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The Maragheh observatory (Persian: رصدخانه مراغه), also spelled Maragha, Maragah, Marageh, and Maraga, was an astronomical observatory established in the mid 13th century under the patronage of the Ilkhanid Hulagu and the directorship of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, a Persian scientist and astronomer. The observatory is located on the west side of Maragheh, which is situated in today's East Azerbaijan Province of Iran.^[1] It was considered one of the most advanced scientific institutions in Eurasia because it was a center for many groundbreaking calculations in mathematics and astronomy. It housed a large collection of astronomical instruments and books and it served as an educational institution.^[2] It was also used as a model for the later Ulugh Beg Observatory in Samarkand, the Taqi al-Din observatory in Constantinople, and Jantar Mantar observatory in Jaipur.^[3]

History

Background and pre-Mongol conquest

The region of Alamut was previously held by the Nizaris, a sect of Shia Islam also referred to as the Assassins or Hashashins.

Mongol conquest and establishment of the conservatory

Painting depicting Hulagu's capture of Baghdad

Hulagu Khan was a Mongol ruler and the grandson of Genghis Khan. As the Mongols expanded their territory Hulagu was put it charge of conquering Mesopotamia, Persia, Egypt, Syria, and the Abbasid Caliphate, the territory that would become the Ilkhanate.^[2]^[4] From 1253 to 1256, Hulagu and his army were waging a campaign of conquest against the Nizaris in the Iranian region of Alamut.^[4] In 1256, the Mongols took the Alamut castle, where al-Tusi and several other scholars had taken refuge to continue their studies.^[4] However, there is dispute over whether or not al-Tusi was held by the Nizaris against his will, or even assisted the Mongols in their attack.^[5]

Hulagu respected al-Tusi for his scholarship in science and decided to appoint him as a wazir (vizier).^[6]^[7] Hulagu and his men took al-Tusi with them as they then went to sack Baghdad.^[6] In the newly formed Ilkhanate, al-Tusi was placed in charge of waqfs, a type of religious endowments, which Hulagu would later order him to use to build and fund the observatory.^[7] Prior to 1259, al-Tusi spoke to Hulagu about the need for new astronomy tables; due to his own interest in astrology, the Khan responded by authorizing the funding and construction of the Maragheh observatory, and later made Maragheh the capital of the Ilkhanate.^[2] In one account, Al-Tusi took advantage of Hulagu's superstitions, and told him that he could predict the future if he would sponsor the observatory.^[2] A second account suggests that Hulagu's brother, Mongke Khan had a great interest in mathematics and astronomy, and this influenced Hulagu's decision to reach out to al-Tusi to construct the observatory.^[2] Regardless of the original reasons for the construction, Hulagu became the first ruler to fund an observatory by sponsoring its construction with a waqf.

Construction and use of the site

The construction of the observatory began in 1259 and lasted between 3 and 5 years.^[8]^[9]^[10] Some speculate that after Mongke's death, there was a short period when construction came to a halt.^[8] Mu'ayyad al-Din 'Urdi was then appointed to be in charge of construction.^[2] Hulagu gave al-Tusi permission to build a new observatory in the location of his choosing, and al-Tusi chose the town of Maragha in modern-day Iran.^[11] Al-Tusi was the first director of the observatory, and he oversaw the placement of new instruments, recruitment of staff, the stocking of an integrated library, and was appointed administrator of the observatory's endowment.^[2]

The physical site

The site for the observatory was situated outside of Maragheh city on a flat-topped hill, which spanned about 400 meters in length by 150 meters in width.^[2] The layout of the site consisted of one central tower^[12] and five other circular platforms.^[13] The site also included a building dedicated to metalworking (for the creation of astronomical tools), as well as living quarters.^[13] The site also contained a large dome, the purpose of which was to allow the resident astronomers to measure the placement and motion of the sun.^[2]

Notable scientists

Men of mathematics, science, and astronomy came to the Maragheh Observatory from across the Islamic world and further. According to texts recovered from the observatory, the site had a reputation so widespread it had reached as far as China as students had traveled to study mathematics, physics, and astronomy.^[14] Evidence has been found to suggest a major focus on education; student oriented texts have been discovered that offer introductions to mathematical astronomy and astronomical tables.^[15] Scholars in attendance included Bar-Hebraeus, who late in his life took residence close to the observatory in order to use the library for his studies; he left a description of the observatory.

A number of other prominent astronomers worked with Tusi at the observatory, such as Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi, Mu'ayyid al-Din al-'Urdi, from Damascus, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, and Hulagu's Chinese astronomer Fao Munji, whose Chinese astronomical experience brought improvements to the Ptolemaic system used by Tusi.

After 12 years of intense work by al-Tusi and other scientists, including Mu'yed al-Din al-Arad-Najmedin Cathy, Najmd al-Din Qazvini, Allame Qutbuddin Shirazi, and Fakhruddin Maraghi, the tables were compiled in the Zij-i Ilkhani.^[14] The tables were published during the reign of Abaqa Khan, Hulagu's son, and were named after the patron of the observatory.

Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

Nasir Al-Din al-Tusi was the lead astronomer and first director of the observatory. His most notable work was the creation of the Tusi-couple, a geometric based system that solved some of the fundamental issues with Ptolemaic calculations.^[16] Other notable works were revisions to Euclid's Elements^[2] and Ptolemy's Almagest^[17] as well as the astronomical handbook titled Zīj-i Īlkhānī or Ilkhanic Tables detailing the movement of the planets.^[18] About 350 years before Galileo had viewed the Milky Way through his telescope, Tusi had already offered his own thoughts on the galaxy, stating that the "milky" color was likely due to clusters of small stars.^[2]

Mu'ayyid al-Din al-'Urdi

Mu'ayyid al-Din al-'Urdi was an astronomer and engineer who was in charge of constructing the buildings of observatory as well as manufacturing the astronomical instruments.^[2]^[16] It is believed that he also played a key role in designing the "complex system of water wheels" for the observatory.^[2] In his detailed account of the instruments, he lists the Mural quadrant and the Armillary Sphere as two of the instruments he designed for the observatory.^[18] The Celestial Globe however was likely crafted around 1300 by Muhammad, the son of Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi who's signature can be found on the globe. It is made out of brass with silver and gold inlay and was acquired in 1562 by Augustus, Elector of Saxony.^[19]

