User:Bcatoto/Neverver (Integrated)

Lingarak, also known as Neverver, is an Oceanic language. Neverver is spoken in Malampa Province, in central Malekula, Vanuatu. The names of the villages on Malekula Island where Neverver is spoken are Lingarakh and Limap.

Neverver is a threatened language, and native languages are protected and secured by the local government that is in charge. Sixty percent of the children are able to speak this language.^[3] However, the dominant languages in the community, such as Bislama, English, and French are pushed to be used within these language communities.^[4]Bislama is the most widely used language within this region. English and French are the two most distinguished languages within this region because they are connected with the schooling system. In the Malampa Province, English and French are the primary languages taught for education. English is used for business transactions within this region and helps generate revenue within the region.^[3] This is due to the fact that before this province gained its independence in 1980 they were governed by the joint French-English colonial rule. Overall, there are only 550 native speakers of Neverver.

Neverver falls under the Austronesian language family, which is the second largest language family in the world.^[5] By comparison of cognates, morphology, phonology and other evidence markers, the language Neverver can be traced back to the first languages of the Austronesian language family. There are two dialects of the Neverver language; Mindu and Wuli.^[1]

An important characteristic of Neverver is definiteness, and it is deemed with a speaker's attitude that a hearer's intelligence is able to understand the denotation of a given speech.^[3]

Neverver
Lingarak
Native to	Vanuatu
Region	Malekula
Native speakers	560 (2012)
Language family	Austronesian Malayo-Polynesian Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian Eastern Malayo-Polynesian Oceanic Central–Eastern Oceanic Remote Oceanic North and Central Vanuatu Malekula Interior Malekula Central Neverver
Dialects	Mindu Wuli
Language codes
ISO 639-3	lgk
Glottolog	ling1265

Phonology

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Consonants

Neverver contains a total of 27 consonant phonemes in five distinct places of articulation and six distinct manners of articulation. A notable feature of Neverver is that some voiced consonants appear only in its prenasalized form. Another feature of Neverver's consonants is that some have a contrastive geminate counterpart: /pː/, /tː/, /kː/, /mː/, /nː/, /lː/, /rː/, and /sː/. The consonant phonemes are given in the table below using the International Phonemic Alphabet (IPA).

Consonant Phonemes

		Bilabial		Alveolar		Palatal		Velar		Labio-Velar
Nasals			m		n				ŋ
Plosives	plain	p		t				k
	prenasalized		mb		nd				ŋg
Fricatives	plain		β	s					ɣ
Affricates	prenasalized				ndʒ
Trills	plain				r
	prenasalized		mbʙ		ndr
Approximants					l		j				w

Voiced obstruents, including the fricatives /β/ and /ɣ/, and the prenasalized trills /^mbʙ/ and /^ndr/ are devoiced in word-final position in rapid speech. Among younger speakers, the prenasalized plosives become simple nasals in word-final position.

The plosive /p/ becomes a voiceless trill [ʙ̥] before the vowel /u/.^[6]

Vowels

Neverver contains a total of eight vowel phonemes, five regular vowels and three diphthongs. However, there is evidence that /y/ and /ø/ are contrastive among older speakers, bringing the total number of vowels to ten for some speakers. The vowel phonemes are given in the table on the left IPA. A list of diphthongs are also provided in the table on the right along with examples.

Vowel Phonemes Front Back High i (y) u Mid e (ø) o Low a

Diphthongs IPA Example English Translation au /naut/ "place" ei /mei/ "May" ai /aijem/ "home, dwelling"

Comment: I incorrectly cited the examples for the dipthongs. All the examples were from pages 47-48, and I have changed the page citation accordingly.

Syllable structure

Neverver allows for syllables with up to one consonant in the onset and in the coda, including syllables with only a nucleus. This means the structure of syllables is (C)V(C). An example of the possible syllable structures is given in the table below where the corresponding syllables are in bold.

Template	Instantiation	English Translation
V	/ei/	"he"
CV	/nau/	"cane"
VC	/i.βu.ŋis.il/	"he made smile"
CVC	/tox/	"exist"

Stress

Stress in Neverver is regular and not contrastive. It generally falls on the singular syllable of monosyllabic words and on the penultimate syllable of multisyllabic words. In compounds, each stem is treated separately so stress is assigned to each following the general stress pattern. Examples of the assignment of stress in common words are given in the table below.

Stress in Common Words

Example	English Translation
['naus]	"rain"
['naɣ.len]	"water"
[ni.'te.rix]	"child"

Verbs follow a stress pattern that is different from the general stress pattern. In verbs, stress falls on the first syllable of the verb stem, disregarding the obligatory prefix; however, in imperative statements, stress is placed on the subject/mood prefix and on the first syllable of the verb stem. During reduplication, primary stress is assigned to the first instance of the reduplication. Examples of the assignment of stress in verbs, instances of reduplication, and imperative statements are given in the table below.

Stress in Verbs

Example	English Translation
[is.'ɣam]	"one"
[im.'ʙu.lem]	"(s)he will come"
[na.mbit.'liŋ.liŋ]	"we will leave (her)"
[nit.'mal.ma.lu]	"we dispersed"
['kam.'tuɸ]	"go away!"
['kum.'ʙu.lem]	"come!"

Pronoun and person markers

See Pronoun and person markers.

Possession

See Possession.

Reduplication

See Reduplication.

Negation

See Negation.

Numbering System

See Numbering System.

Syntax

Basic word order

The basic word order of Neverver is SVO, including intransitive, transitive, and ditransitive verbs. Examples of sentences with intransitive, transitive, and ditransitive verbs are given below.

Subject		Verb (Intransitive)
Nibisbokh	ang	i-dum
rat	ANA	3REAL:SG-run
"The rat ran."

Subject		Verb (Transitive)	Primary Object
Nibisbokh	ang	i-te	noron	nidaro.
rat	ANA	3REAL:SG-cut	leaf	taro
"The rat cut taro leaves."

Subject	Verb (Ditransitive)	Primary Object		Secondary Object
Niterikh	i-sus-ikh	nida	titi	ni-kkan-ian
child	3REAL:SG-ask-APPL	mother	3POSS:SG	NPR-eat-NSF
"The child asked his mother for food."