Jump to content

Little penguin

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Apat646 (talk | contribs) at 23:19, 13 October 2024 (conservation status and foraging behaviour). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

"Kororā" redirects here. For the extinct penguin genus, see Korora.
This article is about the species endemic to New Zealand. For the species found in Australia and Otago, New Zealand, see Eudyptula novaehollandiae.

Little penguin
Little penguin (Eudyptula minor), moving up from the shore at night towards its burrow on Kapiti Island, New Zealand.
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Sphenisciformes
Family: Spheniscidae
Genus: Eudyptula
Species:
E. minor
Binomial name
Eudyptula minor
(Forster, 1781)
The range of Eudyptula minor is in blue.[2]

The little penguin (Eudyptula minor) is a species of penguin from New Zealand. They are commonly known as fairy penguins, little blue penguins, or blue penguins, owing to their slate-blue plumage and are also known by their Māori name kororā. They are fossorial birds.[3]

The Australian little penguin (Eudyptula novaehollandiae), from Australia and the Otago region of New Zealand, is considered a separate species by a 2016 study[4] and a 2019 study.[5]

Taxonomy

A white-flippered penguin in the South Island.

The little penguin was first described by German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster in 1781. Several subspecies are known, but a precise classification of these is still a matter of dispute. The holotypes of the subspecies E. m. variabilis[6] and Eudyptula minor chathamensis[7] are in the collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. The white-flippered penguin (E. m. albosignata or E. m. minor morpha albosignata) is currently considered by most taxonomists to be a colour morph or subspecies of Eudyptula minor. In 2008, Shirihai treated the little penguin and white-flippered penguin as allospecies.[8] However, as of 2012, the IUCN and BirdLife International consider the white-flippered penguin to be a subspecies or morph of the little penguin.

Little penguins from New Zealand and Australia were once considered to be the same species, called Eudyptula minor. Analysis of mtDNA in 2002 revealed two clades in Eudyptula: one containing little penguins of New Zealand's North Island, Cook Strait and Chatham Island, as well as the white-flippered penguin, and a second containing little penguins of Australia and the Otago region of New Zealand.[9] Preliminary analysis of braying calls and cluster analysis of morphometrics partially supported these results.[9] A 2016 study described the Australian little penguin as a new and separate species, Eudyptula novaehollandiae. E. minor is endemic to New Zealand, while E. novaehollandiae is found in Australia and Otago.[4] A 2019 study supported the recognition of E. minor and E. novaehollandiae as separate species.[5]

Description

Like those of all penguins, the wings of Eudyptula species have developed into flippers used for swimming.

Eudyptula species typically grow to between 30 and 33 cm (12 and 13 in) tall and on average weigh 1.5 kg (3.3 lb). The head and upper parts are blue in colour, with slate-grey ear coverts fading to white underneath, from the chin to the belly. Their flippers are blue in colour. The dark grey-black beak is 3–4 cm long, the irises pale silvery- or bluish-grey or hazel, and the feet pink above with black soles and webbing. An immature individual will have a shorter bill and lighter upperparts.[10]

Like most seabirds, the Eudyptula species have a long lifespan. The average for the species is 6.5 years, but flipper ringing experiments show that in very exceptional cases they may live up to 25 years in captivity.[11]

Eudyptula minor does not have the distinct bright blue feathers that distinguish Eudyptula novaehollandiae. In addition, the vocalisation patterns of the New Zealand lineage located on Tiritiri Matangi Island vary from the Australian lineage located in Oamaru. Females are known to prefer the local call of the New Zealand lineage.

There are also behavioural differences that help differentiate these penguins. Those of the Australian lineage will swim together in a large group after dusk and walk along the shore to reach their nesting sites. This may be an effective predator avoidance strategy by traveling in a large group simultaneously. This has not been seen by those of the New Zealand lineage. Eudyptula minor only recently encountered terrestrial vertebrate predators, while Eudyptula novaehollandiae would have had to deal with carnivorous marsupials.