Decline and legacy

The decline of the Maragheh observatory began in the 13th century.^[11] The observatory survived during the reign of seven rulers of the dynasty, including the reigns of Abaqa and Uljaytu.^[8] After al-Tusi's death, his son Sadr al-Din succeeded him as director of the observatory.^[2] During Uljaytu's reign, he appointed al-Tusi's other son, 'Asil al-Din as director.^[2]^[11] Scholars and students of mathematics, science, and astronomy came to the Maragheh Observatory from across the Islamic world and up to the eastern borders of China.^[8] Like other madrasas constructed in Islamic structures at the time, the observatory also served as an educational institution, focused on teaching astronomy and providing hands-on experience with the available instruments.^[2]^[15]

At the time, the Maragheh Observatory was the first observatory to outlive its founder, remaining active for more than 50 years, with over a hundred astronomers conducting research in the facility during its lifespan.^[2] The stagnation and downturn of the Maragheh observatory began in the late 13th century.^[13] A major blow came when the observatory lost its patronage after the deaths of Hulagu in 1265 and his son Abaqa in 1282.^[13] Over time the site turned to ruins as a result of frequent earthquakes and a lack of funding.^[20] Over centuries of enduring conflict in the region, the contents of the observatory's library were stolen or destroyed.^[20] Shah Abbas the Great of Persia arranged for repair sometime in the early 17th century, but the Shah died before the restoration could begin.The observatory became inactive by the beginning of the 14th century, but the design influenced several other observatories. One example is the Ulugh-Bey observatory, located in Samarkand, Uzbekistan. This observatory, built in the 1420s, was similar in scale to the Maragheh Observatory. The Ulugh-Bey Observatory later served as a reference for European observatories.^[8]^[11]

Hulagu's older brother, Khublai Khan, also constructed an observatory, the Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory in China. A celestial globe from the observatory made around 1279 is now preserved in Dresden, Germany.^{[citation needed]} It is a rare example of decorative art from Iran of the 13th century, designed by al-Urdi and made of bronze inlaid with silver and gold.^[11]

Renewed academic interest

The Maragheh observatory was excavated by the Iranian archeologist Parviz Varjavand in 1972 after his work was commissioned by the University of Tehran and the University of Tabriz.^[12] Before this excavation there had been no modern archaeological research conducted into this ancient scientific site.^[3]

The excavation took place on a hill located west of the town of Maragheh^[1]^[2] where the central tower along with numerous other architectural units were unearthed including a residence for Hulagu and a mosque.^[2] The central tower had a circular plan and was divided by a long corridor so that there were six spaces on either side. It was the main space in which observations took place as well as scientific documents were kept. Smaller circular units were found near the central tower, which are thought to have been the platforms on which astronomical instruments were placed.^[21] A casting workshop, a school building as well as a large library was part of the scientific research complex of the observatory^[12]^[3]

Fragments of glass and pottery were found as well as copper coins and a gold coin from the IIkhanid period. A variety of architectural stones (brick, carved and engraved stone, glazed tile) which were used for the construction and the ornamentation of the buildings were also discovered.^[3]^[12]

On the west side of the hill, Varjavand also came across the so-called the Rasadkhana caves with temple like rock structures which resemble Chinese and Mongol religious architectural styles. These underground spaces are believed to have been used by visitors for religious ceremonies during the Ilkhanid period.^[1]

Preserving the site

In recent years, interest has increased in the historical significance of this site. A dome shaped cover has been built to protect the remnants of the observatory. Nearby Tabriz University has been responsible for the management and protection of the Maragheh site since the late 70's.^[13] In collaboration with the municipality of Maragheh, there are new renovation projects that are being conducted to preserve the site^[22]

Notes

^ ^a ^b ^c Niri, J. S. (2017). Determine the function and design of architectural and astronomical ... Determine the Function and Design of Architectural and Astronomical Observatory Discovered in the Maragheh. Retrieved November 8, 2022, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349064264_Determine_the_Function_and_Design_of_Architectural_and_Astronomical_Observatory_Discovered_in_the_Maragheh
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s Blake, Stephen P., ed. (2016), "The observatory in Maragha", Astronomy and Astrology in the Islamic World: Volume undefined: The New Edinburgh Islamic Surveys, Edinburgh University Press, pp. 73–87, ISBN 978-0-7486-4911-2, retrieved 2022-11-17
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Ali Barzegar. Iranian Studies, vol. 22, no. 2/3, 1989, pp. 129–131. JSTOR 4310671. Accessed 14 Nov. 2022.
^ ^a ^b ^c "بهنام". www.ichodoc.ir. Archived from the original on 2019-03-29. Retrieved 2019-03-20.
^ "The Maragha Observatory Complex in Ilkhanid Iran | MPIWG". www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de. Retrieved 2019-03-20.
^ ^a ^b "Hulagu Khan Destroyed Thousands Of Priceless Ancient Books Kept In The House Of Wisdom In Baghdad | Ancient Pages". www.ancientpages.com. 21 June 2018. Retrieved 2019-03-20.
^ ^a ^b "Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Astronomy | The Institute of Ismaili Studies". iis.ac.uk. Retrieved 2019-03-20.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Vernet, J.; Sayili, Aydin (1963-12-31). "The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory". Oriens. 16: 298. doi:10.2307/1580266. ISSN 0078-6527. JSTOR 1580266.
^ Ballay, Ute (1 January 1990). "The Astronomical Manuscripts of Nasir Al-Din Tusi". Arabica. 37 (3): 389–392. doi:10.1163/157005890X00050. JSTOR 4057148. ProQuest 1303887194.
^ "UNESCO Astronomy and World Heritage Webportal – Show entity". www3.astronomicalheritage.net. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "UNESCO Astronomy and World Heritage Webportal – Show entity". www3.astronomicalheritage.net. Retrieved 2019-03-16.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Varjavand, P. (1987). Kāvosh-e raṣad khāneh-ye Marāgheh va negāhī be pīshīneh-ye setāreh shenāsī dar Irān, [The Excavation of the Maragheh Observatory and a Look at the History of Astronomy in Iran]. Amir Kabir.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "UNESCO Astronomy and World Heritage Webportal - Show entity". www3.astronomicalheritage.net. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
^ ^a ^b "بهنام". www.ichodoc.ir. Archived from the original on 2019-03-29. Retrieved 2019-03-16.
^ ^a ^b Mozaffari, S. Mohammad (2018). "Astronomical observations at the Maragha observatory in the 1260s-1270s". Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 72 (6): 591–641. doi:10.1007/s00407-018-0217-z. ISSN 0003-9519. JSTOR 45211963. S2CID 253891545.
^ ^a ^b Saliba, George (2007). Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance. MIT Press. p. 202.
^ Mozaffari, Mohammad (2014). "Muḥyī al-Dīn al-Maghribī's lunar measurements at the Maragha observatory". Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 68 (1): 67–120. doi:10.1007/s00407-013-0130-4. JSTOR 24569613. S2CID 253890523.
^ ^a ^b Sayili, Aydin (1960). The Oberservatory in Islam and its Place in the General History of the Observatory. Ankara: Turk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi. p. 204.
^ Oestmann, Günther (July 1997). "Measuring and Dating the Arabic Celestial Globe at Dresden".
^ ^a ^b "Maragheh Observatory". Retrieved 2019-08-17.
^ Ruggles, C., & Cotte, M. (2010). The first ICOMOS–IAU Thematic Study. UNESCO Astronomy and World Heritage Webportal - Thematic Study 1. Retrieved November 15, 2022, from https://www3.astronomicalheritage.net/index.php/thematic-study-1
^ "Restoration work begins on Maragheh observatory". August 2022.

