來自印度-伊朗語的一個詞彙“mitra”意思是契約／協議／合同。[24]

現代的歷史學者毋論關於這些名號是否指稱同一尊神明也有著觀念／概念上的分野。約翰 R. 亨尼爾斯（John R. Hinnells）曾寫過Mitra／Mithra／Mithras作為在幾種不同宗教中崇拜的單一神性／神明。[25]另一方面，大衛·烏蘭西（David Ulansey）認為屠牛的密特拉斯是一尊新的神明，祂在西元前一世紀開始被人們給崇拜著，並且向祂引用了一個古老的名號（來尊稱祂）。[26]

瑪麗·博伊斯（英语：Mary Boyce）（Mary Boyce），為一位古伊朗宗教的研究員，執筆寫道儘管羅馬帝國的密特拉教彷彿顯得比歷史學者以前所認為的伊朗（宗教）的內涵更少，不過仍然是“如同密特拉斯這名號獨自的彰顯著，這個內涵是有些重要的。（as the name Mithras alone shows, this content was of some importance.）”。[27]

宗教中的聖像

密特拉斯作為屠牛者身份的浮雕，出自海德堡附近的新故乡（Neuenheim）区，左右方與上方框架內的浮雕則是由密特拉斯的人生場景所構成。

很多關於密特拉斯的信仰只有從浮雕和雕塑才能得知。已經有很多人努力的嘗試來解釋這種史料。

密特拉斯崇拜在羅馬帝國中的特點是神靈屠殺公牛的形像／聖像。密特拉斯其他的形像／聖像則被安座在羅馬神廟內，譬如密特拉斯與索爾（羅馬太陽神）一起的宴會，以及描繪著密特拉斯從岩石中誕生的形像／聖像。但是屠殺公牛的形像／聖像（屠牛像）總是在壁龕中央重要的位置。[28]用於重建這個宗教聖像背後神學理論的文本來源是非常稀少罕見的。[29]（請參閱以下章節──屠牛場景的解譯）

描繪神靈屠殺公牛形像／聖像的做法似乎是明確地特定于羅馬密特拉教。根據大衛·烏蘭西所述，這個“或許是最重要的例證（perhaps the most important example）”有關於伊朗和羅馬（宗教）傳統之間明顯的區別：“…沒有證據顯示伊朗的神明密特拉與屠殺公牛有任何關係。（... there is no evidence that the Iranian god Mithra ever had anything to do with killing a bull.）”。[30]

屠牛場景

主条目：屠牛像

在每一座密特拉寺裡面核心部分就是密特拉斯宰殺一頭聖牛雕像的表現方式，稱之為屠牛像（英文文獻中的專有名詞為：Tauroctony）。[31]

聖像的形式可能是浮雕的方式呈現，或者是獨立式的雕塑，並且側面細節也許是存在或者省略。這中心部分是密特拉斯穿著安納托利亞地區的服裝並且頭上戴著一頂弗里吉亞無邊便帽（Phrygian cap）；祂跪在一隻筋疲力盡的[32]公牛身上，其中握住牠（公牛）的鼻孔[32]是以祂的左手來行使的，並且祂右手拿著利器刺入公牛的頸部。當他這樣做時，祂轉過頭來朝向索爾神像看了一下。一隻狗和一條蛇的頭伸向牛的血液。一隻蠍子則箝住公牛的生殖器。一隻烏鴉正在周遭飛舞或是坐在公牛身上。從公牛的尾巴看到三支小麥穗露出，有些時候的聖像造型則是小麥穗從傷口露出來的。這頭公牛通常是白色的。神明以不自然的方式坐在公牛身上同時以祂的右腿壓制住公牛的蹄並且左腿彎曲以及靠在公牛的背部或腹部上面。[33]兩名火炬手各站於一側，穿著同密特拉斯一樣，考泰斯（Cautes）將祂的火炬向上者以及考托佩斯（Cautopates）將祂的火炬向下者。[34][35]有時候聖像的造型中考泰斯與考托佩斯是帶著牧羊人的曲柄杖來替代火炬。[36]

