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(Sardinian.)

Phonological processes

Lengthening

Consonants are lengthened in the coda of a stressed syllable; cf. /ˈumbra/ [ˈuˑmˑbra].^[1]
- This process turns /p t k/, which are by default [pˑ tˑ kˑ], into the full geminates [pp tt kk].^[2]

After the words e 'and', a 'to', or a 'interrogative particle', the initial consonant of a following word is lengthened.^[3]^[a]

Intervocalic lenition

Singleton stops and fricatives undergo lenition between vowels, even across word-boundaries. The changes are, generally speaking, as follows:^[4]
- /f/ voices to [v].
- /s/ voices to [z].^[b]
- Latin /b d ɡ/ lenite to zero in Logudorese and Campidanese.
- Latin /p t k/ voice to /b d ɡ/ in Logudorese and Campidanese.
  - Word-internal Latin /t/ voices to /d/ in southwestern Nuorese.^[c]
  - Latin /k/ lenites to [ʔ] or [h] in southernmost Nuorese.^[d]
- /b d ɡ/, from any of the above sources, spirantize to [β ð ɣ] in all dialects.^[e]

In Campidanese, word-internal /l/ lenites:^[5]^[f]
- To [β] or [w] in most of the centre and west.
- To a variety of outcomes in other areas.^[g]

Paragoge

Utterance-final consonants receive an echo vowel; cf. /ˈkɛlɔs/ [ˈkɛːlɔzɔ]. After /n r s/, the vowel may be weakly articulated and often inaudible.^[6]

Assimilation

Assimilation, generally regressive, is common among Sardinian consonants.

General

/nd/ [ɳɖ] assimilates to [ɳɳ] in some varieties, particularly northeastern Nuorese.^[h]

Word-final

/-t/ assimilates to a following consonant; cf. ⟨cheret bènnere⟩ [ˈkɛːɾɛbˈbɛnnɛɾɛ].^[7]

In Nuorese, final /r/ and /s/ both:^[8]
- Assimilate to a following /l n/ and, variably, /f/.
- Yield [s] before /p t k s θ/.
- Yield [r] in all other cases.
In Logudorese, /-s/:^[9]
- Remains unchanged before /p t k s/.
- Generally yields [r] in all other cases.

In Campidanese, /-s/:^[10]
- Voices to [z] before /m b/.
- Reduces to zero before /b d ɡ/.^[i]
- Remains unchanged before /p t k s/.

Historical changes

After /p t k/, Latin /l/:^[11]
- Turned to /r/ in most of Sardinia.
- Remained /l/ in the town of Baunei.
- Palatalized to /j/ in northern Logudorese.^[j]
  - When /kj/ resulted from this, it either depalatalized to /k/ or affricated to /t͡ʃ/ or /d͡ʒ/.
Proto-Romance prosthetic [ɪ-]^[k] became a fixed (invariable) /i/ in Sardinian.^[12]
- It has since been lost in most of Campidanese.^[13]
In Campidanese, Latin /k ɡ/ palatalized and affricated before front vowels, yielding /t͡ʃ d͡ʒ/.^[14]
Latin /kw ɡw/ have merged to /b(b)/ in Logudorese and Nuorese, while remaining unchanged in Campidanese.^[15]^[l]

Notes

^ This is due to all three words' originally having had a final plosive in Latin (et, ad, aut) which tended to assimilate to the initial consonant of a following word.
^ It does not voice in the towns of Dorgali, Orune, Fonni, or Ovodda; and it does so variably in Urzulei (Contini 1987: map 51).
^ This occurs south and west of a line running approximately from Orune to Dorgali (Contini 1987: map 11).
^ [ʔ] south of a line running approximately from Olzai to Oliena, [h] in Dorgali (Contini 1987: maps 24–26).
^ In Nuorese, [v] is a common alternative to [β].
^ Traditionally, word-initial /l/ also lenited between vowels, but this is becoming increasingly rare. Today its predominant realization is [ɭɭ], which is even beginning to spread to word-internal position; cf. [sɔβi~sɔɭɭi] 'sun' (Frigeni 2005: 22).
^
- To [ʁ] in the most of the east and Sulcis.
- To [ʔ] in Sarrabus and parts of the east.
- To [ɡʷ] in the town of Gesturi.
- To [ʟ] in traditional lower-class speech in Cagliari.
^ Per Contini (1987: map 37), consistent assimilation is observed in the towns of Orune, Bitti, Santu Lussurgiu, Desulo, Tonara, Belvì, and Aritzo; while variable assimilation is observed in Onanì, Lula, Lodè, Loculi, Galtellì, Burgos, Esporlatu, Bonorva, Bonannaro, Borutta, and Monti.
^ Sometimes this triggers gemination, resulting in [bb dd ɡɡ].
^ North of a line running approximately from Bosa to Budoni. The change is comparable, and probably due, to a similar one in Italian.
^ Which had been added, allophonically, before word-initial /sp st sk/ in order to split the clusters; cf. /ˈspina/ > *[ɪs.ˈpiː.na]. Originally this was not done if the cluster was already preceded by a vowel; cf. /una ˈspina/ > *[u.nas.ˈpiː.na]. Later, [ɪ-] became an integral part of such words, present in any context, hence phonemic.
^ The resulting /b(b)/ never undergoes lenition in intervocalic position.

