Toque macaque: Difference between revisions

Toque macaque
	At Yala National Park, Sri Lanka
Conservation status
	; Endangered (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Primates
Suborder:	Haplorhini
Infraorder:	Simiiformes
Family:	Cercopithecidae
Genus:	Macaca
Species:	M. sinica
Binomial name
	Macaca sinica; (Linnaeus, 1771)
	Toque macaque range map

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The toque macaque (/tɒk məˈkæk/; Macaca sinica) is a reddish-brown-coloured Old World monkey endemic to Sri Lanka, where it is known as the rilewa or rilawa (Sinhala: රිළවා), (hence the English word "rillow"). Its name refers to the whorl of hair at the crown of the head, reminiscent of a brimless toque cap.^[3]

Taxonomy

The generic name Macaca is from Portuguese macaco, of unclear origin, while sinica means "of China," even though the species is not found there.^[4]

There are three recognized subspecies of toque macaques:^[2]

Macaca sinica sinica, dry zone toque macaque or common toque macaque
Macaca sinica aurifrons, wet zone toque macaque or pale-fronted toque macaque
Macaca sinica opisthomelas, highland toque macaque or hill zone toque macaque

M. s. opisthomelas is similar to subsp. aurifrons, but has a long fur and contrasting golden color in the anterior part of its brown cap.

The three subspecies can be identified their head colour patterns.^[5]

Description

With age, the face of females turns slightly pink. This is especially prominent in the subspecies M. s. sinica.

Distribution

M. s. sinica is found from the Vavuniya, Mannar to the lowlands of Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Puttalam, and Kurunegala; and along the arid zone of the Monaragala and Hambantota districts.

M. s. aurifrons can be found sympatrically with the subspecies M. s. sinica within intermediate regions of the country in Kegalle and parts of Kurunegala. It is also found in south-western parts of the island in the Galle and Matara districts near Kalu Ganga.

M. s. opisthomelas has recently been identified as a separate subspecies. It can be found in the entire south-western region of Ratnapura and in the Nuwara Eliya districts. It is also found around Hakgala Botanical Garden and other cold climatic montane forest patches.^[6]

Behaviour and ecology

Social structure

Social status is highly structured in toque macaque troops and dominance hierarchies occur among both males and females. A troop may consist of eight to forty individuals. When the troop becomes too large, social tension and aggression towards each other rises, causing some individuals to leave. This is noticeable in adults and sub adults, where a troop may consist largely of females. Newly appointed alpha males show aggressiveness towards females, causing the females to leave the group. Fighting within the troop can cause serious injuries including broken arms.^[6]

Young offspring of a troop's alpha female will typically receive better sustenance and shelter than their peers.^[7]

Reproduction

When in estrous, the female's perineum becomes reddish in color and swells. This signals to males that she is ready to mate. There is an average of 18 months between births. After a 5–6 month gestation period, the female will give birth to a single offspring. The baby will hold on to its mother for about 2 months. During this time the infant learns social skills critical for survival. The infant will inherit its social standing from its mother's position in the troop. Young males are forced to abandon their troop when they are about 6–8 years of age. This prevents inbreeding and ensures that the current alpha male maintains his position in the troop. Leaving the troop is the only way a male can change his social standing. If he has good social skills and is strong he may become an alpha male. A single alpha male can father all of the troops' offspring.^[6]

Birth rarely occurs during the day or on the ground. During labor the female isolates herself from the group (about 100 m). The mother stands bipedally during parturition and assists the delivery with her hands. The infant is usually born 2 minutes after crowning. The infant can vocalize almost immediately after birth; it is important for the mother and infant to recognize each other's voices. Vocalization will be used to alert the mother of imminent danger, and can assist in finding each other if separated. After birth the mother licks the infant and orients it toward her breasts. She will resume foraging behavior within 20 minutes after parturition. The mother also eats part of the placenta, because it contains needed protein. The alpha female of the group asserts her power by taking part of the placenta for herself to eat.^[8]

Diet

One study of toque macaques recorded a diet of 14% flowers, 77% fruits, 5% mushrooms, and 4% prey items. The preferred fruit species included Ficus bengalensis, Glenniea unijuga, Schleichera oleosa, Drypetes sepiaria, Grewia polygama, Ficus amplissima, and Ficus retusa. It was found that mushrooms were much sought after during the wet season.^[9]

Cheek pouches enable toque macaques to store food while eating fast. In the dry zone, they are known to eat drupes of the understory shrub Zizyphus and ripe fruits of Ficus, and Cordia species. They occasionally eat small animals ranging from small insects to mammals like the Indian palm squirrel and the Asiatic long-tailed climbing mouse.^[6]

Predators

Wild cats (leopards and fishing cats) and Indian rock python are the main predators of this species.