屠牛像，出自於奧地利維也納藝術史博物館。

這項宗教儀式舉行的地點是在洞穴裡，密特拉斯帶著公牛進入洞穴內，在對牠獵殺之後，（密特拉斯）騎坐在牠背上並且壓制牠的力量。[37]有些時候洞穴是由一個圓圈所圍繞著，黃道十二星座的圖像則是呈現在圍繞洞穴的圓圈上面。在洞穴的外面，左上方，是司掌太陽的索爾，連同祂火焰般的頭冠，祂通常駕駛著一輛四馬雙輪戰車（quadriga）。一道光線通常是射下來觸及到密特拉斯。位於右上方的神祇則是盧娜（Luna），與祂的盈月在一起，祂可能被描繪為駕駛著一輛二马双轮战车（英语：biga (chariot)）（biga）。[38]

在一些聖像的描繪中，中央的屠牛像是由左方、上方以及右方的一系列附屬場景所構成的整體造型，主旨在說明關於密特拉斯故事中的事件；密特拉斯從岩石出生、水的神蹟、公牛的狩獵與騎乘、密特拉斯跪著謁見索爾、密特拉斯與索爾握手並且與祂分享公牛被支解後的膳食，以及乘坐一輛戰車生向天空。[38]在某些情況下，就像這種斯達科（stucco或譯為灰泥）聖像的例子則是位在聖塔普利斯卡（Santa Prisca）密特拉寺裡，寺中聖像的神明展現出英雄地裸體（英语：Heroic nudity）（heroically nude）。[39]其中一些浮雕被夠造成以便於祂們（聖像）能夠在一個軸／樞紐上轉動。在後面則是另一個形象的描繪，那是更加精緻的宴會場景。這是標明著屠殺公牛場景是在（密特拉教的）宗教儀式第一部分之中被使用著，然後這（公牛屠殺場景浮雕）被轉動後，跟著這二幕場景是在（密特拉教的）宗教儀式第二部分之中被使用著。[40]除了主要的崇拜／信仰聖像之外，許多的密特拉寺具有幾個附帶（secondary）的屠牛像，以及一些小型便於攜帶的版本，或許是意味著由私人所奉獻的，（這類型的聖像）也是有被發現／找到。[41]

宴會場景

参见：索爾 (無敵者)和羅馬神話

在屠牛像之後的第二項最重要場景於密特拉密教藝術之中就是所謂的“宴會場景”。[42]宴會場景的特徵是密特拉斯和索爾·無敵者（the Sol Invictus）被屠殺的公牛皮上進行著宴會。[42]關於明確具體的宴會場景則是呈現在菲亚诺罗马诺（Fiano Romano）地區的浮雕上，其中一名火炬手將商神杖（caduceus）指向祭壇的基座，商神杖的頂端似乎湧現出火焰來。罗伯特·图尔坎（Robert Turcan）認為由於商神杖是屬於墨丘利（即希臘神話中的赫耳墨斯）所擁有的神器，並且在神話中墨丘利是被描述為一名普绪科蓬波斯（英语：psychopomp）（psychopomps，乃古希腊神话裡负责接引死者灵魂的神祇们，也就是冥府使者），在這個場景中火焰的引發是指著人類靈魂的派遣／調遣／差遣並且就這件事情表達了密特拉密教的教義。[43]图尔坎也將這個事件與屠牛像聯繫起來：被屠戮的公牛血液已經在祭壇基座的地面上濡濕，並且從血液中靈魂被商神杖的火焰給引了出來。[43]

從岩石之中誕生像

上圖：密特拉斯從岩石中升起（現今珍藏於國立羅馬尼亞歷史博物館）；
右圖：從岩石中出生的密特拉斯（大理石，西元180年～192年），出自於聖托·斯特凡諾·罗同多（Santo Stefano Rotondo，有時稱之為San Stefano Rotondo或者是S. Stefano Rotondo）地區，羅馬。

密特拉斯被描繪／描述為從岩石中出生。祂被顯示為從岩石中出來，就已呈現在祂年輕時的樣貌，連同以一隻手持著匕首以及另一隻手持著火炬。祂是裸體的，與祂的雙腿一同呈現出佇立的姿態，並且在祂的頭上佩戴著一頂弗里吉亞無邊便帽。[44]