References

A. Baker and L. Chapter (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences". In M. M. Sharif, "A History of Muslim Philosophy", Philosophia Islamica.
Richard Covington (May–June 2007). "Rediscovering Arabic science", Saudi Aramco World, p. 2–16. ^{[unreliable source?]}
Ahmad Dallal, "Science, Medicine and Technology.", in The Oxford History of Islam, ed. John Esposito, New York: Oxford University Press, (1999).
Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 3, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-12410-7
George Saliba (1999). Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe? Columbia University.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Short description|Historic Persian astronomical observatory}}
-{{Tone|date=December 2007}}
+[[File:Maraga observatory.jpg|thumb|Central Tower of the Maragheh Observatory]]
-'''Maragheh observatory''' ({{lang-az|ماراغا رصدخاناسی}} Rəsədxana), ({{lang-fa|رصدخانهٔ مراغه}}), was an institutionalized [[astronomical observatory]] which was established in 1259 CE under the patronage of the [[Ilkhanid]] [[Hulagu]] and the directorship of [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]], an [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] [[Islamic science|scientist]] and [[Islamic astronomy|astronomer]]. Located in the heights west of [[Maragheh]], [[East Azerbaijan Province]], [[Iran]], it was once considered one of the most prestigious observatories in the world.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}
+The '''Maragheh observatory''' ([[Persian language|Persian]]: رصدخانه مراغه), also spelled Maragha, Maragah, Marageh, and Maraga, was an astronomical [[observatory]] established in the mid 13th century under the patronage of the [[Ilkhanid]] [[Hulagu]] and the directorship of [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]], a [[Persian people|Persian]] scientist and astronomer. The observatory is located on the west side of [[Maragheh]], which is situated in today's [[East Azerbaijan Province]] of [[Iran]].<ref name=":62">Niri, J. S. (2017). Determine the function and design of architectural and astronomical ... Determine the Function and Design of Architectural and Astronomical Observatory Discovered in the Maragheh. Retrieved November 8, 2022, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349064264_Determine_the_Function_and_Design_of_Architectural_and_Astronomical_Observatory_Discovered_in_the_Maragheh</ref> It was considered one of the most advanced scientific institutions in Eurasia because it was a center for many groundbreaking calculations in mathematics and astronomy. It housed a large collection of astronomical instruments and books and it served as an educational institution.<ref name=":07">{{Citation |title=The observatory in Maragha |date=2016 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/astronomy-and-astrology-in-the-islamic-world/observatory-in-maragha/06B9C503746F498F59D0DD929A76CFDA |work=Astronomy and Astrology in the Islamic World: Volume undefined: The New Edinburgh Islamic Surveys |pages=73–87 |editor-last=Blake |editor-first=Stephen P. |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-4911-2 |access-date=2022-11-17}}</ref> It was also used as a model for the later [[Ulugh Beg Observatory]] in Samarkand, the [[Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din|Taqi al-Din observatory]] in [[Constantinople]], and [[Jantar Mantar, Jaipur|Jantar Mantar observatory]] in [[Jaipur]].<ref name=":53">Ali Barzegar. Iranian Studies, vol. 22, no. 2/3, 1989, pp. 129–131. {{JSTOR|4310671}}. Accessed 14 Nov. 2022.</ref>
-It was financed by [[waqf]] revenues, which allowed it to continue to operate even after the death of its founder and was active for more than 50 years. The observatory served as a model for later observatories including the 15th-century [[Ulugh Beg Observatory]] in Samarkand, the 16th-century [[Taqi al-Din observatory]] in Istanbul, and the 18th-century [[Jai Singh observatory]] in [[Jaipur]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Dallal|first=Ahmad|title=Islam, science, and the challenge of history|year=2010|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=9780300159110|pages=24–25}}</ref>
-[[File:Maragheh observatory.JPG|thumb|267x267px|Maragheh Observatory]]
-==Description==
-Considerable parts of the groundwork are preserved in the ruins. In a 340 to 135 m² citadel-like area stood a four-story circular stone building of 28 m diameter. The mural quadrant to observe the positions of the stars and planets was aligned with the [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]]. This meridian served as [[Prime meridian]] for the tables in the ''[[Zij-i Ilkhani]]'', as we nowadays apply the meridian which passes the [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]].
-The Maragha observatory was the largest observatory in its time, consisting of a series of buildings occupying an area of 150 metres in width and 350 metres in length. One of these buildings was a [[dome]] which allowed the sun's rays to pass through.<ref name=Micheau/> There was also a library consisting of 40,000 volumes,<ref>{{citation|first=I. A.|last=Ahmad|contribution=The Rise and Fall of Islamic Science: The Calendar as a Case Study|title=Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity|publisher=[[Al Akhawayn University]]|date=June 3, 2002|url=http://images.agustianwar.multiply.com/attachment/0/RxbYbQoKCr4AAD@kzFY1/IslamicCalendar-A-Case-Study.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=2008-01-31}}{{deadlink|date=July 2012}}</ref> which were plundered from other libraries by the [[Mongol Empire]] during its invasions across [[History of Iran|Persia]], [[Syria]] and [[Mesopotamia]]. Astronomers from across Persia, Syria, [[Anatolia]] and even [[China]] were gathered at the observatory, and the names of at least twenty of them who worked at the observatory are known. It is believed that several [[Chinese astronomy|Chinese astronomers]] worked at the observatory and that they introduced several [[Chinese mathematics|Chinese methods of computation]]. The Maragha observatory was also reported to have had over a hundred students studying under [[Nasir al-Din Tusi]] at the observatory, and was also the first observatory to benefit from the revenues of [[waqf]] trust funds. After al-Tusi's death, his son was appointed the director of the institution, but it was later abandoned by the middle of the 14th century. A visit to the ruins of the observatory later inspired [[Ulugh Beg]] to construct his own large observatory at [[Samarkand]] to continue the astronomical research of the Maragha school from where it left off.<ref name=Micheau>{{citation|last=Micheau|first=Francoise|contribution=The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East|pages=991–2}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=1002–1005 [1003]}}</ref>
 ==History==
-[[File:Tusi couple.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Tusi couple from Vat. Arabic ms 319]]
+[[File:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi at observatory.jpg|thumb|Painting of Al-Tusi and colleagues working on the Zij-i Ilkhani at the observatory]]
