Yellowhead (bird): Difference between revisions

Yellowhead
	Yellowhead or mohua
Conservation status
	; Near Threatened (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Passeriformes
Family:	Mohouidae
Genus:	Mohoua
Species:	M. ochrocephala
Binomial name
	Mohoua ochrocephala; (Gmelin, JF, 1789)

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The yellowhead or mohua (Mohoua ochrocephala) is a small insectivorous passerine bird endemic to the South Island of New Zealand. Once a common forest bird, its numbers declined drastically after the introduction of rats and stoats, and it is now near threatened.

Taxonomy

The yellowhead was formally described in 1789 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae. He placed it with the flycatchers in the genus Muscicapa and coined the binomial name Muscicapa ochrocephala.^[2] The specific epithet is derived from the Ancient Greek ōkhros meaning "pale yellow" and -kephalos meaning "-headed".^[3] Gmelin based his account on the "yellow-headed fly-catcher" that had been described in 1783 by the English ornithologist John Latham in his book A General Synopsis of Birds.^[4] The naturalist Joseph Banks had provided Latham with a watercolour painting of the bird by Georg Forster who had accompanied James Cook on his second voyage to the Pacific Ocean. The inscription on the painting includes the year 1774 and the location "Queen Charlotte's Sound". Queen Charlotte Sound is on the north coast of the South Island of New Zealand. This picture is the holotype for the species and is in the collection of the Natural History Museum in London.^[5] The yellowhead in now one of three species placed in the genus Mohoua that was introduced in 1837 by the French naturalist René Lesson.^[6] The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.^[6]

The yellowhead was known in the 19th century as the "bush canary", after its trilling song.^[7] It is also known as mohua from the Māori mōhoua.^[8] Recent classification places this species and its close relative, the whitehead, in the family Mohouidae.

Distribution and habitat

The yellowhead and the whitehead have allopatric distributions as, conversely, the latter is found only in the North Island and several small islands surrounding it. Although abundant in the 19th century, particularly in southern beech forests on the South Island and Stewart Island / Rakiura, mohua declined dramatically in the early 20th century due to the introduction of black rats and mustelids; nesting in tree holes makes them more vulnerable to predators.^[9]

Today they have vanished from almost all of the South Island's forests and exist in less than 5% of their original range.^[9]^[7] On mainland South Island there is currently a small population of mohua in the Marlborough Sounds and around Arthur's Pass,^[9] but a quarter of the population lives in the beech forests of the Catlins. The mohua number about 5000.^[7]

Behaviour and ecology

Foraging

Mohua spends approximately three-quarters of their time foraging.^[10] The proportion of time used in foraging is highest during the premoult period and is lowest during the incubation period. In wild conditions, caterpillars (Lepidoptera larvae) were the predominant food.^[11] In captivity, mohua were observed to prefer mealworms (Tenebrio molitor larvae) over other foods.^[10] However, due to mealworms' limited vitamin A and D content, a vitamin A deficiency in captive mohua was common.^[10] Although mohua are insectivores, they have been observed to be opportunists who can eat various food items, including nuts and dried fruits.^[10] Foraging in captivity was mainly done between ground level and the shrub layer.^[10] This differed from the foraging behaviour observed in wild conditions, where mohua spent over 99% of the time foraging exclusively in the shrub and canopy layers of the forest, so they avoided feeding at ground level.^[11] Under both conditions, gleaning was the preferred foraging method despite foraging in different parts of the forest.^[10]^[11] Foraging behaviour differed in the podocarp forest on Ulva Island, and although gleaning was one of the main foraging methods, ripping was more common in the middle of spring (October).^[12] This correlated with greater foraging on the trunk and large branches of forest trees as opposed to the twigs, foliage and small branches during October.^[12] Twigs, foliage and small branches were generally preferred for foraging outside October.^[12] Rimu and miro were the main foraging surfaces for mohua in the Ulva Island forest but were preferred at different rates depending on the time of year.^[12] Rimu and Miro were equally preferred during the spring months of October and November, while Rimu was preferred over Miro during the summer months of December and January.^[12] However, during the November and December periods, mohua prefer a greater variety of species to forage from, including Rātā and Muttonbird Scrub.^[12] The foraging behaviour of mohua differs between podocarp and beech forests, as there is a greater dependence on foliage for scanning and foraging in both red and mountain beech forests.^[11] In both red and mountain beech forests, the trucks in the upper shrub layer were foraged from equally to the foliage, but in the upper canopy, the foliage was almost used exclusively, and the truck was not foraged from at all.^[11] red and mountain beech differ in foraging use in the lower canopy because, in red beech forests, the foliage and other surfaces such as the trunk, small branches, large branches and dead wood are all readily foraged from by mohua, while in mountain beech forests, the main surface used was the foliage.^[11] However, other surfaces were also foraged from.^[11] Like the podocarp forests of Ulva Island, ripping in beech forests was a common foraging method mainly due to mohua foraging on standing dead beech tree trunks.^[11]

Reproduction and Incubation

Mohua are cooperative breeders, which is not currently beneficial for their population growth as there are fewer breeding pairs than there could be, resulting in fewer offspring overall.^[13] However, this behaviour is an evolutionary adaptation to the lack of resources, which is beneficial if there is an abundance of mohua.^[13] Mohua cooperate by having a primary pair that breeds and is assisted by subordinate mohua called secondaries.^[13] Not all mohua pairs have secondaries.^[13] Secondaries can form their own pairs and some breed, although they are generally less successful in producing fledglings than the primary pair.^[13] The secondary pairs were in the territory of the primary pair, so they provided assistance when mobbing intruders, foraged together with the primary pair and assisted with territorial singing, while secondary helpers were actively feeding the nestlings, assisting with incubation and exhibiting territorial behaviour.^[13] The male secondary helpers mainly assisted with territorial singing, while the female secondary helpers could not sing but could assist with incubation.^[13] The secondary helpers did not necessarily have to be related to the primary pair.^[13] However, these were generally males who became the primary male in the territory if the previous primary male had disappeared before the next breeding season.^[13] Only male mohua sang and defended their territory against males from neighbouring territories with singing duels.^[13] The primary males also chased other mohua who were intruders or secondaries. The female mohua were exclusively responsible for the building of nests and the incubation of the eggs.^[13] However, the male guarded the female during this period and fed her while she was incubating.^[13] Mohua are hole-nesting birds, meaning they build their nests within tree cavities.^[14] Like other birds, mohua weave cup-shaped nests using soft materials such as moss, grass, filmy ferns and lichens.^[14]^[15] Mohua nesting holes are always found on large, old trees and anywhere from 1.7 m to over 31 m in the tree's cavities.^[15] The tree cavities used were mainly on the trunk, but dead branches with rotten wood were also utilised.^[15] Knot holes on tree trunks were the preferred place for mohua to build their nests.^[15] Mohua produces clutches of 1 to 5 eggs and can produce a second clutch if the female has enough food.^[14]^[16] If the female mohua does not get enough food, the breeding season will be short and late.^[14] When the primary female laid a second clutch, the chicks were fed by the primary male and the secondaries, while the female dedicated her time to incubating the new clutch.^[13] This is beneficial for the fledglings' survival as they could have more food and, therefore, energy to survive and grow.^[13] Mohua breeding differs, causing incubation times to range from October to December.^[14]