然而，形象有了變化。有時候他被顯示為如同一名兒童般地從岩石中出來，並且在某種情況下在祂一隻手上握有一個球狀物（globe）；有時會看到雷電。其中還有一些描述著火焰是從岩石再就是密特拉斯的帽子噴發出來的。有一座塑像／雕像的底座有穿孔以便能夠作為噴泉／噴水池的功能，並且在另一個底座則有水神的面罩／面具／面像。有些時候密特拉還擁有著其他的武器像是弓與箭，並且還有伴隨著動物例如狗、蛇、海豚、老鷹、其他鳥類、獅子、鱷魚、螯龍蝦（lobsters）以及蝸牛在祂周圍。在一些浮雕上，有一尊留有鬍鬚的神祇身分经鉴定為俄刻阿諾斯（Oceanus），祂乃是水神，並且有些地方則是為四風之神。在這些浮雕中，四大元素可能一起被召喚／祈求（invoked）。有时候維多利亞（Victoria）、盧娜、索爾以及薩圖恩（Saturn）也似乎擔任著一個（重要任務的）角色。特別是薩圖恩通常是被看到將匕首交付給予密特拉斯以便祂能夠行使祂的偉大的事蹟。[44]

在有些的描述中，考泰斯與考托佩斯也是有在場的；有時候祂們被描繪為牧羊人。[45]

在某些情況／場面下，能被看到一只雙耳瓶（amphora），並且有幾個例子／情況表現出了像（密特拉斯從）蛋出生或是（密特拉斯從）樹誕生這樣的變化。一些解釋表明著密特拉斯的誕生是以點燃的火炬或是蠟燭（在宗教儀式上）被頌揚／讚美（celebrated）的。[44][46]

獅頭神的圖繪found at the mithraeum of C. Valerius Heracles and sons, dedicated 190 CE at Ostia Antica, Italy (CIMRM 312)

獅首形象

参见：拜火教、古希臘宗教和古羅馬宗教
Lion-headed figure from the Sidon Mithraeum. Dedicated 500 CE by Flavius Gerontios (CIMRM 78 & 79), now at the Louvre.

One of the most characteristic and poorly-understood features of the Mysteries is the naked lion-headed figure often found in Mithraic temples, named by the modern scholars with descriptive terms such as leontocephaline (lion-headed) or leontocephalus (lion-head). He is entwined by a serpent (or two serpents, like a caduceus), with the snake’s head often resting on the lion’s head. The lion’s mouth is often open, giving a horrifying impression. He is usually represented as having four wings, two keys (sometimes a single key), and a scepter in his hand. Sometimes the figure is standing on a globe inscribed with a diagonal cross. In the figure shown here, the four wings carry the symbols of the four seasons, and a thunderbolt is engraved on the breast. At the base of the statue are the hammer and tongs of Vulcan, the cock, and the wand of Mercury. A variation the same figure, but with a human head instead of the lion-mask, is also found, but is rare.[47][48]

Although animal-headed figures are prevalent in contemporary Egyptian and Gnostic mythological representations, an exact parallel to the Mithraic leontocephaline figure has not been found.[47] The name of the figure has been deciphered from dedicatory inscriptions to be Arimanius, a Latinized form of the name Ahriman – a demonic figure in the Zoroastrian pantheon. Arimanius is known from inscriptions to have been a god in the Mithraic cult as seen, for example, in images from the Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae (CIMRM) such as 222 from Ostia, 369 from Rome, and 1773 and 1775 from Pannonia.[49]

Some scholars identify the lion-man as Aion, or Zurvan, or Cronus, or Chronos, while others assert that it is a version of the Zoroastrian Ahriman.[50] There is also speculation that the figure is the Gnostic demiurge, (Ariel) Ialdabaoth.[51] Although the exact identity of the lion-headed figure is debated by scholars, it is largely agreed that the god is associated with time and seasonal change.[52] An occultist, D. J. Cooper, speculates to the contrary that the lion-headed figure is not a god, but rather represents the spiritual state achieved in Mithraism's "adept" level, the Leo (lion) degree. [53]