Conservation

The toque macaque is listed as Endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) due to habitat destruction and hunting, and also for the pet trade. Much of the original forested habitat of the toque macaque has been lost, between 1956 and 1993 50% of Sri Lanka's forest cover was destroyed. Plantations and fuel wood collection have been the main drivers of habitat lost.

Pushed out of forest habitat, toque macaques are considered a "menace" by farmers.^[10] They were used by both Sri Lanka Army and Tamil Tigers as target practice during the Sri Lankan Civil War.^[2] The Sri Lankan government proposed exporting 100,000 monkeys to China but scrapped the effort after conservationists and zoologists protested.^[11] In 2023, the government issued shotguns to farmers to stop the monkeys from raiding their crops and, when that failed to have an impact, began experimenting with implanting IUDs in females to stop them from reproducing.^[11]

Both subspecies M. s. aurifrons and M. s. sinica are kept as pets.^[2]

References

^ Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 164. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Dittus, W.; Watson, A.C. (2020). "Macaca sinica". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T12560A17951229. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T12560A17951229.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
^ "Toque macaque". New England Primate Conservancy. 14 December 2021.
^ "Wildlife Review". U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. February 9, 1993.
^ Fooden, Jack (1979). "Taxonomy and evolution of the sinica group of macaques: I. Species and subspecies accounts of Macaca sinica". Primates. 20: 109–140. doi:10.1007/BF02373832. S2CID 27742337.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Yapa, A.; Ratnavira, G. (2013). Mammals of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka. p. 1012. ISBN 978-955-8576-32-8.
^ "Animal Babies: First Year on Earth" – via www.pbs.org.
^ Ratnayeke, A. P.; Dittus, W. P. J. (1989). "Observation of a birth among wild toque macaques (Macaca sinica)". International Journal of Primatology. 10 (3): 235–242. doi:10.1007/BF02735202. S2CID 40473283.
^ Hladik, C.M.; Hladik, A. (1972). "Disponibilites alimentaires et domaines vitaux des primates a Ceylan". La Terre et la Vie (in French). 26: 149–215. doi:10.1007/BF02373832. S2CID 27742337.
^ Srinivasan, Meera (August 7, 2024). "Sri Lanka experimenting with IUDs to tackle monkey menace". The Hindu. Retrieved August 7, 2024.
^ ^a ^b Srinivasan, Meera (19 April 2023). "Conservationists in Sri Lanka slam proposal to export monkeys to China". www.thehindu.com. The Hindu. Archived from the original on April 19, 2023. Retrieved 24 May 2023.

External links

[msw3-1] Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 164. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494.

[iucn_status_19_November_2021-2] Dittus, W.; Watson, A.C. (2020). "Macaca sinica". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T12560A17951229. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T12560A17951229.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.

[3] "Toque macaque". New England Primate Conservancy. 14 December 2021.

[4] "Wildlife Review". U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. February 9, 1993.

[Fooden1979-5] Fooden, Jack (1979). "Taxonomy and evolution of the sinica group of macaques: I. Species and subspecies accounts of Macaca sinica". Primates. 20: 109–140. doi:10.1007/BF02373832. S2CID 27742337.

[MSL-6] Yapa, A.; Ratnavira, G. (2013). Mammals of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka. p. 1012. ISBN 978-955-8576-32-8.

[7] "Animal Babies: First Year on Earth" – via www.pbs.org.

[8] Ratnayeke, A. P.; Dittus, W. P. J. (1989). "Observation of a birth among wild toque macaques (Macaca sinica)". International Journal of Primatology. 10 (3): 235–242. doi:10.1007/BF02735202. S2CID 40473283.

[HladikHladik1972-9] Hladik, C.M.; Hladik, A. (1972). "Disponibilites alimentaires et domaines vitaux des primates a Ceylan". La Terre et la Vie (in French). 26: 149–215. doi:10.1007/BF02373832. S2CID 27742337.

[10] Srinivasan, Meera (August 7, 2024). "Sri Lanka experimenting with IUDs to tackle monkey menace". The Hindu. Retrieved August 7, 2024.