Movement

Flocks of up to 25 mohua can occur from January as this is outside their incubation times, so they are not territorial during these times.^[14]^[17] These flocks can sometimes consist of many mohua families, which causes the flocks to be louder overall.^[14] The movement of these flocks attract other bird species to follow mohua as they forage in similar areas for similar foods.^[14] The other bird species that flock and forage with mohua are the yellow and red-crowned parakeets, orange-fronted parakeets, fantail, tomtits, brown creepers, grey warblers, silvereyes and bellbirds.^[14]^[17] All of these species have similarities to the mohua in various ways, such as the parakeets, which are also hole-nesting birds; the brown creepers are in the same genus as the mohua and have certain sympatric distributions spanning the South Island; and the rest of the birds are all New Zealand native passerine forest birds that are small to medium-sized which makes sense as to why these birds have similar foraging habits. This multi-species flocking technique will likely help with more effective foraging as more individual birds can spot abundant prey.^[17] Mohua leads these flocks past bodies of water and through valleys to forage, allowing for distances of over 100 ha to be foraged from, which is much greater than during territorial times where the distances range up to 7 ha.^[17]

Conservation

In New Zealand, mohua have the status of a protected threatened endemic species. Conservation efforts are being made to ensure its survival and mohua populations have been established on several predator-free offshore islands, such as Breaksea Island in Fiordland and Ulva Island. Birds have been captive-bred at Orana Park in Christchurch.^[9]

The behaviour of mohua can, in some cases, assist with the species' success or cause its demise, depending on the species it interacts with. Long-tailed cuckoos parasitise mohua nests by laying their eggs within mohua inhabited tree hole nests.^[13] After hatching, the young cuckoos will attempt to push the mohua chicks out of the nest but have a lower chance of success in these tree hole nests as compared to typical nests as the sides of the nests are generally supported by the edges of the tree hole causing the mohua chicks to survive.^[13] Another way tree hole nests benefit mohua is that the openings to these knot tree holes which mohua chooses to nest in are usually too small for the adult long-tailed cuckoo to enter.^[13] Adult long-tailed cuckoos also remove the eggs and nestlings from mohua nests if they cannot fit in the tree hole and lay their eggs.^[13] This tree hole nesting strategy prevents the predation of mohua by long-tailed cuckoos and other carnivorous birds such as the falcons and morepork.^[13] Although cuckoos affect mohua success in producing offspring, they are generally less effective against mohua than other parasitised bird species.^[13] The conservation problem with mohua behaviour arises when speaking about invasive mammalian predators, which the mohua are not adapted to compared to non-native bird species.^[13] Mohua are susceptible to predation by stoats and ship rats because mohua nest in tree holes, which does not allow for a quick escape if a predator were to enter the tree hole.^[13] The effects of predation on mohua by these mammals generally depend on the forest condition.^[13] This is because when it is a mast year in a beech tree forest, the mast causes mice populations to grow, which means more food for stoats, causing an increase in stoat population.^[13] This increase in stoat population is dangerous for all possible prey species in that forest because after preying on the mice, the stoats are still in high quantities and can easily shift their predation efforts onto native forest birds that live in these beech forests, such as mohua.^[13] Since female mohua must remain on the eggs for most of the incubation period and are the only ones that do incubate, this leaves them as the primary target for predation as it has little chance of survival after the stoat has entered the tree hole.^[13] With the lack of female mohua and nestlings, which are also preyed upon, the following breeding season will have reduced breeding pairs, so this singular predation event will make it difficult for the mohua population to recover.^[13] These behaviours that mohua exhibit effectively avoid predation by avian predators but make them susceptible to mammalian predators that they had not evolved around.

In 2003, 39 mohua were translocated from Breaksea Island to predator-free Codfish Island / Whenua Hou, and more were introduced to Whenua Hōu from the Catlins in 2018, increasing the island's population to about 1000.^[18] More releases are planned to islands in Fiordland.^[18]

Pest control efforts by the Department of Conservation have managed to stabilise some mainland mohua populations. For example, where biodegradable 1080 poison was used to control rats in the Dart valley, there was a more than 80% survival rate, compared with just 10% in untreated areas.^[19] The population of mohua in the Landsborough valley has increased four-fold since 1998, thanks to an intensive programme of pest control, including aerial 1080. The population is now strong enough for birds to be transferred out to establish a new population on Resolution Island.^{[citation needed]} Similar aerial 1080 operations in the Catlins^[20] and the Hurunui,^[21] Hawdon and Eglinton valleys^[22] have had equally encouraging results. DOC and TBfree New Zealand noted in March 2014 that there was a significant repopulation in the Catlins of other avian species, including bellbird and tomtit due to the reduction of predators.^[23]

Popular culture

Since the redesign of New Zealand's currency in 1991 a yellowhead has appeared on the reverse side of the New Zealand $100 note.^[7]