儀式和禮拜

密特拉寺

主条目：密特拉寺

啟蒙儀式的等級

参见：巴比倫占星術

儀式的重新制定

教徒的资格

倫理道德

歷史與發展

参见：希臘羅馬密教

密特拉斯之前的秘密宗教

羅馬密特拉教的開始

最早的考古學證據

最早的禮拜位址

關於密特拉斯和這支秘密宗教的古典文獻

斯塔提烏斯

普魯塔克

狄奧·卡西烏斯

波菲利

密特拉斯聖儀

現代學術對於起源的相關議論

庫蒙的假設：源自於波斯境內的宗教

庫蒙的评论和重新評估

現今學說

後來的歷史

羅馬密特拉教的結束

屠牛場景的解譯

密特拉斯與其他的神明

主条目：法涅斯和密特拉斯與其他信仰體系之對照

密特拉教與基督教

主条目：早期基督教

相關條目

註釋

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Beck, Roger (2002-07-20). "Mithraism". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition. Retrieved 2011-03-14. The term "Mithraism" is of course a modern coinage. In antiquity the cult was known as "the mysteries of Mithras"; alternatively, as "the mysteries of the Persians." ... The Mithraists, who were manifestly not Persians in any ethnic sense, thought of themselves as cultic "Persians." ... the ancient Roman Mithraists themselves were convinced that their cult was founded by none other than Zoroaster, who "dedicated to Mithras, the creator and father of all, a cave in the mountains bordering Persia," an idyllic setting "abounding in flowers and springs of water" (Porphyry, On the Cave of the Nymphs 6)."
  2. ^ Geden, A. S. (15 October 2004). Select Passages Illustrating Mithraism 1925. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 51–. ISBN 978-1-4179-8229-5. Retrieved 28 March 2011. "Porphyry moreover seems to be the only writer who makes reference to women initiates into the service and rites of Mithra, and his allusion is perhaps due to a misunderstanding.... The participation of women in the ritual was not unknown in the Eastern cults, but the predominant military influence in Mithraism seems to render it unlikely in this instance."
  3. ^ M. Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras, p. 42: "That the hand-shaken might make their vows joyfully forever"
  4. ^ Lewis M. Hopfe, "Archaeological indications on the origins of Roman Mithraism", in Lewis M. Hopfe (ed). Uncovering ancient stones: essays in memory of H. Neil Richardson, Eisenbrauns (1994), pp. 147–158. p. 156: "Beyond these three Mithraea [in Syria and Palestine], there are only a handful of objects from Syria that may be identified with Mithraism. Archaeological evidence of Mithraism in Syria is therefore in marked contrast to the abundance of Mithraea and materials that have been located in the rest of the Roman Empire. Both the frequency and the quality of Mithraic materials is greater in the rest of the empire. Even on the western frontier in Britain, archaeology has produced rich Mithraic materials, such as those found at Walbrook. If one accepts Cumont’s theory that Mithraism began in Iran, moved west through Babylon to Asia Minor, and then to Rome, one would expect that the cult left its traces in those locations. Instead, archaeology indicates that Roman Mithraism had its epicenter in Rome. Wherever its ultimate place of origin may have been, the fully developed religion known as Mithraism seems to have begun in Rome and been carried to Syria by soldiers and merchants. None of the Mithraic materials or temples in Roman Syria except the Commagene sculpture bears any date earlier than the late first or early second century. [footnote in cited text: 30. Mithras, identified with a Phrygian cap and the nimbus about his head, is depicted in colossal statuary erected by King Antiochus I of Commagene, 69–34 BCE. (see Vermaseren, CIMRM 1.53–56). However, there are no other literary or archaeological evidences to indicate that the religion of Mithras as it was known among the Romans in the second to fourth centuries AD was practiced in Commagene]. While little can be proved from silence, it seems that the relative lack of archaeological evidence from Roman Syria would argue against the traditional theories for the origins of Mithraism."
  5. ^ Beck, Roger (17 February 2011). "The Pagan Shadow of Christ?". BBC-History. Retrieved 4 June 2011. "We know a good deal about them because archaeology has disinterred many meeting places together with numerous artifacts and representations of the cult myth, mostly in the form of relief sculpture."
  6. ^ Clauss, Manfred. The Roman Cult of Mithras: The God and his Mysteries. pp. xxi. ISBN 0-415-92977-6.
  7. ^ Coarelli; Beck, Roger; Haase, Wolfgang (1984). Aufstieg und niedergang der römischen welt (The Rise and Decline of the Roman World). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 2026–. ISBN 978-3-11-010213-0. Retrieved 20 March 2011. "A useful topographic survey, with map, by F. Coarelli (1979) lists 40 actual or possible mithraea (the latter inferred from find-spots, with the sensible proviso that a mithraeum will not necessarily correspond to every find). Principally from comparisons of size and population with Ostia, Coarelli calculates that there will have been in Rome "not less than 680–690" mithraea in all ... ."