[:0-11] Srinivasan, Meera (19 April 2023). "Conservationists in Sri Lanka slam proposal to export monkeys to China". www.thehindu.com. The Hindu. Archived from the original on April 19, 2023. Retrieved 24 May 2023.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|Species of Old World monkey}}
-{{Cleanup|reason=ungrammatical phrasings|date=October 2015}}
 {{speciesbox
 | name = Toque macaque<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Groves|pages=164|id=12100562}}</ref>
 | image = Macaca sinica - 01.jpg
-| image_caption =
+| image_caption = At [[Yala National Park]], [[Sri Lanka]]
 | status = EN
 | status_system = IUCN3.1
-| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{Cite iucn | author = Dittus, W. | author2 = Watson, A. | author3 = Molur, S. | name-list-style=amp | title = ''Macaca sinica'' | volume = 2008 | page = e.T12560A3358720 | date = 2008 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T12560A3358720.en }}</ref>
+| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Dittus, W. |author2=Watson, A.C. |date=2020 |title=''Macaca sinica'' |volume=2020 |page=e.T12560A17951229 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T12560A17951229.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
 | genus = Macaca
 | species = sinica
@@ Line 14: / Line 13: @@
 | range_map_caption = Toque macaque range map
 }}
+[[File:Macaca sinica 3d scan Natural History Museum University of Pisa C 1725 (skeleton) C1784 (skull).stl|thumb|3d model of skeleton]]
+[[File:Toque macaque (Macaca sinica sinica) juvenile.jpg|thumb|juvenile ''M. s. sinica'']]
-The '''toque macaque''' ({{IPAc-en|t|ɒ|k|_|m|ə|ˈ|k|æ|k}}; ''Macaca sinica'') is a reddish-brown-coloured [[Old World monkey]] endemic to [[Sri Lanka]], where it is known as the ''rilewa'' or ''rilawa'' ([[Sinhalese language|Sinhala]]: රිළවා), (hence "rillow" in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''). Its name refers to the whorl of hair at the crown of the head, reminiscent of a brimless [[toque]] cap.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.neprimateconservancy.org/toque-macaque.html |title=Toque macaque |website=New England Primate Conservancy}}</ref>
+The '''toque macaque''' ({{IPAc-en|t|ɒ|k|_|m|ə|ˈ|k|æ|k}}; '''''Macaca sinica''''') is a reddish-brown-coloured [[Old World monkey]] [[endemic]] to [[Sri Lanka]], where it is known as the ''rilewa'' or ''rilawa'' ([[Sinhalese language|Sinhala]]: රිළවා), (hence the English word "rillow"). Its name refers to the whorl of hair at the crown of the head, reminiscent of a brimless [[toque]] cap.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.neprimateconservancy.org/toque-macaque.html |title=Toque macaque |website=New England Primate Conservancy|date=14 December 2021 }}</ref>
 ==Taxonomy==
 The generic name ''Macaca'' is from Portuguese ''macaco'', of unclear origin, while ''sinica'' means "of China," even though the species is not found there.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=379GAQAAMAAJ&q=%22macaca+sinica+%22+china&pg=PA58 |title=Wildlife Review |date=February 9, 1993 |publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service}}</ref>
-There are three recognized subspecies of toque macaques:<ref name="iucn"/>
+There are three recognized subspecies of toque macaques:<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />
 * ''Macaca sinica sinica'', dry zone toque macaque or common toque macaque
 * ''Macaca sinica aurifrons'', wet zone toque macaque or pale-fronted toque macaque
@@ Line 39: / Line 39: @@
 ''M. s. opisthomelas'' has recently been identified as a separate subspecies. It can be found in the entire south-western region of [[Ratnapura]] and in the [[Nuwara Eliya]] districts. It is also found around [[Hakgala Botanical Garden]] and other cold climatic montane forest patches.<ref name=MSL>{{cite book |author=Yapa, A. |author2=Ratnavira, G. |year=2013 |title=Mammals of Sri Lanka |publisher=Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka |location=Colombo |pages=1012 |isbn=978-955-8576-32-8}}</ref>
-==Behaviour and ecology
+==Behaviour and ecology==
 ===Social structure===
 [[File:Social grooming.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Allogrooming]] between two toque macaques]]
@@ Line 54: / Line 54: @@
 ===Diet===
 [[Image:Macaca sinica aurifrons - Wetzone subspecies.jpg|thumb|''Macaca sinica opisthomelas'']]