References

^ BirdLife International (2022). "Mohoua ochrocephala". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2022: e.T22705397A209465053. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
^ Gmelin, Johann Friedrich (1789). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1, Part 2 (13th ed.). Lipsiae [Leipzig]: Georg. Emanuel. Beer. p. 944.
^ Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. p. 279. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
^ Latham, John (1783). A General Synopsis of Birds. Vol. 2, Part 1. London: Printed for Leigh and Sotheby. p. 342, No. 37.
^ Lysaght, Averil (1959). "Some eighteenth century bird paintings in the library of Sir Joseph Banks (1743–1820)". Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Historical Series. 1 (6): 251–371 [308, No. 157].
^ ^a ^b Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (January 2023). "Whiteheads, sittellas, Ploughbill, Australo-Papuan bellbirds, Shriketit, whistlers". IOC World Bird List Version 13.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Graves, Andrea (July–August 2016). "Mōhua: the story of the bird on our $100 note". New Zealand Geographic. 140.
^ "Yellowhead | New Zealand Birds Online". nzbirdsonline.org.nz. Retrieved 15 June 2019.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Quinlivan, Mark; Logan, Mel (8 May 2019). "How our native mōhua bird went from 'rare' to 'common' in just 21 years". Newshub. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Stiller, P. (2001). "Time budget, foraging activities, diet and occurrence of aspergillosis in captive yellowheads (Mohoua ochrocephala)". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 28 (3): 343–349. doi:10.1080/03014223.2001.9518273.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Read, A. F. (1988). "Habitat use by yellowheads, Mohoua ochrocephala (Aves: Muscicapidae), in the Hawdon River Valley, Arthur's Pass National Park. 2. Time budgets and foraging behaviour". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 15 (4): 471–480. doi:10.1080/03014223.1988.10422627.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Oppel, S.; Beaven, B. M. (2004). "Habitat use and foraging behaviour of Mohua (Mohoua ochrocephala) in the podocarp forest of Ulva Island, New Zealand". Emu-Austral Ornithology. 104 (3): 235–240. doi:10.1071/MU03038.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa Elliott, G. P. (1990). "The breeding biology and habitat relationships of the yellowhead". [Doctoral thesis, Victoria University of Wellington]. doi:10.26686/wgtn.16934722.v1.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Read, A. F. (1987). "The breeding and flocking behaviour of yellowheads at Arthur's Pass National Park" (PDF). Notornis. 34: 11–18.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Elliott, G. P.; Dilks, P. J.; O’Donnell, C. F. (1996). "Nest site selection by mohua and yellow‐crowned parakeets in beech forest in Fiordland, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 23 (3): 267–278. doi:10.1080/03014223.1996.9518085.
^ Elliott, G. P. (1996). "Productivity and mortality of mohua (Mohoua ochrocephala)". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 23 (3): 229–237. doi:10.1080/03014223.1996.9518082.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Innes, J.; Miskelly, C. M.; Armstrong, D. P.; Fitzgerald, N.; Parker, K. A.; Stone, Z. L. (2022). "Movements and habitat connectivity of New Zealand forest birds: a review of available data". New Zealand Journal of Ecology. 46 (2): 1–21. doi:10.20417/nzjecol.46.25.
^ ^a ^b "Genetic boost for threatened mōhua living on Whenua Hōu". Stuff. 24 October 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
^ Making mohua safe at Lake Wakatipu
^ TVNZ: 1080 poison pays off for endangered NZ bird
^ Department of Conservation
^ 1080: The Facts: 1080 helping mohua
^ Department of Conservation (7 March 2014). "Catlins mōhua increase after pest control". www.doc.govt.nz. Retrieved 23 July 2020.

Literature

Heather, Barrie D; Robertson, Hugh A & Onley, Derek (2000). The field guide to the birds of New Zealand. Viking: Printing Press. ISBN 0-670-89370-6.

External links

Mōhua Charitable Trust
"Mohua (Yellowhead)". Department of Conservation Te Papa Atawhai. Retrieved 18 May 2020.

[iucn_status_9_December_2022-1] BirdLife International (2022). "Mohoua ochrocephala". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2022: e.T22705397A209465053. Retrieved 12 December 2022.

[2] Gmelin, Johann Friedrich (1789). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1, Part 2 (13th ed.). Lipsiae [Leipzig]: Georg. Emanuel. Beer. p. 944.

[3] Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. p. 279. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.

[4] Latham, John (1783). A General Synopsis of Birds. Vol. 2, Part 1. London: Printed for Leigh and Sotheby. p. 342, No. 37.

[5] Lysaght, Averil (1959). "Some eighteenth century bird paintings in the library of Sir Joseph Banks (1743–1820)". Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Historical Series. 1 (6): 251–371 [308, No. 157].

[ioc-6] Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (January 2023). "Whiteheads, sittellas, Ploughbill, Australo-Papuan bellbirds, Shriketit, whistlers". IOC World Bird List Version 13.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 29 March 2023.

[:3-7] Graves, Andrea (July–August 2016). "Mōhua: the story of the bird on our $100 note". New Zealand Geographic. 140.

[:0-8] "Yellowhead | New Zealand Birds Online". nzbirdsonline.org.nz. Retrieved 15 June 2019.

[:1-9] Quinlivan, Mark; Logan, Mel (8 May 2019). "How our native mōhua bird went from 'rare' to 'common' in just 21 years". Newshub. Retrieved 23 July 2020.

[Stiller,_P._(2001)-10] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Stiller, P. (2001). "Time budget, foraging activities, diet and occurrence of aspergillosis in captive yellowheads (Mohoua ochrocephala)". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 28 (3): 343–349. doi:10.1080/03014223.2001.9518273.

[Read,_A._F._(1988)-11] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Read, A. F. (1988). "Habitat use by yellowheads, Mohoua ochrocephala (Aves: Muscicapidae), in the Hawdon River Valley, Arthur's Pass National Park. 2. Time budgets and foraging behaviour". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 15 (4): 471–480. doi:10.1080/03014223.1988.10422627.

[Oppel,_S.,_&_Beaven,_B._M._(2004)-12] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Oppel, S.; Beaven, B. M. (2004). "Habitat use and foraging behaviour of Mohua (Mohoua ochrocephala) in the podocarp forest of Ulva Island, New Zealand". Emu-Austral Ornithology. 104 (3): 235–240. doi:10.1071/MU03038.

[Elliott,_G._P._(1990)-13] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa Elliott, G. P. (1990). "The breeding biology and habitat relationships of the yellowhead". [Doctoral thesis, Victoria University of Wellington]. doi:10.26686/wgtn.16934722.v1.

[Read,_A._F._(1987).-14] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Read, A. F. (1987). "The breeding and flocking behaviour of yellowheads at Arthur's Pass National Park" (PDF). Notornis. 34: 11–18.

[Elliott,_G._P.,_Dilks,_P._J.,_&_O’Donnell,_C._F._(1996)-15] Elliott, G. P.; Dilks, P. J.; O’Donnell, C. F. (1996). "Nest site selection by mohua and yellow‐crowned parakeets in beech forest in Fiordland, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 23 (3): 267–278. doi:10.1080/03014223.1996.9518085.

[Elliott,_G._P._(1996).-16] Elliott, G. P. (1996). "Productivity and mortality of mohua (Mohoua ochrocephala)". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 23 (3): 229–237. doi:10.1080/03014223.1996.9518082.

[Innes,_J.,_Miskelly,_C._M.,_Armstrong,_D._P.,_Fitzgerald,_N.,_Parker,_K._A.,_&_Stone,_Z._L._(2022).-17] Innes, J.; Miskelly, C. M.; Armstrong, D. P.; Fitzgerald, N.; Parker, K. A.; Stone, Z. L. (2022). "Movements and habitat connectivity of New Zealand forest birds: a review of available data". New Zealand Journal of Ecology. 46 (2): 1–21. doi:10.20417/nzjecol.46.25.

[:2-18] "Genetic boost for threatened mōhua living on Whenua Hōu". Stuff. 24 October 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2020.