  8. ^ Ulansey, David (1991). Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries. New York: Oxford UP. p. 3. ISBN 0-19-506788-6. "However, in the absence of any ancient explanations of its meaning, Mithraic iconography has proven to be exceptionally difficult to decipher."
  9. ^ Hopfe, Lewis M.; Richardson, Henry Neil (September 1994). "Archaeological Indications on the Origins of Roman Mithraism". In Lewis M. Hopfe. Uncovering ancient stones: essays in memory of H. Neil Richardson. Eisenbrauns. pp. 147–. ISBN 978-0-931464-73-7. Retrieved 19 March 2011. "Today more than four hundred locations of Mithraic worship have been identified in every area of the Roman Empire. Mithraea have been found as far west as Britain and as far east as Dura Europas. Between the second and fourth centuries C.E. Mithraism may have vied with Christianity for domination of the Roman world."
  10. ^ Origen, Contra Celsus, Book 6, Chapter 22. "After this, Celsus, desiring to exhibit his learning in his treatise against us, quotes also certain Persian mysteries, where he says: ‘These things are obscurely hinted at in the accounts of the Persians, and especially in the mysteries of Mithras, which are celebrated among them ...’ " Chapter 24 "After the instance borrowed from the Mithraic mysteries, Celsus declares that he who would investigate the Christian mysteries, along with the aforesaid Persian, will, on comparing the two together, and on unveiling the rites of the Christians, see in this way the difference between them."
  11. ^ "Electronic Journal of Mithraic Studies". Electronic Journal of Mithraic Studies. Retrieved 2011-03-28. "The Electronic Journal of Mithraic Studies (EJMS) is a revival of the Journal of Mithraic Studies edited by Dr. Richard Gordon. It is a place where researchers on Roman Mithraism can publish the product of their research and make it freely available for other interested people."
  12. ^ Beck, Roger (2002-07-20). "Mithraism". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition,. Retrieved 2011-03-28. "For most of the twentieth century the major problem addressed by scholarship on both Roman Mithraism and the Iranian god Mithra was the question of continuity."
  13. ^ Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary
  14. ^ Ulansey, David (1991). Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries. New York: Oxford UP. p. 90. ISBN 0-19-506788-6. "It is therefore highly likely that it was in the context of Mithridates’ alliance with the Cilician pirates that there arose the synchretistic link between Perseus and Mithra which led to the name Mithras (a Greek form of the name Mithra) being given to the god of the new cult."
  15. ^ Britannica, Encyclopedia of World Religions. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2006. p. 509. ISBN 978-1-59339-491-2. "... Mithra is the next most important deity and may even have occupied a position of near equality with Ahura Mazde. He was associated with the Sun, and in time the name Mithra became a common word for "Sun". Mithra functioned preeminently in the ethical sphere; he was the god of the covenant, who oversaw all solemn agreements that people made among themselves ... In later times Mithra gave his name to Mithraism, a mystery religion."
  16. ^ Ulansey, David (1991). Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries. New York: Oxford UP. p. 8. ISBN 0-19-506788-6. "Cumont’s ... argument was straightforward and may be summarized succinctly: the name of the god of the cult, Mithras, is the Latin (and Greek) form of the name of an ancient Iranian god, Mithra; in addition, the Romans believed that their cult was connected with Persia (as the Romans called Iran); therefore we may assume that Roman Mithraism is nothing other than the Iranian cult of Mithra transplanted into the Roman Empire."
  17. ^ Xenophon, Cyropaedia 7.5.53. Cited in Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon
  18. ^ Gordon, Richard L. (1978). "The date and significance of CIMRM 593 (British Museum, Townley Collection". Journal of Mithraic Studies II: 148–174.. p. 160: "The usual western nominative form of Mithras’ name in the mysteries ended in -s, as we can see from the one authentic dedication in the nominative, recut over a dedication to Sarapis (463, Terme de Caracalla), and from occasional grammatical errors such as deo inviato Metras (1443). But it is probable that Euboulus and Pallas at least used the name ‘Mithra’ as an indeclinable [foreign word] (ap. Porphyry, De abstinentia II.56 and IV.16)."
  19. ^ E.g. in Rig Veda 3, Hymn 59