+=== Background and pre-Mongol conquest ===
-[[Hulegu Khan]] believed that his army's successes were due to the advice of astronomers (who were also [[astrologer]]s), especially of [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]]. Therefore when Tusi complained that his astronomical tables were outdated, Hulagu gave a permission to build a new observatory in a place of Tusi's choice. According to books like Jam-e-ttavarikhe rashidi (Persian: جامع التواريخ رشيدي), saf-e-elhofreh (Persian: صاف الحفره), favat-o-lvafiyyat (Persian: فوات الوفيات) the building of the rasad khaneh started in 1259 (657 [[Anno Hegirae|A.H.]]). The library of the observatory contained 40,000 books on many subjects, related to astrology/astronomy as well as other topics. [[Bar-Hebraeus]] late in his life took residence close to the observatory in order to use the library for his studies. He has left a description of the observatory.
+The region of [[Alamut]] was previously held by the [[Nizari Ismaili state|Nizaris]], a sect of [[Shia Islam]] also referred to as the ''Assassins'' or ''Hashashins''.
+=== Mongol conquest and establishment of the conservatory ===
-A number of other prominent astronomers worked with Tusi there, such as [[Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi]], [[Mu'ayyid al-Din al-'Urdi]], from [[Damascus]], and [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]]. The observatory also attracted scholars from beyond the Islamic world, such as Hulagu's [[Chinese astronomy|Chinese astronomer]] Fao Munji, whose Chinese astronomical experience brought further improvements to the [[Ptolemy|Ptolemaic]] system initially used by Tusi. It also attracted scholars from the [[Byzantine Empire]], most notably [[Gregory Choniades]], who studied under Shams ad-Din al-Bukhari, an astronomer who worked at the famous observatory under al-Tusi. Choniades later translated the ''[[Zij-i Ilkhani]]'', compiled at the observatory, into [[Byzantine Greek]] and took it to the Byzantine Empire. He may have been responsible for the transmission of the [[Tusi-couple]] to Europe, where it eventually influenced [[Copernican heliocentrism]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Joseph Leichter|title=The Zij as-Sanjari of Gregory Chioniades|publisher=[[Internet Archive]]|date=June 27, 2009|url=http://www.archive.org/details/TheZijAs-sanjariOfGregoryChioniades|accessdate=2009-10-02}}</ref>
+{{Main|Mongol campaign against the Nizaris}}
+[[File:Bagdad1258.jpg|alt=|thumb|292x292px|Painting depicting Hulagu's capture of Baghdad]]
+Hulagu Khan was a Mongol ruler and the grandson of Genghis Khan. As the Mongols expanded their territory Hulagu was put it charge of conquering [[Mesopotamia]], Persia, Egypt, Syria, and the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], the territory that would become the Ilkhanate.<ref name=":07" /><ref name=":522">{{Cite web |title=بهنام |url=http://www.ichodoc.ir/p-a/CHANGED/181/html/181_2.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329111344/http://www.ichodoc.ir/p-a/CHANGED/181/html/181_2.HTM |archive-date=2019-03-29 |access-date=2019-03-20 |website=www.ichodoc.ir}}</ref> From 1253 to 1256, Hulagu and his army were waging a campaign of conquest against the [[Mongol campaign against the Nizaris|Nizaris]] in the Iranian region of [[Alamut]].<ref name=":522" /> In 1256, the Mongols took the [[Alamut Castle|Alamut castle]], where al-Tusi and several other scholars had taken refuge to continue their studies.<ref name=":522" /> However, there is dispute over whether or not al-Tusi was held by the Nizaris against his will, or even assisted the Mongols in their attack.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Maragha Observatory Complex in Ilkhanid Iran {{!}} MPIWG |url=https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/research/projects/maragha-observatory-complex-ilkhanid-iran |access-date=2019-03-20 |website=www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de}}</ref>
+Hulagu respected al-Tusi for his scholarship in science and decided to appoint him as a [[Vizier|wazir]] (vizier).<ref name=":622">{{Cite web |date=21 June 2018 |title=Hulagu Khan Destroyed Thousands Of Priceless Ancient Books Kept In The House Of Wisdom In Baghdad {{!}} Ancient Pages |url=http://www.ancientpages.com/2018/06/21/hulagu-khan-destroyed-thousands-of-priceless-ancient-books-kept-in-the-house-of-wisdom-in-baghdad/amp/ |access-date=2019-03-20 |website=www.ancientpages.com}}</ref><ref name=":722">{{Cite web |title=Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Astronomy {{!}} The Institute of Ismaili Studies |url=https://iis.ac.uk/nasir-al-din-al-tusi-and-astronomy |access-date=2019-03-20 |website=iis.ac.uk}}</ref> Hulagu and his men took al-Tusi with them as they then went to [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|sack]] [[Baghdad]].<ref name=":622" /> In the newly formed Ilkhanate, al-Tusi was placed in charge of [[waqf]]s, a type of religious endowments, which Hulagu would later order him to use to build and fund the observatory.<ref name=":722" /> Prior to 1259, al-Tusi spoke to Hulagu about the need for new astronomy tables; due to his own interest in astrology, the Khan responded by authorizing the funding and construction of the Maragheh observatory, and later made Maragheh the capital of the Ilkhanate.<ref name=":07" />  In one account, Al-Tusi took advantage of Hulagu's superstitions, and told him that he could predict the future if he would sponsor the observatory.<ref name=":07" /> A second account suggests that Hulagu's brother, [[Möngke Khan|Mongke Khan]] had a great interest in mathematics and astronomy, and this influenced Hulagu's decision to reach out to al-Tusi to construct the observatory.<ref name=":07" /> Regardless of the original reasons for the construction, Hulagu became the first ruler to fund an observatory by sponsoring its construction with a [[waqf]].
-For his planetary models, Tusi invented a geometrical technique called a [[Tusi-couple]], which generates linear motion from the sum of two circular motions. He also determined the precise value of 51 arcsec for the annual precession of the [[equinox]]es and contributed to the construction and usage of some astronomical instruments including the [[astrolabe]].
+==== Construction and use of the site ====
-And after 12 years of intense work by Khaje Nassir od-Din Tussi and the other prominent scientists the observations and planetary models were compiled in the [[Zij-i Ilkhani]], which later still influenced [[Copernicus]]. The tables were published during the reign of [[Abaqa Khan]], Hulagu's son, and named after the patron of the observatory. They were popular until the 15th century.
