Draft:Orius minutus
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| Orius minutus | |
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| Orius minutus feeding on Trioza rhamni. | |
Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Hemiptera |
| Suborder: | Heteroptera |
| Family: | Anthocoridae |
| Genus: | Orius |
| Species: | O. minutus
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| Binomial name | |
| Orius minutus (Wolff, 1811).[1]
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Orius minutis is a Palearctic species of minute pirate bug in the family Anthocoridae[1]. Orius minutus is naturally distributed throughout Europe, western Russia, North Africa, China, Japan, and Siberia[1][2]. Its accidental introduction into North America, likely through the movement of plant material commerce and regular dispersal, is widely considered to be beneficial to the agricultural industry[1][3][4]. Orius minutus is a significant addition to the predator complex of many crop types, and its role as a non-commercialized biological control agent highlights its unique contribution to pest management strategies[1][3][4].
Diagnostics
[edit]Adults
[edit]Adult females of Orius minutus are larger (2.05-2.60mm total length) and more broadly ovate (0.85-0.97 mm pronotal width) than males, who are slenderer (0.7-0.82 mm pronotal width) and possess thicker antennae[1]. The heads range from dark brown to black, all sporting yellow antennae[1]. The pronotum and scutellum are brownish-grey to brownish-black, with the hardened forewings yellowish brown[1]. The underside and hind legs are dark brown to black, with the front and middle legs yellow[1]. Lengths of golden setae adorn the dorsal side of the insect[1].
Nymphs
[edit]Fifth instar nymphs of Orius minutus are differentiated from other members of the genus Orius (e.g. Orius tristicolor) by their broadly ovate body shape with one-third of the wing pad’s tip a much darker colour than the rest of the dorsum[1]. The maximum width of the pronotum is 0.70mm or greater[1].
It is difficult to differentiate between earlier instars; many members of the genus Orius are a creamy white colour prior to their fifth instar[1]. However, Orius minutus are generally more robust and broader than other species[1]. Their eyes nearly touch the anterior margin of the pronotum[1]. The head is relatively short, with the protunum almost 1.5 times the width of the head[1].
Reproduction
[edit]Mating
[edit]Orius minutus females are functionally monandrous [5]. Generally, females can not be inseminated by one mating[5]; only if the first mating fails will the females choose to mate with another male[5]. Females will refuse unwanted mating attempts by lifting their ovipositors and struggling[5]; such behaviours suggest females control the functional monandry[5]. The number of unique male partners does not affect fecundity, though mating with a single male decreases the hatching success of eggs[5]. Males are polygamous and can inseminate at least three females at a rate of one female per day[5]; the insemination ability of males persists for at least three copulations[5].
Unlike many members of Anthocoridae, traumatic insemination does not occur within Orius minutus[6]. Males instead employ extragenital insemination to transfer spermatozoa into the female’s body[6]. The male’s needle-like flagellum is inserted intersegmentally between the female’s abdominal segments without wounding or scarring her outer body[6]; the cone present on male genitalia assists in expanding the space between the female’s lower abdominal segments[6]. Males possess a partially sclerotized copulatory tube to support and guide the flagellum into the female’s sperm pouch[6]. The spermatozoa can remain within the sperm pouch weeks after depositing several eggs, suggesting the sperm pouch functions as a long-term storage organ[6]. Females may be able to store spermatozoa for their entire lifetime, a consequence of functional monandry[6]. An extragenital structure called the ectospermalege is located at the fourth segment of the female body[6]. Underneath the ectospermalege is the mesospermalege, a special endodermal pouch that receives the spermatozoa[6]. Orius minutus females lack spermatheca, instead possessing a pair of pseudospermatheca at the base of their lateral oviducts[6]; the pseudospermatheca receives the spermatozoa, which transfers from the mesospermalege in the hemolymph[6].
Pheromones
[edit]Contact sex pheromones are present within the trails of Orius minutus[7]. Trails left by mature virgin females aid males in locating a mate[7]. Males will linger on leaves exposed to trails left by mature virgin females, allowing males to locate conspecific females who had recently deposited trails on the plant[7]. Males will respond to the trails regardless of their mating experience, though only trails from mature females arrest males[7]. Females respond with weak arrestment to the leaves walked on by males, which could further assist in finding a mate[7].
Effect of temperature
[edit]Although Orius minutus have a higher rate of reproduction at temperatures between 17-26° C, they experience a decrease in lifetime fecundity at and above temperatures of 26° C [8]; the reduction in fecundity at higher temperatures suggests that Orius minutus are disadvantaged when experiencing wide ranges of temperatures [4]
Life history
[edit]Orius minutus females overwinter fertilized, usually emerging from hibernation in the early spring[1][8][9]. Males can hibernate but are unlikely to survive the winter due to their lack of diapause and inadequate lipid accumulation[1][10]. Shortly after hibernation ends, eggs are deposited onto the base of developing flower buds or the midrib on the bottom of leaves[1][11].