Distribution and habitat

See also: List of little penguin colonies § New Zealand

Eudyptula minor breeds along most of the coastline of New Zealand, including the Chatham Islands. However, Eudyptula minor does not occur in Otago, which is located on the east coast of New Zealand's South Island. The Australian species Eudyptula novaehollandiae occurs in Otago.[12] E. novaehollandiae was originally endemic to Australia. Using ancient-DNA analysis and radiocarbon dating using historical, pre-human, as well as archaeological Eudyptula remains, the arrival of the Australian species in New Zealand was determined to have occurred roughly between AD 1500 and 1900. When the E. minor population declined in New Zealand, it left a genetic opening for E. novaehollandiae. The decrease of E. minor was most likely due to anthropogenic effects, such as being hunted by humans as well as introduced predators,[13] including dogs brought from overseas.

It has been determined that the population of Eudyptula novaehollandiae in Otago arrived even more recently than previously estimated due to mulitlocus coalescent analyses.[14]

Behaviour

Feeding

Little penguins are central place foragers, meaning they will travel distances to forage but always return to the same nest or colony. [15] They are also a species where both parents are required to raise chicks, and alternate foraging trips while the other is guarding and incubating the nest during the post guard stage. These stints can last anywhere between 1-10 days during incubation. [16] Despite nesting on the shore, little penguins forage at sea and feed on a diet ranging from small schooling fish, to cephalopods, krill, and microzooplankton. [17] As the species is widely distributed across a range of habitats in New Zealand and Australia, variation in diet and foraging choice has also arisen. Important little penguin prey items include arrow squid, slender sprat, Graham's gudgeon, red cod, and ahuru.[18]

Little penguins feed by hunting small clupeoid fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans, for which they travel and dive quite extensively,[19][20] including to the sea floor. Foraging efficiency has been found to be significantly influenced by age. Foraging success appears to stabilise selection for middle-aged penguins, as feeding is a learnt behaviour but also requires good physical condition.[21] [22]

For the Philip Island and other Southern Australian colonies, anchovies are the primary food source.[23] Anchovies are rich in oils and nutritional value. Although the diet of the Philip Island colony has diversified to include selections of cephalopods and krill during the post guard stage of their life cycle where greater amounts of energy is required for chick development and egg production, resident penguins predominantly rely on anchovies when more energy is required.[24]

The nature of their diet also impacts foraging methods, which may vary by colony depending on what food is available. When prey is larger and individuals are only catching 1-2 items at a time, they are more likely to hunt alone to reduce competition, whereas smaller and more mobile prey, or schooling prey species, promote group hunting to enable efficient encirclement.[25] The Oamaru colony predominantly feeds on smaller schooling species such as sprat and gudgeon, while penguins from the Stewart/Codfish Island colonies more often hunt alone. The latter is likely linked to a predominantly cephalopods diet (58% of prey items at < 10 gm each).[26]

Double brooding

If penguins produce a second clutch of eggs in a season once the first chicks have fledged, this is known as double brooding. [27]. Thus far this behaviour has only been observed in the Eudyptula novellidae the lineage of little blue penguins which inhabit Australian and Otago regions, there is not evidence to suggest this is an established behaviour within Eudyptula minor, however double broods are occasionally noticed among the colonies in the Kaikoura coastline [28] It is unsure yet whether this is means double brooding is a genetically-mediated behaviour. There is also an uneven distribution of research carried out across the sub species of eudyptula minor the Eudyptula novellidae are disproportionally researched more than others because they occur in large colonies which such as the Philip Island penguin parade, and the Oamaru penguin colony which have attracted international and local tourism and are understanding their behaviours are important to economic success [29] In a study carried out on Oamaru penguin colony found double broods to increase breeding success by up to 75% a season [30] Double brooding is more likely to occur in individuals who lay their first clutch , prior to mid-september. [31] While there is some inter annual variability, the most common period for little penguins to lay their first clutch in spring, mid-september is early and gives species time left in the season to lay a second clutch of eggs after the first have fledged [32] .

Double brooding is a behaviour which its onset can be strongly influenced by sea surface temperature, age and food availability [33]Warmer sea surface temperature in summer and autumn corellated with earlier laying of first clutch of eggs increasing the chances of double brooding[34] In contrast, in New Zealand it was observed that during periods of El Nino Southern Oscilation where colder temperature water was being brought to the surface there was a delay in the onset of breeding for the eudyptula novellidae, thus resulting in a lower incidence of double brooding in the Otago colonies [35]. Age is also believed to be a factor effecting double brooding because the pairs successfully able to double brood were most commonly strategic in reclaiming successful nests and pair-bonds. Little penguins show a high nest fidelity, and the ability to reclaim success early suggests it is likely that successful double brooding is a behaviour that improves with age. Another influencing factor is the availability of food, for larger colonies such as the Philip Islands, competition for food can increase significantly during the breeding season, particularly if there is variability in the amount of prey available [34]. If this competition results in aggression between adults this can also influence ability to successfully raise chicks, and be able to successfully breed in the next season.

