Kebab: Difference between revisions

Kebab
	A typical ground meat kebab, a food that exists by various names in many world cuisines
Course	Main course
Place of origin	Persia, Turkey
Region or state	Middle East
Serving temperature	Hot
Main ingredients	Meat
	Cookbook: Kebab; Media: Kebab;

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Kebab (UK: /kɪˈbæb/; US: /kɪˈbɑːb/; Persian: كباب,^[1] kabāb; Arabic: كباب,^[2] [kaˈbaːb]; Turkish: kebap, [kebɑp]), kabob (North American), kebap, kebob, or kabab (Kashmir), is a variety of roasted meat dishes that originated in the Middle East.

Kebabs consist of cut up ground meat, sometimes with vegetables and various other accompaniments according to the specific recipe. Although kebabs are typically cooked on a skewer over a fire, some kebab dishes are oven-baked in a pan, or prepared as a stew such as tas kebab.^[3]^[4] The traditional meat for kebabs is most often lamb meat, but regional recipes may include beef, goat, chicken, fish, or even pork (depending on whether or not there are specific religious prohibitions).

Etymology

The word kebab has ancient origins. It was popularized in the West by Turks to refer to a range of grilled and broiled meat, which may be cooked on skewers, including stews, meatballs, and many other forms.^[3]^[5]

The word kebab likely came to English in the late 17th century from the Persian kabāb, partly through Hindustani, and Turkish.^[6]^[2] According to linguist Sevan Nişanyan, the Turkish word kebap is also derived from the Persian word kabāb, meaning roasted meat. It appears in Turkish texts as early as the 14th century, in Kyssa-i Yusuf (lit. 'the story of Joseph'), though still in the Persian form. Nişanyan states that the word has the equivalent meaning of 'frying, burning' with kabābu in the old Akkadian language, and kbabā כבבא in Aramaic.^[7] In contrast, food historian Gil Marks says that the medieval Arabic and Turkish terms were adopted from the Persian kabab, which probably derived from the Aramaic.^[5]

The American Heritage Dictionary also gives a probable East Semitic root origin with the meaning of 'burn', 'char', or 'roast', from the Aramaic and Akkadian.^[8] The Babylonian Talmud instructs that Temple offerings not be kabbaba (burned).^[5] These words point to an origin in the prehistoric Proto-Afroasiatic language: *kab-, to burn or roast.^[9]

History

While the word kebab or shish kebab may sometimes be used in English as a culinary term that refers to any type of small chunks of meat cooked on a skewer,^[3] kebab is mainly associated with a diversity of meat dishes that originated in Persia and Anatolia.^[5]

In Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq's 10th-century Baghdadi cookbook Kitab al-Tabikh (Arabic: كتاب الطبيخ), a compendium of much of the legacy of Mesopotamian, Persian, and Arab cuisines, there are descriptions of kabāb as cut-up meat, either fried in a pan or grilled over a fire.^[10]

This cuisine has spread around the world, in parallel with Muslim influence.^[3] According to Ibn Battuta, a Maghrebi traveller, kebab was served in the royal houses during the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526), and even commoners would enjoy it for breakfast with naan.^[11] Kebab dishes have been adopted and integrated with local cooking styles and innovations, from the now-ubiquitous doner kebab fast food, to the many variations of shish kebab, such as the satays of Southeast Asia.^[3]

Varieties by region

In most English-speaking countries, a kebab may be the classic shish kebab or souvlaki – small cubes of meat cooked on a skewer^[3]^[6] – or made with minced (ground) meat, as in doner kebab.^[12]^[6]^[5] By contrast, in Indian English, Bangladeshi English, Pakistani English^[13]^[14] and in the languages of the Middle East, other parts of Asia, and the Muslim world, a kebab is any of a wide variety of grilled meat dishes. Some dishes ultimately derived from Middle Eastern kebab may have different names in their local languages, such as the Chinese chuan.

East Asia

China

Chuan (Chinese: 串; pinyin: chuàn), often referred to as "chuan" in Mandarin throughout the north, or kawap (كاۋاپ) in Uyghur, is a variation of kebab originating from the Uyghur people in the western province of Xinjiang and a popular dish in Chinese Islamic cuisine. The dish has since spread across the rest of the country and become a popular street food.

Although the most traditional form of chuan uses lamb or mutton, other types of meat, such as chicken, beef, pork, and seafood, may be used as well. Small pieces of meat are skewered and either roasted or deep-fried. Common spices and condiments include cumin called "ziran", pepper, sesame, and sesame oil.

Europe

Greece

While the history of street foods in Greece goes back to ancient times, the iconic Greek gyros and souvlaki as it is known today arose only following the Second World War. Introduced to Athens in the 1950s by Greek refugees from Turkey and the Middle East, gyros was originally known simply as döner kebab. It is typically served as a sandwich rolled in pita bread, or on a plate, with french fries and various salads and sauces such as tzatziki. Later in the 1960s, vendors also began selling dishes in the same style made with souvlaki, which resembles Turkish shish kebab, but is usually made with pork.^[15]

Around the same time, the Greek word gyros replaced döner kebab, and the Greek style of the dish spread to become popular, particularly in North America, and various other parts of the world.^[16]

In contrast to other areas of Greece, in Athens, both types of sandwich may be called souvlaki, with the skewered meat being called kalamaki.

Although gyros is unquestionably of Middle Eastern origin, the issue of whether modern-day souvlaki came to Greece via Turkish cuisine, and should be considered a Greek styling of shish kebab, or is a contemporary revival of Greek tradition dating as far back as 17th century BC Minoan civilization,^[17] is a topic of sometimes heated debate, at least between Greeks and Turks.^[18] While English speakers may refer to souvlaki skewers as kebabs,^[19] they are not properly called that in Greece.

West Asia and North Africa

South Caucasus

Both Armenian and Azerbaijani cuisine feature oblong kofta-style mincemeats kebabs known as lula or lyulya kebab, while Armenian cuisine refers to shish-style kebabs as khorovats,^[20]^[21] and doner kebab as Karsi khorovats after the city of Kars which became known for the dish during the time of the Ottoman Empire.^[21]

Iran

There are several distinct Persian varieties of kabab (Persian: کباب). Kabab may be served with either steamed, saffroned basmati or Persian rice and called chelow kabab (چلوکباب), which is considered the national dish of Iran.^[22] It may also be served with the various types of bread that are the most commonly eaten in Iran, such as lavash.

It is served with the basic Iranian meal accompaniments, in addition to grilled tomatoes on the side of the rice and butter on top of the rice. It is an old northern tradition (probably originating in Tehran) that a raw egg yolk should be placed on top of the rice as well, though this is strictly optional, and most restaurants will not serve the rice this way unless it is specifically requested. "Somagh", powdered sumac, is also made available and its use varies based on tastes to a small dash on the rice or a heavy sprinkling on both rice and meat, particularly when used with red (beef/veal/lamb) meat.

At Persian restaurants, the combination of one kabab barg and one kabab koobideh is typically called Soltani, meaning "sultan's feast". The combination of one kabab barg, one jujeh kabab and kabab koobideh is typically called Shah abbasi, meaning "Shah Abbas' meal". The traditional beverage of choice to accompany Persian kabab is doogh, a sour yogurt drink with mint and salt.

In the old bazaar tradition, the rice (which is covered with a tin lid) and accompaniments are served first, immediately followed by the kababs, which are brought to the table by the waiter, who holds several skewers in his left hand, and a piece of flat bread (typically nan-e lavash) in his right. A skewer is placed directly on the rice and while holding the kebab down on the rice with the bread, the skewer is quickly pulled out. With the two most common kababs, barg and koobideh, two skewers are always served. In general, bazaar kabab restaurants only serve these two varieties, though there are exceptions.