  20. ^ Michael Speidel (1980). Mithras-Orion: Greek hero and Roman army god. Brill. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-90-04-06055-5. "India's sacred literature refers to him since the hymns of the Rig Veda. But it was in Iran where Mithras rose to the greatest prominence: rebounding after the reforms of Zarathustra, Mithras became one of the great gods of the Achaemenian emperors and to this very day he is worshipped in India and Iran by Parsees and Zarathustrians."
  21. ^ Hopfe, Lewis M.; Richardson, Henry Neil (September 1994). "Archaeological Indications on the Origins of Roman Mithraism". In Lewis M. Hopfe. Uncovering ancient stones: essays in memory of H. Neil Richardson. Eisenbrauns. pp. 150–. ISBN 978-0-931464-73-7. Retrieved 19 March 2011. "All theories of the origin of Mithraism acknowledge a connection, however vague, to the Mithra / Mitra figure of ancient Aryan religion."
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 Turcan, Robert (1996). The cults of the Roman Empire. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 196–. ISBN 978-0-631-20047-5. Retrieved 19 March 2011. "The name Mithras comes from a root mei- (which implies the idea of exchange), accompanied by an instrumental suffix. It was therefore a means of exchange, the ‘contract’ which rules human relations and is the basis of social life. In Sanskrit, mitra means 'friend' or ‘friendship’, like mihr in Persian. In Zend, mithra means precisely the ‘contract’, which eventually became deified, following the same procedure as Venus, the ‘charm’ for the Romans. We find him invoked with Varuna in an agreement concluded c. 1380 BCE between the king of the Hittites, Subbiluliuma, and the king of Mitanni, Mativaza. ... It is the earliest evidence of Mithras in Asia Minor."
  23. ^ Thieme, Paul (1960), "The ‘Aryan’ Gods of the Mitanni Treaties", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 80.4. pp. 301–317.
  24. ^ Schmidt, Hans-Peter (2006), "Mithra i: Mithra in Old Indian and Mithra in Old Iranian", Encyclopaedia Iranica, New York: iranica.com (accessed April 2011)
  25. ^ Hinnells, John R. (1990), "Introduction: the questions asked and to be asked", in Hinnells, John R., Studies in Mithraism, Rome: L'Erma di Bretschneider, p. 11, "The god is unique in being worshipped in four distinct religions: Hinduism (as Mitra), in Iranian Zoroastrianism and Manicheism (as Mithra), and in the Roman Empire (as Mithras)."
  26. ^ Ulansey, David (1991). Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries. New York: Oxford UP. p. 94. ISBN 0-19-506788-6. "the intimate alliance between the pirates and Mithridates Eupator, named after Mithra and mythically descended from Perseus, led to the pirates adopting the name Mithras for the new god."
  27. ^ Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz (1975). Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman rule, Part 1. Brill. pp. 468, 469. ISBN 90-04-09271-4. Retrieved 2011-03-16. "The theory that the complex iconography of the characteristic monuments (of which the oldest belong to the second century A.C.) could be interpreted by direct reference to Iranian religion is now widely rejected; and recent studies have tended greatly to reduce what appears to be the actual Iranian content of this "self consciously ‘Persian’ religion", at least in the form which it attained under the Roman empire. Nevertheless, as the name Mithras alone shows, this content was of some importance; and the Persian affiliation of the Mysteries is acknowledged in the earliest literary reference to them."
  28. ^ Ulansey, David (1991). Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries. New York: Oxford UP. p. 6. ISBN 0-19-506788-6.
  29. ^ Clauss, M. The Roman cult of Mithras, p. xxi: "... we possess virtually no theological statements either by Mithraists themselves or by other writers."
  30. ^ Ulansey, David (1991). Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries. New York: Oxford UP. p. 8. ISBN 0-19-506788-6.
  31. ^ David Ulansey, The origins of the Mithraic mysteries, p. 6: "Although the iconography of the cult varied a great deal from temple to temple, there is one element of the cult’s iconography which was present in essentially the same form in every mithraeum and which, moreover, was clearly of the utmost importance to the cult’s ideology; namely the so-called tauroctony, or bull-slaying scene, in which the god Mithras, accompanied by a series of other figures, is depicted in the act of killing the bull."
  32. ^ 32.0 32.1 Clauss, M., The Roman cult of Mithras, p. 77.