Threats

Introduced predators

Introduced mammalian predators present the greatest terrestrial risk to little penguins and include cats, dogs, rats, and particularly ferrets and stoats.[36][37] As examples significant dog attacks have been recorded at the colony at Little Kaiteriteri Beach,[38] and a suspected stoat or ferret attack at Doctor's Point near Dunedin, New Zealand claimed the lives of 29 little blue penguins in November 2014.[39]

Oil spills

Little penguin populations have been significantly affected by a major oil spill with the grounding of the Rena off New Zealand in 2011, which killed 2,000 seabirds (including little penguins) directly, and killed an estimated 20,000 in total based on wider ecosystem impacts.[40][41] Oil spills are the most common cause of the little penguins being admitted to the rehabilitation facilities at Phillip Island Nature Park (PINP). These oil spill recurrences have endangered not just the little penguins, but the entire penguin population. This can further decline the population, which can lead to possible extinction.[42]

Fire

Increased frequency of drought and extreme temperatures in Southern Australia has lead to an increased fire risk[43]. Being flightless birds that nest on land, little blue penguins are especially vulnerable to fire[45]. Behavioural traits such as reluctancy to abandon nests and emerging mostly during daylit hours is thought to be some of the main reasons for increased vulnerability in the future[44]. The threats it provides include nest and habitat distruption, as well as deadly to eggs and individuals, despite this Eudyptula minor appears to show no fear towards fire when directly exposed. When observed, they have been to found to remain around or under vegetation until severely burnt or injured. Some have even been observed preening their feathers near to open flames[43].

Fires can also significantly alter the composition of vegetation in Eudyptula minor habitats. A large fire in Marion Bay, South Australia in 1994 saw the loss of two key plant species; introduced marram grass and coastal wattle. Following the fire, these grasses were replaced by invasive palms A.arenia and coastal wattle grew back in dense thickets. This habitat became no longer suitable for Eudyptula minor and colony relocated[45].

Conservation

Eudyptula species are classified as "at risk - declining" under New Zealand's Wildlife Act 1953.[46] Overall, little penguin populations in New Zealand have been decreasing. Some colonies have become extinct, and others continue to be at risk.[37] Some new colonies have been established in urban areas.[36] The species is not considered endangered in New Zealand, with the exception of the white-flippered subspecies found only on Banks Peninsula and nearby Motunau Island. Since the 1960s, the mainland population has declined by 60-70%; though a small increase has occurred on Motunau Island. A colony exists in Wellington Harbor on Matiu / Somes Island.[47]

Traffic sign warning of little penguins crossing on the West Coast of New Zealand

Protestors have opposed the development of a marina at Kennedy Point, Waiheke Island in New Zealand for the risk it poses to little penguins and their habitat.[48] Protesters claimed that they exhausted all legal means to oppose the project and have had to resort to occupation and non-violent resistance. Several arrests have been made for trespassing.[49]


Zoological exhibits

Little penguins at the Birch Aquarium, La Jolla

Zoological exhibits featuring purpose-built enclosures for Eudyptula species can be seen in Australia at the Adelaide Zoo, Melbourne Zoo, the National Zoo & Aquarium in Canberra, Perth Zoo, Caversham Wildlife Park (Perth), Ballarat Wildlife Park, Sea Life Sydney Aquarium,[50] and the Taronga Zoo in Sydney.[51][52][53][54][55][56][57] Enclosures include nesting boxes or similar structures for the animals to retire into, a reconstruction of a pool and in some cases, a transparent aquarium wall to allow patrons to view the animals underwater while they swim.