In Iranian Azerbaijan, "Binab (also Bonab) Kababi" is very famous in Iranian Azerbaijani local cuisine for its large size.^[23] It is named after the city of Binab in East Azerbaijan province. This kabab and other types (e.g., Shishlik, Kubide, Berge, Gelin, etc.) can be served alone or with rice and fresh salad on the side. In this region Kababs come usually with yogurt, hot bread, tomato, onion, parsley and paprika-salt, and tarragon.

Kabab koobideh (کباب کوبیده) it kūbide (کوبیده) is an Iranian minced meat kabab which is made from ground lamb, beef, or chicken, often mixed with parsley and chopped onions.

Kabab Koobideh contains: ground meat, onion, salt, pepper, turmeric, and seasoning. These ingredients are mixed together until the mixture becomes smooth and sticky. One egg is added to help the mix stick together. The mixture is then pressed around a skewer. Koobideh Kabab is typically 18 to 20 centimeters (7–8 in) long.

Kabāb-e Barg (Persian: کباب برگ) is a Persian style barbecued lamb, chicken or beef kabab dish. The main ingredients of Kabab Barg – a short form of this name – are fillets of beef tenderloin, lamb shank or chicken breast, onions and olive oil.

Marinade is prepared by the mixture of half a cup of olive oil, three onions, garlic, half teaspoon saffron, salt and black pepper. One kilogram of lamb is cut into 1 cm thick and 4–5 cm long pieces. It should be marinated overnight in refrigerator, and the container should be covered. The next day, the lamb is threaded on long, thin metal skewers. It is brushed with marinade and is barbecued for 5–10 minutes on each side.

Jūjeh Kabāb (جوجه‌کباب) consists of pieces of chicken first marinated in minced onion and lemon juice with saffron then grilled over a fire. It is sometimes served with grilled tomato and pepper. Jujeh Kabab is one of the most popular Persian dishes.

Kabab Bakhtiari is a combination of Jujeh kabab (chicken kabab) and Kabab barg (beef or lamb meat) on the same skewer. Its name comes from the Bakhtiari region of Iran.

Kabab Kenjeh, also known as Chenjeh (کنجه‌کباب, چنجه) is a kabab traditionally made with chunks of marinated lamb meat. It is typically served with grilled tomatoes and rice or bread.^[24]

Kabab Torsh is an Iranian Kabab from the northern provinces of Gilan and Mazandaran, renowned for its sour, pomegranate based seasoning.^[25]

Kabab Lari, Kabab Tabei (Pan Kabab), Dande Kabab, Kabab Shandiz, Shishlik Kabab, Kabab Ghafghazi, Kabab Soltani, Kabob Vaziri, Kabob Loghmeh, Taas Kabab, Mahi Kabab (Fish Kabab) and Kabab Jegar (Sheep Liver Kaba) are among other types of Persian Kababs popular in Iran.^{[citation needed]}

Iraq

Several types of kebab are popular in Iraqi cuisine, although the word kebab in local use is reserved for skewers of spiced ground lamb, traditionally grilled on natural wood charcoal to give the kebab its special flavor. Skewers of grilled marinated meat chunks are called tikka.^[5]

The Levant

Several varieties of kebabs can be found in Levantine cuisine. Among the most common are shish taouk, which are grilled chicken skewers marinated in olive oil and spices, and lahem meshwi, charcoal-grilled skewers of prime lamb cubes lightly seasoned with herbs.^[5]

The Syrian city of Aleppo is said to have at least twenty-six versions of kebab halabi or Aleppo kebab, including kebab cooked with cherries; with aubergine; with chili, parsley and pine-nuts; and with truffles.^[26]

Mizrahi Jews brought various types of grilled meat from their native Middle Eastern countries to Israel, where they have become an essential part of Israeli cuisine.^[5] Among the most popular are skewers of elongated spiced ground meat, called kabab (Hebrew: קבב), which have become a staple dish of meat restaurants and the main dish of the traditional holiday barbecues, alongside the shishlik. They are commonly made of beef, though lamb is also occasionally used, and are almost always served with the local pita bread.

Shawarma, although not considered a kebab in most countries of the Levant, is another very popular type of grilled meat preparation that characterizes this region.

Egypt

Several varieties of kebab are popular in Egyptian cuisine, although the word kebab in local use is reserved for skewers of grilled marinated meat chunks. Skewers of grilled seasoned ground meat are called kofta. Shish taouk, which are skewers of grilled marinated chicken chunks, are another popular variety of kebab in Egypt. All kebabs are grilled on charcoal to give them their special flavor.^[5]

Turkey

Adana kebap (or kıyma kebabı) is a long, hand-minced meat kebab mounted on a wide iron skewer and grilled over charcoal. Named after the Turkish city of Adana, the kebab is generally "hot" or piquant. The traditional Adana kebab is made using lamb, with a high fatty content cooked over hot coals. Only three ingredients are used in a proper Adana kebab, minced lamb, red capsicum (pepper) and salt.
Ali Paşa kebabı, "Ali Pasha kebab" – cubed lamb with tomato, onion and parsley wrapped in phyllo.^[27]
Alinazik – Ground meat kebab sautéed in a saucepan, with garlic, yogurt and eggplants added.
Beyti kebap – Ground lamb or beef, seasoned and grilled on a skewer, often served wrapped in lavash and topped with tomato sauce and yogurt, traced back to the famous kebab house Beyti in Istanbul and particularly popular in Turkey's larger cities.
Bostan kebabı – Lamb and aubergine casserole.^[27]
Buğu kebabı – Steam kebab, is a Turkish stew which is cooked in a pan or an earthenware casserole. The casserole's lid is sealed in order to cook the meat in its own juices. The dish is prepared with pearl onions, garlic, thyme and other spices. In Tekirdağ, it is served with cumin; in İzmir, it is served with mastic.^[28]
Cağ kebap, 'spoke kebab' – Cubes of lamb roasted first on a cağ (a horizontal rotating spit) and then on a skewer, a specialty of Erzurum region with recently rising popularity.
Ciğer kebabı, 'liver kebab' - usually eaten with sliced onions, salad and bread.
Çökertme kebabı – Sirloin veal kebap stuffed with yogurt and potatoes.
Çöp şiş, "small skewer kebab" – a speciality of Selçuk and Germencik near Ephesus, pounded boneless meat with tomatoes and garlic marinated with black pepper, thyme and oil on wooden skewers.^[29]
Döner kebap, literally "rotating kebab" in Turkish, is sliced lamb, beef, or chicken, slowly roasted on a vertical rotating spit. The Middle Eastern shawarma, Mexican tacos al pastor, and Greek gyros are all derived from the Turkish döner kebab, which was invented in Bursa in the 19th century.^[30] The German-style döner kebab sandwich, sometimes called simply "a kebab" in English, was introduced by Turkish immigrants in Berlin in the 1970s, and has become one of the most popular take-away foods in Germany and much of Europe. It is commonly sold by Turks, and considered a Turkish-German specialty, in Germany.^[31]
Hünkâri kebabı, 'Sultan's kebab' – Sliced lamb meat mixed with patlıcan beğendi (aubergine purée), basil, thyme and bay leaf.^[27]
İskender kebap – döner kebab served with yogurt, tomato sauce and butter, originated in Bursa. This kebab was invented by İskender Efendi in 1867. He was inspired from Cağ kebab and turned it from horizontal to vertical.
İslim kebabı, 'steamed kebab' – Another version of the aubergine kebab without its skin, marinated in sunflower oil.^[27]^[29]
Kağıt kebabı – Lamb cooked in a paper wrapping.^[29]
Kuzu şiş – Shish prepared with marinated milk-fed lamb meat.
Manisa Kebab – This Manisa region version of the kebab is smaller and flat size shish meat on the sliced pide bread, flavored with butter, and stuffed with tomato, garlic and green pepper.
Patlıcan kebabı, 'aubergine kebab' – Special kebap meat marinated in spices and served with eggplant (aubergine), hot pide bread and a yogurt sauce.^[29]
Shish kebap – is a dish consisting of small cubes of meat or fish threaded on a skewer and grilled. Şiş, pronounced [ʃiʃ], is a Turkish word meaning "sword" or "skewer".^[32]^[33] According to tradition, the dish was invented by medieval soldiers who used their swords to grill meat over open-field fires.^[34]^[35] In Turkey, shish kebab does not normally contain vegetables, though they may be cooked on a separate skewer.^[36] It can be prepared with lamb, beef, chicken, or fish, but pork is not used. The Pontian Greeks made a dish similar to shish kebabs, although theirs were cooked in a saucepan.^[37]^[38]
Tavuk şiş – Yogurt-marinated chicken grilled on a stick.^[29]
Testi kebabı, 'earthenware-jug kebab' – is a dish from Central Anatolia and the Mid-Western Black Sea region, consisting of a mixture of meat and vegetables cooked in a clay pot or jug over fire (testi means jug in Turkish). The pot is sealed with bread dough or foil and is broken when serving.^[39]