[19] Making mohua safe at Lake Wakatipu

[20] TVNZ: 1080 poison pays off for endangered NZ bird

[21] Department of Conservation

[22] 1080: The Facts: 1080 helping mohua

[23] Department of Conservation (7 March 2014). "Catlins mōhua increase after pest control". www.doc.govt.nz. Retrieved 23 July 2020.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{short description|Species of New Zealand native bird}}
-{{en-NZ|date=July 2020}}
+{{Use New Zealand English|date=July 2020}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}}
+{{Speciesbox
-{{speciesbox
 | name = Yellowhead
-| status = EN
+| status = NT
 | status_system = IUCN3.1
-| status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22705397/0 |title=''Mohoua ochrocephala'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2012 |access-date=26 November 2013|ref=harv}}</ref>
+| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 9 December 2022">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2022 |title=''Mohoua ochrocephala'' |volume=2022 |page=e.T22705397A209465053 |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22705397/209465053 |access-date=12 December 2022}}</ref>
 | image = Mohua_ochrocephala.png
-| image_caption = Yellowhead or mōhua
+| image_caption = Yellowhead or mohua
 | genus = Mohoua
 | species = ochrocephala
-| authority = ([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1789)
+| authority = ([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin, JF]], 1789)
 | range_map = Mohoua ochrocephala - distribution map.svg
 }}
-The '''yellowhead''' or '''mōhua''' (''Mohoua ochrocephala'') is a small insectivorous, [[passerine]] bird [[endemism|endemic]] to the [[South Island]] of [[New Zealand]].
+The '''yellowhead''' or '''mohua''' ('''''Mohoua ochrocephala''''') is a small insectivorous [[passerine]] bird [[endemism|endemic]] to the [[South Island]] of [[New Zealand]]. Once a common forest bird, its numbers declined drastically after the introduction of [[Black rat|rats]] and [[stoat]]s, and it is now near threatened.
-== Name ==
-The yellowhead was known in the 19th century as the "bush canary".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Yellowhead {{!}} New Zealand Birds Online|url=http://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/yellowhead|access-date=2019-06-15|website=nzbirdsonline.org.nz}}</ref> Today it often goes by its [[Māori language|Māori]] name mōhua in New Zealand English, but Māori also knew it as ''mōhoua'' and ''houa''.<ref name=":0" /> Recent classification places this species and its close relative, the [[Whitehead (bird)|whitehead]], in the family [[Mohoua|Mohouidae]].
-== Distribution ==
+== Taxonomy ==
+The yellowhead was [[Species description|formally described]] in 1789 by the German naturalist [[Johann Friedrich Gmelin]] in his revised and expanded edition of [[Carl Linnaeus]]'s ''[[Systema Naturae]]''. He placed it with the flycatchers in the [[genus]] ''[[Muscicapa]]'' and coined the [[binomial nomenclature|binomial name]] ''Muscicapa ochrocephala''.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Gmelin | first=Johann Friedrich | author-link=Johann Friedrich Gmelin| year=1789 | title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | edition=13th | volume=1, Part 2 | language=Latin | location=Lipsiae [Leipzig] | publisher=Georg. Emanuel. Beer | page=944 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2656439 }}</ref> The specific epithet is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] ''ōkhros'' meaning "pale yellow" and ''-kephalos'' meaning "-headed".<ref>{{cite book | last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010| title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4 | page=279 | url=https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n279/mode/1up }}</ref> Gmelin based his account on the "yellow-headed fly-catcher" that had been described in 1783 by the English ornithologist [[John Latham (ornithologist)|John Latham]] in his book ''A General Synopsis of Birds''.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Latham | first=John | author-link=John Latham (ornithologist) | year=1783 | title=A General Synopsis of Birds | volume=2, Part 1 | publisher=Printed for Leigh and Sotheby | location=London | page=342, No. 37 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/33728336 }}</ref> The naturalist [[Joseph Banks]] had provided Latham with a watercolour painting of the bird by [[Georg Forster]] who had accompanied [[James Cook]] on his [[Second voyage of James Cook|second voyage to the Pacific Ocean]]. The inscription on the painting includes the year 1774 and the location "Queen Charlotte's Sound". [[Queen Charlotte Sound / Tōtaranui|Queen Charlotte Sound]] is on the north coast of the [[South Island]] of New Zealand. This picture is the [[holotype]] for the species and is in the collection of the [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] in London.<ref>{{ cite journal | last=Lysaght | first=Averil | date=1959 | title=Some eighteenth century bird paintings in the library of Sir Joseph Banks (1743–1820) | journal=Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Historical Series | volume=1 | issue=6 | pages=251–371 [308, No. 157] | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2238966 }}</ref> The yellowhead in now one of three species placed in the genus ''[[Mohoua]]'' that was introduced in 1837 by the French naturalist [[René Lesson]].<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen | date=January 2023 | title=Whiteheads, sittellas, Ploughbill, Australo-Papuan bellbirds, Shriketit, whistlers | work=IOC World Bird List Version 13.1 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/new/bow/whistlers/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=29 March 2023 }}</ref> The species is [[monotypic]]: no [[subspecies]] are recognised.<ref name=ioc/>
-The yellowhead and the whitehead have [[allopatric]] distributions as, conversely, the latter is found only in the [[North Island]] and several small islands surrounding it. Although abundant in the 19th century, particularly in [[Southern Beech|southern beech]] forests on the [[South Island]] and [[Stewart Island/Rakiura]], mōhua declined dramatically in the early 20th century due to the introduction of [[Rattus rattus|black rat]]s and [[mustelid]]s; nesting in tree holes makes them more vulnerable to predators.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|last=Quinlivan|first=Mark|last2=Logan|first2=Mel|date=8 May 2019|title=How our native mōhua bird went from 'rare' to 'common' in just 21 years|language=en|work=Newshub|url=https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/new-zealand/2019/05/how-our-native-m-hua-bird-went-from-rare-to-common-in-just-21-years.html|url-status=live|access-date=2020-07-23}}</ref>
+The yellowhead was known in the 19th century as the "bush canary", after its trilling song.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Graves|first=Andrea|date=Jul–Aug 2016|title=Mōhua: the story of the bird on our $100 note|url=https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/mohua/|journal=New Zealand Geographic|volume=140}}</ref> It is also known as mohua from the [[Māori language|Māori]] {{Lang|Mi|mōhoua}}.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Yellowhead {{!}} New Zealand Birds Online|url=http://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/yellowhead|access-date=2019-06-15|website=nzbirdsonline.org.nz}}</ref> Recent classification places this species and its close relative, the [[Whitehead (bird)|whitehead]], in the family [[Mohoua|Mohouidae]].
-Today they have vanished from 90% of the South Island's forests.<ref name=":1" /> On the mainland South Island there is currently a small population of mōhua in the [[Marlborough Sounds]] and around [[Arthur's Pass (mountain pass)|Arthur's Pass]],<ref name=":1" /> but a quarter of the population lives in the beech forests of [[the Catlins]].
+== Distribution and habitat==
+The yellowhead and the whitehead have [[allopatric]] distributions as, conversely, the latter is found only in the [[North Island]] and several small islands surrounding it. Although abundant in the 19th century, particularly in [[Southern Beech|southern beech]] forests on the [[South Island]] and [[Stewart Island / Rakiura]], mohua declined dramatically in the early 20th century due to the introduction of [[Rattus rattus|black rat]]s and [[mustelid]]s; nesting in tree holes makes them more vulnerable to predators.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|last1=Quinlivan|first1=Mark|last2=Logan|first2=Mel|date=8 May 2019|title=How our native mōhua bird went from 'rare' to 'common' in just 21 years|language=en|work=Newshub|url=https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/new-zealand/2019/05/how-our-native-m-hua-bird-went-from-rare-to-common-in-just-21-years.html|access-date=2020-07-23}}</ref>
