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CSCL for Second Language Acquisition

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History

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The advent of computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) as an instructional strategy for second language acquisition can be traced back to the 1990s. During that time, the internet was growing rapidly, which was one of the key factors that facilitated the process[1]. At the time, the first wikis (such as WikiWikiWeb) were still undergoing early development[2], but the use of other tools such as electronic discussion groups allowed for equal participation amongst peers, particularly benefiting those who would normally not participate otherwise during face-to-face interactions[3].

During the establishment of wikis in the 2000s, global research began to emerge regarding their effectiveness in promoting second language acquisition. Some of this research focused on more specific areas such as systemic-functional linguistics[[]], humanistic education, experiental learning, and psycholinguistics. For example, in 2009 Yu-Ching Chen performed a study to determine the overall effectiveness of wikis in an English as a second language class in Taiwan[4]. Another example is a 2009 study by Greg Kessler in which pre-service, non-native English speaker teachers in a Mexican university were given the task to collaborate on a wiki, which served as the final product for one of their courses. In this study, emphasis was placed on the level of grammatical accuracy achieved by the students throughout the course of the task[5].

Due to the continual development of technology, other educational tools aside from wikis are being implemented and studied to determine their potential in scaffolding second language acquisition. According to Mark Warschauer (2010), among these are blogs, automated writing evaluation systems, and open-source netbooks[6]. Ex situ of the classroom, the development of other recent online tools such as Livemocha (2007) have facilitated language acquisition via member-to-member interactions[7], demonstrating firsthand the impact the advancement of technology has made towards meeting the varying needs of language learners.

Effectiveness and Perception

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Studies in the field of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) have shown that computers provide material and valuable feedback for language learners and that computers can be a positive tool for both individual and collaborative language learning. CALL programs offer the potential for interactions between the language learners and the computer[8]. Additionally, students’ autonomous language learning and self-assessment can be made widely available through the web[9]. In CSCL, the computer is not only seen as a potential language tutor by providing assessment for students’ responses[10], but also as a tool to give language learners the opportunity to learn from the computer and also via collaboration with other language learners. Juan[11] focuses on new models and systems that perform efficient evaluation of student activity in online-based education. Their findings indicate that CSCL environments organized by teachers are useful for students to develop their language skills. Additionally, CSCL increases students’ confidence and encourages them to maintain active learning, reducing the passive reliance on teachers’ feedback. Using CSCL as a tool in the second language learning classroom has also shown to reduce learner anxiety[12].

Various case studies and projects had been conducted in order to measure the effectiveness and perception of CSCL in a language learning classroom. After a collaborative internet-based project, language learners indicated that their confidence in using the language had increased and that they felt more motivated to learn and use the target language. After analyzing student questionnaires, discussion board entries, final project reports, and student journals, Dooly[13] suggests that during computer supported collaborative language learning, students have an increased awareness of different aspects of the target language and pay increased attention to their own language learning process. Since the participants of her project were language teacher trainees, she adds that they felt prepared and willing to incorporate online interaction in their own teaching in the future.

Cultural Considerations

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Culture may be thought of as composed of “beliefs, norms, assumptions, knowledge, values, or sets of practice that are shared and form a system"[14]. Learning communities focused in whole or part on second language acquisition may often be distinctly multicultural in composition, and as the cultural background of individual learners affects their collaborative norms and practices, this can significantly impact their ability to learn in a CSCL environment[15].

CSCL environments are generally valued for the potential to promote collaboration in cross-cultural learning communities. Based on social constructivist views of learning[16], many CSCL environments fundamentally emphasize learning as the co-construction of knowledge through the computer-mediated interaction of multivoiced community members. Computer-mediation of the learning process has been found to afford consideration of alternative viewpoints in multicultural/multilingual learning communities[17]. When compared to traditional face-to-face environments, computer-mediated learning environments have been shown to result in more equal levels of participation for ESL students in courses with native English speakers[18]. Language barriers for non-native speakers tend to detract from equal participation in general[19], and this can be alleviated to some extent through the use of technologies which support asynchronous modes of written communication[20].

Online learning environments however tend to reflect the cultural, epistemological, and pedagogical goals and assumptions of their designers[21]. In computer-supported collaborative learning environments, there is evidence that cultural background may impact learner motivation, attitude towards learning and e-learning, learning preference (style), computer usage, learning behavior and strategies, academic achievement, communication, participation, knowledge transfer, sharing and collaborative learning[22]. Studies variously comparing Asian, American and Danish and Finnish learners have suggested that learners from different cultures exhibit different interaction patterns with their peers and teachers in online[23]. A number of studies have shown that difference in Eastern and Western educational cultures, for instance, which are found in traditional environments are also present in online environments[24][25]. Zhang[26] has described Eastern education as more group-based, teacher-dominated, centrally organized, and examine-oriented than Western approaches. Students who have learned to learn in an Eastern context emphasizing teacher authority and standardized examinations may perform differently in a CSCL environment characterized by peer critique and co-construction of educational artifacts as the primary mode of assessment.