  33. ^ Mazur, Zeke. "Harmonious Opposition (PART I): Pythagorean Themes of Cosmogonic Mediation in the Roman Mysteries of Mithras" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-06-14. "The god's right leg, appearing on the left as one faces the tauroctony, is nearly always straight as it pins the bull's hoof to the ground, while his left leg, which is usually resting on the back or flank of the bull, is bent at the knee with his foot often partially obscured beneath the folds of his tunic. Anyone familiar with the cult's iconography will immediately recognize this awkward and possibly unnatural posture as a typical or even essential aspect of the tauroctony. The remarkable consistency of this particular feature is underscored by comparison with the subtle variability of others..."
  34. ^ Clauss, M. The Roman cult of Mithras, p. 98–99. An image search for ‘tauroctony’ will show many examples of the variations.
  35. ^ Näsström, Britt-Marie. "The sacrifi ces of Mithras" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-04-04. "He is wearing a Phrygian cap and a wind-filled cloak, and, most remarkable of all, his head is turned in the other direction as if he would not look at his own deed. Still, this sacrifice is a guarantee of salvation for the participants."
  36. ^ J. R. Hinnells, "The Iconography of Cautes and Cautopates: the Data", Journal of Mithraic Studies 1, 1976, pp. 36–67. See also William W. Malandra, Cautes and Cautopates Encyclopedia Iranica article.
  37. ^ Clauss, M., The Roman cult of Mithras, p. 74.
  38. ^ 38.0 38.1 L'Ecole Initiative: Alison Griffith, 1996. "Mithraism"
  39. ^ Bjørnebye, Jonas (2007). "The Mithraic icon in fourth century Rome:The composition of the Mithraic cult icon". Hic locus est felix, sanctus, piusque benignus: The cult of Mithras in fourth century Rome,Dissertation for the degree of philosophiae doctor (PhD). "The figure of Mithras himself is usually attired in an oriental costume of Phrygian cap, tunica manicata (a long-sleeved tunic), anaxyrides (eastern style trousers), and a cape, though in some cases, he is depicted heroically nude or even, in a unique example from Ostia, in what seems to be a Greek chiton. Like the general trend in Graeco-Roman art, most if not all tauroctony scenes, regardless of the medium they were executed in, were painted, and the different items of Mithras' clothing was usually colored in either blue or red, often, as in the painting at Marino, with most of the costume in red with only the inside of the cape being blue and star-speckled. The bull was often white, sometimes wearing the dorsuale, the Roman sacrificial band in reds or browns, while the torchbearers could be depicted in a variety of colors with reds and greens being the most common."
  40. ^ Klauck, Hans-Josef; McNeil, Brian (December 2003). The religious context of early Christianity: a guide to Graeco-Roman religions. T & T Clark Ltd. pp. 146–. ISBN 978-0-567-08943-4. Retrieved 4 September 2011.
  41. ^ Beck, Roger (2006). The Religion of the Mithras cult in the Roman empire. Great Britain: Oxford University Press. p. 21. "Often, the mithraeum was embellished elsewhere with secondary exemplars of the tauroctony, and there also seem to have been small portable versions, perhaps for private devotion."
  42. ^ 42.0 42.1 Beck, Roger, "In the Place of the Lion: Mithras in the Tauroctony" in Beck on Mithraism: Collected works with new essays (2004), p. 286 287.
  43. ^ 43.0 43.1 Beck, Roger (2007). The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-921613-4., p. 27-28.
  44. ^ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Vermaseren, M. J. "The miraculous Birth of Mithras". In László Gerevich. Studia Archaeologica. Brill. pp. 93–109. Retrieved 4 October 2011.
  45. ^ Vermaseren, M. J. László Gerevich, ed. Studia Archaeologica. Brill. p. 108. Retrieved 4 October 2011.
  46. ^ Commodian, Instructiones 1.13: "The unconquered one was born from a rock, if he is regarded as a god." See also the image of "Mithras petra genetrix Terme", inset above.
  47. ^ 47.0 47.1 von Gall, Hubertus, "The Lion-headed and the Human-headed God in the Mithraic Mysteries", in Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin ed. Études mithriaques, 1978, pp. 511
  48. ^ Cumont Franz, The Mysteries of Mithras, pp 105
  49. ^ Jackson, Howard M., "The Meaning and Function of the Leontocephaline in Roman Mithraism" in Numen, Vol. 32, Fasc. 1 (Jul., 1985), pp. 17–45
  50. ^ R D Barnett. John R Hinnells , 编. Mithraic studies: proceedings of the first International congress of Mithraic studies, Vol II. Manchester University Press ND. 1975: 467–. According to some, the lion man is Aion (Zurvan, or Kronos); according to others, Ahriman. 
  51. ^ David M Gwynn. Religious diversity in late antiquity. BRILL. 2010: 448. 
  52. ^ Beck, R., Beck on Mithraism, pp. 194
  53. ^ D. Jason Cooper. Mithras: mysteries and initiation rediscovered. York Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser, Inc. 1996: 48–49. The statue is a representation of the Leo degree, internalized. 