South Asia

South Asia has a rich kebab tradition with a great variety of different kebab dishes. Many modern kebabs in Bangladeshi, Indian and Pakistani cuisine trace their origins back to the time of the Mughals and the strong influence of Mughlai cuisine. Kebab dishes common to one or more of these countries include:

Tandoori kebab (Urdu: تندوری کباب)
Naga doner kebab
Tikka kebab
Kathi Kebab (including Porota Kababs, kebab wraps)
Shami kebab (Urdu: شامی کباب) – A Shami kebab is a small patty of minced beef or chicken and ground chickpeas and spices.
Seekh kebab (Urdu: سيخ کباب) – A long skewer of beef mixed with herbs and seasonings, it takes its name from the skewer.
Tunde ke kabab (Urdu: ٹنڈے کے کباب)
Bun kebab (Urdu: بن کباب) – A unique kebab sandwich with beef, lamb, fish or chicken.
Shatkora doner kebab
Chapli kebab (Urdu: چپلی کباب) – A spiced, tangy round kebab made of ground beef and cooked in animal fat. A speciality of Peshawar in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa.
Bihari kebab (Urdu: بہاری کباب) – Skewer of beef mixed with herbs and seasoning.
Kalmi kebab (Urdu: کلمی کباب)
Sheesh kebab (Urdu: شیش کباب)
Burrah kebab – made from goat or lamb chops, liberally marinated with spices and charcoal grilled.

Afghanistan

Afghan kebab (Pashto/Dari: کباب) is most often found in restaurants and outdoor vendor stalls. The most widely used meat is lamb. Recipes differ with every restaurant. In Afghan cuisine, kebab is served with naan, rarely rice, and customers have the option to sprinkle sumac or ghora, dried ground sour grapes, on their kebab. The quality of kebab is solely dependent on the quality of the meat. Pieces of fat from the sheep's tail (jijeq) are usually added with the lamb skewers to add extra flavor.

Other popular kebabs include the lamb chop, ribs, beef, buffalo, and chicken.

Chapli kebab, a specialty of Eastern Afghanistan, is a patty made from beef mince. It is prepared flat and round, and served with naan. The original recipe of chapli kebab dictates a half meat (or less), half flour mixture, which renders it lighter in taste and less expensive.

Bangladesh

In Bangladesh they make variations of kebab (Bengali কাবাব or "Kabab"). In the old Mughal province of Bengal Subah's capital of Dhaka, various Pakistani and Indian-influenced dishes started to be made. Amongst these were kebabs. In Bangladeshi cuisine, most kebabs are made using fish or beef.

India

Modern-day kebabs in India mostly trace their origin to the influence of Mughlai cuisine.^[3] Some Indian kebabs have very specific geographic attributions, such as Kakori kebab, which is made of finely ground, soft mince and attributed to the city of Kakori in Uttar Pradesh, where legend has it that it was first prepared for old and toothless pilgrims.^[40]

Pakistan

In Pakistan kebabs trace back their origin during the time of the Mughals Mughlai cuisine, and their influence on the cuisine of modern-day Pakistan. There are all sorts of kebab varieties such as seekh, chapli, shammi and other forms of roasted and grilled meats. As Pakistan is a predominantly Muslim country, pork is not used. Instead meats like beef, chicken, lamb, fish and sometimes buff are used in the making of kebabs.

Southeast Asia

Grilled chicken satay served with peanut sauce in Jakarta

Satay is a kebab of seasoned, skewered, and grilled meat, served with a sauce.^[41] It is a dish of Southeast Asia, particularly Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand.^[42]

Satay may consist of diced or sliced chicken, goat, lamb, mutton, beef, pork, fish, other meats, or tofu. Traditionally skewers from the midrib of the coconut palm frond are used, although bamboo skewers are often used instead. It is grilled or barbecued over a wood or charcoal fire with spicy seasonings. It may be served with various sauces, though most often a combination of soy and peanut sauce.^[43] Hence, peanut sauce is often called satay sauce.^[44]

Satay was developed by Javanese street vendors as a unique adaptation of Indian kebab.^[42]^[45] The introduction of satay, and other now-iconic dishes such as tongseng and gulai kambing based on meats such as goat and lamb, coincided with an influx of Indian and Arab traders and immigrants starting in the 18th century.^[46] It is available almost anywhere in Indonesia, where it has become a national dish.^[47]^[48]^[49] In Sri Lanka, it has become a staple of the local diet as a result of the influences from the local Malay community.^[50]

Sub-Saharan Africa

South Africa

Sosatie (plural sosaties) is a traditional South African dish of meat (usually lamb or mutton) cooked on skewers.^[51] The term derives from sate ("skewered meat") and saus (spicy sauce). It is of Cape Malay origin. Sosatie recipes vary, but commonly the ingredients can include cubes of lamb, beef, chicken, dried apricots, red onions and mixed peppers.

West Africa

Suya is a spicy kebab which is a popular food item in West Africa that originated in Nigeria.^[52]^[53] It is traditionally prepared by the Hausa people of Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger, Ghana and some parts of Sudan (where it is called agashe).

Kyinkyinga is common and popular in West Africa.^[54]^[55] It is a Ghanaian dish, very similar to or synonymous with the Hausa suya kebab, also known as sooya, tsinga, chichinga, tsire agashi, chachanga or tankora.^[56]^[57]^[58]

Other variants

Ćevapi

Ćevapi (pronounced [tɕɛv̞ǎːpi]) or ćevapčići (formal diminutive, [tɕɛv̞ǎptʃitɕi], ћевапчићи), which comes from the word kebab, is a grilled dish of minced meat, a type of skinless sausage, found traditionally in the countries of southeastern Europe (the Balkans). They are considered a national dish in Bosnia and Herzegovina^[59] and Serbia^[60]^[61]^[62] and are also common in Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, Albania, Slovenia, as well as in North Macedonia, Bulgaria, Romania. Ćevapi has its origins in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Ottoman period, and represents a regional speciality similar to the kofte kebab. A dish with similar origins is in Romania called mititei.^[63]

Pinchitos

Pinchitos or Pinchos Morunos is a Moorish-derived kebab dish in Spanish cuisine. The name pinchitos is used in the southern Spanish autonomous communities of Andalusia and Extremadura. They consist of small cubes of meat threaded onto a skewer (Spanish: pincho) which are traditionally cooked over charcoal braziers. Similar dishes in North Africa or other Muslim majority countries tend to be lamb-based, but pork and chicken are the most popular meats for the dish in Spain. Pinchitos are also extremely popular in Venezuela, due to the heavy influence Spain had in Venezuelan cuisine during many years.