Orius minutus has five nymphal instars[1]. The developmental time from egg to adult depends on temperature and location, though adulthood is generally reached within 24 to 30 days [1][9]. Orius minutus produce at least two generations annually, though up to four generations can be produced under ideal conditions [1][9]. Adults collected from early spring and mid-autumn suggest Orius minutus is bivoltine[1][9].
Diet
[edit]Orius minutus are generalist predators of small insects, including aphids, mites, thrips, whiteflies and scales[1][3]. Though chiefly predacious, Orius minutus may occasionally feed on plant material and sap (e.g. the fluid produced by Eryngium campestre).[1]
Behaviour
[edit]Foraging and flying
[edit]Though Orius minutus will initially fly relatively randomly, the discovery of prey patches shifts their dispersal activity into foraging activity[2]; they are highly reluctant to leave patches with a high prey density[2]. Abiotic factors significantly influence this behaviour, with increased plant foraging behaviours correlating with high solar radiation and low humidity[2]. Both males and females are diurnal fliers, though females engage in less flight activity than males[2].
Diapause
[edit]The critical photoperiod for inducing diapause is between 14.5-9.5D and 15L-9D at 22°C, corresponding to late summer in many regions occupied by Orius minutus[10]. During diapause, the insects do not copulate, and the female’s ovaries remain small until the following spring[10]. Adult females do not enter diapause regardless of short day length if their nymphal stages were spent under long day length [10]. Adult diapause is not induced in males due to a shortage of lipid accumulation[10].
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Lattin, J.D.; Asquith, A. (1989). "Orius minutus (Linnaeus) in North America (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Anthocoridae)". Journal of the New York Entomological Society. 97 (4): 409–416. JSTOR 25009791.
- ^ a b c d e Tuda, M.; Shima, K. (2002). "Relative importance of weather and density dependence on the dispersal and on-plant activity of the predator Orius minutus". Popular Ecology. 44 (3): 251–257. Bibcode:2002PopEc..44..251T. doi:10.1007/s101440200028.
- ^ a b c Rahman, M.A.; Sarker, S.; Ham, E.; Lee, J.S.; Lim, U.T. (2022). "Prey preference of Orius minutus and its functional response in comparison that of O. laevigatus, on Tetranychus urticae". Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology. 25 (2): 101912. Bibcode:2022JAsPE..2501912R. doi:10.1016/j.aspen.2022.101912.
- ^ a b c Lan, R.; Ren, X.; Cao, K.; Zhou, X.; Jin, L. (2022). "Demographic evaluation of the control potential of Orius minutus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) preying on Dendrothrips minowai Priesner (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) at different temperatures". Insects. 13 (12): 1158. doi:10.3390/insects13121158.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Arakawa, T.; Taniai, K.; Maeda, T. (2019). "The mating systems of three species of minute piratebug, Orius sauteri, O. minutus, and O. strigicollis". The Netherlands Entomological Society. 167 (2): 141–151. Bibcode:2019EEApp.167..141A. doi:10.1111/eea.12740.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Taniai, K.; Arakawa, T.; Maeda, T. (2018). "Traumatic insemination is not the case in three Orius species (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae)". PLOS ONE. 13 (12): e0206225. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1306225T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0206225. PMID 30517107.
- ^ a b c d e Maeda, T.; Fujiwara-Tsuji, N.; Yasui, H.; Matsuyama, S. (2016). "Female sex pheromone in trails of the minute pirate bug, Orius minutus (L)". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 442 (5): 433–443. Bibcode:2016JCEco..42..433M. doi:10.1007/s10886-016-0702-2. PMID 27184908.
- ^ a b Kakimoto, K.; Urano, S.; Noda, T.; Matuo, L.; Sakamaki, Y.; Tsuda, K.; Kusigemati, K. (2005). "Comparison of the reproductive potential of three Orius species, O.strigicollis, O. sauteri, and O. minutus (Heteroptera : Anthocoridae), using eggs of the Mediterranean flour moth as a food source". Applied Entomology and Zoology. 40 (2): 247–255. Bibcode:2005AppEZ..40..247K. doi:10.1303/aez.2005.247.
- ^ a b c d Collyer, E. (1953). "Biology of some predatory insects and mites associated with the fruit tree red spider mite (Metatetranychus ulmi (Koch)) in south-eastern England. II. Some important predators of the mite". Journal of Horticultural Science. 28: 85–97. doi:10.1080/00221589.1953.11513772.
- ^ a b c d e Ito, K.; Nakata, Y. (1998). "Diapause and survival in winter in two species of predatory bugs, Orius sauteri and O. minutus". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 89 (3): 271–276. Bibcode:1998EEApp..89..271I. doi:10.1046/j.1570-7458.1998.00408.x.
- ^ Fulmek, L. (1930). "Kenntnis der entwicklungsstadien von Triphleps minuta L. (Anthocoridae, Hemiptera, Heteroptera)". Insektenbiol. 25: 82–88.