References

^ Mura & Virdis 2015: 30, 65
^ Mura & Virdis 2015: 14, 75
^ Mensching & Remberger 2016: 276
^ Jones 1997: 377
^ Frigeni 2005: 21
^ Mura & Virdis: 47–48
^ Jones 1997: 378
^ Pittau 1972: §35
^ Mura & Virdis 2015: 129
^ Frigeni 2009: 6
^ Contini 1987: maps 6, 28–31, 49.
^ Rodney 2010: 96
^ Contini 1987: map 52
^ Jones 1997: 377
^ Jones 1997: 377

Bibliography

Frigeni, Chiara. 2005. The development of liquids from Latin to Campidanese Sardinian: The role of contrast and structural similarity. Tortonto working Papers in Linguistics 24. 15–30.
Frigeni, Chiara. 2009. Sonorant relationships in two varieties of Sardinian. University of Toronto: doctoral dissertation.
Jones, Michael A. 1997. Sardinia. In Maiden, Martin; Mair, Parry, (eds.), The dialects of Italy, 376–384. London: Routledge.
Lorinczi, Marinella. 1996. Sociolinguistica della ricerca linguistica: Punti vista divergenti sulle consonanti scempie e geminate nell'italiano di Sardegna. In Actas do XIX congreso internacional de lingüística e filoloxía románicas 8. 311–334.
Sampson, Rodney. 2010. Vowel prosthesis in Romance: A diachronic study. Oxford University Press.
Sampson, Rodney. 2016. Sandhi phenomena. In Ledgeway, Adam; Maiden, Martin (eds.), The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages, 669–680. Oxford University Press.

[4] This is due to all three words' originally having had a final plosive in Latin (et, ad, aut) which tended to assimilate to the initial consonant of a following word.

[6] It does not voice in the towns of Dorgali, Orune, Fonni, or Ovodda; and it does so variably in Urzulei (Contini 1987: map 51).

[7] This occurs south and west of a line running approximately from Orune to Dorgali (Contini 1987: map 11).

[8] [ʔ] south of a line running approximately from Olzai to Oliena, [h] in Dorgali (Contini 1987: maps 24–26).

[9] In Nuorese, [v] is a common alternative to [β].

[11] Traditionally, word-initial /l/ also lenited between vowels, but this is becoming increasingly rare. Today its predominant realization is [ɭɭ], which is even beginning to spread to word-internal position; cf. [sɔβi~sɔɭɭi] 'sun' (Frigeni 2005: 22).

[12] 
To [ʁ] in the most of the east and Sulcis.

To [ʔ] in Sarrabus and parts of the east.

To [ɡʷ] in the town of Gesturi.

To [ʟ] in traditional lower-class speech in Cagliari.

[8] To [ʁ] in the most of the east and Sulcis.

[9] To [ʔ] in Sarrabus and parts of the east.

[10] To [ɡʷ] in the town of Gesturi.

[11] To [ʟ] in traditional lower-class speech in Cagliari.

[14] Per Contini (1987: map 37), consistent assimilation is observed in the towns of Orune, Bitti, Santu Lussurgiu, Desulo, Tonara, Belvì, and Aritzo; while variable assimilation is observed in Onanì, Lula, Lodè, Loculi, Galtellì, Burgos, Esporlatu, Bonorva, Bonannaro, Borutta, and Monti.

[19] Sometimes this triggers gemination, resulting in [bb dd ɡɡ].

[21] North of a line running approximately from Bosa to Budoni. The change is comparable, and probably due, to a similar one in Italian.

[22] Which had been added, allophonically, before word-initial /sp st sk/ in order to split the clusters; cf. /ˈspina/ > *[ɪs.ˈpiː.na]. Originally this was not done if the cluster was already preceded by a vowel; cf. /una ˈspina/ > *[u.nas.ˈpiː.na]. Later, [ɪ-] became an integral part of such words, present in any context, hence phonemic.