+Today they have vanished from almost all of the South Island's forests and exist in less than 5% of their original range.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> On mainland South Island there is currently a small population of mohua in the [[Marlborough Sounds]] and around [[Arthur's Pass (mountain pass)|Arthur's Pass]],<ref name=":1" /> but a quarter of the population lives in the beech forests of [[the Catlins]]. The mohua number about 5000.<ref name=":3" />
+== Behaviour and ecology ==
+=== [[Foraging]] ===
+Mohua spends approximately three-quarters of their time foraging.<ref name="Stiller, P. (2001)">{{cite journal |last1=Stiller |first1=P. |title=Time budget, foraging activities, diet and  occurrence of aspergillosis in captive yellowheads (Mohoua  ochrocephala). |journal=New Zealand Journal of Zoology |date=2001 |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=343–349 |doi=10.1080/03014223.2001.9518273}}</ref> The proportion of time used in foraging is highest during the premoult period and is lowest during the [[Egg incubation|incubation]] period. In wild conditions, [[caterpillar]]s ([[Lepidoptera]] larvae) were the predominant food.<ref name="Read, A. F. (1988)">{{cite journal |last1=Read |first1=A. F. |title=Habitat use by yellowheads, Mohoua  ochrocephala (Aves: Muscicapidae), in the Hawdon River Valley,  Arthur’s Pass National Park. 2. Time budgets and foraging  behaviour. |journal=New Zealand Journal of Zoology |date=1988 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=471–480 |doi=10.1080/03014223.1988.10422627}}</ref> In captivity, mohua were observed to prefer [[mealworm]]s (''[[Mealworm|Tenebrio molitor]]'' larvae) over other foods.<ref name="Stiller, P. (2001)" /> However, due to mealworms' limited vitamin A and D content, a vitamin A deficiency in captive mohua was common.<ref name="Stiller, P. (2001)" /> Although mohua are [[insectivore]]s, they have been observed to be opportunists who can eat various food items, including nuts and dried fruits.<ref name="Stiller, P. (2001)" /> Foraging in captivity was mainly done between ground level and the [[shrub]] layer.<ref name="Stiller, P. (2001)" /> This differed from the foraging behaviour observed in wild conditions, where mohua spent over 99% of the time foraging exclusively in the [[shrub]] and [[Canopy (biology)|canopy]] layers of the forest, so they avoided feeding at ground level.<ref name="Read, A. F. (1988)" /> Under both conditions, [[Gleaning (birds)|gleaning]] was the preferred foraging method despite foraging in different parts of the forest.<ref name="Stiller, P. (2001)" /><ref name="Read, A. F. (1988)" /> Foraging behaviour differed in the [[Podocarpaceae|podocarp]] forest on [[Ulva Island (New Zealand)|Ulva Island]], and although [[Gleaning (birds)|gleaning]] was one of the main foraging methods, ripping was more common in the middle of spring (October).<ref name="Oppel, S., & Beaven, B. M. (2004)">{{cite journal |last1=Oppel |first1=S. |last2=Beaven |first2=B. M. |title=Habitat use and foraging  behaviour of Mohua (Mohoua ochrocephala) in the podocarp forest  of Ulva Island, New Zealand. |journal=Emu-Austral Ornithology |date=2004 |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=235–240 |doi=10.1071/MU03038}}</ref> This correlated with greater foraging on the trunk and large branches of forest trees as opposed to the twigs, foliage and small branches during October.<ref name="Oppel, S., & Beaven, B. M. (2004)" /> Twigs, foliage and small branches were generally preferred for foraging outside October.<ref name="Oppel, S., & Beaven, B. M. (2004)" /> [[Dacrydium cupressinum|Rimu]] and [[Prumnopitys ferruginea|miro]] were the main foraging surfaces for mohua in the [[Ulva Island (New Zealand)|Ulva Island]] forest but were preferred at different rates depending on the time of year.<ref name="Oppel, S., & Beaven, B. M. (2004)" /> [[Dacrydium cupressinum|Rimu]] and [[Prumnopitys ferruginea|Miro]] were equally preferred during the spring months of October and November, while Rimu was preferred over Miro during the summer months of December and January.<ref name="Oppel, S., & Beaven, B. M. (2004)" /> However, during the November and December periods, mohua prefer a greater variety of species to forage from, including [[Metrosideros umbellata|Rātā]] and Muttonbird Scrub.<ref name="Oppel, S., & Beaven, B. M. (2004)" /> The foraging behaviour of mohua differs between podocarp and [[beech]] forests, as there is a greater dependence on foliage for scanning and foraging in both [[Nothofagus fusca|red]] and [[Nothofagus cliffortioides|mountain]] beech forests.<ref name="Read, A. F. (1988)" /> In both red and mountain beech forests, the trucks in the upper shrub layer were foraged from equally to the foliage, but in the upper canopy, the foliage was almost used exclusively, and the truck was not foraged from at all.<ref name="Read, A. F. (1988)" /> red and mountain beech differ in foraging use in the lower canopy because, in red beech forests, the foliage and other surfaces such as the trunk, small branches, large branches and dead wood are all readily foraged from by mohua, while in mountain beech forests, the main surface used was the foliage.<ref name="Read, A. F. (1988)" /> However, other surfaces were also foraged from.<ref name="Read, A. F. (1988)" /> Like the podocarp forests of Ulva Island, ripping in beech forests was a common foraging method mainly due to mohua foraging on standing dead beech tree trunks.<ref name="Read, A. F. (1988)" />
+=== [[Reproduction]] and [[Egg incubation|Incubation]] ===
+Mohua are [[Cooperative breeding|cooperative breeders]], which is not currently beneficial for their population growth as there are fewer [[breeding pair]]s than there could be, resulting in fewer [[offspring]] overall.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)">{{cite journal |last1=Elliott |first1=G. P. |title=The breeding biology and habitat  relationships of the yellowhead. |journal=[Doctoral thesis, Victoria  University of Wellington] |date=1990 |doi=10.26686/wgtn.16934722.v1}}</ref> However, this behaviour is an evolutionary adaptation to the lack of resources, which is beneficial if there is an abundance of mohua.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> Mohua cooperate by having a primary pair that breeds and is assisted by [[Hierarchy|subordinate]] mohua called secondaries.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> Not all mohua pairs have secondaries.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> Secondaries can form their own pairs and some breed, although they are generally less successful in producing [[Fledgling (bird)|fledglings]] than the primary pair.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> The secondary pairs were in the [[Territory (animal)|territory]] of the primary pair, so they provided assistance when [[Mobbing (animal behavior)|mobbing]] intruders, foraged together with the primary pair and assisted with territorial singing, while secondary helpers were actively feeding the nestlings, assisting with incubation and exhibiting territorial behaviour.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> The male secondary helpers mainly assisted with territorial singing, while the female secondary helpers could not sing but could assist with incubation.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> The secondary helpers did not necessarily have to be related to the primary pair.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> However, these were generally males who became the primary male in the territory if the previous primary male had disappeared before the next [[breeding season]].<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> Only male mohua sang and defended their territory against males from neighbouring territories with singing duels.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> The primary males also chased other mohua who were intruders or secondaries. The female mohua were exclusively responsible for the building of [[Bird nest|nests]] and the incubation of the eggs.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> However, the male guarded the female during this period and fed her while she was incubating.