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User:Andersonmatt1125/Spastic Quadriplegia Outline

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Discovery

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Cerebral Palsy was first discovered, and medically defined in 1861 by Dr. William John Little in his lecture "Hospital for the Cure of Deformities: Course of Lectures on the Deformities of the Human Frame". [1].

Dr. William John Little-Discoverer of Cerebral palsy

Little attributed the disease to a lack of oxygen to an infant during "abnormal forms of labor" resulting in a spastic condition. His work on the disease was so groundbreaking that it was first known as Little's Disease. [2].



Medical Definition

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Cerebral palsy is a disease that effects the brain and nervous system. Cerebral palsy can be divided into various subsets, including spastic cerebral palsy, dyskinetic cerebral palsy, ataxic cerebral palsy, hypotonic cerebral palsy, and mixed. [3] Spastic cerebral palsy is the most common manifestation of the disease. [4]. It is distinguishable from other forms of Cerebral Palsy in that sufferers display stiff, jerky movements, and have hypertonic muscles. [5] This differs from Non-Spastic cerebral palsy, which causes decreased, or fluctuating muscle tone. [6]


Spastic Cerebral Palsy can itself be divided into unique categories.

  • Spastic hemipelegia
    • Only one side of the body is effected in spastic hemipelgia.
  • Spastic dipelgia
    • 2 limbs are effected in Spastic dipelgia.
  • Spastic triplegia
    • 3 limbs are effected in Spastic diplegia.
  • Spastic quadripelgia
    • All 4 limbs are effected in Spastic quadriplegia.


In summation, the disease spastic quadriplegia is a subset of spastic cerebral palsy, which is itself a subset of cerebral palsy in general. Sufferers have jerky, stiff movements in all four limbs, and have hypertonic muscles. The disease is characterized by muscular spasms of varying strengths. There are 8 levels of spastic quadriplegia, with 8 being the least severe and 1 being the most severe. [7] [8]

Causes

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Spastic quadriplegia is generally caused by brain damage or disruptions in normal brain development preceding birth. According to the National Institutes of Health, there are four types of brain damage that can cause spastic quadriplegia. Damage to the white matter (periventricular leukomalacia), abnormal brain development (cerebral dysgenesis), bleeding in the brain (intracranial hemorrhage), brain damage due to lack of oxygen (hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy or intrapartum asphyxia). [9]


The white matter of the brain is especially vulnerable between the 26th and 34th weeks of maturation, and damage to the white matter can interfere with the brain’s ability to transmit signals to the rest of the body. Spastic quadriplegia can be caused by a condition known as periventricular leukomalacia which results in the formation of lesions and holes in the white matter of the brain.


Prior to the 26th week of maturation, the fetal brain is particularly susceptible to various toxins whose effects can ultimately hinder normal development. Exposure of the brain to toxins is especially dangerous because infections can trigger immune responses that activate cytokines and lead to inflammation of the brain. Some infections that have been linked to the development of spastic quadriplegia include; meningitis, herpes, rubella, and encephalitis. [10] A difference in blood types between the mother and the fetus can also initiate a problematic immune response and cause brain damage. Severe jaundice, can also lead to brain damage and spastic quadriplegia due to a buildup of bilirubin in the blood. [11]


Bleeding in the brain caused by fetal strokes, blood clots, weak and malformed blood vessels, or high maternal blood pressure may also lead to brain damage causing spastic quadriplegia. Maternal infection, most specifically pelvic inflammatory disease, has been shown to increase the risk of fetal stroke.


Hypoxia, lack of oxygen to the brain, can also cause damage in the cerebral motor cortex and other brain regions. This lack of oxygen can be the result of placenta malfunction, womb rupture, umbilical cord damage, low maternal blood pressure or asphyxia during labor and delivery. [12]


Recent studies suggest that there may be a genetic link to spastic quadriplegia.