Shashlik

Shashlik is similar to, or sometimes a synonym for, shish kebab. It is popular in many countries, particularly in Eastern and Central Europe, the Caucasus, and the Baltics. In non-Muslim-majority countries, shashlik and equivalent dishes like Romanian frigărui^[5] may sometimes be prepared with pork.

Kebab in Western culture

Kebab cuisine has spread around the world together with Muslim influence.^[3] Although non-Muslim Westerners may be increasingly familiar with some of the many other international kebab dishes, only two have become an established and widely popular part of the culture in many Western countries. In English, the word kebab commonly refers to shish kebab and, outside of North America, to döner kebab or related fast-food dishes.^[5] These dishes are also served in many other countries, where they may have different names.^[64]^[65]

Kebabs have also met opposition: in Italy, several cities banned kebab shops in order to preserve Italian culinary culture.^[66]^[67] Many protested against these bans as "racist".^[66]

Shish kebab

In English, kebab, or in North America also kabob, often occurring as shish kebab, is now a culinary term for small pieces of meat cooked on a skewer.^[3] The word kebab, most likely derived from Persian,^[6] has been used with various spellings in this sense since at least the 17th century,^[13] while the Oxford English Dictionary records the earliest known publication of the term shish kebab, derived from Turkish: şiş kebap, in 1914.^[68]

There are two etymologies suggested for Shish Kabob in the Persian dictionary of Dehkhoda: Shish being the Persian word "Shish" for the number 6, which refers to the original six pieces of meat of a standard Kabob skewer, or "Shish" being driven from Late Middle Persian "Sich" meaning a skewer. The word "Kabob" is most probably driven from the Arhameic word kbābā (to roast).^[69] In many English-speaking countries, it refers to the now well-known dish prepared with marinated meat or seafood together with vegetables such as onions, tomatoes, and bell peppers threaded onto the skewer, also sometimes known as shashlik.^[70] This preparation is different from the typical Turkish shish kebab style, where vegetables are usually cooked on a separate skewer.^[36] Shish kebabs are customarily prepared in homes and restaurants, and are usually cooked on a grill or barbecue, or roasted in an oven.

The word kebab may also be used as a general term in English to describe any similar-looking skewered food, such as brochette, satay, souvlaki, yakitori, or numerous small chunks of any type of food served on a stick. This is different from its use in the West Asia, where shish (Persian/Mazandarani: شیش, Turkish: şiş) is the word for skewer, while kebab comes from the word for grilling.^[5]

Doner kebab

English speakers from countries outside North America may also use the word kebab generally to mean the popular fast food version of the Turkish döner kebab,^[64] or the related shawarma or gyros, and the sandwiches made with them, available from kebab shops as take-away meals. This usage may be found in some non-English parts of Europe as well. In North America, the Greek variant gyros is most widely known.^{[citation needed]}

The döner kebab originated in 19th century Turkey, but it became widely popular in the West only in the latter half of the 20th century. Many layers of meat are stacked onto a large vertical rotating spit; the outer surface is gradually cooked and sliced off, and typically served either mixed or topped with vegetables and sauces in a sandwich made with pita or other flatbreads. Certain regional variants also include cheeses. Sandwiches served in the same manner, but with other meats or cheese, may also sometimes be called a "kebab". It is available in most parts of Europe, and many other countries, though sometimes with different names or serving styles. In Germany, the highly popular sandwich, introduced by Turkish immigrants, is called a Döner, though Arab shops there serve shawarma.^[71]

Similar dishes

Americas

Africa

Asia

Chuan (Chinese)
Kkochi and jeok (Korean)
Kushiyaki and kushikatsu (Japanese)
Satay (Indonesian, Malaysian, Singaporean and Thai)