Eudyptula penguin exhibit exists at Sea World, on the Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. In early March 2007, 25 of the 37 penguins died from an unknown toxin following a change of gravel in their enclosure.[58][59][60] It is still not known what caused the deaths of the penguins, and it was decided not to return the 12 surviving penguins to the same enclosure where the penguins became ill.[61] A new enclosure for the little penguin colony was opened at Sea World in 2008.[62]

In New Zealand, Eudyptula penguin exhibits exist at the Auckland Zoo, the Wellington Zoo, and the National Aquarium of New Zealand.[63] Since 2017, the National Aquarium of New Zealand, has featured a monthly "Penguin of the Month" board, declaring two of their resident animals the "Naughty" and "Nice" penguin for that month. Photos of the board have gone viral and gained the aquarium a large worldwide social media following.[64]

In the United States, Eudyptula penguins can be seen at the Louisville Zoo[65] the Bronx Zoo,[66] and the Cincinnati Zoo.[67][68]

See also

icon Animals portal

Notes

  1. ^ This IUCN assessment treats Eudyptula minor and Eudyptula novaehollandiae as just one species.

References

  1. ^ BirdLife International (2020). "Eudyptula minor". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T22697805A202126091. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22697805A202126091.en. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  2. ^ "Fig 1. Map of distribution of Eudyptula penguins. Blue and red colours..." ResearchGate. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
  3. ^ "Fossorial animals". Animalia.bio. Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  4. ^ a b Grosser, Stefanie; Rawlence, Nicolas J.; Anderson, Christian N. K.; Smith, Ian W. G.; Scofield, R. Paul; Waters, Jonathan M. (10 February 2016). "Invader or resident? Ancient-DNA reveals rapid species turnover in New Zealand little penguins". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 283 (1824): 20152879. doi:10.1098/rspb.2015.2879. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 4760177. PMID 26842575.
  5. ^ a b Cole, Theresa L; Ksepka, Daniel T; Mitchell, Kieren J; Tennyson, Alan J D; Thomas, Daniel B; Pan, Hailin; Zhang, Guojie; Rawlence, Nicolas J; Wood, Jamie R; Bover, Pere; Bouzat, Juan L (1 April 2019). "Mitogenomes Uncover Extinct Penguin Taxa and Reveal Island Formation as a Key Driver of Speciation". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 36 (4): 784–797. doi:10.1093/molbev/msz017. ISSN 0737-4038. PMID 30722030.
  6. ^ "Eudyptula minor variabilis; holotype". Collections Online. Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
  7. ^ "Eudyptula minor chathamensis; holotype". Collections Online. Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
  8. ^ Shirihai, Hadoram (2008). The Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife, 2d Edition. Princeton University Press.
  9. ^ a b Banks, Jonathan C.; Mitchell, Anthony D.; Waas, Joseph R. & Paterson, Adrian M. (2002): An unexpected pattern of molecular divergence within the blue penguin (Eudyptula minor) complex. Notornis 49(1): 29–38. PDF fulltext
  10. ^ Williams, Tony D. (1995). The penguins : Spheniscidae. Rory P. Wilson, P. Dee Boersma, David L. Stokes, Jeff Davies, John Busby. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854667-X. OCLC 30736089.
  11. ^ Dann, Peter (2005). "Longevity in Little Penguins" (PDF). Marine Ornithology (33): 71–72. Retrieved 17 September 2012.
  12. ^ "Australian and New Zealand Little Blue Penguins are Different Species". MessagetoEagle.com. 16 December 2015. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
  13. ^ Grosser, Stefanie. "NZ's southern little penguins are recent Aussie invaders: Otago research". University of Otago. University of Otago: Department of Zoology. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  14. ^ Grosser, Stefanie; Burridge, Christopher P.; Peucker, Amanda J.; Waters, Jonathan M. (14 December 2015). "Coalescent Modelling Suggests Recent Secondary-Contact of Cryptic Penguin Species". PLOS ONE. 10 (12): e0144966. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1044966G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0144966. PMC 4682933. PMID 26675310.
  15. ^ Olsson, O., Helf, K. L., & Brown, J. S. (2008). A guide to central place effects in foraging [Review of A guide to central place effects in foraging]. Theoretical Population Biology, 74(1), 22–33