[27] The resulting /b(b)/ never undergoes lenition in intervocalic position.

[1] Mura & Virdis 2015: 30, 65

[2] Mura & Virdis 2015: 14, 75

[3] Mensching & Remberger 2016: 276

[5] Jones 1997: 377

[10] Frigeni 2005: 21

[13] Mura & Virdis: 47–48

[15] Jones 1997: 378

[16] Pittau 1972: §35

[17] Mura & Virdis 2015: 129

[18] Frigeni 2009: 6

[20] Contini 1987: maps 6, 28–31, 49.

[23] Rodney 2010: 96

[24] Contini 1987: map 52

[25] Jones 1997: 377

[26] Jones 1997: 377

[1]

[2]

[3]

[a]

[4]

[b]

[c]

[d]

[e]

[5]

[f]

[g]

[6]

[h]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[i]

[11]

[j]

[k]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[l]

@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 ==== Lengthening ====
-* Consonants are lengthened in the coda of a stressed syllable; cf. {{IPA|/ˈumbra/}} {{IPA|[ˈuˑmˑbra]}}.<ref>Mura & Virdis 2015: 30, 65</ref> **'''Is this true for all dialects?**'''
+* Consonants are lengthened in the coda of a stressed syllable; cf. {{IPA|/ˈumbra/}} {{IPA|[ˈuˑmˑbra]}}.<ref>Mura & Virdis 2015: 30, 65</ref>
 ** This process turns {{IPA|/p t k/}}, which are by default {{IPA|[pˑ tˑ kˑ]}}, into the full geminates {{IPA|[pp tt kk]}}.<ref>Mura & Virdis 2015: 14, 75</ref>
-* After the words ''e'' 'and', ''a'' 'to', or ''a'' 'interrogative particle', the initial consonant of a following word is [[Syntactic doubling|lengthened]].<ref>Mensching & Remberger 2016: 276</ref>{{efn|This is due to all three words' originally having had a final consonant in Latin (''et'', ''ad'', ''aut'').}}
+* After the words ''e'' 'and', ''a'' 'to', or ''a'' 'interrogative particle', the initial consonant of a following word is [[Syntactic doubling|lengthened]].<ref>Mensching & Remberger 2016: 276</ref>{{efn|This is due to all three words' originally having had a final plosive in Latin (''et'', ''ad'', ''aut'') which tended to assimilate to the initial consonant of a following word.}}
 ==== Intervocalic lenition ====
-* Singleton stops and fricatives undergo lenition between vowels. The changes are, broadly speaking, as follows:<ref>Jones 1997: 377</ref>
+* Singleton stops and fricatives undergo lenition between vowels, even across word-boundaries. The changes are, generally speaking, as follows:<ref>Jones 1997: 377</ref>
 **{{IPA|/f/}} voices to {{IPA|[v]}}.
 ** {{IPA|/s/}} voices to {{IPA|[z]}}.{{efn|It does not voice in the towns of Dorgali, Orune, Fonni, or Ovodda; and it does so variably in Urzulei (Contini 1987: map 51).}}
-**Latin {{IPA|/b d ɡ/}} lenite to zero in Logudorese and Campidanian.
+**Latin {{IPA|/b d ɡ/}} lenite to zero in Logudorese and Campidanese.
-**Latin {{IPA|/p t k/}} voice to {{IPA|/b d ɡ/}} in Logudorese and Campidanian.
+**Latin {{IPA|/p t k/}} voice to {{IPA|/b d ɡ/}} in Logudorese and Campidanese.
-***Latin {{IPA|/t/}} voices to {{IPA|/d/}} in southwestern Nuorese.{{efn|This occurs south and west of a line running approximately from Orune to Dorgali (Contini 1987: map 11).}}
+***Word-internal Latin {{IPA|/t/}} voices to {{IPA|/d/}} in southwestern Nuorese.{{efn|This occurs south and west of a line running approximately from Orune to Dorgali (Contini 1987: map 11).}}
 ***Latin {{IPA|/k/}} lenites to [ʔ] or [h] in southernmost Nuorese.{{efn|[ʔ] south of a line running approximately from Olzai to Oliena, [h] in Dorgali (Contini 1987: maps 24–26).}}
 **{{IPA|/b d ɡ/}}, from any of the above sources, spirantize to {{IPA|[β ð ɣ]}} in all dialects.{{efn|In Nuorese, [v] is a common alternative to [β].}}
-* In Campidanese, word-internal {{IPA|/l/}} lenites:<ref>Frigeni 2005: 21</ref>{{efn|Traditionally, word-initial /l/ also lenited between vowels, but this is becoming increasingly rare. Today its predominant realization is [ɭɭ], which is even beginning to spread to word-internal /l/; cf. [sɔβi~sɔɭɭi] 'sun' (Frigeni 2005: 22).}}