Europe

References

^ Marks, Gil (17 November 2010). Encyclopedia of Jewish Food. HMH. ISBN 978-0-544-18631-6. The Persian term was adopted by medieval Arabs and Turks as kebab
^ ^a ^b "kebab – definition of kebab in English". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 3 August 2017. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Davidson, Alan (2014). Jaine, Tom (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 442. ISBN 9780191040726 – via Google Books.
^ Akin, Engin (6 October 2015). Essential Turkish Cuisine. Abrams. ISBN 9781613128718 – via Google Books.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Marks, Gil (2010). Encyclopedia of Jewish Food. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-544-18631-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Zubaida, Sami (2010). "Vocabularies of Middle Eastern Food". In Hosking, Richard (ed.). Food and Language: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cooking 2009. Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery. Prospect Books. p. 386. ISBN 978-1-903018-79-8 – via Google Books.
^ "Nişanyan Sevan, Sözlerin Soyağacı, Çağdaş Türkçenin Etimolojik Sözlüğü". Archived from the original on 22 September 2013. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
^ The Editors of the American Heritage Dictionaries. "Appendix II – Semitic Roots". American Heritage Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
^ Vladimir Orel; Olga V. Stolbova (1995). Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary: Materials for a Reconstruction. E. J. Brill. pp. 307. ISBN 978-9004100510.
^ Nasrallah, Nawal (2007). Annals of the caliphs' kitchens: Ibn Sayyār al-Warrāq's tenth-century Baghdadi cookbook. Brill. p. 40. ISBN 9789047423058.
^ Achaya, K. T. (1998). A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food. Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 115.
^ Shilcutt, Katharine (9 April 2014). "World's Second-Largest Döner Kebap Chain Headed to Houston". Houstonia Magazine. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
^ ^a ^b "cabob". Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 1989.
^ "Kebab". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 23 February 2016.
^ Matalas, Antonia-Leda; Yannakoulia, Mary (2000). "Greek Street Food Vending: An Old Habit Turned New". In Simopoulos, Artemis P.; Bhat, Ramesh Venkataramana (eds.). Street Foods. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers. p. 6. ISBN 978-3-8055-6927-9.
^ "The Gyro, a Greek Sandwich, Selling Like Hot Dogs". The New York Times. 4 September 1971. p. 23. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
^ Tassoula Eptakili (9 October 2015). "Prehistoric Gastronomy". Greece Is. Retrieved 21 February 2016.
^ Gold, David L. (2009). Studies in Etymology and Etiology With Emphasis on Germanic, Jewish, Romance and Slavic Languages. Universidad de Alicante. p. 323. ISBN 978-84-7908-517-9. Greeks and Turks also battle over the similar dishes which the first call soublaki (> english souvlaki) and the second şiş kebabı (> English shish kebab), each claiming to be the originators.
^ "Souvlaki (Wicked kebabs)". Jamie Oliver Recipes. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
^ Petrosian, Irina (2011). Albala, Ken (ed.). Food Cultures of the World Encyclopedia. Vol. 4: Europe. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1–10. ISBN 9780313376269 – via Google Books.
^ ^a ^b Petrosian, Irina; Underwood, David (2006). Armenian Food: Fact, Fiction & Folklore. Yerkir Publishing. ISBN 9781411698659 – via Google Books.
^ Shaida, Margaret (1992). Chellow Kabab – The National Dish of Iran. Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 1991: Public Eating. [London]: Prospect Books. p. 272. ISBN 9780907325475. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
^ "5,000 Bonab Kebabs per Day". Financial Tribune Daily. 1 March 2015. Archived from the original on 11 August 2016. Retrieved 13 June 2016.
^ Dana-Haeri, Jila (2014). From a Persian kitchen : fresh discoveries in Iranian cooking. London: I.B.Tauris. pp. 117–118. ISBN 9781780768014. OCLC 859880780.
^ "Kabab Torsh". thecaspianchef. 21 May 2019.
^ Mansel, Philip (28 February 2016). Aleppo: The Rise and Fall of Syria's Great Merchant City. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85772-924-8.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Turkish Cookery by M.Günür ISBN 975-479-100-7
^ Kebab aux petits oignons Archived 14 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e The Complete Book of Turkish Cooking, A.Algar (1985) ISBN 0-7103-0334-3
^ Kenneth F. Kiple, Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas, eds., Cambridge World History of Food, Cambridge, 2000. ISBN 0-521-40216-6. Vol. 2, p. 1147.
^ "Doner kebab 'inventor' Kadir Nurman dies in Berlin". BBC. Retrieved 1 November 2013.
^ Glenn Randall Mack, Asele Surina (2005). Food culture in Russia and Central Asia. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 83–84. ISBN 9780313327735.
^ Internet dictionary Archived 14 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine of Turkish Language Association
^ Food Around the World, p.45, Oxford University Press, 1986, Check on Google Books Archived 1 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine
^ Middle Eastern Kitchen, Ghillie Basan Hippocrene Books, 2007, p.70, Check on Google Books
^ ^a ^b Steven Raichlen (28 May 2008). The Barbecue! Bible 10th Anniversary Edition. Workman Publishing Company. pp. 214–. ISBN 978-0-7611-5957-5.
^ "Pontian pork skewers with atzika and tsatsibeli". Pontos News. 17 April 2020.
^ The Rough Guide to Europe on a Budget. Rough Guides. 2017. ISBN 9780241307816. Slightly up-market though still good value, sleek kebab restaurant, serving Armenian and Pontian dishes.
^ Testi kebab: a specialty of Cappadocia Archived 20 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 22 May 2009 (scroll to the bottom of the page)
^ Jiggs, Kaira (2005). Jiggs Kalra's Classic Cooking Of Avadh. Allied Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-81-7764-567-5.
^ "Grilled Beef Satay". Food Reference.com. Retrieved 6 July 2010.
^ ^a ^b Alan., Davidson (2006). The Oxford Companion to Food (2nd ed.). Oxford: OUP Oxford. ISBN 9780191018251. OCLC 862049879.
^ Marx, Pamela (1996). The Travel-the-world Cookbook. Good Year Books. p. 30. ISBN 9780673362544. indonesian satay peanut sauce.
^ "Peanut butter and satay sauce – recipe". The Guardian. 2 May 2014.
^ Bruce Kraig; Colleen Taylor Sen (2013). Street Food Around the World: An Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 183. ISBN 9781598849554.
^ Christina Andhika Setyanti (30 August 2016). "Sepotong Sejarah Autentik Indonesia dalam Semangkuk Tongseng". CNN Indonesia (in Indonesian).
^ Sara Schonhardt (25 February 2016). "40 Indonesian foods we can't live without". CNN.
^ Owen, Sri (1999). Indonesian Regional Food and Cookery By Sri Owen. Frances Lincoln. ISBN 9780711212732. Retrieved 7 July 2010.^{[permanent dead link‍]}
^ Sara Schonhardt and Melanie Wood (15 August 2011). "40 of Indonesia's best dishes". CNN Travel. Retrieved 6 July 2014.
^ Bullis, Douglas; Hutton, Wendy (1 April 2001). Food of Sri Lanka. Tuttle. ISBN 9781462907182.
^ Raichlen, S. (2015). Planet Barbecue!: 309 Recipes, 60 Countries (in German). Workman Publishing Company. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-7611-6447-0. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
^ Fareeda Abdulkareem (23 February 2017). "A Brief History of Suya, West Africa's Answer to Shish Kebab". Culture Trip. Retrieved 24 August 2021.
^ EKE, IRABOR, OKOYE; et al. "THE MICROBIAL STATUS OF COMMERCIAL 'SUYA' MEAT PRODUCTS IN EKPOMA, EDO, NIGERIA" (PDF). International Journal of Community Research. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Raichlen, S. (2015). Planet Barbecue!: 309 Recipes, 60 Countries. Workman Publishing Company. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-7611-6447-0. Retrieved 23 May 2016.
^ Raichlen, S.; Fink, B. (2008). The Barbecue! Bible. Workman Pub. pp. 157–158. ISBN 978-0-7611-4943-9. Retrieved 23 May 2016.
^ Osseo-Asare, Fran (2005). Food culture in sub-Saharan Africa. Greenwood Press. p. 41. OCLC 58527114.
^ Dako, Kari (2003). Ghanaianisms : a glossary. Accra: Ghana Universities Press. pp. 59, 201. ISBN 9789964303013. OCLC 53432897.
^ Adjonyoh, Zoe (2017). Zoe's Ghana Kitchen. UK: Hachette. ISBN 9781784721985.
^ "Bosnia and Herzegovina". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
^ Encyclopædia Britannica (2002). The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1. Encyclopædia Britannica. ISBN 978-0-85229-787-2.
^ Ember, Melvin; Ember, Carol R (2001). Countries and Their Cultures: Saint Kitts and Nevis to Zimbabwe. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 68. ISBN 9780028649467.
^ "Serbian cuisine". TravelSerbia. Retrieved 9 August 2010.
^ "Reteta originala de mititei de la Caru cu Bere". Ceva Bun (in Romanian). 21 May 2009. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
^ ^a ^b "kebab Definition in the Cambridge English Dictionary". The Cambridge English Dictionary. Retrieved 23 February 2016.
^ Prosper Montagne, ed. (2001). Larousse Gastronomique. New York: Clarkson Potter. p. 646. ISBN 978-0-609-60971-2.
^ ^a ^b Chantal Saint-Blancat (2014). "Italy". In Jocelyne Cesari (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of European Islam. p. 276. One of the best ways to preserve Italian traditions and culinary culture has been the 'anti-kebab regulations' introduced in Brescia and Bergamo, in Bussolengo closed to Venice, and in Prato and Lucca in Tuscany...Italian civil society reacted firmly to these discriminatory practices... formed a coalition of protest against 'racist acts' and 'apartheid climax' using the defence of human rights
^ "Italian town's kebab ban enrages migrant community". 7 August 2011.
^ "shish kebab". Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 1989.
^ "Kabob - Dehkhoda". Vajehyab (in Persian). Retrieved 4 August 2023.
^ "Shashlik – definition of shashlik by The Free Dictionary". The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 23 February 2016.
^ Doner kebab becomes Germany's favorite fast food Archived 27 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine, USAToday, 4/11/2010

[1] Marks, Gil (17 November 2010). Encyclopedia of Jewish Food. HMH. ISBN 978-0-544-18631-6. The Persian term was adopted by medieval Arabs and Turks as kebab

[Oxford-2] "kebab – definition of kebab in English". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 3 August 2017. Retrieved 3 August 2017.

[Oxford_Companion-3] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Davidson, Alan (2014). Jaine, Tom (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 442. ISBN 9780191040726 – via Google Books.

[Akin_2015-4] Akin, Engin (6 October 2015). Essential Turkish Cuisine. Abrams. ISBN 9781613128718 – via Google Books.

[encyclopedia-5] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Marks, Gil (2010). Encyclopedia of Jewish Food. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-544-18631-6.

[Zubaida_2010-6] Zubaida, Sami (2010). "Vocabularies of Middle Eastern Food". In Hosking, Richard (ed.). Food and Language: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cooking 2009. Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery. Prospect Books. p. 386. ISBN 978-1-903018-79-8 – via Google Books.

[Online-7] "Nişanyan Sevan, Sözlerin Soyağacı, Çağdaş Türkçenin Etimolojik Sözlüğü". Archived from the original on 22 September 2013. Retrieved 6 July 2013.

[Semitic_Roots-8] The Editors of the American Heritage Dictionaries. "Appendix II – Semitic Roots". American Heritage Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Retrieved 5 June 2016.

[Orel_Stolbova-9] Vladimir Orel; Olga V. Stolbova (1995). Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary: Materials for a Reconstruction. E. J. Brill. pp. 307. ISBN 978-9004100510.