  16. ^ Mattern, Thomas & Wilson, Kerry-Jayne. (2018). New Zealand penguins - current knowledge and research priorities. 10.13140/RG.2.2.16180.50564/3
  17. ^ Braidwood, J., Kunz, J., & Wilson, K. J. (2011). Effect of habitat features on the breeding success of the blue penguin (Eudyptula minor) on the West Coast of New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 38(2), 131–141.
  18. ^ Flemming, S.A. (2013) "[1]". In Miskelly, C.M. (ed.) New Zealand Birds Online
  19. ^ Flemming, S.A., Lalas, C., and van Heezik, Y. (2013) "Little penguin (Eudyptula minor) diet at three breeding colonies in New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Ecology 37: 199–205 Accessed 30 January 2014.
  20. ^ "Little Penguin Factsheet" Auckland Council, New Zealand (28 February 2014). Retrieved 2014-07-26.
  21. ^ Zimmer, I., Ropert-Coudert, Y., Kato, A., Ancel, A., & Chiaradia, A. (2011). Does Foraging Performance Change with Age in Female Little Penguins (Eudyptula minor)? PLoS One, 6(1)https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0016098
  22. ^ Pelletier, L., Chiaradia, A., Kato, A., & Ropert-Coudert, Y. (2014). Fine-scale spatial age segregation in the limited foraging area of an inshore seabird species, the little penguin. Oecologia, 176(2), 399+.
  23. ^ Dann, P., & Chambers, L. (2013). Ecological effects of climate change on little penguins Eudyptula minor and the potential economic impact on tourism [Review of Ecological effects of climate change on little penguins Eudyptula minor and the potential economic impact on tourism]. Climate Research, 58(1), 67–79. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24896130
  24. ^ Chiaradia, A., Forero, M. G., Hobson , K. A., Swearer, S., Hume , F., Dann, P., & Renwick, L. (2011). Diet segregation between two colonies of little penguins Eudyptula minor in southeast Australia [Review of Diet segregation between two colonies of little penguins Eudyptula minor in southeast Australia]. Austral Ecology , 37(5), 610–619.
  25. ^ Sutton, G. J., Hoskins, A. J., & Arnould, J. P. Y. (2015). Benefits of Group Foraging Depend on Prey Type in a Small Marine Predator, the Little Penguin. PLoS ONE, 10(12).
  26. ^ Mattern, Thomas & Wilson, Kerry-Jayne. (2018). New Zealand penguins - current knowledge and research priorities. 10.13140/RG.2.2.16180.50564/3.
  27. ^ (Agnew, P., Houston, D., Lalas, C. et al. Variation in reproductive performance of Little Penguins (Eudyptula minor) attributable to double brooding. J Ornithol 155, 101–109 (2014).)
  28. ^ (Rowe, L. K., Weir, J. S., & Judkins, A. G. (2020). Breeding of little penguins (Eudyptula minor), including multiple brooding, at South Bay, Kaikōura, New Zealand, 2006–2017. Notornis, 67(2), 451-458.)
  29. ^ (Gales, R. (1985). Breeding Seasons and Double Brooding of the Little Penguin Eudyptula Minor in New Zealand. Emu - Austral Ornithology, 85(2), 127–130.)
  30. ^ (Agnew, P., Houston, D., Lalas, C. et al. Variation in reproductive performance of Little Penguins (Eudyptula minor) attributable to double brooding. J Ornithol 155, 101–109 (2014))
  31. ^ (Mattern, Thomas & Wilson, Kerry-Jayne. (2018). New Zealand penguins - current knowledge and research priorities. 10.13140/RG.2.2.16180.50564/3.).
  32. ^ (Chambers, L. E. (2004). Delayed breeding in Little Penguins–evidence of climate change. Australian Meteorological Magazine, 53(1), 13-19.)
  33. ^ (Grosser, S., Burridge, C. P., Peucker, A. J., & Waters, J. M. (2015). Coalescent Modelling Suggests Recent Secondary-Contact of Cryptic Penguin Species. PloS one, 10(12), e0144966.)
  34. ^ a b (Agnew, P., Houston, D., Lalas, C. et al. Variation in reproductive performance of Little Penguins (Eudyptula minor) attributable to double brooding. J Ornithol 155, 101–109 (2014).
  35. ^ (Cullen, J. M., Chambers, L. E., Coutin, P. C., & Dann, P. (2009). Predicting onset and success of breeding in little penguins Eudyptula minor from ocean temperatures. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 378, 269–278.).
  36. ^ a b Grabski, Valerie (2009). "Little Penguin - Penguin Project". Penguin Sentinels/University of Washington. Archived from the original on 16 December 2011. Retrieved 25 November 2011.
  37. ^ a b Dann, Peter. "Penguins: Little (Blue or Fairy) Penguins - Eudyptula minor". International Penguin Conservation Work Group. Retrieved 25 November 2011.
  38. ^ Carson, Jonathan (3 September 2014). "DOC devastated by death of penguins". The Nelson Mail. Retrieved 4 September 2014.