Testing and diagnosis

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Spastic quadriplegia can be diagnosed as early as infancy after a noticed delay in development, particularly a delay in rolling, crawling, sitting, or walking.[13][14] Muscle tone is sometimes used to make the diagnosis for spastic quadriplegia, as well as for other variations of cerebral palsy, as affected children often appear to be either too stiff or too floppy, or to switch between the two.[14]

Another important diagnostic factor is the persistance of primitive reflexes past the age when they should have disappeared (6-12 months of age).[14] These reflexes include the rooting reflex, the sucking reflex, and the Moro reflex, among others.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or a computed tomography scan (CT scan) may be used to locate the cause of the symptoms. Ultrasound may be used for the same function in premature babies.[14]

Because cerebral palsy refers to a group of disorders, it is important to have a clear and systematic naming system. These disorders must be non-progressive, non-transient, and not due to injury to the spinal cord[15] Disorders within the group are classified based on two characteristics- the main physiological symptom, and the limbs that are affected.[15] For a disorder to be diagnosed as spastic quadriplegia, an individual must show spastic symptoms (as opposed to athetotic, hypertonic, ataxic, or atonic symptoms) present in all four limbs (as opposed to hemiplegic, diplegic, or triplegic cases).[15]

While a diagnosis may be able to be made shortly after birth based on family history and observation of the infant, it is often postponed until after the child is between 18-24 months old in order to monitor the possible regression or progression of symptoms.[16]

Symptoms

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Spastic quadriplegia is characterized by its effects on all four limbs, the trunk, and the face. It can be detected due to the abnormal development of motor skills, and symptoms can present themselves as early as three months and are generally seen before the child reaches two years of age. Some warning signs include; a child of more than two months that has stiff legs that scissor and is unable to control his or her head, and a child of more than twelve months that has not developed the ability to crawl or stand. [17]


Spastic quadriplegia presents a range of symptoms affecting the musculature. Many experience contractures, which are defined as joints that cannot be stretched or moved. Clonus is another symptom that is characterized by alternating, rapid muscle contraction and relaxation. This presents itself as tremors and scissoring of the limbs. Distonia, or lasting muscle contractions and tightness is also often experienced by those affected by spastic quadriplegia. These involuntary muscle contractions may affect the development of structural muscle around the hip and lead to hip dysplasia and dislocation, making it difficult to sit. The combination of these symptoms often makes it difficult for the patients to walk. [18]


Spastic quadriplegia can affect more than just the limbs, although the arms and legs of patients are often stiff, the neck is usually flopping due to the lack of voluntary muscle control. The disease is also characterized by its effects on the digestive system leading difficulty speaking, chewing, breathing, and swallowing. Patients may experience vomiting, constipation, and incontinence. It has also been found that those with spastic quadriplegia oftentimes experiences stunted growth. [19]

The disease can also exert its effects more directly on the central nervous system. Many patients exhibit moderate to severe learning disabilities and decreased intellect. They may also experience hearing and vision problems along with seizures.


Because spastic quadriplegia can be caused by physical trauma or by onset of a disease resulting in damage to the brain or spinal cord, it can occur at any age. But due to complications during birth, premature birth, or other health problems as an infant, children become more at risk to develop spastic quadriplegia. Signs of spastic quadriplegia cannot be detected until age one, and depending on the severity of cerebral palsy, signs may not show up until age of three. As a result, they may have mental retardation or have communication problems. Bulbar involvement can cause oral motor dysfunctions and feeding problems due to difficulty in chewing and swallowing leading to aspiration and gastric reflux. As in cerebral palsy, infants may have poor color, weak breathing and develop seizures. [20]


Spastic quadriplegia is characterized by all four limbs inability to function. Since all four limbs are affected, people usually cannot voluntarily control their necks and are usually confined to beds or wheelchairs. Confinement to beds and wheelchairs can then cause pressure sores, spastic jerking, and respiratory problems. Of the different forms of cerebral palsy, spastic quadriplegia can affect intelligence with some people developing mental retardation. But like in children, it is hard to determine the severity because of speech and communication problems. Other complications include scoliosis, diminished joint flexibility and difficulty in swallowing. Bladder and bowel control, digestion, and breathing are also affected.