Design implications

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A “multiple cultural model” of instructional design emphasizes variability and flexibility in the process of designing for multicultural inclusiveness, focusing on the development of learning environments reflecting the multicultural realities of society, include multiple ways of teaching and learning, and promote equity of outcomes[27][28]. McLoughlin, C. & Oliver[29] propose a social, constructivist approach to the design of culturally-sensitive CSCL environments which emphasizes flexibility with regard to specific learning tasks, tools, roles, responsibilities, communication strategies, social interactions, learning goals and modes of assessment [B5]. Constructivist instructional design approaches such as R2D2[30] which emphasize reflexive, recursive, participatory design of learning experiences may be employed in developing CSCL which authentically engages learners from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.

Notes

  1. ^ Warschauer, M. (1997). Computer-Mediated Collaborative Learning: Theory and Practice. The Modern Language Journal, 81(4), 470-481.
  2. ^ Ebersbach, Anja (2008), Wiki: Web Collaboration, Springer Science+Business Media, ISBN 3-540-35150-7
  3. ^ Warschauer, M. (1997). Computer-Mediated Collaborative Learning: Theory and Practice. The Modern Language Journal, 81(4), 470-481.
  4. ^ Chen, Y. (2009). The effect of applying wikis in an English as a foreign language (EFL) class in Taiwan. Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 69(11), 4300.
  5. ^ Kessler, G. (2009). Student-Initiated Attention to Form in Wiki-Based Collaborative Writing. Language Learning & Technology, 13(1), 79-95.
  6. ^ Warschauer, M. (2010). Invited Commentary: New Tools For Teaching Writing. Language Learning & Technology, 14(1), 3-8.
  7. ^ Schmidt, Clint (Spring 2010). "Livemocha and the Power of Social Language Learning". IH Journal of Education and Development (28).
  8. ^ Chapelle, C. A. (2003). English language learning and technology. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
  9. ^ Chapelle, C. A. (2001). Computer applications in second language acquisition: Foundations for teaching, testing and research. Cambridge University Press.
  10. ^ Levy, M. (1997). CALL: Context and conceptualisation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  11. ^ Juan, A. A., 1972. (2010). Monitoring and assessment in online collaborative environments: Emergent computational technologies for e-learning support. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference.
  12. ^ Hurd, S. (2007). Anxiety and non-anxiety in a distance language learning environment: The distance factors as a modifying influence. System, 35(4), 487-508.
  13. ^ Dooly, M. (2007). Joining forces: Promoting metalinguistic awareness through computer-supported collaborative learning. Language Awareness, 16(1), 57-74.
  14. ^ Rapport, N. (2014). Social and cultural anthropology: The key concepts. Routledge.
  15. ^ Anastasios A. Economides. (2008). Culture‐aware collaborative learning. Multicultural Education & Technology Journal, 2(4), 243–267. http://doi.org/10.1108/17504970810911052
  16. ^ Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes.
  17. ^ Atsumi, T., Misumi, J., Smith, P., Peter, B., Peterson, M., Tayeb, M., … Tanzer, N. (1989). Groups, leadership and social influence. Recent Advances in Social Psychology: An International Perspective, 369–428.
  18. ^ Warschauer, M. (2005). Comparing face-to-face and electronic discussion in the second language classroom. CALICO Journal, 13(2-3), 7–26.
  19. ^ Gunawardena, C. N., Nolla, A. C., Wilson, P. L., Lopez‐Islas, J. R., Ramirez‐Angel, N., & Megchun‐Alpizar, R. M. (2001). A cross‐cultural study of group process and development in online conferences. Distance Education, 22(1), 85–121.
  20. ^ Ku, H.-Y., & Lohr, L. L. (2003). A case study of Chinese student’s attitudes toward their first online learning experience. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51(3), 95–102.
  21. ^ McLoughlin, C., & Oliver, R. (2000). Designing learning environments for cultural inclusivity: A case study of indigenous online learning at tertiary level. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 16(1). Retrieved from http://ascilite.org.au/ajet/submission/index.php/AJET/article/view/1822
  22. ^ Anastasios A. Economides. (2008). Culture‐aware collaborative learning. Multicultural Education & Technology Journal, 2(4), 243–267. http://doi.org/10.1108/17504970810911052
  23. ^ Kim, K.-J., & Bonk, C. J. (2002). Cross-cultural Comparisons of Online Collaboration. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 8(1), 0–0. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2002.tb00163.x
  24. ^ Liang, A., & McQueen, R. J. (1999). Computer assisted adult interactive learning in a multi-cultural environment. Adult Learning, 11(1), 26–29.
  25. ^ Thompson, L., & Ku, H. (2005). Chinese graduate students’ experiences and attitudes toward online learning. Educational Media International, 42(1), 33–47.
  26. ^ Zhang, J. (2007). A cultural look at information and communication technologies in Eastern education. Educational Technology Research and Development, 55(3), 301–314.
  27. ^ Henderson, L. (1994). Reeves’ pedagogic model of interactive learning systems and cultural contextuality (pp. 189–203). Presented at the Proceedings of the second international interactive multimedia symposium, Promaco Conventions Pty. Ltd. Perth.
  28. ^ Henderson, L. (1996). Instructional design of interactive multimedia: A cultural critique. Educational Technology Research and Development, 44(4), 85–104.
  29. ^ McLoughlin, C., & Oliver, R. (2000). Designing learning environments for cultural inclusivity: A case study of indigenous online learning at tertiary level. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 16(1). Retrieved from http://ascilite.org.au/ajet/submission/index.
  30. ^ Willis, J. (1995). A Recursive, Reflective Instructional Design Model Based on Constructivist-Interpretivist Theory. Educational Technology, 35(6), 5–23.
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