  39. ^ Mead, Thomas (5 November 2014). "Stoat suspected in Little blue penguin massacre". 3 News. Archived from the original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 11 November 2014.
  40. ^ Backhouse, Matthew (28 December 2011). "Penguin reigns in battle for nation's hearts". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 28 March 2012.
  41. ^ "Rena: Oil clean-up chemical worries Greenpeace". The New Zealand Herald. 25 November 2011. Retrieved 28 March 2012.
  42. ^ Goldsworthy, S. D.; Giese, M.; Gales, R. P.; Brothers, N.; Hamill, J. (2000). "Effects of the Iron Baron oil spill on little penguins (Eudyptula minor). II. Post-release survival of rehabilitated oiled birds". Wildlife Research. 27 (6): 573–582. doi:10.1071/wr99076. ISSN 1448-5494.
  43. ^ a b Flemming, S. A., Lalas, C., & van Heezik, Y. (2013). Little penguin (Eudyptula minor) diet at three breeding colonies in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 37(2), 199–205.
  44. ^ Berlincourt, M., Arnould, J. P., & Y. (2015). Influence of environmental conditions on foraging behaviour and its consequences on reproductive performance in little penguins. Marine Biology, 162(7), 1485-1501
  45. ^ Stevenson, C., & Woehler, E. J. (2007). Population decreases in little penguins Eudyptula minor in southeastern Tasmania, Australia, over the past 45 years. Marine Ornithology, 35, 71-76.
  46. ^ "Wildlife Act 1953 No 31 (as at 02 August 2019), Public Act Contents – New Zealand Legislation". legislation.govt.nz. Retrieved 28 May 2020.
  47. ^ "Matiu/Somes Island - Nature and conservation". Department of Conservation. New Zealand Government. Retrieved 3 November 2023.
  48. ^ "Police arrest three at Waiheke Island marina protest". NZ Herald. 28 May 2021. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
  49. ^ "Arrests at Waiheke's Kennedy Point as fight to protect penguins escalates". Stuff. 17 June 2021. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
  50. ^ "Visit Sydney Aquarium Today | SEA LIFE Sydney". SEA LIFE Sydney Aquarium.
  51. ^ "Little Blue Penguin" (PDF). Zoos South Australia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
  52. ^ "Little Penguin". Zoos Victoria. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
  53. ^ "AdventureTrail" (PDF). National Zoo & Aquarium. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
  54. ^ "Little Penguin". Perth Zoo. Archived from the original on 28 February 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
  55. ^ "Australian Little Penguin". Taronga Conservation Society Australia. Archived from the original on 24 March 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
  56. ^ "Little Penguins | SEA LIFE Sydney Aquarium". www.sydneyaquarium.com.au. Retrieved 23 April 2020.
  57. ^ "Little Penguins". Ballarat Wildlife Park. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  58. ^ "Mystery penguin deaths at Sea World". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
  59. ^ "Authorities find unknown toxin in Sea World Penguins". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 13 February 2011.
  60. ^ "Sea World probes mysterious deaths". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 13 February 2011.
  61. ^ "Penguin deaths remain a mystery". Archived from the original on 21 March 2008.
  62. ^ "Seaworld opens new haven for penguins". Brisbane Times. 8 March 2008. Retrieved 24 January 2019.
  63. ^ National Aquarium of New Zealand > New Zealand Land Animals - Little Penguin, Nationalaquarium.vo.nz, Accessed 27 December 2014
  64. ^ "Naughty Penguin of the Month is Giving Twitter Life to this Viral Thread". Bustle.com. 21 July 2018. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
  65. ^ "Penguin Cove – Little Penguin Conservation Center". Louisville Zoo. 20 April 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  66. ^ "Little Penguins Make a Big Splash - Bronx Zoo". bronxzoo.com. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  67. ^ "Cincinnati Zoo Visitors Over the Moon for Penguin Ambassadors Mars and Rover". Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Garden®. 21 May 2021. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  68. ^ "Little Blue Penguin". Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Garden®. Retrieved 9 March 2023.

Further reading

  • Williams, Tony D. (1995). The Penguins. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854667-X.
Wikispecies has information related to Eudyptula minor.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eudyptula minor.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Little_penguin&oldid=1251024255"