-One study of toque macaques recorded a diet of 14% flowers, 77% fruits, 5% mushrooms, and 4% prey items. The prefered fruit species included ''[[Ficus bengalensis]]'', ''[[Glenniea unijuga]]'', ''[[Schleichera oleosa]]'', ''[[Drypetes sepiaria]]'', ''[[Grewia polygama]]'', ''[[Ficus amplissima]]'', and ''[[Ficus retusa]]''. It was found that mushrooms were much sought after during the wet season.<ref name="HladikHladik1972">{{cite journal |author1=Hladik, C.M. |author2=Hladik, A. |year=1972 |title=Disponibilites alimentaires et domaines vitaux des primates a Ceylan |journal=La Terre et la Vie |volume=26 |pages=149-215 |doi=10.1007/BF02373832 |language=French}}</ref>
+One study of toque macaques recorded a diet of 14% flowers, 77% fruits, 5% mushrooms, and 4% prey items. The preferred fruit species included ''[[Ficus bengalensis]]'', ''[[Glenniea unijuga]]'', ''[[Schleichera oleosa]]'', ''[[Drypetes sepiaria]]'', ''[[Grewia polygama]]'', ''[[Ficus amplissima]]'', and ''[[Ficus retusa]]''. It was found that mushrooms were much sought after during the wet season.<ref name="HladikHladik1972">{{cite journal |author1=Hladik, C.M. |author2=Hladik, A. |year=1972 |title=Disponibilites alimentaires et domaines vitaux des primates a Ceylan |journal=La Terre et la Vie |volume=26 |pages=149–215 |doi=10.1007/BF02373832 |s2cid=27742337 |language=French}}</ref>
-Cheek pouches enable toque macaques to store enough food while eating fast. In the dry zone, they are known to eat drupes of understory shrub ''[[Zizyphus]]'', ripe fruits of ''[[Ficus]]'', and ''[[Cordia]]'' species. They occasionally eat many small animals ranging from small insects to mammals like [[Funambulus palmarum|indian palm squirrels]] and ''[[Vandeleuria oleracea]]''.<ref name=MSL/>
+Cheek pouches enable toque macaques to store food while eating fast. In the dry zone, they are known to eat [[drupe]]s of the understory shrub ''[[Zizyphus]]'' and ripe fruits of ''[[Ficus]]'', and ''[[Cordia]]'' species. They occasionally eat small animals ranging from small insects to mammals like the [[Indian palm squirrel]] and the [[Asiatic long-tailed climbing mouse]].<ref name=MSL/>
 ===Predators===
 Wild cats ([[Panthera pardus|leopards]] and [[Prionailurus viverrinus|fishing cats]]) and [[Python molurus|Indian rock python]] are the main predators of this species.
-===Life expectancy===
-The lifespan of toque macaques in the wild is about the same as in captivity, up to 35 years. The expected lifespan in the wild is low due to high infant mortality rates. There is also significant mortality among adolescent males when they venture off to join a different troop. Once toque macaques have reached sexual maturity they will likely live to an old age.<ref name="Fooden1979"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Macaca_sinica/|title=Macaca sinica (toque macaque)|first=Matthew|last=Kanelos|website=Animal Diversity Web}}</ref>
 ==Conservation==
 [[File:SL Bundala NP asv2020-01 img30.jpg|thumb|upright|''Macaca sinica'' in the [[Bundala National Park]], Sri Lanka]]
+The toque macaque is listed as [[Endangered]] by the [[International Union for the Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) due to habitat destruction and hunting, and also for the [[pet trade]]. Much of the original forested habitat of the toque macaque has been lost, between 1956 and 1993 50% of Sri Lanka's forest cover was destroyed. Plantations and fuel wood collection have been the main drivers of habitat lost.
-As of 2008, IUCN listed toque macaque as endangered in their list due to habitat destruction and hunting, and also for taming for pets.<ref>{{Cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/12560/3358720#assessment-information|title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|access-date=2018-11-27}}</ref> With few patches of forests for survival, they engage to survive close to human habitation, giving a serious trouble for both the parties. Due to devastated eating of crop plants, humans always take precautions to avoid their entrance to the cultivation fields. This results killing by shot, trappings, and poisoning.
-Both subsp. ''aurifrons'' and ''sinica'' are kept as pets by various indigenous people for economic purposes. They were heavily used by both [[Sri Lanka Army]] and [[LTTE]] for their shooting practices in the recent past, but now prohibited.<ref name=iucn/>