[Nasrallah_2007-10] Nasrallah, Nawal (2007). Annals of the caliphs' kitchens: Ibn Sayyār al-Warrāq's tenth-century Baghdadi cookbook. Brill. p. 40. ISBN 9789047423058.

[indian-11] Achaya, K. T. (1998). A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food. Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 115.

[12] Shilcutt, Katharine (9 April 2014). "World's Second-Largest Döner Kebap Chain Headed to Houston". Houstonia Magazine. Retrieved 19 June 2020.

[OED_cabob-13] "cabob". Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 1989.

[Dictionary.com-14] "Kebab". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 23 February 2016.

[Street_Foods-15] Matalas, Antonia-Leda; Yannakoulia, Mary (2000). "Greek Street Food Vending: An Old Habit Turned New". In Simopoulos, Artemis P.; Bhat, Ramesh Venkataramana (eds.). Street Foods. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers. p. 6. ISBN 978-3-8055-6927-9.

[The_Food_Timeline:_history_notes--sandwiches-16] "The Gyro, a Greek Sandwich, Selling Like Hot Dogs". The New York Times. 4 September 1971. p. 23. Retrieved 22 February 2016.

[Greece_Is-17] Tassoula Eptakili (9 October 2015). "Prehistoric Gastronomy". Greece Is. Retrieved 21 February 2016.

[David_L._Gold-18] Gold, David L. (2009). Studies in Etymology and Etiology With Emphasis on Germanic, Jewish, Romance and Slavic Languages. Universidad de Alicante. p. 323. ISBN 978-84-7908-517-9. Greeks and Turks also battle over the similar dishes which the first call soublaki (> english souvlaki) and the second şiş kebabı (> English shish kebab), each claiming to be the originators.

[Jamie_Oliver_Recipes-19] "Souvlaki (Wicked kebabs)". Jamie Oliver Recipes. Retrieved 22 February 2016.

[Petrosian_2011-20] Petrosian, Irina (2011). Albala, Ken (ed.). Food Cultures of the World Encyclopedia. Vol. 4: Europe. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1–10. ISBN 9780313376269 – via Google Books.

[Petrosian_Underwood_2006-21] Petrosian, Irina; Underwood, David (2006). Armenian Food: Fact, Fiction & Folklore. Yerkir Publishing. ISBN 9781411698659 – via Google Books.

[Shaida_1992-22] Shaida, Margaret (1992). Chellow Kabab – The National Dish of Iran. Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 1991: Public Eating. [London]: Prospect Books. p. 272. ISBN 9780907325475. Retrieved 21 April 2018.

[Financial_Tribune_Daily-23] "5,000 Bonab Kebabs per Day". Financial Tribune Daily. 1 March 2015. Archived from the original on 11 August 2016. Retrieved 13 June 2016.

[Dana-Haeri_2014-24] Dana-Haeri, Jila (2014). From a Persian kitchen : fresh discoveries in Iranian cooking. London: I.B.Tauris. pp. 117–118. ISBN 9781780768014. OCLC 859880780.

[25] "Kabab Torsh". thecaspianchef. 21 May 2019.

[26] Mansel, Philip (28 February 2016). Aleppo: The Rise and Fall of Syria's Great Merchant City. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85772-924-8.

[JHFEHJBAAH-27] Turkish Cookery by M.Günür ISBN 975-479-100-7

[28] Kebab aux petits oignons Archived 14 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism

[AHBADADDED-29] The Complete Book of Turkish Cooking, A.Algar (1985) ISBN 0-7103-0334-3

[30] Kenneth F. Kiple, Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas, eds., Cambridge World History of Food, Cambridge, 2000. ISBN 0-521-40216-6. Vol. 2, p. 1147.

[Berlin2-31] "Doner kebab 'inventor' Kadir Nurman dies in Berlin". BBC. Retrieved 1 November 2013.

[32] Glenn Randall Mack, Asele Surina (2005). Food culture in Russia and Central Asia. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 83–84. ISBN 9780313327735.

[33] Internet dictionary Archived 14 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine of Turkish Language Association

[Check_on_Google_Books2-34] Food Around the World, p.45, Oxford University Press, 1986, Check on Google Books Archived 1 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine

[books.google.com2-35] Middle Eastern Kitchen, Ghillie Basan Hippocrene Books, 2007, p.70, Check on Google Books

[Raichlen20082-36] Steven Raichlen (28 May 2008). The Barbecue! Bible 10th Anniversary Edition. Workman Publishing Company. pp. 214–. ISBN 978-0-7611-5957-5.

[37] "Pontian pork skewers with atzika and tsatsibeli". Pontos News. 17 April 2020.

[38] The Rough Guide to Europe on a Budget. Rough Guides. 2017. ISBN 9780241307816. Slightly up-market though still good value, sleek kebab restaurant, serving Armenian and Pontian dishes.

[39] Testi kebab: a specialty of Cappadocia Archived 20 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 22 May 2009 (scroll to the bottom of the page)

[Avadh-40] Jiggs, Kaira (2005). Jiggs Kalra's Classic Cooking Of Avadh. Allied Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-81-7764-567-5.

[41] "Grilled Beef Satay". Food Reference.com. Retrieved 6 July 2010.

[Oxford_Companion_-_Satay-42] Alan., Davidson (2006). The Oxford Companion to Food (2nd ed.). Oxford: OUP Oxford. ISBN 9780191018251. OCLC 862049879.

[43] Marx, Pamela (1996). The Travel-the-world Cookbook. Good Year Books. p. 30. ISBN 9780673362544. indonesian satay peanut sauce.

[44] "Peanut butter and satay sauce – recipe". The Guardian. 2 May 2014.

[Street_Food_Around_the_World-183-45] Bruce Kraig; Colleen Taylor Sen (2013). Street Food Around the World: An Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 183. ISBN 9781598849554.

[CNN-Tongseng-46] Christina Andhika Setyanti (30 August 2016). "Sepotong Sejarah Autentik Indonesia dalam Semangkuk Tongseng". CNN Indonesia (in Indonesian).

[CNN40-Indonesia-47] Sara Schonhardt (25 February 2016). "40 Indonesian foods we can't live without". CNN.

[48] Owen, Sri (1999). Indonesian Regional Food and Cookery By Sri Owen. Frances Lincoln. ISBN 9780711212732. Retrieved 7 July 2010.^{[permanent dead link‍]}

[CNNGo-49] Sara Schonhardt and Melanie Wood (15 August 2011). "40 of Indonesia's best dishes". CNN Travel. Retrieved 6 July 2014.

[50] Bullis, Douglas; Hutton, Wendy (1 April 2001). Food of Sri Lanka. Tuttle. ISBN 9781462907182.

[51] Raichlen, S. (2015). Planet Barbecue!: 309 Recipes, 60 Countries (in German). Workman Publishing Company. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-7611-6447-0. Retrieved 26 May 2017.

[Culture_Trip-52] Fareeda Abdulkareem (23 February 2017). "A Brief History of Suya, West Africa's Answer to Shish Kebab". Culture Trip. Retrieved 24 August 2021.

[Eke-2013-53] EKE, IRABOR, OKOYE; et al. "THE MICROBIAL STATUS OF COMMERCIAL 'SUYA' MEAT PRODUCTS IN EKPOMA, EDO, NIGERIA" (PDF). International Journal of Community Research. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Raichlen_2015-54] Raichlen, S. (2015). Planet Barbecue!: 309 Recipes, 60 Countries. Workman Publishing Company. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-7611-6447-0. Retrieved 23 May 2016.

[Raichlen_Fink_2008-55] Raichlen, S.; Fink, B. (2008). The Barbecue! Bible. Workman Pub. pp. 157–158. ISBN 978-0-7611-4943-9. Retrieved 23 May 2016.