+* In Campidanese, word-internal {{IPA|/l/}} lenites:<ref>Frigeni 2005: 21</ref>{{efn|Traditionally, word-initial /l/ also lenited between vowels, but this is becoming increasingly rare. Today its predominant realization is [ɭɭ], which is even beginning to spread to word-internal position; cf. [sɔβi~sɔɭɭi] 'sun' (Frigeni 2005: 22).}}
 **To {{IPA|[β]}} or {{IPA|[w]}} in most of the centre and west.
+**To a variety of outcomes in other areas.{{efn|
-**To {{IPA|[ʁ]}} in the most of the east and [[Sulcis]].
-** To {{IPA|[ʔ]}} in [[Sarrabus-Gerrei#Sarrabus|Sarrabus]] and parts of the east.
+* To [ʁ] in the most of the east and Sulcis.
-** To {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} in the town of [[Gesturi]].
+* To [ʔ] in Sarrabus and parts of the east.
-** To {{IPA|[ʟ]}} in traditional lower-class speech in [[Cagliari]].
+* To [ɡʷ] in the town of Gesturi.
+* To [ʟ] in traditional lower-class speech in Cagliari.}}
 ==== Paragoge ====
-* Utterance-final consonants receive an [[echo vowel]]; cf. {{IPA|/ˈkɛlɔs/}} {{IPA|[ˈkɛːlɔzɔ]}}. After {{IPA|/n r s/}}, the vowel is weakly articulated and often inaudible.<ref>Mura & Virdis: 47–48</ref>
+* Utterance-final consonants receive an [[echo vowel]]; cf. {{IPA|/ˈkɛlɔs/}} {{IPA|[ˈkɛːlɔzɔ]}}. After {{IPA|/n r s/}}, the vowel may be weakly articulated and often inaudible.<ref>Mura & Virdis: 47–48</ref>
 ==== Assimilation ====
+Assimilation, generally regressive, is common among Sardinian consonants.
+===== General =====
+* {{IPA|/nd/}} {{IPA|[ɳɖ]}} assimilates to {{IPA|[ɳɳ]}} in some varieties, particularly northeastern Nuorese.{{efn|Per Contini (1987: map 37), consistent assimilation is observed in the towns of Orune, Bitti, Santu Lussurgiu, Desulo, Tonara, Belvì, and Aritzo; while variable assimilation is observed in Onanì, Lula, Lodè, Loculi, Galtellì, Burgos, Esporlatu, Bonorva, Bonannaro, Borutta, and Monti.}}
 ===== Word-final =====
-* In Nuorese, {{IPA|/-r -s/}} merge and then:<ref>Pittau 1972: §35</ref>
+* {{IPA|/-t/}} assimilates to a following consonant; cf. ⟨cheret bènnere⟩ [ˈkɛːɾɛbˈbɛnnɛɾɛ].<ref>Jones 1997: 378</ref>
-**Assimilate completely before {{IPA|/l n/}} and (variably) {{IPA|/f/}}.
+* In Nuorese, final {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/s/}} both:<ref>Pittau 1972: §35</ref>
+**Assimilate to a following {{IPA|/l n/}} and, variably, {{IPA|/f/}}.
 **Yield {{IPA|[s]}} before {{IPA|/p t k s θ/}}.
 **Yield {{IPA|[r]}} in all other cases.
+*In Logudorese, {{IPA|/-s/}}:<ref>Mura & Virdis 2015: 129</ref>
+**Remains unchanged before {{IPA|/p t k s/}}.
+** Generally yields {{IPA|[r]}} in all other cases.
 * In Campidanese, {{IPA|/-s/}}:<ref>Frigeni 2009: 6</ref>
 ** Voices to {{IPA|[z]}} before {{IPA|/m b/}}.
-** Reduces to {{IPA|[∅]}} before {{IPA|/b d ɡ/}}.{{efn|Sometimes this triggers gemination, resulting in [bb dd ɡɡ].}}
+** Reduces to zero before {{IPA|/b d ɡ/}}.{{efn|Sometimes this triggers gemination, resulting in [bb dd ɡɡ].}}
 ** Remains unchanged before {{IPA|/p t k s/}}.
+=== Historical changes ===
-* In Logudorese, {{IPA|/-s/}}:<ref>Mura & Virdis 2015: 129</ref>
-** Remains unchanged before {{IPA|/p t k s/}}.
-** Generally yields {{IPA|[r]}} in all other cases.