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> Mohua are hole-nesting birds, meaning they build their nests within [[Tree hollow|tree cavities]].<ref name="Read, A. F. (1987).">{{cite journal |last1=Read |first1=A. F. |title=The breeding and flocking behaviour of  yellowheads at Arthur's Pass National Park. |journal=Notornis |date=1987 |volume=34 |pages=11–18 |url=https://www.birdsnz.org.nz/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Notornis_34_1-1987-pp11-18.pdf}}</ref> Like other birds, mohua weave cup-shaped nests using soft materials such as [[moss]], [[Poaceae|grass]], [[Hymenophyllaceae|filmy ferns]] and [[lichen]]s.<ref name="Read, A. F. (1987)." /><ref name="Elliott, G. P., Dilks, P. J., & O’Donnell, C. F. (1996)" /> Mohua nesting holes are always found on large, old trees and anywhere from 1.7 m to over 31 m in the tree's cavities.<ref name="Elliott, G. P., Dilks, P. J., & O’Donnell, C. F. (1996)">{{cite journal |last1=Elliott |first1=G. P. |last2=Dilks |first2=P. J. |last3=O’Donnell |first3=C. F. |title=Nest  site selection by mohua and yellow‐crowned parakeets in beech  forest in Fiordland, New Zealand. |journal=New Zealand Journal of Zoology |date=1996 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=267–278 |doi=10.1080/03014223.1996.9518085}}</ref> The tree cavities used were mainly on the trunk, but dead branches with rotten wood were also utilised.<ref name="Elliott, G. P., Dilks, P. J., & O’Donnell, C. F. (1996)" /> Knot holes on [[Trunk (botany)|tree trunks]] were the preferred place for mohua to build their nests.<ref name="Elliott, G. P., Dilks, P. J., & O’Donnell, C. F. (1996)" /> Mohua produces [[Clutch (eggs)|clutches]] of 1 to 5 eggs and can produce a second clutch if the female has enough food.<ref name="Read, A. F. (1987)." /><ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1996).">{{cite journal |last1=Elliott |first1=G. P. |title=Productivity and mortality of mohua  (Mohoua ochrocephala) |journal=New Zealand Journal of Zoology |date=1996 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=229–237 |doi=10.1080/03014223.1996.9518082}}</ref> If the female mohua does not get enough food, the breeding season will be short and late.<ref name="Read, A. F. (1987)." />  When the primary female laid a second clutch, the chicks were fed by the primary male and the secondaries, while the female dedicated her time to incubating the new clutch.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> This is beneficial for the fledglings' survival as they could have more food and, therefore, energy to survive and grow.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> Mohua breeding differs, causing incubation times to range from October to December.<ref name="Read, A. F. (1987)." />
+=== Movement ===
+[[Flock (birds)|Flocks]] of up to 25 mohua can occur from January as this is outside their incubation times, so they are not territorial during these times.<ref name="Read, A. F. (1987)." /><ref name="Innes, J., Miskelly, C. M., Armstrong, D. P., Fitzgerald, N.,  Parker, K. A., & Stone, Z. L. (2022).">{{cite journal |last1=Innes |first1=J. |last2=Miskelly |first2=C. M. |last3=Armstrong |first3=D. P. |last4=Fitzgerald |first4=N. |last5=Parker |first5=K. A. |last6=Stone |first6=Z. L. |title=Movements and habitat  connectivity of New Zealand forest birds: a review of available  data. |journal=New Zealand Journal of Ecology |date=2022 |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.20417/nzjecol.46.25|doi-access=free }}</ref> These flocks can sometimes consist of many mohua families, which causes the flocks to be louder overall.<ref name="Read, A. F. (1987)." /> The movement of these flocks attract other bird species to follow mohua as they forage in similar areas for similar foods.<ref name="Read, A. F. (1987)." /> The other bird species that flock and forage with mohua are the [[Yellow-crowned parakeet|yellow]] and [[red-crowned parakeet]]s, [[Cyanoramphus malherbi|orange-fronted parakeets]], [[New Zealand fantail|fantail]], [[tomtit]]s, [[Pipipi|brown creepers]], [[grey warbler]]s, [[silvereye]]s and [[New Zealand bellbird|bellbirds]].<ref name="Read, A. F. (1987)." /><ref name="Innes, J., Miskelly, C. M., Armstrong, D. P., Fitzgerald, N., Parker, K. A., & Stone, Z. L. (2022)." /> All of these species have similarities to the mohua in various ways, such as the parakeets, which are also hole-nesting birds; the [[Pipipi|brown creepers]] are in the [[Mohoua|same genus]] as the mohua and have certain [[Sympatry|sympatric]] distributions spanning the [[South Island]]; and the rest of the birds are all New Zealand native passerine forest birds that are small to medium-sized which makes sense as to why these birds have similar foraging habits. This multi-species flocking technique will likely help with more effective foraging as more individual birds can spot abundant prey.<ref name="Innes, J., Miskelly, C. M., Armstrong, D. P., Fitzgerald, N., Parker, K. A., & Stone, Z. L. (2022)." /> Mohua leads these flocks past bodies of water and through valleys to forage, allowing for distances of over 100 ha to be foraged from, which is much greater than during territorial times where the distances range up to 7 ha.<ref name="Innes, J., Miskelly, C. M., Armstrong, D. P., Fitzgerald, N., Parker, K. A., & Stone, Z. L. (2022)." />
 ==Conservation==
-In New Zealand, mōhua have the status of a ''protected threatened endemic'' species. Conservation efforts are being made to ensure its survival and mōhua populations have been established on several predator-free offshore islands, such as [[Breaksea Island (New Zealand)|Breaksea Island]] in [[Fiordland]] and [[Ulva Island, New Zealand|Ulva Island]]. Birds have been captive-bred at [[Orana Park]] in [[Christchurch]].<ref name=":1" />
+In New Zealand, mohua have the status of a ''protected threatened endemic'' species. Conservation efforts are being made to ensure its survival and mohua populations have been established on several predator-free offshore islands, such as [[Breaksea Island (Fiordland)|Breaksea Island]] in [[Fiordland]] and [[Ulva Island, New Zealand|Ulva Island]]. Birds have been captive-bred at [[Orana Park]] in [[Christchurch]].<ref name=":1" />
+The behaviour of mohua can, in some cases, assist with the species' success or cause its demise, depending on the species it interacts with. [[Pacific long-tailed cuckoo|Long-tailed cuckoos]] [[Parasitism|parasitise]] mohua nests by laying their eggs within mohua inhabited tree hole nests.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> After hatching, the young cuckoos will attempt to push the mohua chicks out of the nest but have a lower chance of success in these tree hole nests as compared to typical nests as the sides of the nests are generally supported by the edges of the tree hole causing the mohua chicks to survive.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> Another way tree hole nests benefit mohua is that the openings to these knot tree holes which mohua chooses to nest in are usually too small for the adult [[Pacific long-tailed cuckoo|long-tailed cuckoo]] to enter.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> Adult long-tailed cuckoos also remove the eggs and nestlings from mohua nests if they cannot fit in the tree hole and lay their eggs.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> This tree hole nesting strategy prevents the predation of mohua by long-tailed cuckoos and other [[Bird of prey|carnivorous birds]] such as the [[New Zealand falcon|falcons]] and [[morepork]].<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> Although cuckoos affect mohua success in producing [[offspring]], they are generally less effective against mohua than other [[Parasitism|parasitised]] bird species.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> The conservation problem with mohua behaviour arises when speaking about [[Invasive species|invasive]] [[mammal]]ian predators, which the mohua are not adapted to compared to [[Introduced species|non-native]] bird species.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> Mohua are susceptible to [[predation]] by [[stoat]]s and [[ship rats]] because mohua nest in tree holes, which does not allow for a quick escape if a predator were to enter the tree hole.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> The effects of predation on mohua by these mammals generally depend on the forest condition.