+The construction of the observatory began in 1259 and lasted between 3 and 5 years.<ref name=":25">{{Cite journal |last1=Vernet |first1=J. |last2=Sayili |first2=Aydin |date=1963-12-31 |title=The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1580266 |journal=Oriens |volume=16 |pages=298 |doi=10.2307/1580266 |jstor=1580266 |issn=0078-6527}}</ref><ref name="Ballay 1990 389–3922">{{cite journal |last1=Ballay |first1=Ute |date=1 January 1990 |title=The Astronomical Manuscripts of Nasir Al-Din Tusi |journal=Arabica |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=389–392 |doi=10.1163/157005890X00050 |jstor=4057148 |id={{ProQuest|1303887194}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=UNESCO Astronomy and World Heritage Webportal – Show entity |url=https://www3.astronomicalheritage.net/index.php/show-entity?identity=29&idsubentity=1 |access-date=2019-03-08 |website=www3.astronomicalheritage.net}}</ref> Some speculate that after Mongke's death, there was a short period when construction came to a halt.<ref name=":25" /> [[Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi|Mu'ayyad al-Din 'Urdi]] was then appointed to be in charge of construction.<ref name=":07" /> Hulagu gave al-Tusi permission to build a new observatory in the location of his choosing, and al-Tusi chose the town of Maragha in modern-day Iran.<ref name=":2222">{{Cite web |title=UNESCO Astronomy and World Heritage Webportal – Show entity |url=https://www3.astronomicalheritage.net/index.php/show-entity?identity=29&idsubentity=1 |access-date=2019-03-16 |website=www3.astronomicalheritage.net}}</ref> Al-Tusi was the first director of the observatory, and he oversaw the placement of new instruments, recruitment of staff, the stocking of an integrated library, and was appointed administrator of the observatory's endowment.<ref name=":07" />
+==== The physical site ====
-It is not known with certainty until when it had been active. It turned into ruins as a result of frequent earthquakes and lack of funding by the state. [[Abbas I of Persia|Shah Abbas the Great]] arranged for repair, however, this was not commenced due to the king's early death.
+The site for the observatory was situated outside of [[Maragheh]] city on a flat-topped hill, which spanned about 400 meters in length by 150 meters in width.<ref name=":07"/> The layout of the site consisted of one central tower<ref name=":42">Varjavand, P. (1987). Kāvosh-e raṣad khāneh-ye Marāgheh va negāhī be pīshīneh-ye setāreh shenāsī dar Irān, [The Excavation of the Maragheh Observatory and a Look at the History of Astronomy in Iran]. Amir Kabir.</ref> and five other circular platforms.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |title=UNESCO Astronomy and World Heritage Webportal - Show entity |url=https://www3.astronomicalheritage.net/index.php/show-entity?identity=29&idsubentity=1 |access-date=2022-11-17 |website=www3.astronomicalheritage.net}}</ref> The site also included a building dedicated to metalworking (for the creation of astronomical tools), as well as living quarters.<ref name=":14"/> The site also contained a large dome, the purpose of which was to allow the resident astronomers to measure the placement and motion of the sun.<ref name=":07"/>
+== Notable scientists ==
-The remains inspired [[Ulugh Beg]] to construct his observatory in [[Samarkand]] in 1428.
+Men of mathematics, science, and astronomy came to the Maragheh Observatory from across the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]] and further. According to texts recovered from the observatory, the site had a reputation so widespread it had reached as far as China as students had traveled to study mathematics, physics, and astronomy.<ref name=":322">{{Cite web |title=بهنام |url=http://www.ichodoc.ir/p-a/CHANGED/181/html/181_2.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329111344/http://www.ichodoc.ir/p-a/CHANGED/181/html/181_2.HTM |archive-date=2019-03-29 |access-date=2019-03-16 |website=www.ichodoc.ir}}</ref> Evidence has been found to suggest a major focus on education; student oriented texts have been discovered that offer introductions to mathematical astronomy and astronomical tables.<ref name="Mozaffari 2018 591–641">{{Cite journal |last=Mozaffari |first=S. Mohammad |date=2018 |title=Astronomical observations at the Maragha observatory in the 1260s-1270s |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45211963 |journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences |volume=72 |issue=6 |pages=591–641 |doi=10.1007/s00407-018-0217-z |jstor=45211963 |s2cid=253891545 |issn=0003-9519}}</ref> Scholars in attendance included [[Bar-Hebraeus]], who late in his life took residence close to the observatory in order to use the library for his studies; he left a description of the observatory.
+A number of other prominent astronomers worked with Tusi at the observatory, such as [[Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi]], [[Mu'ayyid al-Din al-'Urdi]], from [[Damascus]], [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]], and Hulagu's Chinese astronomer Fao Munji, whose Chinese astronomical experience brought improvements to the [[Ptolemy|Ptolemaic]] system used by Tusi.
-Hulegu's older brother, [[Khublai Khan]] also constructed an observatory, the [[Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory]] in China.
+After 12 years of intense work by al-Tusi and other scientists, including Mu'yed al-Din al-Arad-Najmedin Cathy, Najmd al-Din Qazvini, Allame Qutbuddin Shirazi, and Fakhruddin Maraghi, the tables were compiled in the [[Zij-i Ilkhani]].<ref name=":322"/> The tables were published during the reign of [[Abaqa Khan]], Hulagu's son, and were named after the patron of the observatory.
-A star globe from the observatory made in 1279 is now preserved in [[Dresden]], [[Germany]]. It is a rare example of decorative art from [[Iran]] of the 13th century, designed by M. Ordi and made of [[bronze]], inlaid with [[silver]] and [[gold]].
+=== Nasir al-Din al-Tusi ===
-==Maragha Revolution==
+[[File:Tusi couple.jpg|thumb|Tusi couple from Vat. Arabic ms 319]]
-{{See also|Islamic astronomy}}
+[[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi|Nasir Al-Din al-Tusi]] was the lead astronomer and first director of the observatory. His most notable work was the creation of the [[Tusi couple|Tusi-couple]], a geometric based system that solved some of the fundamental issues with Ptolemaic calculations.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Saliba |first=George |title=Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance |publisher=MIT Press |year=2007 |pages=202}}</ref> Other notable works were revisions to [[Euclid's Elements]]<ref name=":07"/> and Ptolemy's [[Almagest]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mozaffari |first=Mohammad |date=2014 |title=Muḥyī al-Dīn al-Maghribī's lunar measurements at the Maragha observatory |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24569613 |journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=67–120 |doi=10.1007/s00407-013-0130-4 |jstor=24569613 |s2cid=253890523 }}</ref> as well as the astronomical handbook titled [[Zij-i Ilkhani|''Zīj-i Īlkhānī'' or Ilkhanic Tables]] detailing the movement of the planets.<ref name=":82">{{Cite book |last=Sayili |first=Aydin |title=The Oberservatory in Islam and its Place in the General History of the Observatory |publisher=Turk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi |year=1960 |location=Ankara |pages=204}}</ref> About 350 years before Galileo had viewed the [[Milky Way]] through his telescope, Tusi had already offered his own thoughts on the galaxy, stating that the "milky" color was likely due to clusters of small stars.<ref name=":07"/>