-===== Universal =====
-* {{IPA|/nd/}} {{IPA|[ɳɖ]}} assimilates to {{IPA|[ɳɳ]}} in some varieties, particularly northeastern Nuorese.{{efn|Per Contini (1987: map 37), consistent assimilation is observed in the towns of Orune, Bitti, Santu Lussurgiu, Desulo, Tonara, Belvì, and Aritzo; while variable assimilation is observed in Onanì, Lula, Lodè, Loculi, Galtellì, Burgos, Esporlatu, Bonorva, Bonannaro, Borutta, and Monti.}}
-=== Labiovelars ===
-* Latin {{IPA|/kw ɡw/}} survive unchanged in Campidanese but have merged to {{IPA|/b(b)/}} in Logudorese and Nuorese.<ref>Jones 1997: 377</ref>
-* Outside of the above sequences, {{IPA|/w/}} only occurs in loanwords.<ref>Mensching & Remberger 2016: 275</ref>
+* After {{IPA|/p t k/}}, Latin {{IPA|/l/}}:<ref>Contini 1987: maps 6, 28–31, 49.</ref>
+** Turned to {{IPA|/r/}} in most of Sardinia.
+** Remained {{IPA|/l/}} in the town of [[Baunei]].
+** Palatalized to {{IPA|/j/}} in northern Logudorese.{{efn|North of a line running approximately from Bosa to Budoni. The change is comparable, and probably due, to a similar one in Italian.}}
+*** When {{IPA|/kj/}} resulted from this, it either depalatalized to {{IPA|/k/}} or affricated to {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} or {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/.}}
+*[[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]] prosthetic {{IPA|[ɪ-]}}{{efn|Which had been added, allophonically, before word-initial /sp st sk/ in order to split the clusters; cf. /ˈspina/ > *[ɪs.ˈpiː.na]. Originally this was not done if the cluster was already preceded by a vowel; cf. /una ˈspina/ > *[u.nas.ˈpiː.na]. Later, [ɪ-] became an integral part of such words, present in any context, hence phonemic.}} became a fixed (invariable) {{IPA|/i/}} in Sardinian.<ref>Rodney 2010: 96</ref>
+**It has since been lost in most of Campidanese.<ref>Contini 1987: map 52</ref>
+*In Campidanese, Latin {{IPA|/k ɡ/}} palatalized and affricated before front vowels, yielding {{IPA|/t͡ʃ d͡ʒ/}}.<ref>Jones 1997: 377</ref>
+*Latin {{IPA|/kw ɡw/}} have merged to {{IPA|/b(b)/}} in Logudorese and Nuorese, while remaining unchanged in Campidanese.<ref>Jones 1997: 377</ref>{{efn|The resulting /b(b)/ never undergoes lenition in intervocalic position.}}
 == Notes ==
@@ Line 65: / Line 74: @@
 == Bibliography ==
-*Frigeni, Chiara. 2005. The development of liquids from Latin to Campidanian Sardinian: The role of contrast and structural similarity. ''Tortonto working Papers in Linguistics'' 24. 15–30.
+*Frigeni, Chiara. 2005. The development of liquids from Latin to Campidanese Sardinian: The role of contrast and structural similarity. ''Tortonto working Papers in Linguistics'' 24. 15–30.
 *Frigeni, Chiara. 2009. ''Sonorant relationships in two varieties of Sardinian''. University of Toronto: doctoral dissertation.
 *Jones, Michael A. 1997. Sardinia. In Maiden, Martin; Mair, Parry, (eds.), ''The dialects of Italy'', 376–384. London: Routledge.
 * Lorinczi, Marinella. 1996. Sociolinguistica della ricerca linguistica: Punti vista divergenti sulle consonanti scempie e geminate nell'italiano di Sardegna. In ''Actas do XIX congreso internacional de lingüística e filoloxía románicas'' 8. 311–334.
+*Sampson, Rodney. 2010. ''Vowel prosthesis in Romance: A diachronic study''. Oxford University Press.
 *Sampson, Rodney. 2016. Sandhi phenomena. In Ledgeway, Adam; Maiden, Martin (eds.), ''The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages'', 669–680. Oxford University Press.