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> This is because when it is a [[Mast seeding|mast year]] in a [[Beech forest|beech tree forest]], the [[Mast seeding|mast]] causes [[Mouse|mice]] populations to grow, which means more food for [[stoat]]s, causing an increase in stoat population.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> This increase in stoat population is dangerous for all possible [[Prey|prey species]] in that forest because after preying on the mice, the stoats are still in high quantities and can easily shift their predation efforts onto native forest birds that live in these beech forests, such as mohua.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> Since female mohua must remain on the eggs for most of the [[Egg incubation|incubation]] period and are the only ones that do incubate, this leaves them as the primary target for [[predation]] as it has little chance of survival after the stoat has entered the tree hole.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> With the lack of female mohua and nestlings, which are also preyed upon, the following [[Seasonal breeder|breeding season]] will have reduced [[breeding pair]]s, so this singular predation event will make it difficult for the mohua population to recover.<ref name="Elliott, G. P. (1990)" /> These behaviours that mohua exhibit effectively avoid predation by avian predators but make them susceptible to mammalian predators that they had not [[evolved]] around.
-In 2003, 39 mōhua were translocated from Breaksea Island to predaror-free [[Codfish Island|Whenua Hōu]] / Codfish Island, and more were introduced to Whenua Hōu from the Catlins in 2018, increasing the island's population to about 1000.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2018-10-24|title=Genetic boost for threatened mōhua living on Whenua Hōu|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/108068779/genetic-boost-for-threatened-mhua-living-on-whenua-hu|access-date=2020-07-23|website=Stuff|language=en}}</ref> More releases are planned to islands in Fiordland.<ref name=":2" />
-[[File:Mohua.jpg|left|thumb|Mohua on predator-free Ulva Island]]
+In 2003, 39 mohua were translocated from Breaksea Island to predator-free [[Codfish Island / Whenua Hou]], and more were introduced to Whenua Hōu from the Catlins in 2018, increasing the island's population to about 1000.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2018-10-24|title=Genetic boost for threatened mōhua living on Whenua Hōu|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/108068779/genetic-boost-for-threatened-mhua-living-on-whenua-hu|access-date=2020-07-23|website=Stuff|language=en}}</ref> More releases are planned to islands in Fiordland.<ref name=":2" />
-Pest control efforts by the [[New Zealand Department of Conservation|Department of Conservation]] have managed to stabilise some mainland mōhua populations. For example, where [[sodium fluoroacetate|biodegradable 1080 poison]] was used to control rats in the [[Dart River (Otago)|Dart]] valley, there was a more than 80% survival rate, compared with just 10% in untreated areas.<ref>[https://www.doc.govt.nz/news/stories/2013-and-earlier/making-mohua-safe/ Making mohua safe at Lake Wakatipu]</ref> The population of mōhua in the [[Landsborough River|Landsborough]] valley has increased four-fold since 1998, thanks to an intensive programme of pest control, including aerial 1080. The population is now strong enough for birds to be transferred out to establish a new population on [[Resolution Island, New Zealand|Resolution Island]].{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}<!-- WP:RS needed; removed link to WP:SPS (Twitter, FB, WP)--> Similar aerial 1080 operations in the Catlins<ref>TVNZ: [http://tvnz.co.nz/national-news/poison-pays-off-endangered-nz-bird-3325838 1080 poison pays off for endangered NZ bird]</ref> and the [[Hurunui River|Hurunui]],<ref>[http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/land-and-freshwater/land/operation-ark/native-species/mohua/ Department of Conservation]</ref> [[Hawdon River|Hawdon]] and [[Eglinton River|Eglinton]] valleys<ref>1080: The Facts: [http://www.1080facts.co.nz/1080_case_studies 1080 helping mohua]</ref> have had equally encouraging results. [[New Zealand Department of Conservation|DOC]] and [[Animal Health Board (New Zealand)|TBfree New Zealand]] accounted in March 2014 a significant repopulation in the Catlins of other avian species, including [[New Zealand bellbird|bellbird]] and [[tomtit]], due to the reduction in predators.<ref>Department of Conservation http://doc.govt.nz/about-doc/news/media-releases/2014/catlins-mohua-increase-after-pest-control/ 7 March 2014</ref>
+[[File:Mohua.jpg|left|thumb|Mōhua on predator-free Ulva Island]]
+Pest control efforts by the [[New Zealand Department of Conservation|Department of Conservation]] have managed to stabilise some mainland mohua populations. For example, where [[sodium fluoroacetate|biodegradable 1080 poison]] was used to control rats in the [[Dart River / Te Awa Whakatipu|Dart]] valley, there was a more than 80% survival rate, compared with just 10% in untreated areas.<ref>[https://www.doc.govt.nz/news/stories/2013-and-earlier/making-mohua-safe/ Making mohua safe at Lake Wakatipu]</ref> The population of mohua in the [[Landsborough River|Landsborough]] valley has increased four-fold since 1998, thanks to an intensive programme of pest control, including aerial 1080. The population is now strong enough for birds to be transferred out to establish a new population on [[Resolution Island, New Zealand|Resolution Island]].{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}<!-- WP:RS needed; removed link to WP:SPS (Twitter, FB, WP)--> Similar aerial 1080 operations in the Catlins<ref>TVNZ: [http://tvnz.co.nz/national-news/poison-pays-off-endangered-nz-bird-3325838 1080 poison pays off for endangered NZ bird]</ref> and the [[Hurunui River|Hurunui]],<ref>[http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/land-and-freshwater/land/operation-ark/native-species/mohua/ Department of Conservation]</ref> [[Hawdon River|Hawdon]] and [[Eglinton River|Eglinton]] valleys<ref>1080: The Facts: [http://www.1080facts.co.nz/1080_case_studies 1080 helping mohua]</ref> have had equally encouraging results. [[New Zealand Department of Conservation|DOC]] and [[Animal Health Board (New Zealand)|TBfree New Zealand]] noted in March 2014 that there was a significant repopulation in the Catlins of other avian species, including [[New Zealand bellbird|bellbird]] and [[tomtit]] due to the reduction of predators.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Department of Conservation|date=7 March 2014|title=Catlins mōhua increase after pest control|url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/news/media-releases/2014/catlins-mohua-increase-after-pest-control/|access-date=2020-07-23|website=www.doc.govt.nz|language=en-nz}}</ref>
 == Popular culture ==
-The yellowhead appears on the reverse side of the [[Banknotes of the New Zealand dollar|New Zealand $100 note]].
+Since the redesign of New Zealand's currency in 1991 a yellowhead has appeared on the reverse side of the [[New Zealand one hundred-dollar note|New Zealand $100 note]].<ref name=":3" />
 ==References==
@@ Line 39: / Line 55: @@
 == Literature ==
-* {{cite book |author1=Heather, Barrie D |author2=Robertson, Hugh A |author3=Onley, Derek  |lastauthoramp=yes | title=The field guide to the birds of New Zealand | location=Viking | publisher=Printing Press | year=2000 | isbn=0-670-89370-6}}
+* {{cite book |author1=Heather, Barrie D |author2=Robertson, Hugh A |author3=Onley, Derek  |name-list-style=amp | title=The field guide to the birds of New Zealand | location=Viking | publisher=Printing Press | year=2000 | isbn=0-670-89370-6}}
 ==External links==
+{{Commons category}}
 * [http://www.mohua.co.nz/index.html Mōhua Charitable Trust]
-* {{cite web | title=Department of Conservation: Mohua (Yellowhead) | work=Mohua (Yellowhead) | url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/yellowhead-mohua/ | accessdate=2020-05-18}}
+* {{cite web|title=Mohua (Yellowhead)|work=Department of Conservation Te Papa Atawhai|url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/yellowhead-mohua/|access-date=2020-05-18}}
 {{Birds of New Zealand}}
 {{Portal bar|Birds|New Zealand}}
 {{Taxonbar|from=Q1066503}}
@@ Line 53: / Line 69: @@
 [[Category:Birds of the South Island]]
 [[Category:Birds described in 1789]]
+[[Category:Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Gmelin]]
 [[Category:Endemic birds of New Zealand]]