延伸閱讀

  • Cumont, Franz, Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux Mystères de Mithra : pub. avec une introduction critique, 2 vols. 1894-6. Vol. 1 is an introduction, Vol. 2 is a collection of primary data, online at Archive.org here [1], and still of some value.
  • Turcan, Robert, Mithra et le mithriacisme, Paris, 2000.
  • Mastrocinque, Attilio, Studi sul mitraismo:il mitraismo e la magia.
  • Mastrocinque, Attilio, Des Mysteres de Mithra Aux Mysteres de Jesus.
  • Hutton, Ronald, The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles:Their Nature and Legacy.
  • Bivar, A. D. H., The personalities of Mithra in archaeology and literature.
  • Harris, J. R. "Mithras at Hermopolis and Memphis", in Donald M. Bailey (ed), Archaeological Research in Roman Egypt (2004). Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  • Kaper, Olaf E., "Mithras im ptolemäischen Ägypten", in Peter C. Bol, Gabriele Kaminski, and Caterina Maderna (eds), Fremdheit-Eigenheit: Ägypten, Griechenland und Rom : Austausch und Verständnis (2004). Prestel.
  • Lane Fox, Robin, Pagans and Christians.
  • Will, Ernest, Le relief cultuel gréco-romain, (1955).
  • Nilsson, Martin P., Geschichte der griechischen Religion, Volume 2.
  • Marleen Martens, Guy De Boe, Roman Mithraism, (2004).
  • Gwynn, David M., Religious diversity in late antiquity.

外部連結

维基共享资源中相关的多媒体资源：密特拉教
英文维基文库中的《1911年版大英百科全書》條目：Mithras
检索自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/zhwiki/w/index.php?title=密特拉教&oldid=44919311”