[Osseo-Asare_2005-56] Osseo-Asare, Fran (2005). Food culture in sub-Saharan Africa. Greenwood Press. p. 41. OCLC 58527114.

[Dako_2003-57] Dako, Kari (2003). Ghanaianisms : a glossary. Accra: Ghana Universities Press. pp. 59, 201. ISBN 9789964303013. OCLC 53432897.

[Adjonyoh_2017-58] Adjonyoh, Zoe (2017). Zoe's Ghana Kitchen. UK: Hachette. ISBN 9781784721985.

[59] "Bosnia and Herzegovina". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Retrieved 27 July 2009.

[60] Encyclopædia Britannica (2002). The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1. Encyclopædia Britannica. ISBN 978-0-85229-787-2.

[61] Ember, Melvin; Ember, Carol R (2001). Countries and Their Cultures: Saint Kitts and Nevis to Zimbabwe. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 68. ISBN 9780028649467.

[62] "Serbian cuisine". TravelSerbia. Retrieved 9 August 2010.

[Ceva_Bun_2009-63] "Reteta originala de mititei de la Caru cu Bere". Ceva Bun (in Romanian). 21 May 2009. Retrieved 14 January 2018.

[Cambridge_English_Dictionary-64] "kebab Definition in the Cambridge English Dictionary". The Cambridge English Dictionary. Retrieved 23 February 2016.

[larGast-65] Prosper Montagne, ed. (2001). Larousse Gastronomique. New York: Clarkson Potter. p. 646. ISBN 978-0-609-60971-2.

[italykebab-66] Chantal Saint-Blancat (2014). "Italy". In Jocelyne Cesari (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of European Islam. p. 276. One of the best ways to preserve Italian traditions and culinary culture has been the 'anti-kebab regulations' introduced in Brescia and Bergamo, in Bussolengo closed to Venice, and in Prato and Lucca in Tuscany...Italian civil society reacted firmly to these discriminatory practices... formed a coalition of protest against 'racist acts' and 'apartheid climax' using the defence of human rights

[67] "Italian town's kebab ban enrages migrant community". 7 August 2011.

[OED_shish_kebab-68] "shish kebab". Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 1989.

[definition_of_Kabob_in_Dehkhoda-69] "Kabob - Dehkhoda". Vajehyab (in Persian). Retrieved 4 August 2023.

[definition_of_shashlik_by_The_Free_Dictionary-70] "Shashlik – definition of shashlik by The Free Dictionary". The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 23 February 2016.

[71] Doner kebab becomes Germany's favorite fast food Archived 27 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine, USAToday, 4/11/2010

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v t e Turkish cuisine
Beverages	Non-alcoholic beverages Mırra Pekmez Rize tea Salep Şalgam Şerbet Şıra Turkish coffee Turkish tea Fermented beverages Ayran Hardaliye Boza Kefir Yayık ayranı Beers Beer in Turkey (main article) Efes Bomonti Pera GaraGuzu Tekel (inactive) Distilled beverages Rakı Kanyak Wines Turkish wine (main article) Adakarası Boğazkere Çalkarası Kalecik Karası Öküzgözü Papazkarası
Breads	Bazlama Boyoz Çerkes simidi Gözleme Kandil simidi Katmer Lavaş Nokul Pide Pişi Poğaça Saj bread Simit Tandır bread Kete (food)
Appetizers and salads	Meze (main article) Acuka Bakla Ezmesi Cacık Çiğ köfte Çoban salad Deniz börülcesi salatası Dolma Humus Katık İçli köfte İmam bayıldı Kabak çiçeği dolması Kısır Kokoreç Lakerda Mercimek köftesi Midye dolma Pastırma Patlıcan salatası Pilaki Piyaz Sarma Sucuk Şakşuka Taramasalata Tarator Turkish cold bulgur soup Yoğurt
Cheeses	Beyaz peynir Braided cheese Circassian cheese Civil peyniri Çömlek cheese Dolaz cheese Hellim Kars gravyer cheese Kaşar cheese Kaşkaval cheese Künefe peyniri Lavaş cheese Lor cheese Mihaliç cheese Saganaki cheese Teleme peyniri Tomas peyniri Tulum cheese Van herbed cheese
Soups	Çorba (main article) Analı kızlı soup Balık çorbası Ezogelin İşkembe Kuzukulağı çorbası Mercimek Tarhana Toyga soup Yayla çorbası Erişte aşı Keledoş Kelle paça Chicken soup
Dishes	Arnavut ciğeri Ayva dolması Balık ekmek Börek Buğu kebabı Bulgur Bursa Cantik Pide Çorbalık kesme Şevketibostan yemeği Şırdan Çiğ börek Çılbır Colocasia with lamb Corn poppy with lamb Domates dolması Etli makarna Kabaklı peynirli börek Kavurma Erişte Kelle Paça Kömbe Kuru köfte Elma dolması Harput meatballs Ispanaklı Selanik Böreği İçli Pide İzmir köfte Kapuska Karnıyarık Keşkek Kuru fasulye Lâpa Lahmacun Lepsi Libje lebje basta Mallow with lamb Mantı Menemen Mirik meatball Musakka Papucaki Patlıcan dolması Patlıcan kızartması Patlıcan kebabı Perdeli pilav Pilav Piyaziye Puf Böreği Siron Su Böreği Soğan dolma Tas kebap Tatar böreği Türlü Uzun erişte Van köfte Yahni
Grilled meats	Kebab (main article) Adana kebab Akçaabat meatballs Alinazik kebab Beyti kebab Cağ kebab Döner kebab İnegöl meatballs İskender kebab Köfte Miskender Eggplant kebab Pideli köfte Şiş kebab Şiş köfte Şiş tavuk Tire meatballs
Desserts	Turkish desserts (main article) Acıbadem kurabiyesi Aşure Ayva tatlısı Balparmak tatlısı Baklava Bülbül yuvası Cevizli sucuk Cevizli kuru incir tatlısı Cevizli Irmik Tatlısı Cezerye Dilber dudağı Dibile Dondurma Ekmek kadayıfı Fig roll Fenike tatlısı Güllaç Helva Hanım göbeği Hoşaf Hoşmerim Ispanaklı kek İzmir Bomb Kurabiye Kabak tatlısı Kalburabastı Kavala Almond Cookies Kazandibi Kaysefe Kestane şekeri Keşkül Köylü pastası Kurabiye Künefe Lokma Lokum Macun Mesir macunu Muğla halkası Muhallebi Murabbalı mecidiye Nevzine tatlısı Orcik candy Pepeçura Pestil Pişi Pişmaniye Şambali Şekerpare Şıllık Supangle Sütlaç Revani Sütlü Nuriye Şöbiyet Tahin-pekmez Tahini roll Tavukgöğsü Trileçe Tulumba Un kurabiyesi Vezir parmağı Zerde
Frequent ingredients	Vegetables Bean Bell pepper Eggplant Leek Lentil Spinach Tomato Herbs & spices Almond Black pepper Chestnut Cinnamon Cumin Dried apricot Garlic Hazelnut Mint Nut Onion Oregano Paprika Parsley Pistachio Pul biber Red pepper Thyme Urfa pepper Walnut
Unique instruments	Cezve Çaydanlık Kazan Mangal Oklava Sac Semaver Tandır
Related cuisines	Arab Balkan Caucasian Central Asian Greek Iranian Kurdish Levantine Mediterranean Middle Eastern Mongolian Ottoman Tatar
Food portal Turkey Portal