+Pushed out of forest habitat, toque macaques are considered a "menace" by farmers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Srinivasan |first=Meera |date=August 7, 2024 |title=Sri Lanka experimenting with IUDs to tackle monkey menace |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/sri-lanka-experimenting-with-iuds-to-tackle-monkey-menace/article68492237.ece |access-date=August 7, 2024 |work=The Hindu}}</ref> They were used by both [[Sri Lanka Army]] and [[LTTE|Tamil Tigers]] as target practice during the [[Sri Lankan civil war|Sri Lankan Civil War]].<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> The Sri Lankan government proposed exporting 100,000 monkeys to [[China]] but scrapped the effort after conservationists and zoologists protested.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |last1=Srinivasan |first1=Meera |title=Conservationists in Sri Lanka slam proposal to export monkeys to China |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/conservationists-in-sri-lanka-slam-proposal-to-export-monkeys-to-china/article66756254.ece |website=www.thehindu.com |publisher=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=24 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419214326/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/conservationists-in-sri-lanka-slam-proposal-to-export-monkeys-to-china/article66756254.ece |archive-date=April 19, 2023 |language=en-IN |date=19 April 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2023, the government issued shotguns to farmers to stop the monkeys from raiding their crops and, when that failed to have an impact, began experimenting with implanting IUDs in females to stop them from reproducing.<ref name=":0" />
-==Antibody prevalence==
-In an experiment, serum samples taken from toque macaque individuals at Polonnaruwa were examined for antibodies to ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]'' by the modified agglutination test. There was no evidence of maternal transmission of antibodies or congenital [[toxoplasmosis]]. None of the infected macaques died within 1 year after sampling. ''Toxoplasma gondii'' infection was closely linked to human environments where [[Felis catus|domestic cats]] were common. Although infection with ''T. gondii'' has been noted in several species of Asian primates, this is the first report of ''T. gondii'' antibodies in toque macaques.
+Both subspecies ''M. s. aurifrons'' and ''M. s. sinica'' are kept as pets.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />
-==As dengue reservoir==
-It's unclear if nonhuman primates also serve as a reservoir of human [[dengue]] viruses under certain conditions. According to a study by some biologists, a cross-sectional serologic survey was carried out to characterize the pattern of transmission of a recently identified dengue virus among toque macaques in Sri Lanka. The results indicated that an [[epizootic]] dengue virus was active among the macaques. A single epizootic had taken place between October 1986 and February 1987 during which 94% of the macaques within the 3 km2 study site were exposed to the virus. The epizootic was highly focal in nature because macaques living 5&nbsp;km from the study population were not exposed to the virus. The transmission of dengue viruses among macaques in the wild may have important public health implications.<ref>http://www.ajtmh.org/content/60/2/300.full.pdf</ref>
 == References ==
@@ Line 82: / Line 75: @@
 {{Wikispecies|Macaca sinica|Toque macaque}}
 * ARKive - [https://web.archive.org/web/20060506164353/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Macaca_sinica/ images and movies of the toque macaque (''Macaca sinica'')]
-* [https://archive.is/20121209052710/www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/215.shtml BBC - Toque macaque]
+* [https://archive.today/20121209052710/www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/215.shtml BBC - Toque macaque]
 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070227223329/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/Scientific_Staff/staff_scientists.cfm?id=43 Wolfgang Dittus - A toque macaque researcher]
@@ Line 88: / Line 81: @@
 {{Taxonbar|from=Q669594}}
-{{DEFAULTSORT:macaque, toque}}
 [[Category:Macaca|toque Macaque]]
 [[Category:Mammals of Sri Lanka]]

Taxon identifiers
Macaca sinica	Wikidata: Q669594 Wikispecies: Macaca sinica ADW: Macaca_sinica BioLib: 32266 BOLD: 899528 CoL: 3WWP7 ECOS: 7723 EoL: 323958 GBIF: 2436613 iNaturalist: 43456 IRMNG: 11111467 ITIS: 573026 IUCN: 12560 MDD: 1000622 MSW: 12100562 NCBI: 9552 Observation.org: 84507 Open Tree of Life: 115446 Paleobiology Database: 238677 Species+: 10938
Simia sinica	Wikidata: Q109647595 GBIF: 9417858 ZooBank: C351E831-A496-4153-9C9B-FA75547EB2BB