v t e Birds of New Zealand
Common birds	Bellbird (korimako) Black-billed gull (tarāpuka) Brown creeper (pipipi) Brown teal (pāteke) Buff-banded rail (moho-pererū) Dabchick (weweia) Double-banded plover (pohowera) New Zealand falcon (kārearea) Fantail (pīwakawaka) Grey warbler (riroriro) Grey-faced petrel (ōi) Sacred kingfisher (kōtare) Long-tailed cuckoo (koekoeā) Kererū Pipit (pīhoihoi) New Zealand dotterel (tūturiwhatu) South Island robin North Island robin New Zealand scaup (pāpango) Paradise shelduck (pūtangitangi) Pūkeko Rifleman (tītipounamu) New Zealand rock wren (pīwauwau) Shining cuckoo (pīpīwharauroa) Silvereye (tauhou) South Island oystercatcher (tōrea) Spotted shag (pārekareka) Tomtit (miromiro) Tūī Variable oystercatcher (tōrea pango) White-fronted tern (tara) Whitehead (pōpokotea) Wrybill (ngutuparore)
Flightless birds	Great spotted kiwi (roroa) Little spotted kiwi (kiwi pukupuku) North Island brown kiwi (roroa) Okarito kiwi (rowi) Southern brown kiwi (tokoeka) Yellow-eyed penguin (hoiho) Kākāpō South Island takahē Fiordland penguin (tawaki) Weka Blue penguin (kororā)
Endangered endemic birds (flying)	Black-fronted tern (tarapiroe) Black stilt (kakī) Blue duck (whio) Fernbird (mātātā) Foveaux shag Kākā Kea North Island kōkako South Island kōkako New Zealand fairy tern (tara-iti) New Zealand king shag (kawau tūī) New Zealand storm petrel (takahikare) Northern royal albatross Otago shag (Matapo) Orange-fronted parakeet (kākāriki karaka) Red-billed gull (tarāpunga) North Island saddleback (tīeke) South Island saddleback (tīeke) Shore plover (tūturuatu) Stitchbird (hihi) Yellowhead (mōhua)
Chatham Islands birds	Black robin (karure) Chatham albatross (toroa) Chatham gerygone Chatham oystercatcher (tōrea) Chatham parakeet Chatham petrel (ranguru) Chatham pigeon (parea) Chatham shag (papua) Chatham snipe Magenta petrel (tāiko) Pitt shag (kawau o rangihaute)
Subantarctic islands birds	Antipodean albatross (Toroa) Auckland rail Auckland shag Auckland teal (tētē kākāriki) Antipodes parakeet Bounty shag Campbell albatross Campbell shag Campbell teal Erect-crested penguin (tawaki nana hī) Reischek's parakeet Snares snipe Snares penguin (pokotiwha) Subantarctic snipe (tutukiwi)
Extinct birds	South Island piopio (piopio) New Zealand bittern (kaoriki) New Zealand quail (koreke) Huia Haast's eagle Moa North Island adzebill South Island adzebill Auckland Island merganser (rakiraki maungahuka) Chatham Island merganser Bushwren (mātuhituhi) Long-billed wren South Island stout-legged wren North Island stout-legged wren Lyall's wren Chatham kākā Laughing owl (whēkau) Chatham penguin Waitaha penguin Eyles' harrier (kērangi) North Island little spotted kiwi North Island snipe South Island snipe Forbes's snipe Snipe-rail Imber's petrel Scarlett's shearwater (ōiruki) North Island takahē (moho) New Zealand goose Finsch's duck (manutahora) New Zealand owlet-nightjar (ruru hinapō) New Zealand musk duck New Zealand swan (poūwa)