-[[File:Al-Tusi Nasir.jpeg|thumb|right|150px|[[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] resolved significant problems in the [[Geocentric model|Ptolemaic system]] with the [[Tusi-couple]], which later played an important role in the [[Copernican heliocentrism|Copernican model]].]]
+=== Mu'ayyid al-Din al-'Urdi ===
-The "Maragha Revolution" refers to the [[Maragheh]] school's [[revolution]] against [[Ptolemy|Ptolemaic]] astronomy. The "Maragha school" was an astronomical tradition beginning in the Maragheh observatory and continuing with astronomers from the [[Umayyad Mosque|Damascus mosque]] and [[Ulugh Beg Observatory|Samarkand observatory]]. The Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the [[equant]] problem and produce alternative configurations to the [[Ptolemaic model]]. They were more successful than previous astronomers in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and [[Deferent and epicycle|eccentrics]], were more accurate than the Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with [[empirical]] [[observation]]s.<ref name=Saliba-1994/> The most important of the Maragha astronomers included [[Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi]] (d. 1266), [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]] (1201–1274), [[Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī]] (d. 1277), [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]] (1236–1311), Sadr al-Sharia al-Bukhari (c. 1347), [[Ibn al-Shatir]] (1304–1375), [[Ali Qushji]] (c. 1474), [[al-Birjandi]] (d. 1525), and [[Shams al-Din al-Khafri]] (d. 1550).<ref>Dallal (1999), pg. 171</ref>
+[[Mu'ayyid al-Din al-'Urdi]] was an astronomer and engineer who was in charge of constructing the buildings of observatory as well as manufacturing the astronomical instruments.<ref name=":07"/><ref name=":7" /> It is believed that he also played a key role in designing the "complex system of water wheels" for the observatory.<ref name=":07"/> In his detailed account of the instruments'','' he lists the [[Mural instrument|Mural quadrant]] and the [[Armillary sphere|Armillary Sphere]] as two of the instruments he designed for the observatory.<ref name=":82" /> The [https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Maragheh-Observatory-Celestial-Globe-at-Dresden-Made-by-Urdi-Oesmann-2002-295_fig3_349064165 Celestial Globe] however was likely crafted around 1300 by Muhammad, the son of [[Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi]] who's signature can be found on the globe. It is made out of brass with silver and gold inlay and was acquired in 1562 by [[Augustus, Elector of Saxony]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Oestmann |first=Günther |date=July 1997 |title=Measuring and Dating the Arabic Celestial Globe at Dresden |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263046306}}</ref>
+=== Decline and legacy ===
-Some have described their achievements in the 13th and 14th centuries as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution", or "[[Scientific Revolution]] before the [[Renaissance]]". An important aspect of this [[revolution]] included the realization that astronomy should aim to describe the behaviour of [[Physical body|physical bodies]] in [[Islamic mathematics|mathematical]] language, and should not remain a mathematical [[hypothesis]], which would only save the [[phenomena]]. The Maragha astronomers also realized that the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] view of [[Motion (physics)|motion]] in the universe being only circular or [[linear]] was not true, as the [[Tusi-couple]] showed that linear motion could also be produced by applying [[circular motion]]s only.<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1994), ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam'', p. 245, 250, 256-257. [[New York University Press]], ISBN 0-8147-8023-7.</ref>
+The decline of the Maragheh observatory began in the 13th century.<ref name=":2222"/> The observatory survived during the reign of seven rulers of the dynasty, including the reigns of Abaqa and [[Öljaitü|Uljaytu]].<ref name=":25"/> After al-Tusi's death, his son Sadr al-Din succeeded him as director of the observatory.<ref name=":07"/> During Uljaytu's reign, he appointed al-Tusi's other son, 'Asil al-Din as director.<ref name=":07"/><ref name=":2222"/> Scholars and students of mathematics, science, and astronomy came to the Maragheh Observatory from across the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]] and up to the eastern borders of China.<ref name=":25"/> Like other madrasas constructed in Islamic structures at the time, the observatory also served as an educational institution, focused on teaching astronomy and providing hands-on experience with the available instruments.<ref name=":07"/><ref name="Mozaffari 2018 591–641"/>
+At the time, the Maragheh Observatory was the first observatory to outlive its founder, remaining active for more than 50 years, with over a hundred astronomers conducting research in the facility during its lifespan.<ref name=":07"/> The stagnation and downturn of the Maragheh observatory began in the late 13th century.<ref name=":14"/> A major blow came when the observatory lost its patronage after the deaths of Hulagu in 1265 and his son [[Abaqa Khan|Abaqa]] in 1282.<ref name=":14"/> Over time the site turned to ruins as a result of frequent earthquakes and a lack of funding.<ref name=":33">{{Cite web |title=Maragheh Observatory |url=http://www.iranreview.org/content/Documents/Maragheh_Observatory.htm |access-date=2019-08-17}}</ref> Over centuries of enduring conflict in the region, the contents of the observatory's library were stolen or destroyed.<ref name=":33" /> [[Abbas I of Persia|Shah Abbas the Great]] of Persia arranged for repair sometime in the early 17th century, but the Shah died before the restoration could begin.The observatory became inactive by the beginning of the 14th century, but the design influenced several other observatories. One example is the Ulugh-Bey observatory, located in [[Ulugh Beg Observatory|Samarkand, Uzbekistan.]] This observatory, built in the 1420s, was similar in scale to the Maragheh Observatory. The [[Ulugh Beg Observatory|Ulugh-Bey Observatory]] later served as a reference for European observatories.<ref name=":25"/><ref name=":2222"/>
-Unlike the ancient [[Greek astronomy|Greek and Hellenistic astronomers]] who were not concerned with the coherence between the mathematical and physical principles of a planetary theory, Islamic astronomers insisted on the need to match mathematics with the real world surrounding them, which gradually evolved from a reality based on [[Aristotelian physics]] to one based on an empirical and mathematical [[physics]].<ref>{{citation|first=George|last=Saliba|author-link=George Saliba|date=Autumn 1999|title=Seeking the Origins of Modern Science?|journal=BRIIFS|volume=1|issue=2|url=http://www.riifs.org/review_articles/review_v1no2_sliba.htm |accessdate=2008-01-25}}</ref> The Maragha Revolution was thus characterized by a shift away from the philosophical foundations of [[On the Heavens|Aristotelian cosmology]] and [[Ptolemaic astronomy]] and towards a greater emphasis on the empirical observation and [[Islamic mathematics|mathematization]] of astronomy and of [[nature]] in general, as exemplified in the works of [[Ibn al-Shatir]], [[Ali Qushji]], [[al-Birjandi]] and al-Khafri.<ref>{{Harv|Saliba|1994b|pp=42 & 80}}</ref><ref>{{citation|first=Ahmad|last=Dallal|year=2001–2002|title=The Interplay of Science and Theology in the Fourteenth-century Kalam|publisher=From Medieval to Modern in the Islamic World, Sawyer Seminar at the [[University of Chicago]] |url=http://humanities.uchicago.edu/orgs/institute/sawyer/archive/islam/dallal.html|accessdate=2008-02-02}}</ref>