v t e Levantine cuisine
Beverages	Non-alcoholic beverages Arabic coffee Turkish coffee Arabic tea Jallab Mur Mate Dibs Sahlab Sharbat Qamar al-Din Tamarind Mint lemonade Fermented beverages Ayran Leben Distilled beverages Arak Beers Beer in Lebanon Beer in Syria Beer in Palestine Beer in Jordan Beer in Israel Wines Lebanese wine Syrian wine Palestinian wine Jordanian wine Israeli wine
Breads	Ka'ak Khubz Pita Khubz tannoor Taboon bread Samoon Markook Nokul
Appetizers and salads	Meze (main article) Arab salad Baba ghanoush Falafel Hummus Msabbaha Ful medames Gigandes plaki Kibbeh Labneh Yabrak Tabbouleh Fattoush Raheb Kibbeh nayyeh Sujuk Balila Torshi Muhammara Tahini Toum Tarator Yogurt
Dairy products	Syrian Cheese (main article) Ackawi Shanklish Hallum cheese Nabulsi cheese Tzfat cheese Tresse cheese Baladi cheese Braided cheese Kashkawan cheese Jameed Labneh Feta Kashk Laban Kashkaval Qishta
Soups and stews	Chorba (main article) Yakhni Lentil soup Chicken soup Vegetable soup Harees Shakriyyeh Pacha Mulukhiyah Fasolia Fasoulia Khadra Bamia Sumaghiyyeh
Pastries	Fatayer Lahmajoun Samosa Börek Sfiha Manakish Musakhan
Dishes	Mfarakeh Mansaf Maqluba Kabsa Mujaddara Makdous Mahshi Stuffed peppers Stuffed squash Stuffed eggplants Bulgur Falafel Freekeh Fried eggplant Fried cauliflower Kibbeh Labanieh Kibbeh Bil Sanieh Grilled Kibbeh Shushbarak Batata harra Fawaregh Fatteh Tharid Shakshouka Jazz Mazz Makhlouta Galayet bandora Awarma Maftoul Musaqa‘a Cabbage roll Zarb Siyyadiyeh Mfaraket Koussa
Grilled meats	Kebab (main article) Kebab Halabi Shish kebab Cherry kebab Kebab Khashkhash Kebab Hindi Shish taouk Kofta Shawarma
Desserts	Kanafeh Halawet el Jibn Booza Luqmat al-Qadi Baklawa Basbousa Fig roll Halwa Ma'amoul Muhallabia Phoenicia dessert Qatayef Qurabiya Raha Shaabiyat Dragée Stuffed dates Meghli Sfouf Murabba Nougat Kanafeh Mabrooma Balah El Sham Meshabek Awameh Qashtaliyyeh Ballorieh Znoud El Sit Kallaaj Mabrooma Makaron Barazek Osh El Bulbul Othmalliyya Taj El Malik Swar El Sit
Unique instruments	Raʾwa Manqal Tabun oven Tandoor
Related cuisines	Arab Mediterranean Middle Eastern Israeli Mizrahi Sephardic Armenian Iranian Kurdish Ottoman Jewish Mesopotamian
Food portal Drink portal

v t e Barbecue
Cooking styles	Asado Barbacoa Char siu Churrasco Indirect grilling Inihaw Korean barbecue Mangal Mixed grill Mongolian barbecue Schwenker Shaokao Shisa nyama Siu mei Yakiniku
Regional variations	United States Chicago Kansas City Memphis North Carolina Santa Maria South Carolina St. Louis Texas
Cookers and related	Barbecue grill Barrel barbecue Buccan Charbroiler Chimney starter Disposable grill Flattop grill Gridiron Grilling Hibachi Kamado Pit barbecue Shichirin Smoking (Smoke ring)
Foods and dishes	List of barbecue dishes List of smoked foods Anticuchos Arrosticini Bakkwa Barbecue chicken Barbecue sandwich Barbecue sauce Brochette Bulgogi Bull roast Burnt ends Cha siu bao Chuan Churrasco Cocoloși Corn on the cob Espetada Fatányéros Frigărui Galinha à africana Isaw Jeok Jujeh kabab Kabab barg Kai yang Kebab Khorkhog Khorovats Kofte kebab Méchoui Meurav Yerushalmi Mixiote Mućkalica Neobiani Pig pickin' Pig roast Pinchitos Provoleta Pulled pork Ražnjići Red slaw Ribs Beef Short ribs Pork Spare ribs Satay Sausage sizzle Shashlik Shish kebab Shish taouk Sosatie Souvlaki Suckling pig Suya Texas smoked brisket Tsukune Yakitori
Societies and festivals	Big Pig Jig International Bar-B-Q Festival Kansas City Barbeque Society Leskovac Grill Festival Lexington Barbecue Festival Memphis in May North Carolina Barbecue Society Roanoke-Chowan Pork-Fest
Misc.	Barbecue restaurant List Churrascaria
Food portal Category Commons WikiProject Food and drink

v t e Street food
Foods	Acarajé Aloo chaat Aloo tikki Anticucho Apam balik Arancini Arepa Asinan Bagel Bakpau Bakso Balık ekmek Banana cue Bánh hỏi Bánh mì Bánh xèo Batagor Beef Pares Beguni Belgian waffle Beondegi Bhel puri Binaki Binatog Biryani Bourekas Bratwurst Brochette Bublik Bubur ayam Bun cha Bungeo-ppang Bunny chow Burrito Breakfast burrito Calzone Calamares Camote cue Cart noodle Chaat Chebureki Chiko Roll Chimichanga Chinese bhel Cockle (bivalve) Cōng yóu bǐng Covrigi Coxinha Crêpe Crescia Currywurst Dahi puri Dak-kkochi Dim sum Donkey burger Dosa Doubles Douhua Empanada Enchilada Esquites Falafel Farinata Fish ball Focaccia French fries French tacos Fried chicken (Korean, Taiwanese) Navajo frybread Galette-saucisse Ginanggang Gorengan Ghugni Gukhwappang Gyeranppang Gyro Haleem Hot dog Inihaw Isaw Idli Jhalmuri Jiaozi Kaassoufflé Kachori Kapsalon Kati roll Karantika Kebab Chapli kebab Doner kebab Kyinkyinga Shami kebab List of kebabs Kerak telor Ketoprak Khachapuri Khanom Tokyo Kikiam Knish Kwek Kwek Laksa Lángos Luchi Malatang Mami Maruya Masala puri Meat pie Mie ayam Murtabak Naan Nem chua rán Obwarzanek krakowski Pad thai Pajeon Pakora Paneer tikka Pani câ meusa Panini Panipuri Panzerotti Papri chaat Paratha Pasty Pav bhaji Pempek Pepito Peremech Pho Piadina Picarones Pilaf Pinasugbo Pirozhki Pizza al taglio / Pizza by the slice Pizzetta Plăcintă Pljeskavica Poha Poutine Pretzel Punugulu Puri Quail eggs Quesadilla Rat-on-a-stick Ražnjići Rogan josh Rojak Roti Roti bakar Roti john Roujiamo Rumali roti Rustico Sabich Samosa Sandwich Sardenara Satay Sausage roll Scaccia Seblak Sevpuri Sfenj Shao Kao Shashlik Shawarma Sicilian pizza Siomay Soto Souvlaki Stigghiola Stromboli Taco Korean taco Tahri Tahu gejrot Tahu sumedang Takoyaki Tamale Tandoori chicken Tangbao Taquito Tauge goreng Tornado potato Turon U' pastizz 'rtunnar Vada Vada pav Vastedda Vietnamese noodles Xôi Yakitori Zapiekanka
By location	Hong Kong India Chennai Mumbai Indonesia Mexico Philippines South Korea Taiwan Thailand
Mobile catering	Field kitchen Food booth Food cart Food truck Food truck rally Hot dog cart Hot dog stand Ice cream van Sausage wagon Taco stand Yatai Pojangmacha Würstelstand
Lists	List of street foods List of food trucks
Food portal Category: Street food