Treatment

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There is no cure for spastic quadriplegia, and treatment revolves around preventing complications and allowing the patient to live as independently as possible.[21] Treatment is generally symptomatically focused, rather than etiological.[15] Several aims of treatment are alleviating pain and controlling spasticity, which, if untreated, can lead to complications.[22] Common medications for controlling spasticity are benzodiazepines, muscle relaxants such as baclofen, and botulinum toxin[22][21] Diuretics and steroids can be used to prevent and release fluid buildup in the spine.[23]

Surgery can be used to control pain and spasticity by severing nerves from the spinal cord. Surgery is also used to release contractures, or to place a feeding tube if needed.[21] Like all other forms of cerebral palsy, physical therapy is often used to strengthen the limbs in order to prevent contractures and to improve motor skills.[14] Deep brain stimulation has been reported to benefit young children with dystonic symptoms.[22] In severe cases, a selective dorsal rhizotomy may be performed in order to reduce spasticity in the legs.[22]

Often, different support mechanisms can be of benefit to those with spastic quadriplegia. Muscle and bone braces, wheelchairs, and walking aids, scooters, and tricycles can be used to aid in mobility.[21][14] An abdominal binder can provide support to the torso that is commonly lacked due to weak abdominal muscles.[23]

Occupational therapists may be a key component in the treatment of those with spastic quadriplegia, as they help children learn skills such as feeding and dressing.[14] Speech therapy or voice synthesizers may be used in cases where speech problems are an issue.[14] It is also important that care for someone with spastic quadriplegia be continued at home, including good nutrition and practicing prescribed exercises.[21]



Notes

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  1. ^ http://cerebralpalsy.org/about-cerebral-palsy/history-and-origin-of-cerebral-palsy/
  2. ^ http://cerebralpalsy.org/about-cerebral-palsy/history-and-origin-of-cerebral-palsy/
  3. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001734/
  4. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001734/
  5. ^ http://www.merriam-webster.com/medlineplus/spastic%20cerebral%20palsy
  6. ^ http://cerebralpalsy.org/about-cerebral-palsy/types/#cm
  7. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001734/
  8. ^ http://www.christopherreeve.org/site/c.mtKZKgMWKwG/b.4453213/k.7D62/Cerebral_Palsy.htm
  9. ^ http://www.cpfamilynetwork.org/medical-research/cerebral-palsy-news-spastic-cerebral-palsy-facts-treatments-and-outcomes
  10. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001734/
  11. ^ http://www.marchofdimes.com/baby/birthdefects_cerebralpalsy.html
  12. ^ http://www.brainandspinalcord.org/cerebral-palsy/types/spastic-quadriplegia.html
  13. ^ http://www.brainandspinalcord.org/cerebral-palsy/types/spastic-quadriplegia.html
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h http://www.marchofdimes.com/baby/birthdefects_cerebralpalsy.html Cite error: The named reference "marchofdimes" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  15. ^ a b c d http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/18/5/841.full.pdf
  16. ^ http://www.cpirf.org/stories/1065
  17. ^ http://www.marchofdimes.com/baby/birthdefects_cerebralpalsy.html
  18. ^ http://www.cpfamilynetwork.org/medical-research/cerebral-palsy-news-spastic-cerebral-palsy-facts-treatments-and-outcomes
  19. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001734/
  20. ^ http://www.formsofcerebralpalsy.com/quadriplegia.html
  21. ^ a b c d e http://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=User:Andersonmatt1125/Spastic_Quadriplegia_Outline&action=edit&section=3
  22. ^ a b c d http://www.cpfamilynetwork.org/medical-research/cerebral-palsy-news-spastic-cerebral-palsy-facts-treatments-and-outcomes
  23. ^ a b http://www.cerebralpalsysource.com/Types_of_CP/quadriplegia_cp/index.html

http://www.cerebralpalsysource.com/Types_of_CP/quadriplegia_cp/index.html

Colver, AF. Sethumadhavan, T. The term diolegia should be abandoned. Arch Dis Child 2003;88:286-290.

Minear, WL. A Classification of Cerebral Palsy. Pediatrics 1956;18:841.

Gormely Jr., ME. Krach, LE. Piccini, L. Spasticity management in the child with spastic quadriplegia. European Journal of Neurology 2001;8:127-135.

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