+Hulagu's older brother, [[Khublai Khan]], also constructed an observatory, the [[Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory]] in China. A [[celestial globe]] from the observatory made around 1279 is now preserved in [[Dresden]], [[Germany]].{{citation needed|date=December 2019}} It is a rare example of [[decorative art]] from [[Iran]] of the 13th century, designed by [[Muʾayyad al-Dīn al-ʿUrḍī|al-Urdi]] and made of [[bronze]] inlaid with [[silver]] and [[gold]].<ref name=":2222"/>
-Other achievements of the Maragha school include the first [[empirical]] [[observation]]al evidence for the [[Earth's rotation]] on its axis by Tusi and Qushji,<ref name=Ragep/> the separation of [[natural philosophy]] from astronomy by Ibn al-Shatir and Qushji,<ref name=Ragep>F. Jamil Ragep (2001), "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science", ''Osiris'', 2nd Series, Vol. 16, p. 49-64, 66-71.</ref> the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather than [[philosophical]] grounds by Ibn al-Shatir,<ref name=Saliba-1994>[[George Saliba]] (1994), ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam'', p. 233-234, 240. [[New York University Press]], ISBN 0-8147-8023-7.</ref> and the development of a non-Ptolemaic model by Ibn al-Shatir that was mathematically identical to the [[Copernican heliocentrism|heliocentric Copernical model]].<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1994), ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam'', p. 254, 256-257. [[New York University Press]], ISBN 0-8147-8023-7.</ref>
+== Renewed academic interest ==
-[[File:Ghotb2.jpg|thumb|left|Medieval manuscript by [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]] depicting an epicyclic planetary model.]]
+[[File:تابلو راهنمای رصد خانه مراغه - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Site plan of the Maragheh Observatory]]
+The Maragheh observatory was excavated by the Iranian archeologist [[Parviz Varjavand]] in 1972 after his work was commissioned by the [[University of Tehran]] and the [[University of Tabriz]].<ref name=":42"/> Before this excavation there had been no modern archaeological research conducted into this ancient scientific site.<ref name=":53"/>
+The excavation took place on a hill located west of the town of [[Maragheh]]<ref name=":62"/><ref name=":07"/> where the central tower along with numerous other architectural units were unearthed including a residence for Hulagu and a mosque.<ref name=":07" /> The central tower had a circular plan and was divided by a long corridor so that there were six spaces on either side. It was the main space in which observations took place as well as scientific documents were kept. Smaller circular units were found near the central tower, which are thought to have been the platforms on which astronomical instruments were placed.<ref>Ruggles, C., & Cotte, M. (2010). The first ICOMOS–IAU Thematic Study. UNESCO Astronomy and World Heritage Webportal - Thematic Study 1. Retrieved November 15, 2022, from https://www3.astronomicalheritage.net/index.php/thematic-study-1</ref> A casting workshop, a school building as well as a large library was part of the scientific research complex of the observatory<ref name=":42"/><ref name=":53"/>
-[[Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi]] (d. 1266)  was the first of the Maragheh astronomers to develop a non-Ptolemaic model, and he proposed a new theorem, the "Urdi lemma".<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1979). "The First Non-Ptolemaic Astronomy at the Maraghah School", ''[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]'' '''70''' (4), p. 571-576.</ref> [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] (1201–1274) resolved significant problems in the Ptolemaic system by developing the [[Tusi-couple]] as an alternative to the physically problematic [[equant]] introduced by Ptolemy.<ref name=Gill>M. Gill (2005). [http://www.chowk.com/show_article.cgi?aid=00005502&channel=university%20ave Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?]</ref> Tusi's student [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]] (1236–1311), in his ''The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens'', discusses the possibility of [[heliocentrism]]. Al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī, in his ''Hikmat al-'Ain'', wrote an argument for a heliocentric model, though he later abandoned the idea.<ref>A. Baker, L. Chapter (2002)</ref>
+Fragments of glass and pottery were found as well as copper coins and a gold coin from the [[Ilkhanate|IIkhanid]] period. A variety of architectural stones (brick, carved and engraved stone, glazed tile) which were used for the construction and the ornamentation of the buildings were also discovered.<ref name=":53"/><ref name=":42"/>
-[[File:Shatir500.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ibn al-Shatir]]'s model for the appearances of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]], showing the multiplication of [[Deferent and epicycle|epicycle]]s using the [[Tusi-couple]], thus eliminating the Ptolemaic eccentrics and [[equant]].]]
+On the west side of the hill, Varjavand also came across the so-called the [https://vici.org/vici/55299/ Rasadkhana caves] with temple like rock structures which resemble Chinese and Mongol religious architectural styles. These underground spaces are believed to have been used by visitors for religious ceremonies during the Ilkhanid period.<ref name=":62" />
-[[Ibn al-Shatir]] (1304–1375), in his ''A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory'', eliminated the need for an equant by introducing an extra epicycle, departing from the Ptolemaic system in a way very similar to what [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] later also did. Ibn al-Shatir proposed a system that was only approximately geocentric, rather than exactly so, having demonstrated [[trigonometry|trigonometrically]] that the Earth was not the exact center of the universe. Unlike previous astronomers before him, Ibn al-Shatir was not concerned with adhering to the theoretical principles of [[natural philosophy]] (or [[Aristotelian physics]]), but rather to produce a model that was more consistent with [[empirical]] observations. For example, it was Ibn al-Shatir's concern for observational accuracy which led him to eliminate the epicycle in the Ptolemaic [[Sun|solar]] model and all the eccentrics, epicycles and equant in the Ptolemaic [[Lunar theory|lunar model]]. His model was thus in better agreement with empirical [[observation]]s than any previous model produced before him. While previous Maragha models were just as accurate as the Ptolemaic model, Ibn al-Shatir's geometric model was the first that was actually superior to the Ptolemaic model in terms of its better agreement with empirical observations. His work thus marked a turning point in astronomy, which may be considered a "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance".<ref name=Saliba-1994/>
+== Preserving the site ==
-Y. M. Faruqi wrote:<ref>Y. M. Faruqi (2006). "Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise", ''International Education Journal'' '''7''' (4), p. 395-396.</ref>
+[[File:Marağa rəsədxanası (1).jpg|thumb|Dome of the Maragheh observatory]]
+In recent years, interest has increased in the historical significance of this site. A dome shaped cover has been built to protect the remnants of the observatory. Nearby [[University of Tabriz|Tabriz University]] has been responsible for the management and protection of the Maragheh site since the late 70's.<ref name=":14"/> In collaboration with the municipality of Maragheh, there are new renovation projects that are being conducted to preserve the site<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 2022 |title=Restoration work begins on Maragheh observatory |url=https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/475936/Restoration-work-begins-on-Maragheh-observatory}}</ref>
+==See also==
-{{quote|"Ibn al-Shatir’s theory of lunar motion was very similar to that attributed to Copernicus some 150
+* [[List of astronomical observatories]]
-years later".}}
-{{quote|"Whereas Ibn al-Shatir’s concept of planetary motion was conceived in order to play an important role in an earth-centred planetary model, Copernicus used the same concept of motion to present his sun-centred planetary model. Thus the development of alternative models took place that permitted an empirical testing of the models."}}
-Ibn al-Shatir’s rectified model, which included the Tusi-couple and Urdi lemma, was later adapted into a [[Copernican heliocentrism|heliocentric model]] by Copernicus,<ref name=Gill/> which was mathematically achieved by reversing the direction of the last vector connecting the Earth to the Sun in Ibn al-Shatir's model.<ref name=Saliba>Saliba (1999).</ref>
-An area of active discussion in the Maragheh school, and later the [[Samarkand]] and [[Istanbul]] observatories, was the possibility of the [[Earth's rotation]]. Supporters of this theory included [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]], [[Nizam al-Din al-Nisaburi]] (c. 1311), al-Sayyid al-Sharif al-Jurjani (1339–1413), Ali Qushji (d. 1474), and Abd al-Ali al-Birjandi (d. 1525). Tusi was the first to present [[empirical]] [[observation]]al evidence of the Earth's rotation, using the location of [[comet]]s relevant to the Earth as evidence, which Qushji elaborated on with further empirical observations while rejecting [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] [[natural philosophy]] altogether. Both of their arguments were later described again by [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] in 1543.<ref>F. Jamil Ragep (2001), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context", ''Science in Context'' '''14''' (1-2), p. 145–163. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref>
-==Current status==
-[[File:Maragheh observatory.JPG|thumb|Current status of Maragheh observatory]]
-To save the installation from further destruction, [[Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran]] built a [[dome]]-framed shelter and it plans to hold an exhibit of astronomical devices used at Maragheh observatory.
-The observatory is currently covered with a dome-framed [[brass]] structure and is situated two miles west of Maragheh.
 ==Notes==
@@ Line 74: / Line 65: @@
 ==References==
 * A. Baker and L. Chapter (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences". In M. M. Sharif, "A History of Muslim Philosophy", ''Philosophia Islamica''.
-* Richard Covington (May–June 2007). "Rediscovering Arabic science", ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', p.&nbsp;2-16. {{Verify credibility|date=April 2010}}
+* Richard Covington (May–June 2007). "Rediscovering Arabic science", ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', p.&nbsp;2–16. {{Unreliable source?|date=April 2010}}
 * Ahmad Dallal, "Science, Medicine and Technology.", in ''The Oxford History of Islam'', ed. John Esposito, New York: [[Oxford University Press]], (1999).
-*{{Citation
+* {{Citation
  |last1=Morelon
  |first1=Régis
  |last2=Rashed
  |first2=Roshdi
- |year=1996
+ |date=1996
  |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]
  |volume=3
@@ Line 89: / Line 80: @@
 * [[George Saliba]] (1999). [http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?] [[Columbia University]].
+==Further reading==
-== External links ==
+* {{Citation
-* [http://www.ichodoc.ir/p-a/CHANGED/181/html/181_2.HTM Maragheh observatory at Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization Documentation Center]
+ |last=Saliba
-* [http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/42_folder/42_articles/42_maragha.html Scientists who made a difference]
+ |first=George
-* [http://www.riaam.ac.ir/ Research Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics of Maragha]
+ |author-link=George Saliba
-* [http://www.riaam.ac.ir/AboutMa.htm On Maragheh observatory at RIAAM]
+ |year=1979
-* [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/p_tarikhi/Maragheh.htm&date=2009-10-26+00:07:59  Contribution by Parviz Tarikhi with illustrations]
+ |title=The First Non-Ptolemaic Astronomy at the Maraghah School
-* [http://www.panoramio.com/photo/3542868 Inside the protecting dome]
+ |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]
-* [http://web.uni-frankfurt.de/fb13/igaiw/museum/astronomie/A-1.03.html Copy of the celestial globe]
+ |volume=70
-* [http://www.muslimheritage.com/day_life/default.cfm?ArticleID=661&Oldpage=1 Al-Urdi's Article on 'The Quality of Observation', FSTC Limited]
+ |issue=4
-* [http://www.tishineh.com/touritem/842-9/a Tishineh]
+ |pages=571–576
-{{Coord|37|23|45.88|N|46|12|32.97|E|display=title}}
+ |doi=10.1086/352344
+|s2cid=144332379 |ref=none
+ }}
+{{Coord|37|23|46|N|46|12|33|E|display=title}}
 {{Islamic astronomy}}
 {{Iranian Space Program}}
 {{East Azarbaijan Province}}
+{{Portal bar|Iran|Astronomy|Stars|Spaceflight|Outer space|Solar System|Education|Science}}
+{{Authority control}}
-[[Category:1260s in Asia]]
+[[Category:1259 establishments in Asia]]
-[[Category:History of Iran]]
+[[Category:13th century in Iran]]
 [[Category:Astronomical observatories in Iran]]
-[[Category:Astronomical observatories of medieval Islam]]
+[[Category:Astronomical observatories of the medieval Islamic world]]
-[[Category:East Azerbaijan Province]]
+[[Category:Buildings and structures in East Azerbaijan province]]
+[[Category:Iranian inventions]]
 [[de:Maragha#Observatorium Rasad-e Khan]]

Authority control databases
International	VIAF
National	United States Israel